r-

Elementary Chemical Engineer~ng

MAX S. PETERS, Ph.D.

Registered Profcssiol1al Engineer Profeesor of C}unn£cal Englneering University of nJinois

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, INC.

New York

Toronto

London

1954

/

ill ill

ANSWER TO PROBLEM

1. 88 lb.

8. 20,0.60 g.

4. 2250. g/cu em. 6. 0.735 Ib mole.

1. 18.S7 Ib/lOO lb. 3. 52.7Ih.

6. (al 718 cu ft. (I) 702 ell ft.

Gel 799 ell It.

7. 0.0.897 lh/cu ft. 9. 14o..3°C.

11. 1570. Btu/lh. 13. 36.0 lb.

Chapter 2

2 .. Ca) Unit operation. (11) Chemical technology. (c) Unit operation.

(d) Chemical technology.

6. $825.

Chapter 3,

2. 0.0721b H.O/lb dry air.

4. (a) 69.9 lb. (Ii) 9,t51b. (c) 92.6 g. (d) 0..934. Ih.

6. 0..085 Ib H~O(lb dry air, 8. 0.0560 lb/Cll ft.

10. 3364 enl/glDOle.

12. 279 Jb CO~/100 Ib coal, 14. $1.1:};l,

11i. 0.0812 lb mole. 16. 20.8 per cent.

1'1. 18.9% COz, 3..1% 0:, and 77.7% N s-

1. (al Turbulent. (b) Streamline.

3, (a.) '.I: X 10'''8 poise. (b) 26.88 X 10-1 lb/(ft) (sec). (el 0.968 Ih/(n) (hr). (d) 0..499 centistokes.

(e) 4.99 X 10-3 stokes.

8. 0.,091 ft-Ib foree/lb mASS. 10. 1O,3o.Olb/hr.

12. 8.57 ft.

1. 36.8 Btu/(hr)(sq £t).

a .. (a) S9 Btu/(hr)(aq ft.). (b) 763°1". 5., 14,160 Btu/(hr)(ft).

7. 1770 Btu/(hr)(!Iq ftWF). 9. 54.3 ft.

H. (a) 227 Bttl/(brHaq ft)(DF). (b) 19.7 h.

u,. 33,400 Bt.ll_

ChapterS

2. 11.0 ft.

4. 56.S·]!',

5. 18S.0 ft-Ib foree./fb mass.

6. 2.08 Ib/sq ft.

7. 1.315 ft-lb force/lb mass. 9. 1.1 hp.

11. 16,700,000 gal/day. is. 4.26 hp,

Chapter 6

2. 240 Btujhr.

4. lIt? Btu/(llr)(ft,).

6. 268 Btu/(hr)(sq ftWF'). 8. 17,350 Btu/Chr)(ft).

10. 259 Btu/(hr)(sq .ft)(DF).

12. 186.5 multi!'.

13. 64.50 Btu/hr.

307

PRE'lt'ACE

of the material: however, the method of presentation will enable the reader to understand much of the subie ,t matter even if he has had no advanced mathematical training. In some sections, where the mathematics involved would be above the level of many readers, simplified derivations of the math matical relationship of physical variables have been pr sented, The fundamental derivations of th se relationships using more advanced mathematics have been pre' nted in the Appendix. Refer nces to the chemical engineering literatur have be n included to

how where additional information may be obtained.

Many illustrative examples have been u ed throughout the text. Th author has found this to be one of the best means for conveying to the reader the applicability of theoretical reasoning to actual cases. Problems have been given at the end of individual chapters to illustrate the information presented in. the chapter and to give the reader a chance to test his understanding of the materiel. Answers have been given in the Appendix, permitting the read "1' to d termine immediately if he has attacked the problem correctly.

The study of chemical engine ring can be a fascinating experience.

However, there is no quick and ea y me hod for becoming proficient in this field. If the reader expects to obtain the maximum benefit from this book, be most be prep axed to make a sin ere and concentrated effort to unde rstand the text material and the problems. If the elementary principles arc clearly understood, the applications and advanced treatment will be easy to gra, p.

The author is greatly indebted to Professors R. K. Finn, H. G. Driekamer, 1'. J. Hanratty, J. IN .. Westwater, and H. F. Johnstone of the University of Illlnois for their encouragement and assistance. Thanks are also due to Dr. Thomas Baron of Shell Oil Development ompany, Dr. F. L. Carnahan of The Pennsylvania State University, and Mr. W. H.

tanton of the Monsanto hemical Company for their critical perusal of the material andth ir many helpful Bugge tiona.

MAX. PETERS

CONTENT'

PREf··.U.'E

CHAPTER 1. TIm lfElI/U AL ENGINEER .\ND Hr PROFE:SSHlN

2. TECHNICAL INTRODUCTION.

3. CHEMlCAL ENGlNEERlNG • ''rOI lUo.M£'l'RY.

4. INDUSTRIAL CHli:MWAL ENOINEEIUNG EQUIPMENT OJ. FLUrD FLOW

6. HENt' TUANl:lFJilR. 7, EVAPOK~'l'ION

. DJ6TILLATJON

9. ABSORPTION AND EXTRA TION .

10, Hm.llDIFTC)\TION AND DElHWo:IlDIl?ICATTON

11. DRY1G ,

12. FILl'RATION

13. CHEMICAL TE HNOLOGY

14.

HEMl AL ENGINEERING ECONOM! S A".VD PLANT [IF;~WX

ApPENDIX A ApPENDIX B

A.vswl;RS TO. Pno..BLgMS

INDEX .

ix

vii

1 8 16 41

62

96 121 J44 17 196 209 217 224 242 271 2 7 307 311

,"

63

CHAPTER 5

FLUID FLOW

. The' flow of liquids 'and gases inindustrial processes is an unpartaIJU' unit operation, and the priueipl s involved should be thoroughly understood by all chemical engineers. The expression "fluid flow II means the movement of materials uch as liquids ga e t or dispersed olids through

ertain bounded regions.

Energy balances and material balances, along with the laws of fluid friction, constitute the ba is of the prin ipl s of fluid flow. Application of these fundamentals gives: m thode for determining relation hip between rates of I10w and pressure drops in a given system, These relationships may be used. to determine power requirements 01' flow rates Ior different types of equipment.

The extensive applications of fluid-flow principles make it necessary for all typea of engineer to have an understanding of at lea .~ the elementary laws involved. A ba ie knowledg of this . ubject indicates the an W rs to ueh practical questions as why a gat valve may be preferable to a globe valve in lines .ontaining flowing fluid, what horsepower motor would be required on a pump to force water from. a well into an exit ting overhead bank, 01' what diameter pipe should be used to handle a flow of 100,000 gal of water per hour.

The basic principles of fluid flow are presented in this chapter along with some practical applications of these principles in normal plant operation. teady mas rate of flow andabsence of chemical reaction will be assumed in the following lis u sian,

TABLE 1. NOMENCLa:ru,RE FO,R FLUID Fr.ow A = ares o( ODe lay r of fluid parallel to another layer, sq [t C = coefficient of di charge, dirneneionlesa

d = prefix indicating differential, dimensionless D = diameter (inside) of circular pipe, ft

D. = diameter of orifice opening, ft

f ;= Fanning 'h'icLioIl factor, dimeusionlesa

.'[t','Z'P = mechanical energy loss due to Irietiou, It-lb Ierec/Ib mass

F. = mechanical energy loss due to sudden contraction, ft-lb force/lb mass F, = mechanical euergy loss due to sudden expansioa, f't-Ib Iorce/Ib mass

g = local acceleration due to gra.vity, usually taken as 32.1.7 ft/(seo) (sec) 62

FLUID PLOW

go ... The univ rsal g.r:!lvitltti6Ilfll constant, COllvQl'1:IiOIJ factor in Newton's law .of motion, 32.17 ft-lb rna .... /(Rell)($Cc) (11) Iorce)

Hf, = differenco in static head (equals v(Pt - p.) It-Ib force/fh mass

i = enthalpy, ft-lb fOl'ce/lb mass

K< = coefficient in the contj·a.ction-Ioss cquatiou, dimcnsionles L ;= length of straight pipe, it

L. ;= fictitioulj length of straight pip equivalent to the resistance of a pipe fitt.ing of same nominal diameter as pipe, £t

Nn, = Reynolds ruunber equals DVp/JJ., dimeneiculess p .,. absolute pre sure, lb fOl'oe/sq ft'

q = volumetric rate of flow, ell H/seo

Q = net heat en rgy added to a system from an outside source, ft-lb force/lb mass

RH = hydraulic radius (equals SNJ, ft

8, = cross-sectional area normal to path of fluid flow, upstream s .etion, q ft

82 .,. cross- eotional are.'!. normal to path of fluid flow I downstream section, sq ft S. = erosa-sectiont I area of orifice opening, sq rt

S~ = maximum cross-sectional area of plumm t; in a rotarueter, SC) ft It = internal en rgy, ft-lb Iorce /lb mass

v = specific vohuno of fluid (equals lip), cu. ftjIb mas V = average Jiuear velocity, fL/se(~

1", = instantanecua or point linear velocity, ft/see VI' = volume Of plummet in It rotameter, eu ft

W = net external work dono on a flow system, ft-lb forcc/lb nras

W. = meohanieal work impart d to fluid. from outside SOllI'Ce, lt-lb foree/lb mass x = distance between layers of fluid, ft

Z = vertical di tanoo above an arbitrarily chosen datum platte, It

Gt'fwk Symbols

lX = alpha, corrc 'tion co .fficient [or streamline Or turbulent now, dimensionless ~ "" epsilon, equivalent roughness or pipe sur race, rt

/L = ]]]U, absolute viscosity of fluid, Ib !Jlas.~/(scc)(flil

p = rho, density of fluid, Ib mass/ell It

P» ;= rho, density of plummet, in a rotameter, Ib ransa/cu ft

'" = psi, wetted perimeter normal to direction of fluid flow; ft

TYPES OF STEADY FLOW

When a fluid passe through a pipe at a ·teady mass rat of flow, the pounds of fluid entering one end of the pipe in unit tim mu t equal the pounds of fluid leaving the other end of the pipe in the same unit time. This is merely a statement of the law of conservation of matter expre sed for the conditions of no accumulation or depletion, Similarly, on the basis of unit time, the pounds. of fluid passing any total cross-sectional area of the pipe must equal the pounds of fluid flowing past any other total cross-sectional area of the pipe.

