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Angle BM General
Angle BM General
Angle BM General
References:................................................................................................................................................... 2
Math Review ................................................................................................................................................. 2
Trigonometry ................................................................................................................................. 2
Near Field: .................................................................................................................................. 2
Beam Spread ............................................................................................................................... 2
Circumferential Scanning Formula............................................................................................. 2
dB equation ................................................................................................................................. 3
Wavelength: ................................................................................................................................ 3
Areas: .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Using a calculator: ...................................................................................................................... 3
Velocity Chart:............................................................................................................................................... 3
General Discussion of Ultrasonic Sizing of Flaws ........................................................................................ 5
Interpreting Signals ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Rise and Fall Time ...................................................................................................................... 6
Peaks ........................................................................................................................................... 6
Signal Base.................................................................................................................................. 7
Tip Diffracted.............................................................................................................................. 8
Transmit Receive ........................................................................................................................ 8
Characterizing Indications in Welds.............................................................................................................. 8
Root Indications (surface connected).......................................................................................... 8
Midwall Indications (subsurface) ............................................................................................. 11
Weld Cap Indications (surface connected) ............................................................................... 11
Interpretation Tips for Non-relevant and False Indications ......................................................................... 12
Refracted L-wave Indications ................................................................................................... 12
Creeper Wave Indications......................................................................................................... 12
Standing Wave Indications ....................................................................................................... 12
Pre Inspection Requirements...................................................................................................................... 13
Physical Measurements............................................................................................................. 13
Calculate Distances................................................................................................................... 13
Mark Surface Distances on Plate Adjacent to Weld................................................................. 13
Weld Profile/Sound Path Transparency.................................................................................... 13
Basic Angle Beam Calibration .................................................................................................................... 14
Sweep Distance:........................................................................................................................ 14
Sensitivity ................................................................................................................................. 14
APPENDIX A: AWS D1.1............................................................................................................................ 16
APPENDIX B: ASME V ............................................................................................................................... 17
Quiz Questions:............................................................................................................................................. 1
References:
ASME V Article 4 & 5
AWS D1.1 Section 6 & Annexes
ASTM E164
Math Review
Trigonometry
SP = T/cos0: 1st leg Sound Path
SP = 2 x (T/cos0): Full V Sound Path
SD = SP x sin0: Surface Distance
T = SP x cos0: 1st Leg Depth
T = 2 x (T – [SP x cos0]): 2nd Leg Depth
T = (SP x cos0) – (2 x T): 3rd Leg Depth
SD Full V
SP 2nd leg
SP 1st leg
T
SP 3rd leg
Near Field:
2
N= D x F
(4 x V)
Keep velocity in microseconds to cancel out frequency exponents. Near field
calculations are important when dimensioning flaws because they can mask tip
diffraction signals.
Beam Spread
SIN0 = 1.22 (λ / D)
The sin value for ½ angle beam spread equals 1.22 x wavelength divided by
diameter. It’s a sin value so you need to do a sin-1 function to convert it back into a
degree value. Beam spread plots may be required and they should always be
supported by a Near Field and Beam Spread calculations. The 1.22 constant plots
the theoretical beam edge. 1.09 constant for –12 dB.
Calculates the required refracted angle (01) to produce desired refracted angle (02)
at the inside diameter of the component. Enter the desired angle of refraction at ID
for SIN02; SIN01 is the wedge angle required to achieve the desired angle.
SIN02 = SIN01 / (ID/OD)
To determine angle of refraction at ID for a known wedge angle.
dB equation
dB = 20 x log(Amp%2 / Amp%1)
Used to determine the db difference between two amplitudes.
Wavelength:
λ = V/F
Keep velocity in microseconds to cancel out frequency exponents. Flaws can be
reliably detected only when greater than ½ wavelength.
Areas:
Area of circle = pi x radius2
Area of rectangle = length x height
Using a calculator:
Make sure calculator is set to Degrees, NOT Radians & NOT Gradients. Degree
units used in formulas are sin values. To convert sin value back to degree uses the
sin-1 of the sin value.
