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LEARNING OUTCOME
1.1 CELL THEORY
**Describe the cells as the smallest independent unit of life
and form the basis of living organisms.
1.2 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS
**Compare the structure of prokaryotic & eukaryotic cells
1.3 PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS
**Detailed structure ( plant and animal )
**Compare plant and animal cells
1.4 CELLS AS BASIC UNIT OF LIVING ORGANISMS
**Specialized cells.
a) plant – meristem,parenchyma,collenchyma,sclerenchyma
b) animal – epithelium, nerves, muscle, connective tissue -
(DESCRIPTION OF STRUCTURE FUNTION AND DISTRIBUTION)

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 CELL THEORY.
THEORY;
– All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
– Cells- basic units of structure and function in an
organism.
– cells have the same chemical composition.
– Cells come only from reproduction of existing
cells- mitosis
– Genetic materials- pass to daughter cells during
cell division.
– P/S – virus/chloroplast/mitochondria have their
own DNA

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 1.2
Prokaryotic And Eukaryotic Cells
TYPES OF CELLS
– Prokaryotic (prokaryote)
– Eukaryotic (eukaryote) Cells

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 Prokaryotes
• Pro = before; karyon = nucleus
• Single celled organism
• relatively small – 0.5 to 10 um
• lack membrane-bound organelles
• earliest cell type
• No nucleus/ no nuclear envelope
• E.g.; bacteria/yanobacteria(blue –green algae)
• Surrounded by cell wall

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 Eukaryotes
• Eu = true; karyon = nucleus
• 10-100 micrometer
• contain membrane-bound
organelles
• Evolved from prokaryotes by
endosymbiotic association of two
or more prokaryotes
• Include Protists, Fungi, Animals,
and Plants ( cell wall made of
cellulose)
• E.g.; Protist/fungi/animal and
plant

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Features of Prokaryotic Cells

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 Features of Prokaryotic Cells
• Cytoplasm
– semi-fluid cell interior
– no membrane-bound organelles
– location for metabolic enzymes
– location of ribosome for protein synthesis

• Ribosome.
– The smaller (70 S) type.

• Nucleoid
– region where naked DNA is found

• Nucleoid (or Nuclear Zone)

– The region of the cytoplasm that contains DNA. It is not
surrounded by a nuclear membrane. 8
Features of Prokaryotic Cells
• DNA.
– Always circular, and not associated with any proteins
to form chromatin – naked DNA

• Plasmid.
– Small circles of DNA, used to exchange DNA between
bacterial cells, and very useful for genetic engineering.

• Cell membrane.
– made of phospholipids and proteins, like eukaryotic
membranes- separates the cell from the environment

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 Features of Prokaryotic Cells
• Mesosome.
– A tightly-folded region of the cell membrane containing all the
membrane-bound proteins required for respiration and
photosynthesis.
– Can also be associated with the nucleoid.

• Cell Wall.
– Made of murein (not cellulose), which is a glycoprotein (i.e. a
protein/carbohydrate complex, also called peptidoglycan).
– There are two kinds of cell wall, which can be distinguished by a
Gram stain: Gram positive bacteria have a thick cell wall and
stain purple, while Gram negative bacteria have a thin cell wall
with an outer lipid layer and stain pink.

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Features of Prokaryotic Cells
• Cell Wall
– rigid structure - maintain its shape (made of
peptidoglycan)

• Capsule (or Slime Layer).

– A thick polysaccharide layer outside of the cell wall,
like the glycocalyx of eukaryotes.
– Used for sticking cells together, as a food reserve, as
protection against desiccation and chemicals, and as
protection against phagocytosis.

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 Features of Prokaryotic Cells
• Capsule
– outer sticky protective layer
– this is in NO way the same as the cell wall of a plant cell

• Flagellum.
– A rigid rotating helical-shaped tail used for
propulsion(movement)
– The motor is embedded in the cell membrane and is driven by a
H+ gradient across the membrane.
– Clockwise rotation drives the cell forwards, while anticlockwise
rotation causes a chaotic spin.
– This is the only known example of a rotating motor in nature.