. The flow of a fluid through a pipe can be divided into two general classes, streamline flow or turbulent flow, d p nding upon the type of

64 E1JEj'llfElI TARY CHEMICAL ENGlNEERING

path followed by the individual particles ~f the fluid, Whenth~ flow of all the fluid particles is essentially along lines parallel .to the axIS of the. pipe, the flow is called skcamline (also viscous or la~ltnar)., When the course followed by the individu.al particles of the fluid devl~tes, grea~ly from a straight line so that vortices and eddies are formed 1U the fluid, • the flow is called t'll.rb11,lent,

The distinction between streamline flow and turbulent fio,,: can ~e shown clearly by means of a simple experiment. ~he. experIment ,1 carried out by injecting. a amall stream of col?I'ccl Ilquid. J1l~() a fluid flowing inside a glass tube. If the fluid is moving at ~ suffiCl~ntly ~ow velocity, the color d liquid will flow through the system ill a stnLl~ht h~e. No appreciable mixing oE the two fluids wm~(JOUl', and ~he stralght~lme path of the colored liquid uan be observed ,:sually. nde,!' these co~ditions, streamline flow exists, If the velocity of the roam stream IS increa.sed steadily a velocity will finally be reached where the colored

I • 'hh"

liquid no longer flows ina str.aight line. It now starts to mix wit t e

main body of the fluid, and eddies and whirls can .actually be obs~]'ye,d through the glass walls of the tube. As the ma:m.st~'eam veloc~ty IS further increased I the mixing effect becomes more noticeable ~nt.il the colored liquid is finally dispersed at random throughout the E!l:tn'e b~,dy of the J:IlJ1in fluid. Under these conditions, turbulent flow exists, Ih~ particles of the fluid am no long r moving in smooth) straight lines but

are moving ill irregular directions throughout the tube. *

There js a large d:i:fference be ween the eharacteristics of streamlh:e flow and those of turbulent flow, and many of the important chemie~l engineering rela,tionships apply only to one particular type o! BO~f Therefore, it is important to be able to distinguish between the d.i:f£erellt

types of flow.

REYNOLUS No:MBER

The type of flow, whether streamline or turbulent, has been experimentally shown to depend on the inside diameter of the tube (D), the velocity of the £It1wing fluid (11), the density of the fluid (.0), and the viscosiby of the f uid (iJ.). The numerical value of a. dimensionle5~ j grouping of these four variables serves to indicate w~ethel' the flow lB stl'ea~nHne or turbulent, This dimensionless group 18 known as the Reynolds number and 1S expressed as foUo'ws:

DVp Revnolds number = N ". = --

. ~

1 The esprsesien "dimell~ionlf's,s" means ~her.B ,at'E! no phYSicaltillits. for the PlU."ticulflf symbol OT group, Tho uniJis of~h~ mdiv,lduaJ -components of the Reynolds number cancel !Yut. l'eBuiti.n.g)n. a '!dim;!-C;IlsiS:mles!;" group.,».

FLUID FLOW

65

When the Reynolds number exceeds 2100, turbulent flow may exist, while streamline flow exists at Reynolds numbers less than about 2100.

Stl'eamline flow may occur at Reynolds numbers higher than 2100 if the flow condition is obtained by gradually increasing the Reynolda.numbertowRrd and past the value of 2] 00, However, if the flow is originally turbulent, it will stay turbulent until the Reynolds number drops below a.bout 2100.

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN PIPES

Beeanse of the l' sistance encountered hy a flowing fluid at the pipewall surface, the fluid parti .les at the wall surface may be .onsidered to have no net Iorward velocity, This means there is no slippage at the wall and that the velocity of the fluid is Zero at the wall surface. The particles further from the wall are Iess affected by tbis frictional resistance, and the maximum velocity of the fluid particles occurs at the center of the pipe, Thus, a cross-aeetlonal view of the velocity distribution of a fluid flowing in a long straight pipe would show the maximum velocity at the center of the pipe, with the velocity gradually decreasing to zero !LS any portion of the wall is approached.

The average linear velocity of flow through a pipe is taken as the flow expressed as velum per unit time, divided by the cross-sectional area of the pipe. JfOI example, if a fluid is flowing ~~t the rate of 6 eu ft/min through a pipe having an inside diameter of 2; in., the average linear

1 't f th· fl id i (6)(122) 4·9 itl If ··h' ll id h

ve oci y o e Ul IS (1)2{3.,1.1,)(60) =.5 sec, t, ,IS lqm· as a

density of 30 Ib/cu ft and Il viscosity of 0.002 Ib/(sec) (£t), the Reynolds number is

N = DV p = (2)(4.59) (30) = ) I 470

n. fJ. (12)(0.002) 'J'.

Since the Reynolds number is greater than 2100, the flow in this example may be considered as turbulent;

TYPES OF PRESSURE

Static Pressure, The pressure exerted on a plane parallel to the direction of flow of a movingfluid is called the "static pressure." The static. pressure is commonly measured at the inner surface of the pipe wall where the liquid velocity ]S negligible, and it is often simply called the "pressure."

. Impact Pressure. When the pressure is measured on a plane perpendir;ular to the direction of the fluid flow, it Is called the ,I impact pressure." . Velocity Pressure. The difference between the impact pressure and the static pressure, when both are measured at the same point in the

06

EL1JJMl1NTA.R:l' CFlK'U I 'AL ENGINEERING

67

fluid, j known as the "veloaity pJ'8I>SUre." For a stat-ionMy fluid, the pressure is the sam in all direction; therefore, in this case, the statio pressure equals the impact pressure and the veloei y pressure is zero.

Fiuid Head. If a vertical tube, op n to the atmosphere at one end, is sntached to a pipe containing a fluid under any pres, Llr~ greater than atmospherie, the. fluid will rise in the tube. The fluid will continuo to, rise until its weight in he tube produces enough pressure at the bottom to balance tho difler nee between the pre sure in the pipe andthe atmospheric pressure. This height of fluid is termed therrfluid head." The actual pressure in the pipe can be obtained by multiplying the fluid head by the fluid density and adding this value to the atmospheric pressure, Thus, if an open vertical tube attached to a water main, shows water in the tube to a height of 6 ft at atmospheric pressure, the tlotaJ pressure of the water in th main is (6) (62. ) + 2117 = 24911b/sq ft, assuming the density of water as 62. Ib/ u ft and atmospheric pressure as 2117 Ib/sq f.

In the preceding example, it may be assu.medthat the tube is connected to the water main with the plane of the connection opening parallel to the direction of fluid flo\\"'. In this case, the fluid head is due: to the stati . pr ssure (or pres ure). In pr enting data concerning fluid heads, th angle between the plane of the opening to the indicating tube, and the direction of fluid flow should be specified.

VISCOSITY

The visco ity of a fluid is a property of the material by virtue of which it re i. t· shearing forces. Fluid. having low viscositi s, such as water, offer less resistance to a shearing force than fluids having high viscosities,

uch as oils. A thin-bladed knife will easily out through water, while much more force would be required to force the knife through B.. heavy oil at the same speed. The force exerted all the knife as i cuts through the fluid is a shearing force, and the difference in re istance offered by the two fluids is du to the cliff r nee in their viscosities.

The concept of viscosity is particularly important in the consideration of ~,he flow of fluids, since the magnitude of the viscosity affects the re istance to flow offered hy the fluid. A fluid having a low viscosity flow more freely than a fluid having ~1. high visco ity.

The sxpres ion for viscosity may be obtained by considering two small parallel layers of fluid, each with an area of A. sq ft and a differentia! distane of cia- ft apart. Under th se conditions, a certain shearing [oroe (expressed in poundals) must be ex rted on t,ho top layer to cause it to move parallel to the other layer at a relative differential velocity of dV it/sec. It has been observed experimentally that thisjorceia directly proportionalto the velocity (rn ) and to the area (A) of the lay rs and is

FLUID 1'LOW

inv rsely proportional to the eli tallce (dx) benw en the layers. This may be expressed 5n equation form as

Fore =" elV A ..

,_. dx . (1)

where JJ. is the proportionality constant.

For gases and most liquids, the value of J.l is .onstant if the temper, ature and pressure are fixed. Fluids of this type ar called Newtonian fluids. The Pl:opolti~nality constant JJ. is defined as the absolute viscosity for all Newtonian flUIds. Equation (1) may be rearranged as follow':

Absolute viscosity = .. = (for e)(dx) _ foree

IJ- (A)(dV) - (A.)(elVjdx) (2)

From Eq, (2) the absolute viseo ity of a fluid may be defined as the mho of th.e shearing force per unit of pamllelare.a. to the re 'uit::wt velocit}" gradien t «i V Id.l:) perpendicular to the direction of the shear fore

NITS OF VI 'COSTTY

The units of [oree (pouudal ) may be expressed as pounds mass tim s

. .'. (Ib mas )(ft) * .

act clei ation, 01 (sec) (sec) ; therefore, the units of viscosity in the

English Ip system are

(lb mass) Cft) (ft) (sec) (see) (sec) (It) (ft) (ft)

11· mass (ft) (sec)

Th~ uni~s of viscosity in the cgs (01' metric) system are g/(cm) (sec), and a VISCOSIty of 1 g!(cm)(sec) is designated as 1 poise. Visco ities are ('?m~0I101y xpressed as centipoises, where 1 centipoi e equals 0.01 poise. Centlp?]5~S may beconverted to Ib/(ft) (s eo) by multiplying the number of cellttpOl$e~ by 0.00067:. Tb English unit of viscosity as lb/(ft) (hr) m~y. be?hta~ned by.multIplying the number of centipoisas by 2.42.

.rhe V1 .C()Slty of all" at room temperatures is approximately 0.02 entiP01S~, ~hile tt~e vi cosity of water at ordinary temperatures is about 1 (·ellfjpo~se. Oils may have viscositie ranging from 10 to 5000 centipoises dep nding on the temperature and typ of oil.

The absolute v:isco ity of a fluid divided by its density is defined as :'kiu?mat.ic viscosity." "\Vb.en a capillary vir cometer is used for measurmg VISCOSIty, the kinematic viscosity is the value actually obtained, This value time the den ity of the fluid gives the absolute vis osity, The common unit of kinematic viscosity is the centistoke. One centistoke equals om aq ora/sec.

* ' p Chap. .2 ( p(·tion on Units or Force).

68

ELE'ME ·TAltY CHEMICAL ENGI ·EERING

TOTALENERGt BALANCE

A fluid flowing through all. typ of couduit such as a pipe, contains

en rgy in thre fundamental form. .., .

1. The fluid bas a c rtain pot ntial energy that IS due t~ its p.OSltJOll

relative to a reference plane, Letting Z repro ent the vort.JCal dls~ance from the fluid center of gravity to the ref renee plano and ohoosing a basis of 1 Ib mas of the flowing f1uid,th pot ntial en rg may be

ex pre. sed as Z(g/y.). The unit. of this expres ion are -

eft) (ft) (sec·) ( ee) (Jb force) = ft-lb force

(sec) (sec) (rt) (lb mass) lb mass

2. The fluid ontains kinetic . nergy that is clue to the v locity of :flow.

Letting Y. r pre. enL the im;tantaneous v loci y of the fluid n,: ~l1Y p~i~t tb kin ti nergy p~r pound rna s may be xpre sd a 1 ;-/2go' I'he

units are

(ft)(ft)(see) (sec)(lb foroo) =ft-lb force

(se ,) (5 c) (it) (Ib mass) Ib mass

3. The fluid contain a . rtain amount of internal energy that is du to the temperat.ut level and the tate, The internal energy may be d'pree. ed by the symbol "U having t)~e units of f:-lb, force/lb mass, *

The total energy pel' pound of Stud at any point 111 the system Inay be

expressed as

Z g_ + V,2 + u

(Ie 2g"

According to the law 0.£ conservation of energy; the totalenel'.gy put into a system. in unit time must equal the. amount o~ energy l~avmg ~he system in unit time plus any accumulatIOn. COl1S1~er a fluid fl?W1ng through a pip at a. steady rate with no a~cum~latlOn 01: depl tlOn., of energy or material. The fluid .entering ~he pIP. contan:!; potentl,al, kinetic, and internal energy, while the fluid Isaving th.e pipe contams the same three fundamental fonlis of ene.rgy. As the flUId flows through the system, the total energy of the fluid can only be. altered by having external work done on, or by the fluid or by allowing heat energy to

enter, or leave, the flow syst m. .