Velocity Chart:
Material Longitudinal Shear Acoustic
Velocity Velocity Impedance
The ASME Section V, Articles 4 and 5 and AWS D1.1 Annex K codes require flaw
dimensioning using decibel (dB) drop sizing methods; e.g., a 50% amplitude drop. It has been
demonstrated that when the flaw is
less than the beam spread, the dB 50% drop 50% drop 50% drop 50% drop
drop sizing method tends to
dimension the beam profile instead
of the actual flaw size, thereby
over sizing the flaw. This
becomes even more pronounced
when plotting flaws using an angle Flaws
In addition, it is recognized that other techniques different than the nominal 45o, 60o & 70o shear
wave examinations may be required verify and dimension planar flaws. This is a good reason
why codes specify a ‘scanning sensitivity’ that is above the reference level. Flaw
characterization and sizing methods such as ID Creeping Waves, Tip Diffraction, Bi-Modal, and
Refracted Longitudinal Waves have demonstrated a higher degree of accuracy for sizing the
depth of planar flaws in pipe, plate and vessel components welds, in lieu of the Amplitude
Comparison or dB Drop Techniques. Tip Diffraction is the only advanced technique discussed
in this curriculum.
Interpreting Signals
Rise and Fall Time
The signal rise time is related to how fast the signal peaks as the transducer is moved toward
a reflector, and how fast it falls when the transducer is moved away from it. As shown
below, the rise and fall time of signals is drastically affected by the angle of the sound beam.
In the above diagram the beam profile is dimensioned instead of the SDH. This can lead to
over sizing flaws as well as underestimating flaw depth. This problem alleviates itself once
the flaw size is equal to or larger then the beam profile. Discontinuities with a through wall
dimension greater than the beam profile dimension will have a longer rise/fall time and be
more accurately dimensioned. Geometry
indications from a weld cap or weld root
exhibit a slow rise/fall time and have a
broad base signal with multiple peaks.
Peaks
Sound that is reflected back to the
transducer at different or varying time of
flight (TOF) indicates a multifaceted
reflector surface and creates multiple peaks
on the signal. In most cases the
multifaceted surface is also irregular to Figure 5. Multiple Peaks From Irregular Surface
normal incidence, such as the face of a crack that follows grain boundaries or porosity, both
of which cause sound to be dispersed and lowers signal amplitude. Indications that reflect
sound back at the same TOF do not exhibit multiple peaks. Lower dB to view and interpret
the signal peak
Signal Base
The signal base is related to amplification and to the amount of time, or more
specifically, the difference in TOF from when the first energy is returned from the flaw
to when the last energy is returned; transducer position is static. As shown, a radius
reflector widens the signal base compared to a normal incidence reflector, which is the
narrowest. An irregular surface also causes signal base to increase. A sharp signal has a
narrow base.
TOF delta at signal base Amplified signal base TOF delta at signal base
Of the nominal angles, the 70o shear wave mode is nearest to normal incidence to a
subsurface vertical weld centerline crack and will return the most energy.
Tip Diffracted
• The radial wave pattern that emanates from a long crack tip is reliably detectable only in the
far field and requires a good signal to noise ratio. Better results obtained with a highly
damped 45o or 60o shear wave. Interpretation of RF A-scan display better for low amplitude
signals.
.
These signals are important, due to their vertical orientation these types of planar indications are
difficult to detect. The technician needs to acknowledge their critical nature and further
investigate with other angles.
Transmit Receive
2. Excessive Root:
Excessive Root is similar to the Root Geometry noted in Figure 9 above. Excessive root
bead will have sharper sides due to excess weld metal melting through. Signals will vary
more in amplitude and exhibit a greater TOF than normal root geometry.
Weld Cap
Figure 11. Rotation of transducer for detection of transverse flaws.
Suck Back will plot similar to incomplete penetration. Due to the concaved (rounded)
geometry of suck back the signal may not be as sharp, nor have as much amplitue, as that
of a centerline root crack or incomplete penetration.
A slag line can generally be detected from both sides of the weld. Signal characteristics
may include multiple peaks and a broad base.
2. Porosity
Porosity is generally difficult to detect. Signal characteristics may include multiple
peaks. Peaks can be maintained while skewing transducer.
3. Crack (weld metal or HAZ)
The midwall crack is one of the most difficult indications to detect. Generally speaking,
a vertical orientation of a planar flaw is best detected with a 70o angle. See Figures 7 & 8
for alternative techniques for characterizing a midwall crack.
Physical Measurements
1. Measure Weld Thickness (adjacent plate).
2. Measure ½ weld cap width.
3. Measure transducer offset (distance from sound exit point to front of wedge).
4. Add 2 and 3 above, this is the closest surface distance to the weld centerline the
transducer can be positioned.