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Features of Eukaryote Cells

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Cytoplasm (or Cytosol).
– This is the solution within the cell membrane.
– contains enzymes -glycolysis (part of respiration) and other
metabolic reactions together with sugars, salts, amino acids,
nucleotides and everything else needed for the cell to function.
– All living content excluding nucleus and plasma membrane

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Nucleus.
– largest organelle.
– Surrounded by a nuclear envelope-double membrane
with nuclear pores - large holes containing proteins
that control the exit of substances (RNA
/ribosomes)from the nucleus.
– The interior is called the nucleoplasm, which is full of
chromatin- a DNA/protein complex in a 1:2 ratio
containing the genes.
– During cell division the chromatin becomes
condensed into discrete observable chromosomes.
– The nucleolus is a dark region of chromatin, involved
in making ribosome.

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Mitochondrion (pl. Mitochondria).
– sausage-shaped organelle (8µm long)-where aerobic
respiration takes place in all eukaryotic cells.
– Mitochondria are surrounded by a double membrane:
the outer membrane is simple and quite permeable,
while the inner membrane is highly folded into cristae-
large surface area.
– The space enclosed by the inner membrane is called
the mitochondrial matrix, and contains small circular
strands of DNA.
– The inner membrane is studded with stalked particles,
which are the site of ATP synthesis.
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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Chloroplast.
– Bigger/fatter than mitochondria, chloroplasts-site of
photosynthesis,-only found in photosynthetic
organisms (plants and algae).
– enclosed by a double membrane, also have a third
membrane (thylakoid membrane)-folded into thylakoid
disks which then stacked into piles( grana)
– The space between the inner membrane and the
thylakoid is called the stroma.
– The thylakoid membrane contains chlorophyll and
other photosynthetic pigments arranged in
photosystems, together with stalked particles, and is
the site of photosynthesis and ATP synthesis.
– Chloroplasts also contain starch grains, ribosomes
and circular DNA. 17
 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Ribosomes.
– These are the smallest and most numerous of the cell
organelles, and are the sites of protein synthesis.
– They are composed of protein and RNA, and are
manufactured in the nucleolus of the nucleus.
– Ribosomes are either found free in the cytoplasm-site
of proteins synthesis for the cell's own use, or they
are found attached to the rough endoplasmic
reticulum, where they make proteins for export from
the cell.
– They are often found in groups called polysomes.
– All eukaryotic ribosomes are of the larger, "80S", type.
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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER).
– Series of membrane channels involved in
synthesizing and transporting materials, mainly lipids,
needed by the cell.

• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER).

– Similar to the SER, but studded with numerous
ribosomes, which give it its rough appearance.
– The ribosomes synthesis proteins, which are
processed in the RER (e.g. by enzymatically
modifying the polypeptide chain, or adding
carbohydrates), before being exported from the cell
via the Golgi Body.
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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Golgi Body (or Golgi Apparatus).
– Another series of flattened membrane vesicles,
formed from the endoplasmic reticulum.
– F(x)transport proteins from the RER to the cell
membrane for export.
– Parts of the RER containing proteins fuse with one
side of the Golgi body membranes, while at the other
side small vesicles bud off and move towards the cell
membrane, where they fuse, releasing their contents
by exocytosis.

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Vacuoles.
– These are membrane-bound sacs containing water or
dilute solutions of salts and other solutes.
– Most cells can have small vacuoles that are formed
as required, but plant cells usually have one very
large permanent vacuole that fills most of the cell, so
that the cytoplasm (and everything else) forms a thin
layer round the outside.
– Plant cell vacuoles are filled with cell sap, and are
very important in keeping the cell rigid, or turgid.
– Some unicellular protoctists(protist) have feeding
vacuoles for digesting food, or contractile vacuoles for
expelling water.

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Lysosomes.
– These are small membrane-bound vesicles
formed from the RER containing a cocktail of
digestive enzymes.
– They are used to break down unwanted
chemicals, toxins, organelles or even whole
cells, so that the materials may be recycled.
– They can also fuse with a feeding vacuole to
digest its contents.

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Cytoskeleton.
– This is a network of protein fibres extending throughout all
eukaryotic cells, used for support, transport and motility.
– The cytoskeleton is attached to the cell membrane and gives the
cell its shape, as well as holding all the organelles in position.
– There are three types of protein fibres (microfilaments,
intermediate filaments and microtubules), and each has a
corresponding motor protein that can move along the fibre
carrying a cargo such as organelles, chromosomes or other
cytoskeleton fibres.
– These motor proteins are responsible for such actions as:
chromosome movement in mitosis, cytoplasm cleavage in cell
division, cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells, cilia and flagella
movements, cell crawling and even muscle contraction in
animals.
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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Centriole.
– This is a pair of short microtubules involved in
cell division.
– Before each division the centriole replicates
itself and the two centrioles move to opposite
ends of the cell, where they initiate the spindle
that organises and separates the
chromosomes.