The following energy balance can be made around the elJ.tm~ ~Y8tem

employing a basis of 1 lb rna 's of th limllrillg fluid an~ deslgn~~mg the fluid entrance conditions by sub eript 1 and the exit conditions 1)y

uhscript 2:

TT • (J V· 2 (3)

Z fL + ~ + ~h + Q + 117 ;= Z 2 - + 2" + U2

1 (Jc 2g. (Je go

.. 'l'he, ~'lDbol E is I;!OI\'lp.thnl"l'i ll~\'d to drsil!;nll,t('l ird/erna} energy in phl.ce oJ u,

FLUID FLOW

69

where W = net xternal work done on l;he system, It-lb Joree/Ib mass Q = net heat energy added to the system from an outside source

ft-Ib foree/Ib mass '

A certain amount of external work is don on the fluid as it enters the system. Thi: work is supplied by the pu hing force ex r ed by the re t of the fluid Hawing toward th~ entranc point. The amount of this external work may be expressed as Plvl.,,-here p is the stat,ir pressure and Ii is the specific volume of the fluid. imilarly, the fluid Ieavinz he sy tern does an amount of work on the surroundings (01" on the fluid already past. the final point) qual to p~IJ2· Therefore the net work done on the system per pound of flowing fluid can be expressed as

W = TV" + Pl11] - P2'1h (4)

where Wo is the work impart d to the ystern from outside mechanical ·ources such B, a pump or a turbine.

When a fluid flows through a pipe, the point v-elocity varies over the cross-sectional area of the pipe. When the velocity distribution is approxim~tely uniform across the pipe, a inturbul ant flow, only mall err rs are introduced in Eq. (3) if the kinetic energy term is expressed as P /2(Jc, where V i. the average linear v locity. When the flow is streamline, th~ velocity di~tri~utjon over the cross-sectional area of the pipe is parabolic, and the kinetie energy term may be expressed as 1,2/1]., Since the average linear velocity l' of a fluid flowing in a conduit can be determined easily, it i customary to use the following expression for the kinetic-energy terms in Eq. (3):

Tf;2 V2

200 = 2Ct'(Jc (5)

where a = 1.0 if the flow is turbul nt

a = O. - if the flo",' i streamline

ubstituting Eqs. (4) and (5) in Eq. (3) gives the following common form for the total energy balance:

Z o 11]2 () V 2

1;:;- + p,!J\ + -')- + Ul + Q + w. = Z2 - + 1h1h + _.!._ + 1.1,9 (6)

>1< .,(Xt{/o fl. 2Ct'2{j<·

The preceding equation is v ry important, and i should be thoroughly ~Ilder~tood. It takes all t,ypes of energy changes into consideration, lllclu~lng, urfaee eff ct ehernioal effects and Iri .tional effect. The eq~ation IS ba ed on mllte.ri~l and energy balances and it is completely valid f?r the as umed conditions. For all pra tical purposes, g and {lo are numer~cally equal eve~'ywbel'e ~n the earth's surface, Therefore, the potential- nergy term rs often Imply expreseed as Z with the ~ and {I • numerically oanceled.

70

ELEMEN7'AR.Y GHEMWA.L ENGiNEERING

The etitl'a,nce and exit potential energies Z 1 and Z 2 are based on some Gonvenient reference plane so that the change ill height, or Z2 - Zl) represents the external potential-energy change over the system. In a similar manner ,the entranee and exit internal energies are based ana standard reference state. Consequeutly,theabsolute values of the internal energies have no part,icular significance, hut the difference} 01' u~ - Ul, gives the actual change in tu·terna'! energy from the entrance to the exi.t

of the system.

The symbol Q' represents net heat added to the system from some

external source. This heat is usually added through the waHs enclosing the system, as, for example, heat added to a flowing gas by means of a direct flame applied to the pip eontaining the flowing gas.

Work added to the system from an external source is repr ssented by the symbol Wo, This work is almost always added by means of some mechal1ieal device such as a pump operating on the flowing material.'

Enthalpy. The internal 'energy and the external-work term pv are often added tog ther and treated as a single function called enthalpy. This is done merely as a mat-tel' of conveiuence for oalculations. The change ill enthalpy is identieal with the sum of tbe changes in tJ1B internal energy and the PI) ex:ticrnal-wol'k terms, since the enthalpy, internal energy, and pv expression are all point functions. Thus the enthalpy change from point 1 to point 2, designated by i2 _ ii,'" equals u~ +

P2V2 - til _ ;thVl'

The change i:n enthalpy of .30 perfect gas equals the mean heat capacity

of the gas at constant pressure times toe tempeTaturechauge. The change in internal.energy of a perfect gas equals the mean heat capacity : of the gas at constant volume times the temperature change.

Example 1 : Application of '(he Total Energy Balance to a Flowing Gas. One pound mole of dry air persero.n.d, flowing at an .average linear velocity of 200 It/sec, at an absolute pressure of 200 pai,.and at a temperature of 200GF, enters a hO'l.izont-al baffled· pipe. The au: leaves the pipe at an absolutr- pressure of 100 psi lind a tempel'aj,u.:r:e of lOO"F. The average linear vl'Iiol:iiy of the air leaving the pipe is 550 [thee. Thechange in enthalpy of 1.,ho all' may he taken ~!S the mean flcat capacity of the l1ir at, constunt pressure [7.0 B u/{lb mole) (OF)! times the change in temperature. Turbulent flow exists n.t all points i.1l the pipe. O~cuJIL,Le the arnounf of heat lost homLh~ walls of the pipe as Btu IJer fjEleorid.

Salntian:

BAalS: 1 Ib of dry air.

Since the pipe is· horizontal, Z, = Z~, and t"hp.sc tenlls disappear from the total.

energy bulanes,

I Since 'Fl'. represents the actual work i.mparted to the system Irorn outside rnoehan- 1(1!l,1 sOUl'ce.a,tl~e loss of: mccha!liUll.l Pllergy due to pum» Irietion (as .indicated by the"

pump e:flic'iel1cyl must he included in Q. . •

• The symbp] h ;1; SOm.t.iIru-5 used to dtmotc eht11!~lpy in plaee.of i.

FLUID FLOW

The change in ellthalpy is

i1 ~ il. = U. + 'P~U3 - U _ P v = (7.0}(lOO -200)

, I , (29.0) = -24.1 Btu/Ib mass

Since there ia 778 ft-Ib force per Btu, the enthalpy change is

(- 24.1){778)= - ].8,750 ft-Ib force/lb mass

No external work is added to the ;system; BO W ~ = O.

1', = 200 f'h/s e From the totll.l. energy balance,

Q =IL, + p~I'~ - UI. _ PIUI + V2' _ VI' 2q. 2t1.

Q - 18750 + (550)' - (200P

- - ,. (2l(:~2.1l) = -14,670 It-lb Inrc{'/lb mass

Q 14,670

= - 778 = -18,85 Bt~L/lb 11111,$1;1

and

p , = 550 it/sec

. The sign of tl~e calculated Q is negative, This means heat is lost from. the system in the .amount of 18.85 Btu per pound of air flowing.

Siuce lib mole of air, or 291b of air, pusses through the systeru per second, the total amount of heat IOIl·t from the walls of the pipe persecond is

(18,85)(29) = 547 Btu/sen

TOTAL MECHANICAi.-ENERGY BALANCE

~he t?tal energ~ balance as presented in the preceding section can be \vrlt~en rna form involving only mechanical energies and, as such, is of c~n~d~:able value to engmeers:l A fluid flowing through a pipe will ~ldll1anlY not undergo a themical change, and minor energy changes s~chas surface ~ffects can usually be neglected. Making these assumptIOns., a ~e:.hamcaJ~energy 'balance can be set up for a system containing a fluid flowing ata steady rate.

I~ aunit weight of fluid entering a steady-flow system is assumed as a ba~15, the total mechanical-energy balance between the entrance and exit points of the system may be '¥Titten as

Z g + ... + rr12 f~· g V 2

1-;; Pl!)l 2-:--+' pdV+W.=Z2-+- .. '_2_· +:n.v.+'<'FI (7)

u« Cl:lfi'o I g. 2a2l7. ",2 2 ...

The u~ts of e~ch of the terms in Eq, (7) are foot-pounds force pel' pound mass, Just, as in the t.ot,al energy balance.

tioThe flow of. a fluidthrough al~y system i~ always accompanied by frien, The frietdon causes loss in mechanical energy which could have done 'work but Was lost as .!L result of irreversible changes occurring in

fro:~:ehArit)elll.dix A f01'1" 19, direct derivation o~thc t,Qtjl.l meehanieal-energy balance

." " e .0 ft f'uel'l,IY )11 ance, .

71

72

ELElvlEN'J.'ARY CllEMJCA.L ENGINEERING

the flowhig fluid. The term Eli' in Eq. (7) represents the 1056 in meehanical energy caused by fl.'ictiOll.a:l effects and til best defined as the amount of mechanical energy necessary to balancethe output energy agail~st, the input energy in a total mechanical-energy balance.

Mechanical energy m[1Y euter and leave a system. ill the Iorm of kin t.ic

energy ( ·P). and potential energy (z f!_).. Mechanical energy may. 1), e

. 2Cig. g.

added to the system in the form of work from an outside source CWo). The fluid entering the system adds mecbanicalenergr because of the pushing Iorce pv exerted by the adjacent fluid, and, ina similar manner, mechanical energy is delivered to the SllrrOtmdings at the point where the fluid leaves the system.

\iVben 0. compressible fluid such as a gas is involved, there is usually fl. change in volume per unit mass as the fluid 11m;'1,!; from one point to another. This volume change is due 'to changes in temperature and pressure. When she volume of a fluid changes, a certa:il'l ,amoun.-t of work must be supplied or withdrawn. This work 0E expansion O! eon-

traction between peints 1 and 2 in a system CUll be expressed by J1- p dv. Much engineering work deals with eseentially noneompressible flukrls such as water. "\iVith fluids. of this type, the expansion work term h p dv is practically zero and can be neglected.

Example 2: AppHca.tion of Total Mech.llDical-ep.er.gy Balance, Water flows at a constant mass rat,o through A long section of unlform-diarnetcr pipe, The density of the water ill 52.3lh/eu ft. • iuce water may be considered as IlL noneompressibletluid, the velocity is constant throughout the pipe. The section P:,{jt .is .to [t higher than, the entrance. The entranee' pressure is Hi psis and the exit pressure is 25 psia. A pump supplies 50 ft-lb force 00 every pound of water flowing. Cnleulate the rnechanical-energy frictiollfllloss in the pipe section as foot-pounds. force per pcundof w!l,te~. ,~r II ter density in the seetion may be assum ed as constant, and the Reynolds num be.r 111 higher than 2]00 throughout the system.

Soluti(}n:'

BASIa: 1 Ib mass of water,

Assuming the entrance to the sectdon as the reference level, Z, -=.0 and z:~. "'" 10.