Calculate Distances
1. Sound Path (SP) for 1st leg or ½ V path.
2. Surface Distance (SD) for 1st leg or ½ path.
3. If SD for ½ V path is less than number 4 above then you CANNOT reach the weld root
on the first leg SP with the angle being used, you will have to use the third leg to get root
coverage or change to a higher angle.
4. Surface Distance (SD) for full V path.
5. Surface Distance (SD) for 1 ½ V path.
• Make sure enough base plate exists to support the number of V paths you will use
when examining the weld.
2. On a different graph paper draw, to the same scale, the sound path at the angle(s) and V
paths to be used in examining the weld.
3. Mark the sound path distance at the end of each leg, then mark reticules along each sound
path leg at about 0.2” increments.
4. Copy the weld cross section onto a transparency. You can now take the sound paths and
slide them through the weld to easily visualize weld joint location and surface distance to
discontinuities.
Sweep Distance:
1. Use a miniature angle beam lock, DSC block or IIW block to calibrate sweep.
2. Find main bang and position at left of screen.
3. Adjust screen range and or velocity to see the first reflections from a minimum of two
radiuses.
4. Adjust gate to read leading edge of first reflector.
5. Adjust zero until sound path reads correctly from first radius.
6. Adjust gate to read leading edge of second reflector.
7. Adjust velocity until sound path reads correctly from second radius
8. Repeat 4 – 7 until both signals read the correct sound paths.
Sensitivity
1. Find a sensitivity reflector (the right one depends on the code you’re using) and adjust
this signal to 80% FSH. This is the reference level, or the amplitude level to which you
will adjust indication signals to record their information.
2. Verify this is correct signal by physically measuring depth and surface distance to
sensitivity reflector.
3. Check the horizontal sweep calibration after you adjusted the gain to the sensitivity level.
4. Add from 6 to 20 dB to the reference level for detection purposes during scanning.
1" 4"
4" 9"
Figure 16. Plot the next two reflectors Figure 17. Plot the next two reflectors
1" 3"
1" 5"
In the above diagrams the dashed sound path is not at an angle that can be received from the
transducer element, only the solid sound path lines are at the correct angle to create a signal. The
distance between signals is equal to the sum of both radiuses.
APPENDIX B: ASME V
Quiz Questions:
NAME:_________________________________________
1. To obtain full volume weld metal examination on a .580” thickness which of the
following scenarios is the most appropriate; i.e., provides the cross pattern with the least
amount of sound path?
a. A 1st leg 70o exam from both sides of the weld
b. A 2nd and 3rd leg 45o exam from both sides of the weld
c. A 3rd and 4th leg 60o exam from both sides of the weld
d. A 2nd and 3rd leg 52o exam from both sides of the weld.
2. What is the surface distance in 1. a. above?
a. 1.96
b. .62
c. 2.0
d. none of the above
3. A beam profile larger than the reflector may dimension the reflector as being…
a. Oversized
b. Undersized
c. Correct size
d. +/-.10%
4. The amplitude reflected from a crack should be…
a. Equal to lack of fusion of similar size
b. Less than when sound is reflected at less than normal incidence
c. Maximum when sound is reflected at normal incidence
d. Equal to the incident angle amplitude
5. What is the near field length of a .375” diameter, 7.5 MHz transducer propagating a
longitudinal wave mode in steel?
(show your work)
7. If performing an ASME 24” schedule 40 pipe weld examination, which article would
apply?
10. Which Article(s) require Amplitude Control and Screen Height Linearities?
11. What ASME Article section describes the beam spread measurement?
13. When examining a 3” butt weld on a building to AWS which of the following is
correct…
a. A 45o and 60o angle are required
b. A 60o angle to the middle half and 45o angle for the bottom quarter
c. A 70o, with the weld cap ground flush
d. A 45o and 70o
e. c & d above
14. In question 13, the following information has been tabulated: reference level 28,
indication level 40, examination angle 70o and reflector at 8” sound path. What is the
indication rating?
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. D
18. When calibrating to AWS, what is the diameter of the sensitivity reflector in the IIW
block?
a. .60”
b. .060 mm
c. 60 mm
d. .060”
19. What is the transducer position(s) (it’s a letter) for verifying a wedge angle on an IIW
block?
a. A
b. K
c. C
d. F
e. B
20. What part of AWS would you reference to develop a technique for a material < 5/16”?