Since the Reynolds number is higher than 2100, the flow liu:t.y.hc co:nSlder~d ~stm:blllont and r;r in the kinetic ene~gy expressions of Eq .. (7) is unity, The frictional loss in the pipe may be determined by a.pply1ng the total: mechanical-energy be.h1llce 3Jil follows:

VI = V:

Density of 'fluid = 62,3 Ib/eu ft III =1). = 1/82.3 ou ft/lb

P,Vl ... (15) (1;44) = 34.7 It-lb force/lb mass 62,3

(25)(144) flb

p~u~ i= 62.3 .~ 57.8 f"t-lb fcrr'ce. mass

FL U u: no w

73

h·2

'P d~ "" 0 (since water is a noncom nressible fluid)

~ .

w. ~ 50 ft,-.lb rorccflb mal!!!

... ". I' .' I' 1 Z {/ Z rJ VI' V~! + . + .. r pt- = riotioual om = I - - . z - + -2" - -2 'PlIII - P2V~ " •

rJ. fro e- o.

:r.F = 0 - 10 + 34.7 ~ 57.8 + 50 "'" 16.9 HAb !ol'ce/lb mass

FRICTION

Fanning Equation. When a fluid flows through a conduit, the amount of energy lost due to friction depends on the properties of the flowing fluid and the extent of the conduit ystem., For the case of steady flow through long straight pipes of uniform diameter, the varsablea affectillg t.he amount of frictional losses are the velocityat which the fluid is flowing, the density of the fluid, the viscosity of the fluid, the diameter of the pipe, the length of the pipe, and the roughness of the pipe.

By applying the method of dimensional analysis' to' these variables, the following expression can be obtained for the frictional loss in the system, where the mechanical energy lost as friction (F) is equivalent to the pressure drop over the system due to friction divided by thedensity of the flowing fluid:

(8)

This expression is known as the.fi'a,nning equation and is strictly spplicable only to point conditions or to a system il~ which the fluid density, viscosity, and linear velocity are constant.

The friction factor f is based on experimental data and has been. found to be a function of the Reynolds number and the relative roughness of the pipe. The equivalent pipe roughness is designated by the symbol f and represents the average roughness or depth of the surfaee irregularities, The relative rougbness is defined as the dimensionless ratio of the equivalent pipe roughness to the pipe diameter or €/ D, where E and Dare expressed in the same units.

The effeet of pipe-surface characterietics (or relative roughness) was neglected by early workers in the field of flnid flow. The original data of these workers showed very poor correlations (especially at high Reynolds numbers) until the effect of relative roughness was correctly included.

Figure 5.1 presents a plot of the friction factor versus the Reynolds number in straigh·t pipes, In the streamline region, the friction :factor is not affected by the relative roughness of the pipe, Therefore, only on

, See Appendix A for a discuseicn of the methods of dimensional analysis and a derivation of Eq, (8) by dimenaioual.analysls ..

74

75

fine is shown in Fig, 0.1 fOl' Reynolds numbers up to a.bou't 2100 .. III ~hc turbulent region, th relative roughn ess of th pip has a large effect on the friction factor. lU'V' with different parameters of e/D are presented in Fig. 5.1 for values of Reynolds uunrben greater than 2100. A table on the plot indican value of E for various pip -(; nstruotion materials, Th methods for d termi ning J do not permit high accuracy; L therefore, the value of j should only he determined to two sinifieant figures, and Fig. 5.1 give.' ad equate accura 'y for determining th numerical values of the friction factor.

Curve similar to Fig. 5.1 are sometim s present d in the lit rature with H, differen defining value iox.]. FoY' example, mechanical engiueers usually define the Iricnlon factor so that it is exactly foul' Limes the friction factor zivon ill Eq, ( ).

The Reynolds number range between 2100 and 4000 is commonly designated as the critical reqion, In this range, under ordinary conditions, there is con iderable doubt as to whether the flow is streamline or turbulent. For design pnrposes, it is the. afcst practice to assume that turbulent flow exi ts at all R ynold: numbers zreater than 2100, However, i should be realized t.hn,t this assumption m~1..Y result ill overdesign if the flow is in the critical region.

A math matical exp"C sian for th friction factor can be obtain d from the equatiou for the straight line in the streamline-flow region of Fig. 5. I. Thu J at Reynold' .numbers b I.ow 2100,

f - 161! _ 16 - DVp - NRo

(9)

Example 3:: Calculation of Friction Term in the Total Meclllmica.l-energy Balance.

A liquid flows through II. straight steel pipe ai a velocity of 15 it/sec. The inside diameter of ~h pipe is 2.067 in. The density of tho Iiquid is ·10 lb/eu ft, and its viscosity is 0.003 Ib/(sec)(ft). If the pipe is 60 ft long, calculate t,lle mecba.nillal-clIergy los due t·o Iriction. Express the answer as ft-lb fOTce/lb mass.

Sal-lIt·ion.:

D = 2.067 ft V = 15 ft/sec p = -to Ib /cu ft.

12

/J. = 0.003 Ib/(sec)(ft) L = 60 ft e = 0.00015 ft

.!. = (0.00015) (12) = 0 0008-

D 2.067 . I

DVp (2.067)(15) (40)

Reynolds number = --;- = (12)(0.003) = 34-,400

From Fig, 5.1.! = 0.0063.

Fri ti = 'i' = 2,r V2[, = (2)(O.0063}(lW(60)(12)

10 Ion •• v U.]) (32.17) (2.007)

= 31 It-Ib force/ll mass

l ee Appendix A [oJ' a discussioll of tJP experimental methods for determining the values of the Fo.l~hitig frlction factor J.

76

BLEM.ENTARY aJIE.!V[lCAL ENGINEERiNG

Poiseuil1e'.s Law. By reading 'the appropriate value of f from a plot of Reynolds number versus I, the Frmning equaeion can be applied to both streamline and turbulent flow, However, in the sll:ea:mline-flow region, an expression has been. derived which does not depend on previously determined data.

From the definition of theabsolute viscosity of a fluid and by the application of calculus, an expression for meehanical energy lost in a system because of friction. can be obtained for strea,mJine ~~:V .. W11en the sy tern is limited to steady flow of a noncompressiblefluid In circular pipes of uniform cross section, the following expression is obtalaed:

32)lVL

F' - ---

, - (J<D~p

This is known as POis8uiZle's law, It can be 'applied in place of the Fal1nil1gequatiol1 when the Reynolds number is less than 2100.

Limitations of the Fanning Equation and. Poiiseu.ille's Law.. The e~:pres$ions for the Fanningequation and Poiaeuille's law given in the preceding sections are, in. a str,i~t sense, Iimited to point condi~ions 0: to conditions involving steady flow of a fluid through long straight pipes • when the veloeitYI density, and viscosity of the fluid are constant '. The densrtyand, consequently, the lineal' velocity of gases and vapors change considerably with changes in pressure. If the pressure drop over the system is large and, a compressible fluid is involved the density and the velocity of the fluid will change appreciably.

When dealing with compressible fluids, such as air, steam, or lLIlY gas, it is good engineering practice to use Eqs. (8) and (10) only if the pressure drop over the system is less than 10 per cent of the final pressure. With noncompressible fhi.idssuehas water, the deDBityand velocity of the fluids are esserrtially unaffected by pressure changes and Eqs, (8) and

(10) are applicable. .

In noniaothermal flow the change in temperature tends to cause the viscosity, density. and average linear velocity 'Of the fluid to change. OrdinadlYj little error is introduced when the Fanuing equation 01' Poiseuille's law lsused for the nonisothermal flow of fluids as long as the temperature change is not more than 2000. When te.mpel·a~ure changes or pressure changes are involved, the best accuracy IS obtained by using the linear velocity, density, arid viscosity of the fluid as deter-

mined at theaverage temperature and pressure. .

Exa.ct results may be obtained from the Fanning equation and ,Poiseuille's law by integrating the differential forms of these exnreseione,

taking .a11 the changes into ,oonsiclera:1;;ipn, . ,.. .

End Effects. The preceding discussion h.as been limited to steady flow in straight pipes of uniform diameter. Fricbional' loss s .alwAYs eeonr

* •

(10)

FU)I}) FLOW

77

when 'there is ,a, sudden enlargement 01' a SUdden contraction of the crosssectional area of the container in which the fluid is flowing. In the applicatioa of the total mechanical-energy balance, these effects must he taken into consideration.

Because of the friotionoeused by contnaction and expansion it is very important to indicate clearly the points between which the energy balanne is to be made, For ex.ample,if water were being pumped through a pipe to a. large storage tank, the end point for the energy balance could be chosen just outside the exit from the pipe in the storage tank. In this case, the kinetic e.nergy of the fluid at this final point would he zero, since the velocity of the water in the large tank: would be negligible. However, there would be a frictional effect due to the sudden expansion of the system from the cress-sectional area of the pipe to he crosssectional area of the storage tank. If the final reference point were taken just inside the pipe at the water exit;, there would be no expansion effect, hut the kinetic-energy term at the final point would have a finite value since. the velocity of the Wl;l,;teT in the pipe would be finite.

Frictional Losses Due to Sudden Enlargement. The loss of meehanical energy as friction due to the sudden enlargement of the eros -seetional area of the duct in which the fluid is flowing can be calculated by th.e following eq nation:

(11)

VI is the average linear velocity of thefluid in the section preceding the enlargement, and V2 is the average linear velocity of the fluid after the enlargement. The units of F. are the equivalent of foot-pounds force per pound mMS. Whell tbe flow is turbulent, a should be taken as LO. For streamline flow, it may be assumed that a is 0,5.

Frictional Losses Due to Sudden Contractica. The loss of mechanical energy as friction due to a sudden contraction of the cross-sectional area of th.e flow system under consideration can be calculated by the following equation:

. '

F = J( V2.~

• • 2Ct{J.

(12)

where V 2 is the downstream velocity or the velocity in the pipe dtel' the eontraetion has occurred, and 1(. Is a constant dependent on the ratio of t,he two cross-sectional areas involved.

Values of K, can be estimated from Fig. 5.2, where 81 is the crosssectional area of the pipe before constrictioR and Bz is the cross-sectional area of the pipe after constriction, 'Wh.enthe sudden contl'ac:tion occurs Irom a very l.ar,gEI'CIOl'ltainer, aa a lake ot, city reservoir, the ratio of SdS[

"78

ELE.'Mb"1'AllY CHEMICAL }J,'NGINEElUNG

is sere, and 1( .• is 0,5, For turbulent.flow, ~ is 1.0, F~ol' streamline flow, Q may be taken as O~5,

Frictional Losses Due to Pipe Fittings. Mechaninn.1 energy is lost as friction due to the resistance encountered by a fluid flowing through various types of pipe fittings such as elbows, tees, and valves. These losses EI,.'C accounted for by assigning the various fittings a fictitious length L., This length isequivalent to the length of pipe, having the same nominal diameter as the fitting, which would cause the same Irictional loss as that caused by tnefittin,g itself, The actual length of the pipe plus, £. can he substituted :for L in Eq, (8) or (10) to give the total frictional loss due to the pipe plus the fibtings,

0.5

0.4

-........ i'---
.....
..... '-..
-........
<; r-;
I <, -, . I
I
, ~~ 0.3

l(c

0 .. 2

0.1

% 00 m ro M ~ M W M M m S-

A rea ra-tio = S~

Fro. 5.2, Coefficients 'for oontractiol'l losses.

Table 2 presents values of L; for various fittings in the region of turbulent flow, Since L. varies with the size of the fitting, the information in 'I'able 2 is expressed as L./ D, Thus, the value of L. for one 450 elbow

. 2·' . id di l' ld b (15)(2) 2 ,. f'

m ... -m. IDSI e- ameter ine womu ne 12 = .o t,

TABLE 2. L.ID RA'I'l'OS FOR STJl.NDJ,nu PU'E F[TTINGS

F'ilti'l~(J L.! D

90° elbows , , , , . ; , . . .. 32

45· elbows , ' , , , , , , , , • , .. Hi

Squaee elbows (intersection of two oylinders) .. , . , .. , .. 60

Couplings. , , . , . , , , . , , , .. , , . . . . .. . . . . .N'egJigible

Unions .. " , , , , . , .. , , .. , , Negligible

Gate valve, open,." , , , , , , , , . , . , , , , . , , , , . , , 7

Globe valve, open., , , , , , , , , .. , 300'

d\;ffie Practical Aspec.ts of Frictional Effects. Frietioua.'leFfects are bxtrtlmely important in flow processes. In many cases, "friction may be the msin cause for resiatanoe, to the flow of a fluid through a-given systern, Consider the common example of water pasBing,thl'ough~ a pipe.

79

1.( no frictional effects were present it would be possible 'to use pipes of very ~rIiaLl diameters for all' flow rates, Under these conditions, the pumping power casts for forcing 100,000 gal of water pCI' haul' through a pipe with il diameter o;f 7s: in. would be the same .as the power costs for forc.ing the same amount of water througha pipe or equal length having a diameter .of 2 ft. However, frictional effects ere present, and they must be. taken into consideration when dealing with any real flow process,

T~e linear velocity of a fluid filow:ing through a pipe is inversely proportioual to the cross-sectional area of the pipe. For a given mass rate of flm~~ the velooity of a fluid passing through a small-diameter pipe will be greater than the velocity of the same fluid passing through a different pipe of larger diameter.

According to the Fannillg equation, the mechanical nergy 10 t because of friction is approximately proportional to the square of the linear veloci ty oithe fluid and in versely proportional to the pipe diameter. Consequently, for a given set of operating conditions, the frlctlonalIosses ate increased if it large-diameter pipe is replaced by one having a smaller diameter. In order to maintain the same flow rate, more pumping power must be supplied to overcome the increased frictional losses. On the other hand; the purchase cost of the small-diameter pipe would be less than that of the larger-diameter pipe.

By balanning power costs against pipe costs, it is possible to deter .. mine the optimum. pipe diameter where the total of all costs isa minimum for a given. rate of fluid flow. This method is presented in detail in Chap. 14 (Chemical Engineering Economics and Plaut Design) and in "-\ppe~dix A. In general, liquids of approximately the same density and VISCOSity as water should not-flow in steel pipes at linear velocities higher than 4: or 5 ft/sec, while vapors such as eteam ut ordinary pressures (20 to 50 psig) should not £tow in pipes at linear velocities higher than 50 to 60 ft/sec.

The presence of valves and fittings in pipelines cauees an increase in the amount of frictional flow resistance, An open globe valve causes abou~ Eody times as much friotional Ioss as an open gate valve. Therefol'~, In cas s where power consideratiollSl1re important, a gate valve is preferable to a globe valve. If the purpose of the valve is to regulate the rate of fluid flow, it is better to acceptthe added frictional losses and :li,e a globe. valve inst ad of a gate valve, because a globe valve permits closer control of the ffow rate.

Old~ip~s often become corrod d and pitted, or scale may build up

, on the mSlcie-:vall. -$l~rfaces. As a. result, the equivalent effective roughness of the pipe IS increased and the values of E given ill Fig. 5.1 no longer apply. Therefore, frictional effects may increase as the pipe. ages, 'The Male formation .may also decrease the available flo" area in .!l. pipe,

80

ELEMENTARY CHEMICJlL ENGINEERiNG

causing' even higher frictional losses due to the Increase in linear velocity of the fluid if mass-flow ratesare maintained constant.

CONVERSION OF UNITS IN MECHANICAl..-EN;ERGY BALANCE

The conventional units for the individual energy terms in the total energy balances are foot-pounds force per pound mass. It is often desirable to convertthese units to pressure-drop units or to standard power units. For ex.ample, the pressure drop due to friction in. a steady-flow system can be calculated from the friction term Eli'. Assume the value of Eli' has been calculated in the normal manner 1;.0 be 176.0 ft-lb force/Ib mass for water with an average density of 62.3 lb mass/en ft. The pressure drop due to friction is then equal to the value of"EF' multiplied by

the average liquid denl;ity.ol' .

P d· (170.0)1· (62.3) 76 ] Ib f / .

ressure . rop= t1p '= ~-- ] 44 =,. owe sq In.

A unit. analyeis shows

= (ft-lb fOl'ce)j(lb mass)l (sq ft)

I.1p (Ib mass) (ell ft) (sqin.}

Ib force sq in.

Many practical flow problems require the determination of the size of motor necessary to pumpa liquid i1;t a set rate through a given system. The power requirements of the motor can be determined by use of the total mechanical-energy balance. Assume the application of the total mechfl!llical-energy balance over a system has indicated that the IDIl,gnitude of the term Wo (work supplied from an external source) is 157.0 ft-Ib Iorce/Ib mass. This meehani 'aI-energy balance was applied to an on with a density of 45 lh/cu ft fiowing,at a rate of 50 galJmiuJ.and t~e pump and motor can be assumed to have au over-all efficiency of 40 pel' cent. The horsepower supplied to the pump motor to handle this £low may be calculated in the following manner:

'1'11e following equival nts can be found in the Appendix:

7.48 gal = 1 eu ft

1 bp = 550 ft-lb force/sec

The ft-lb force/sec delivered to ·thefhdd a H'a can be determined bj' multiplying the mass rate of flow times the .mechanicnl work supplied to the fluid ill consistent l1nits or 167 ft...,lb fOl'ce/lb mltss is equivalent to •

(157)[(45)1· (50) l .. -

- - (7.48) (60) = 787,ft-lb force/sec

FLUiD FLOW The horsepower delivered to the fluid is

81

(157)1(45)1 (50) 1 l

- - (7.48) (60) (550) = 1.43 h.p

A complete unit analysis of this indicates

(ft-lh fOl'ceJI(lb maSS)1 (gal) '(ell It) I (min) 1 (se(')(hp)_

(Ib mass) (ell It) (min) (gal) (sec) (ft-lb force) - hp

.incc the equipment IS onJy 4-0 pel' cent efficient the total horsepower delLvered to the motor, or the power requirement for the motor, is

1.43 3

OAO = .58 hp d livered to pump motor

Example 4: Practical Fluid-Bow Problem Involving Application of Total M'Bchanicalenergy Balance, Find the cost per hour 01 opemting the pump motor ill the system _ J

One atm. pressure

, CD !

fl-----·--- ,

WoreI' res~"voir 61°F

-rL+Le =80~~

, ,

, '

U·Le=20 :

~-------->t---- ---'

0' I

,

I

,

r , ,

60'

\ ,

'I D. =6.065" \, 10.=2.'061'

!reference plane

Fro. 5.3. Flow diagram for water-tra,nsfer systi.,11) (lj;xample'l).

~hown in Fig. 5.3,. The efficiency of the pump-motor assembly is 45 p r cent. This includes losses at the entrance and. eJ<it of the pump housing. The cost for electrical ~n.ergy is L5 cents per kilowatt hour. The water flow ia to be maintained at 150 gull rum, nnd. the .wat!,! temperature is constant .at 61°F. The material of construction for the pipes J.B steel.

Soluiion;

BJ\.SlS: 1 lb of flowing water,

'I'otal mcchenical-cnergy balance (between point 1 and point 2):

Zi ~gfl + Pl!Jt + 2V,' + (2 'P 1~1i + :w •... .z .. JL + 'P. ,1),0 + lr.~ + ~F + 1lF + "'F

" "'lrl.)l . - g~ • ZC<;t(/< ~. .. • .. _ •

Density of water lit 61 DF = 62.S, Ib/en ft

Villcosity of wftter lLt UOF '= 1.12 eeutipoisea .~ (1.12){O.OO0672) Ib/(see)(it)

82

ELEJiliIENTARY GfllflMICAL ENGlNEEIUNG

Co!lvarsion factoJ:s:

7A8gal = 1 ell it 00 sec = lll'lin 60 min = 1 b.r

1 kw = 7:18 ft-lb foree/eec

(150)(144) = l-L3'1 fe/sBc

Velocity in 2-in. pipe = (60)(7A8).(2.067P(o..785)

. . . . _ (ISO) (144) . = 1.67 ft/sco

Velocity III O-m. pipe - (60)(7.48)(1:1.065)'(0.185)

. . ... DVp _ (2.0G7)(14.3·1)(62.a) = 204000

Reynolds number In 2-m. pipe 18 -;- - (12)(0.000672)(1.12) ,

e _ (0.,00.015)(12) = 0,00087

D - 2.067

Friction facto!' for 2-in. pipe = l = 0..0.051 o.

Total equivulent Iength for 2-iu. pip = 50 + 80 = 130 ft DA!ynolds number in 6-i.l1. pipe is

Difp_ (G,OG5)(UJ7) (G2,3) = 70000'

--;- - (12}(O.000()72)(Ll2) ,

!_ _ (O,OOOlS) (12) = 0,0003

D - 6.065

l'Tietion facto'r for 6 in. pipe = f = O~0051 Total equivalent length for 6:...iill. pipe = 20 ft

112l" (2){O.0051) (14.34jZ( 12) (130) + (2) (0.0051 )(1.67) 2 (12){20)

'1JF = "l.,'}'i"75 =. (32.17)(2.067) (32.17) (fU) 0 5)

(1c = 49,3 ft~lb foroojlb mass

Flow in the system is turbulent; so '" is unity in all cases From reservoir to 2-in. pipe,

., K<1f.'_ (O.5)(14.311)~ = 1.6 ft-lb foree./lb mass

J'. = 21J~ - (2)(32.17)

From 6-in. pipe to Z-in. pipe,

• _ K. V,2 _ (0 .. 46) (H.34)" = 1.47 l't-lb Jorcerlb mass J. -2(10 - (2)(32. (7)

'E,['. = Ui + 1,47 = 3.07 It-lb foree/I.b mass

FrOlTI 2-in. pipe to 6-ill. ptpe,

., (VI - If:)~ _ (l<til.j. - 1.67)~ = 2.4.9 f'L-ll;d01'{m/lb Il1Il,SS

1', = 2(1. - (2) (;~2.1./)

From 2-in. pipe 110 eonstant-level tank,

(Vl ~ V~)' = (14.34. - W = 3.2 It-lb f9rcm/lb mass

F. ... 2(1. (2)(32..17)

:f;F, = 2.49 + 3.2Q ... fUlO ft-lh f~roe!lb rnMS

, we • w'

PLUID F,LOW

83

PI = p~ = atmospheric pressure"", (14.7)(H4)I:b forca/sq ft

J . lb

!II = lI~ =0 62.3 cu!'tll ma!l8

Zt fL.= 10 ft-n) force/lb mass rl<

Z 2!L ... 60 ft-lb force/lb mass

g. .

i2 P dv = 0 since water is a noneompressibls liquid

1'1 = V2 ... 0 since reservoir and conetant-Ievel tank are very large The "total mechanlcel energy balance ClUI now be written as

10 + (H.7) (l'H) + 0 + 0 + ~V· = 60 + (H.7){JA4) .+ 493 +·3.07 + 569

(62.3) • (62.,3)' , .

Wo = 108.10 ft-Ih Joree /lb mass, or 1~~51 ft-Ib force/lb IDMS

supplied to the pump motor

Cost per hour to operate pump is

(108.l)/(150)1 __ /(62.3}1_/_./(l)I(L5) ~ 10.· ts/h

(0.45) (7 .. '.18) (60) (738) een r

A unit analysis indicates:

(ft-Ib fOrCe)J (g~J~1 Cft) 31(lb ma.aS)I(l'l1m)/ (SElC) (kw) /(hr)J(cent;s.) = cents/Ill'

(lb mass) (min) (gal) (fta) (sec) (ft~lb Ierce) (hr) (kwhr)

MEASUREMENT OF FLOW RATE

Many different types of commercial equipment are ava:ilable!or determining the rate at which fluids are flowing. Several of the more Important methods Ior measuring flo\'V rates will be discussed here, and the theory behind these methods will be presented,

Orifice Meter. When a fluid, flowing in a system at a, uniform mas ' rate, is forced to pass through a ooustriotion, the average linear velocity at the constriction must increase. This means the kinetic energy of the fluid must increase at the expense of the PI) mechanical energy. As a result, the static pressure of the fluid must decrease when the fluid passes through aconstrietion. This may be visualized by reference to Fig. 5.41 which isa sehematdo diagram of a fluid passing through a constriction.

A coustriction, such as the one shown in Fig. 504, is knownas an orifiee, The pressure drop aoross the orifice can be determined by a manometer attached so tha..t the difference in the sta;ticpressuJ'es is indicated by the height of a liquid of known density in theruanometer.

A jet issuing from a constriction may eontraet even further into a smaller orces section. The point where the cross-sectional flow area is a min.im.tlnl is known as the !lena cl)ntra;cia. In Fig, 5.4, point 2 is located at the vena contracte, Theoretical~YI the downstream. tap for tbeorifioe

" I

I i:t!I.\' i'lil ~T:'lli <1"11'11\ [,,·1 \\1'('11 1,,,111;- I "lid

Ill(' f(lil,,\\ill~ ,'IIII:llillll 1:1.11 ill' dl"'i\",[:

!~ . .). ~ .

\ '

I"

'.,.l<wil,\ (11' flllilj ;11 "r:'jj"" 1'1 ... ,,'

,,..,I'(o'il\ ,'I [In d III '1i1~11"':111I ~""Ii oil II ~\".

(! I l)f·th(·il·nt Ilf ~li""f·h'lrgl·

I'I 111',,11',':1111 ~1:J1il' prl'--ll!"', [I. "'III

/I" ~1:ltl" 1)1"'>·,'11'1':11 \"11:" "111,1':1<'1:1,1\, -'III

:1\ ,'I:,l!." '.1.1'1111" "I 1111 11 [ [)(,I' 1111il 111"-', ,'11 It II,

I :litH' IIi !III ,",'IIi"II'III ,d' ,j",·h:II'l!.I' ( ,1"1)1'11.]- ,,11 11,(, 1.\'111' III Ilu i.! 111\'(111,,<1 ',1,,1 I 1i"I','I', II I d"jll'I!,j.; "" 11,1' \ ,,1'11' "I 1111 1:","1,,1,[- 1111111 II ;Ii-" ,illwli,j, ",I i],(, 1':111" ,,1 il", 11'10,'- ",I:"I!'I! 11",,\ ;11',':1 :11 IIii' \ ~':li r'j,'!:1 jfl 11111 t.'I',,";<-·<I'/·I!cl!l:d ;1I'~:1 III' 11\(, pl'llll'l' IIp''1 !I~ :11111111

')11' t·r(I~.- ~\.,.11.!jl;d :tr,"t id lh,· jq' .... lr'I~'lll l"lh' -./','\1Ill

..... ;I\I't. 11111.-t I nil '" 'tl1d " t I t n ri IlIII~I'l',-' art' "lH·r:ll\·d li ~i h(l)'iZtlTlt~ti

1'",ili"ll. illl' I' ,I, u t i-i l '"I'I'~'\ II rm 10\"", 11,,1 PI" ;11' 11 ]-:'i, 11::; Tit 1:-

:1 "t", - II \0' p: 1 J, ,'i 1111 id

:ti'-1Irl",01 iI, Ih, '''''1-

l'I]Il'I' i"" :l.~-IIIIP' III il"llil \ C I",·il\ <1:-1 rli"11 ."1

11,1\ \ \ 11\ 1'1'1" II ! I I I ' " 1111' I ,,[ ], v 1 I,; -, :t "" 11111 ]> I i II II

"I

F/J.IU\/1!() '{U.lI/I'I/, /.\I;/\U,I,j\l;

III: I III 'Ill!' i , '1' ,·11" I II, I

':,-' 1,11)""" '1:-- plt .... , ...... ihh· III dll' 'rll- . ..,---.!'1'linll:d 1'1,1 ":til I,,' 1<" 111111' I !I'd , 1',1\': II pr:\I'I'I,':"

1'1:1111' Id IIII' \ ,'11;1 ·,)\'11:1,'1;1 pllrpO~I:---', II}" pl:p ill~' lhl' d{I\\'I;-':~'I·:tlll 1l1:1!lqlllj jt'l 1:111 ;I~ ~1 di~'I'lt I'" Id 1111"" 1"1111" "t' I],,' [>1]'" ,11:1111'1"1' 1';,.,,; :1", ,.,1'11'1"". Tli" IIp-II'I':llllll1:III11ltl ,'I, r i:lp ~11I'IJi,II"" 1'11':<1,,01 :1: :\ ,[1-1:111'" "I' :'1'1)11\\'1111:11,,1\ 1111" l "}" oIi:1111 1'11'111'''111 IIII' 11)'-ll'I':1111 ,~Idi' 1>1 III<' "1'11111' 1,1;,1,'

'I'lli' I'II''-~lllI' dl'''l' ,j' 111';- 1111' 111'11"".' ill"I'1 :I"'~ 1'''1' :1 ",il I'll 1111](1 "- il", 1:1'" "I' Plli,1 11,)\\ i' "1""1-" TIII-. 1111' IIl:I:2,llillJd, ,,1'1111' 1'1'1 -.-111'" ,11'1'11 .-1"'\\11 1,\ 'i\l' IILIIl,,1l1 '1"1 ~I\'I '1' i 1,j11·"li"I' ,>I 1\". 1'1' ,II ."I,i,·I, 111'

ill ''[ j, 11,,.,\ il12. ill I h,' I' p,' '1'1'lII" "f illI' ,,11"'1 I" '1,11'1 11I1"'li:llli,:d-"III'I'L!\ 1,; 1,,""

\ I II ill'! 1(111

, ~ j r i ,I i I I, ..... r /1', \

1\1,,1'-'" c:. II", II".,· :III 11 r, "iol. 1111,,1 ;1'''111 til<' '"I:d

.2

1'\1 ,.! II I," II' '('

,'\ :' 111:11",'1,,1 1':I!:III" 'Jt" lIililll'l- "I 11111,[

'I'il."i' J, ii-I "IIII~llIIII' )1'"llld.- III filii" l "

t u- ; I, '11', 'II'

85 l1clnded in the coefficient

I ."

,! ........ Ii!

.... :l L!

t}jl .... "

11'1- from h r ading of a. , t • I·talue is commonly Indi-

II ~lI'eell the ups ream and \ .!.~I

~the fluid flowing,

~ r' "

, -, ,::

II II
IJ III
\J ,!!£ =0.8
°Il Ii
J-- ~~~l~7
/(1
IK 1\
r--- r-.l'
=a6
I I
~ 50,000

I) , I I I, ,

\ \ 1]1 'I I I" I ~ "\ II' ,I,j .

,1,111111. ( 'II I

, I

I,,] -, "1/1 Ii II

..... j ",. I11I

't ,";11 1",!, t ,

! I" I,

t :; ( • , : ~ I I ~ L I j' . Il ~ I, ~ ii,' \ 1 I l >l r I 11 ..... 1 fl' I

I'" I ", III, I I II' .. n l I" "I s : ,L I" III II, 'r!

10,000

·It'ld!d.! -i'l 'It~!1 Ii ~ 11- : I d 'o! I

iii

\lH;f' :p:-

I' " . 'j'j 'e with centered circular

I 1./ / /) / / , ,II

III d i 1\ / /

1111111::

I II;~ second flowing through

I and flowing through the

I" I' '::

i III ,11'11'1"1111

~ '~. r-r ur ' I';tl 1;1 ,-I' ~ II III

(14)

---_,----

the orific

----------.: ~:an be r

/:

/ ~

,-

and the pipe, written as

(15)

-__ .-

-~:

~ .~e ReY110l.dS ?:wnbers at "ber at, the orifice exceeds

. , ...• ~ Th.e values of C given

~},€,l' tap is located at the

own tream tap is often ~.ange i a slight mel'ea e ~'ev r, within an error of

-----'~ig, ,5.5 may be us d for

< ,)< 11 (I II' ", 11,..[ ~J'\l'~~ f(d' .... 'i J"IO -I \I~; ,j

6

ELEME.VT.4RY CHEMICA'U E GI "EElliNG

downstream manometer taps located anywhere between the orif-ice plate and the vella coutraota.

In engine ring ealculabions, Eq. (15) is applied to compressible fluids such as air only if the lmlica;ted pressure drop over thee orifice is 1 ·ss than 5 per C lit of the upstream 'pressure. For accurate measur menta of flow rates, it is U ually advisable to determine the values of C by direct calibration of tho orifice meter, III this manner, errors introduced ill the Fig. 5.5 values of C as a result of manometer-tap location or velocity distribution arc eliminated,

Permanent Pressure Loss Due to an Orifice. Because of the Budd n constriction followed by a rapid expansion, there is usually an appreciable 100

.290

.~

-SO on

o

1;; 70 s

~60

o

~ 50 e

g 40

'U o

1; 30

.......... '<,
~
<,
<, ,
"
-,
~~
\
\
\
\
\ 00 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 O.S 0.9 1.0

O' t t' - Inside diameter of orifice

lome er ra 10 - Inside diameter of pipe

Fro, D.6. 'Permanent losses a ross an orifice due to Iriction,

loss of mechanical euergy dueto friction when an orifice is used. Figure 5.0 indicates the pCI' cent of bhe head over an orifice which is perman ntly lost due to friction for different ratios of orifice diameter to pipe diameter,

Example 6: Application of Orifice Equations for Flow-rate Deterruinatlons, Water with a density of (32.·1 lb /cu ft is flowing through a pipe having an inside diameter of 15 in. An orifice with a 3-in.-diam.etlU· opening i~ placed conccntaically ill the pipe. A lJl.6roUI·Y manometer, ill which the mercury and tbe flowing wlj,ter arc in contact, is attached across the orifice. The rcaneme er indicutea a difference in level of 3.0 in. fig. What is th flow rnte of water in cubic feet per ininnt and what, is the permanent pressure loss across tho orifice in pounds per square inch?

Solution:

A.-:i a tirst npprcximation, assume the Orifice Reynolds number is sueb that C "" O.(JL

FLUiD FLOW

87

8. = (3)' (O.78.'i) sq in. S, = (15)2 (0.785) sq in.

" ~ _ B02 = 1 _ (3)4 = I U

,,1 B12 (5)"

Density of mercury =0 (1.3.6) (6.2.';1) lb/cu ft

Density of water = 62.4 Ib /cu ft

1I. =0 V(P1 - .. ~) = __!__ [(13.6)(62.4)(3) _ (62.4)(3)] = a.is n II 0*

r: 62.4 12 12 . D 2

V. = C 2r{.JI" "" 0.61 V(2)(32.17)(a.l5) = 8.7 rtlscc

.' (3) (8.7)(02.4)

Reynolds Dumber at orifice = (12)(1.l2)(O.OOOCl72) = 180,000

From Fig. 5.5, C = 0.61; so the assumption of C = 0.61 'was correct.

Witter-How rtLte '" V.S. = (8.7)(3)(21~4~85)(60) = 25.6 cu ft/min

D. 3

J5~ ="j] =0 0.2

From Fig. 5.6, th permanent pressure loss over the orifice equals U5 per cent of the hl,atL

Perrnuuout pressure )0' across orifice is

(p, - ):J.)(O 95) = (3.15)(62.'1.)(0.95) = L3 psi

- . (1~4)

Venturi Meter. A venturi meter is similar to an orifice meter, but the contraction and xpansiou se tions in a venturi are gradual due to

• The method for determination of this Pl - pz may be visualised by considering that the pressure a.t the base of the manometer (point A) in Fig. 5.7 is the Burne in a.1I

Water_,..

---- ~Prl----~~r_----_

A

FIG. 5.7. Manometer connected across an. orifice (EXample 5).

,]irections. Then, from the concept of fluid head, the two heads in the manometer ]f'gs must be equal, or

..L (y + 3):!: y 3

p, , --w- (62.4) + 12 (62.4)(13.6) = p, + 12 (62.4) + 12 (62.4){13.(3)

s:

+ 12 (62.4)(13.0)

3 3

PI - p. = L2 (62.4) (13 .. 6) - 12 (62.4)

88

.MLEMENTARr CHl!J:N[lCAL ENGINEERING

a double-cone-shaped construction. As a result of the gradual velocity changes, the permanent pressure loss is much less with a venturi meter than with an 'Orifice meter.

The contracting portion of a venturi meter is a frustum of a. cone with a vertex angle of about 30°.. The divergen:t portion is also cone-shaped with an angle of approximately 7°. The throat diameter is one-half to one-quarter of the upstream pipe diameter, while the actual throat length should be about one-half of the upstream pipe diameter,

The same equationaare used f01' calculations with venturi meters as ate used fOJ" orifice meters, The coefficient of discharge for a venturi may be taken as 0 .. 98 for all values of Reynolds numbers higher than 5000 (based ou conditions in. upstrea,m section).

Oirectlon --"'" it;------~}::-D---::---?o-~--~ of flow

e e ill ill ill ill

FIG, 5,8. Venturi meter,

A correctly designed venturi meter should have an over-all pressure 0 loss of about 10 pel' cent of the static':head difference reading. A schematic diagram of a venturi meter is shown in Fig, 5,8.

Venturi and orifi 'e meters are widely used in industry for measuring liquid-and gas-flow rates. The equations developed in t~e pr>ce,ding sections may be used to estimate flow rates through these installetions; however, b~tter accuracy is obtained if the meters are calibrated after inatallation. In many cases, venturi meters and orifice meters are sold by the manufacturers with accompanying calibration charts. For th~se charts to beappli.cable, the meters must he installed carefully aceording to the manufacturer's instructions. ,ometim.e,s corrosion or scaling will change the size of the orifice or venturi open~gs) and ~~t,el'S of ~hist,ype must be checked periodically to make certain the original calibrations are still valid.

Pitot Tube. .A pitot tube is a device for mea,S'tu'ing local or point velocities. It mea lues the velocity pressure of a flowing fluid by indieating the diffel'enee between the impact pressure and the static pressure of the fluid, Figure 5.9 is a schematic di~lgl'am of a pitot tube.

The velocity of the fluid at the point where the tip of the pitot tube is located can be calculat d by the equation,

(16)

FLUID li'LOW

80

where H; is the head, expressed as feob of the fluid flowing, due to the difference between the impact and sta.tic pressures.

While the orifice meter and

venturi meter may be used to determine the total rate of flow of a fluid through a pipe, the pitot tube is used to find the rate of Howat just one point in thecress-sectional area of M~e flowing stream. To give a minimum of flow interference, the size of the pltot tube . hould be v ry small relative to the cross-sectional area of the container in which the fluid is flowing, Care must be ta.ken to have the impact op ning facingsquarely upstream.

Oirer:tio/1 ___ of flow

--

Ero. 5.9. Pitottube,

Me/uNo·metaloligllment of end fittings ond ellminotes qosketsond provides rigidify

. Alternote Inlet and of/tlet for verlic;(!1 piping connection

Horizontul inlet and outlei

Removob/1!1 sluffing toses permit rem()~al of metering tiJbe witll.out breaking pipe COI/neetions

NumeroiJS plllmmet designs I and materials allow wide ra,ngp of cap(Jcities Within one meter

Gross tube gives easy visib/~/Yy of rotor in 11-<-~!---opoq(Je liquids and stable rotor action

Wtue oMp/flee cast iron frame gives insta/lation riqiritly and protects '!Jbe Without blocking clear view of scale

Stanaard Neoprene paclrimJ. for J0f!1) life, corrosion re5Isfanc~, 1('q1l1 seal

I·'IG. 1),10. Cutaway view of standard rotameter. (Courtesy of Schutte &: [(ol?1'f;ing Co.) Instruments based on the pitot-tube principle are used for measuring airplane speeds. Corrections 1m variation in ail' den.sity and prevailing

90

ELEN[EN'l'A.ltY CI:J.E.MJ'CAL ENGINEEIUNG

winds must, be applied to the pitot tube readings if the true velocity of

the airplane is to be indicated. .

Rotameter. The rotameter is one of the most common devices used for the measurement of flutd-fiow rates. It is, essentially an orifice of variable area and constant pressure drop. A typical rotameter such as tile one illustrated in Fig. 5.10, consists of a plummet (or rotor) which is free to rise and fall in a tapered calibrated tube. Th - plummet is usually grooved so the flow of fluid past it causes it to rotate. Fluid flows into the lower end of tho rotameter tube and causes the plummet to rotate and rise smoothly until the pressure drop across the space betw een the tube wall and the plummet is just sufficient to. support the effective

weight of the plummet. . . .

The down,~'ard force of the plummet is due to Ita weight mmns the bouyant effect of the Iiquid it displaces. This may be expressed in

equation j'o.l'ill as

Downward force of plummet = 11 p(PJ' - p) f!_ lh force (17)

ge

Upward fO·1'08 on plummet = Sl'(pl - pz) Ib force (18)

where 111' = volume of plummet, ell it

81' = maximum crose-seotdonel area of plummet, sq ft

Pi' = density of plummet, Ib mass/ell ft

p = density of fluid, lb mass/ cu ft

Pl - P2 "'" pressure drop from bottom to top of plummet, lh fore '!sq ft. When the plummet is in a stationary pc)sitiollJ the downward force must equal the upward force. Therefore, ftom Eqs. (17) and. (18),

V p(pp- p}g ( 9)

Pi - P2= S 1,

, pg.

Since the orifice equations a.re.applicabIe to a rotameter Eq. (13) may be expl'essed a,s

V .2 V 2 _ C22 TTp(pl' - p)g

o - 1 - . go!) S

1'(J.

where Yo = velocity o.f fluid at orifice 01' (in this case) velocity of fluid past plummet at its lUaXlnmm area, it/sec

VI = valocity of 'fluid in rotametedube just below plumm.et, ft/Fieo v = average volume of fluid per unit mass = 1/ (J) eu ft/lb mass

By It mat.etial balance,

1r.8.= iT iSl

V,,8. =1'[ = total volumetriC rl1l;teof flow, eu it/sec

where So = free cross-sectional area between plummet and rotameter tube wall a:~ maximum area of plummet, .r.;.q it

(20)

(21) (22)

81 = cross-secfional inside area of rotameter tube just below plummet, sq ft

Combining Eqs. (20), (2]), and (22),

Vp2q(pJ' - p) Sp[l - (S,,/SI)2]p

(2:3)

Equation (23) is the general equation for rotataeters. Values for .s~ and 81 must be determined at each plummet height. The value of C depends on the plummet shape and Isa function of the Reynolds number. 'U1'VOS are available in the Iiterature' giving numerical values of C under various condifions,

I udustrial rotameters are ordinarily sold with accompanying calibration curves or with special calibrations etched on the Indicating tube. If the rotameter is to be used with liquids, the calibration is usually based on water with a density of 62.4 Ib/cu ft. The calibrations may also be based on the dausity of air at 70°F and a pressure of 1 atm. The readings from the ealibration curves or etched markings may be converted to other fluid densities by applying Eq. (23) .

. s an example, assume a I'otame er givesa sea e l'ea.ing0£48 when a mixture of methanol and water weighing 58.0 lb/cu it passes through it. The calibration CUTve supplied with the rotameter indicates that 4.8ci.l It of water (density = 62.41b/cu ft) pass through the rotameter per minute when the seale reading is 48. The plummet i. made of stainless steel "lith a density of 497 lb/cu ft. Since the density and viscosity of the methanol-water mixture are approximately the same as for pure water, the value of Cis eSS611tiaUy th same for both liquids,

The volumetric £tow rate for the methanol-water mixture can now be found by applying Eq. (23). For pure-water flow at a seale reading of 48,

4.8 = (60) (So){C)

eu ft/min (24)

For the methanol-water flow at a scale reading of 48,

497 - 58.0 58.0

cu it/min (25)

Dividing Eq, (25) by Eq. (24) and canceling the constant values,

(Lt97 - 58.0) (62.4) (58.0)(497 ~ 62 . .4)

= 5.0cu ft of methanol-water mixture per min

l G. G. Brown e( at, "Unit Op rations," p. 158, John Wiley.& SOI;lS, Ine., Neiiv York, 1950.

q = 4.8

92

ELEl1fEN'l'ARY CHJJJMlGAL ENGINBERING

FLUID FLOW IN NONCIR.CULAR SECTIONS

Most of the discussion in this chapter has been confined to fluids flowing in pipes of circular crOSB section. When the (;1'OI'lS section is not eir '11- lar, it is pos ible to use many of the relationship pre ented ill this ehapt r by substituting an equivalent diameter for the circular- action diameter.

Wh. n a fluid flows through a cross section of any uniform shape, there is a certain p rirneter of the contain r which. is in contact with the fluid. This wetted perimeter, taken normal to the direction of flow, is designated by 0/. If the cross-sectional area is indicated by S, the hydraulic radius R», defined as the ratio of th cross-sectional area to the wetted perimeter, will be SN.

The assumptions made in the development of all the relations presented in this chapter for turbulent flow permit the substitution of four times the hydraulic radius in place of the circular cross-sectional diameter. Thus, when the flow is turbulent, 4R/! may be sub tltuted for D with little loss in accuracy as long as the cross section is uniform along the length of onduit considered. '\iVhen the flow is streamline, th substitution of 4Rf{ for D does not give accurate results, and special methods available in tb literatnra- .hould be used for noncircular cross sections.

PUMPS

It is necessary to have a driving force to make a, fluid flow from one point to another, ometimes this driving fore is supplied by gravity or by the difference in elevation between the entrance and exit of the ystern. suaLlythe driving force is supplied by a mechanical device such a a pump.

The pump must be capable of supplying sufficient power to the system 'to overcome anyenergy los. es incurred through friction, change in head, change in kin, tic energy or chan s in pressur -volume energy terms. The energy balane s presented in this ehapt l' may be used to determin tbe amount of outside rnechanical (Jllergy necessary to carry out a given op ration. This mechanical energy added from an outside source represents the amount of energy which must be added to the 5ySt rn, but it is not directly equivalent to the amount of power put into the mechanical-energy source. Fa!' example, if calculations indicate that mechanical enol' y equivalent to ·to hp must be upphedto a system to pump a con tant amount of water to an overhead tank, thi does not mean that a 4.0-hp motor on the pump would be satisfactory. Some energy is lost through shaft fri tion between the motor and the actual

1 J. H. Perry, "Chemical Engineers' Handbook," 3d ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, IDe., New York, 1950.

rt.ut.u FLOW

93

pum~, and mechsnical nergy.is lost because o.f frio.ti.o;n, in th,e pump housing. Therefore, the pump-and-motor efficiency must betaken into consideration. If the over-all pump-and-motor efficiency is 0 per c nt, a 5.0-hp motor would be uece '811ry to supply 4.0 hp to the actual BOlli' system.

TABLE 3. FORM FOR P ~1f'l'NG-EQurl'ilffiN'I' SI'],;t:II'lCNI'WNti'

"eIlOI'a!

&r-vicc , .

K'umber of PUIl1PS } itt r gular use. , . , , .

required as spares .

Process requirements per pump

Fluid handled. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . , .

Quality Of}C.orrOs~ve .0.1' noncorrosive , , .

fluid Corrosive compounds. . . . . . . .. . .

Solids (if any) , , .

Quantity handled, gal/min a.t 60°F and 760 mm Hg.. . .

Spe ifie gravity at GO°F and 7(;0 mm Hg .. .. .. . .

Pumping temp, oJ.<'. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .•.. .•• ••.•.••.......•...........

Viscosity, centdpoi 'es at pumping temp .

Suction conditions (at pump); . .. . . . . . . . . . .. . ...............................•

Pressure, p ig or II ia. .. .. . . .. . . . . .. . .. ,., .

Vapor pressure at (Jumping temp, psig 01' psia " .

Specific gravity at pumping temp and suction pre ur .

Not positive head above vapor pressure, ft. , .

Discharge condition (at pump)

Pressure, psig or psia ,. . .

. pecific gravity 11,t pumping t mp aud sllct.io~ ';r~' s~;e ' .. , : : : : : : : . : : : : : : : : : : :

Capacity at. ciil3(·ha.!'ge conditinns, gIll/min .

J)" ign conditions

DifJE'rCfilinl}psig or psia. . . . . . . .. . .

pressure -{oeL ,., ..........•.....•...... ,. , ,. . ., .

Liquid horsepower... . . ..................•.........................

Maximum temp, of , ..

Maxhnum SUl3tiOIl pnlSSlU'C, psig rJ1' psin ,.,........... , .

Maximum allownbl« pump tJ.P, psi . . .

n"mar-ks

,"pecial requirements of pumps 01' drivers, etc .

Type of pump recommended , , , , , ..

TYpe of driver recommended. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. . .. , .

Regular , , , . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . , .

. pare......... . .

. " R. L. Jacks, "Process Design and ,'pecill!~atioll of Pumping Equipment;' Chem ..

Eng. Proqr., 49, 235 (1953).

There are three types of pumps ordinarily employed in chemical prooesse.. They are (1) rot~1J'Y. pumps, (2) reciprocating pumps, and (3) cen rifugal pumps. The. thr e types of pumps have been di cussed in Chap. 4 (Iudustrial hemieal Engin ering Equipment).

Engineers have many occasion to list speciftcazions for pumps, and it

94

E.LE.i'J1J§N'l'ARJ' C1:!.EMlCAL ENGINEERING

i8 importaut to pres nt all the irucial facts when making th se speoifications. Table 3 presents a standar-d form hewing the essential infermation which should be supplied when I:!peoifying pumping equipm nt.

WATER HAMMER

If a liquid is flowing at constant mas rate from a storage tank through a long pip ,th average linear v locity of the fluid i. e, sentially constant throughout theentire length of the pipe. nder hese conditions, 0. surne a valve at the pipe outl t is suddenly clo ed. iuce the velocity at the outlet end of the pipe then becomes zero, it would appeal' that the velocity at all other points throughout the pipe would become zero simultaneously. Actually, thi is impo isible because the kinetic allergy of the flowing fluid cannot be reduced to zero instantaneously. The fluid in th pipe continu s to flow re ulting in a compression of the liquid at the valve and a pressure increase ll1 the region just before the valve. When the kinetic energy of the fluid ha: been Ii, sipated, the pressure at the val ve will be higher tban th pres ure at. the entrance to the pipe and the liquid will start. to flow back toward the storage tank. However, as the liquid flows toward the storage tank the liquid will be compressed and the pre sure will increase at the entrance to the storage tank. In thi manner waves of fluid flow will pulsate back and forth in the pipe until the effect is dampened out by frictional losses,

A phenomenon of the type just described is called watm' hammer from the hammering ound heard when a valve is suddenly closed in a long pipe containing flowing water. While it ma,y be impossible to close a valve instantaneously, it Is possible to close it fast enough to cause a water hammer. This results in vibratious and undue stresses on the pipe and may eventually cau e the pipe to break, Water hammer may be eliminated by closing the valve slowly 01' by the use of surge chambers or relief valves,

PROBLEMS

1. A liquid with a density of 40,0 lb/cu ft flows through a long straight pipe of

circular cross section at a rate oj 200 ell ft/hr. eterrnine if the flow is turl ulent or

streamlin under the following condu.ions:

(a) When the inside pipe diameter is 2.0 in. and the absolute viscosity of the fluid is L81b/(hr)(ft).

(b) When the inside pipe diameter is 1.2 ft and thl' absolute viecosity of til fluid is 3.0 centipoises,

2. Determine th height of a, vertical column or fluid with a d na.it~' of ·1.0,0 lb/ul1 i which will be supportedby a static pressure of ]8 paia if the top of the column. is open to the atmosphere. At,mospheric pressure may be taken 3.8 H.7 psin.

S. A fluid with a den ity of 50,0 Ih/cu it has all absolute viacosi y of 0.4 cenbipoise.

Expl'e-llS this viscosity as (a) poises; (b) pounds per Ioot-second; (.c) pounds per foot-

houri (d) cerrtistokes: (e) !!'wkos. .

FLUID FWW

95

4. Air is {lowing with a velocity of 300 it/sec at 70°F and an absolute pressure of L50 psi Iu the upstream ecetinn of a horisout.ai pipe, The air passee through an orifice. At a point. near but definitely beyond the orific , the lin ar velocity of the air is 500 ft/sce and the absolute pressure is 100 psi. Considering air as a. perfect. gas, \,-ha.t is the temperature at this point? The m an heat capacity at, constari pressure for ~1il' over the temperatuce range involved can be taken a 7.0 Bt,u/(lb mole) (OFl. Tho flow C8.11 be assumed as turbulen t throughout tile entire sy tern.

Ii. Th linear velocity of a noncomprnssible liquid is 20 ft/soc, and the absolute pressure is 30 psi at the initial point of a flow syst-em. At the final point of the section under considaration, the linear velocity of the fluid is 30 ft/sec and the absolute pressure is 70 psi. The increase in vertical elevation over this section i 25 ft. The to al of all Iriotional losses is 40 ft·lb force per pound of fluid flowing. The Jlow in this system is turbulent and the tcroperature is constant. Calculate the 1Il110unt of mechanical work put into the system as feet-pounds force per pound of fhlid flowing if the donaity of the liquid is 50 lb/clJ ft.

6. liquid with a density of 70 lb/cu ft How through II straight steel pipe having

all inside diameter of 2 in. nt the rate of 100 Ib/hr. The visco ity of the liquid is 0.9 centipoise. Calculate the pre ure drop ill pounds per aquaro foot, due to friction if tue pipe is 1 mile long.

7. alculate t.he. loss of m chanica I energy ItS fridlon, expressed as foot-pounds force PCl' pound mass, due to the sudrlnn enlargement, from a 2-in.-in'ide-diametecr pipe t" a .J,.in.-in ide-diameter pipe for wator at G5°F flowing at a rate of 1000 lb /min.

8. Calculate the loss of mechanical energy as frietlon, expressed a, foot-pounds force per pound mass, on th sudden contraction from a 2-in.-ulsid!'-diameter pipe to a I-in.cinside-diamotcr pipe fa.!' a liquid with a density of 40 lb/cu ft, Jtowing at a rate of 501b/lnin. Assume turbulent flow exi is.

'9. Calculate 'the horsepower required Ior a pump assernhly with an over-all r-Ifieiency of 55 per cent to deliver 200 It-Ib force per pound mass of fluid flowing to a system in which 1001.b of fluid flow pel' minute.

10. A liquid witll a density of 40,01h/cu ft is flowing through a 2-in.-inside-<liameter pipe. A l-in.-diameter orifice is located in the line, The pressure drop across the orifice is indicated by a mercury manometer in which the fluid from the pip and th mercury are in contact. TIle reading taken Irom tbe maaom eter is 4 in. of mercury. Assuming an orific coefficient of 0.61 calculate the flow in pounds per hour.

. 11. A venturi meter is used to measure the flow of water [rom a pumping installation. Th venturi has 36-in. openings and an IS-in. throat. The venturi mercury ~llnQmeter, in which m('.l'C1:LrY and water arc ill contact, has a. reading of 3,1 in. WhM, IS the flow in gallons per day? The temperature of the water is 65QP.

. 12. A liquid with a. drllsity of 75 Ib/cu it flows through a 4-in. sharp-edged orifice In the bottom of a tank at the rate of 75 cu ft./min. The diamet r of the tank is ]0 rt. The orifice coefficient is 0.61. What IS the depth of the liquid in the tank? The top of th tank is open to the atmosphere, and the water flows ant of th tank to th~ a l.ruosphere.

13. A special oil is to be used in all. absorption tower. The preliminary design of the unit require .. the oil to be pumped Irorn an open. tank with. a. liquid lev ... l l 0 H above the rloorand fore d hrough 150 ft of 3.06 -in.eiuside-diameter 1',;1;0 1 pipe with five 90· elbows into Ule top of a tow","!' 30 it above the Boor level. The. operating pressure in the to~er is to be 01.7 psia, and the oil r quircrnent is estimated at 50 gal/min. The VI eos~ty of the oil is 15 centipoises and its density ls 53.5 Ib/eu ft. Assuming the ?umpmg outfit opcrat tI with I1.U over-all efficiency of 40 PC-l' cent, what horsepower

mput will be required for the motor? tmcspheri« pressure is ]4.7 psia,