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Undulipodium (Cilium and Flagellum).
– This is a long flexible tail present in some cells and
used for motility.
– It is an extension of the cytoplasm, surrounded by the
cell membrane, and is full of microtubules and motor
proteins so is capable of complex swimming
movements.
– There are two kinds: flagella (no relation of the
bacterial flagellum) are longer than the cell, and there
are usually only one or two of them, while cilia are
identical in structure, but are much smaller and there
are usually very many of them.

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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Microvillus (MICROVILLI)
– These are small finger-like extensions of the cell membrane
found in certain cells such as in the epithelial cells of the
intestine and kidney, where they increase the surface area for
absorption of materials.
– They are just visible under the light microscope as a brush
border.

• Cell Membrane (or Plasma Membrane).

– This is a thin, flexible layer round the outside of all cells made of
phospholipids and proteins.
– It separates the contents of the cell from the outside
environment, and controls the entry and exit of materials.
– The membrane is examined in detail later.
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 Features of Eukaryote Cells
• Cell Wall.
– This is a thick layer outside the cell membrane used to give a cell
strength and rigidity.
– Cell walls consist of a network of fibers, which give strength but
are freely permeable to solutes (unlike membranes).
– A wickerwork basket is a good analogy.
– made mainly of cellulose, also contain hemicelluloses, pectin,
lignin and other polysaccharides.
-built up in three layers > primary cell wall, the secondary cell wall
and the middle lamella.
– There are often channels through plant cell walls called
plasmodesmata, which link the cytoplasms of adjacent cells.
– Fungal cell walls are made of chitin (poly-glucosamine).
– Animal cells do not have a cell wall, though they do have a layer
of carbohydrate outside the cell membrane called the cell coat, or
glycocalyx.   27
Microscopic structures of plant
and animal cells

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COMPARISON- PROKARYOTIC&
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
CHARATERISTICS PROKARYOTES EUKARYOTES
1. SIZE Small cells ,diameter-0.5-5 micrometer Large cells, up to 40
micrometer
2.DNA Circular & free in cytoplasm-naked DNA DNA is associated with
histone protein to form
chromosome
3.NUCLEUS Not enclosed by membrane-naked Bounded by
membrane( nucleus envelope)
4.ORGANELLES No membrane bound organelles/ no Has membrane bound
centriols and microtubules organelles;
mitochondria,chloroplast,centri
ols.etc.
5.RIBOSOMES Small ( 70 s) large (80 s)
6.CELL WALL Present- made up from peptidolican Only plant(cellulose), fungi
and chitin
7.FLAGELLA Present- movement Absent
8.CELL DIVISION Simple fission Mitosis
9.REPRODUCTION No sexual systems Meiosis and fertilization 29
PLANT CELL

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Tissue and Organs in plant:
– Dermal Tissue System (epidermis)-forms the
outer layer of a plant.
– Ground Tissue System
(parenchyma/collenchyma/sclerenchyma)-
(makes up the bulk of roots and stems
– Vascular Tissue ( xylem& phloem)-transports
water and food throughout the plant.

• The FOUR Plant Organs are ROOTS,

STEMS, LEAVES AND FLOWERS.
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 Specialized cell : Plant
Meristem

• Meristems- cells that undergo repeated division.

• These are the cells from which all other cells in the plant originate.
• No undergoes differentiation.
• 2 types of meristem : 1) apical>shoot and root
2) lateral>cambia-vascular cambium
-cork cambium
• three types : primary, secondary, and pericycle.
• The primary meristems give rise to primary tissues in the plant, which
elongate the plant by either shoots or roots.
• Secondary meristems form the basis of secondary tissues that enlarge
the diameter of the stem or root.
• the pericycle is a specialized meristem-found only in the root system-
gives rise to branch roots.

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 Meristem, parenchyma, collenchyma,
sclerenchyma, xylem, and phloem tissues

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 Specialized cell : Plant
Parenchyma
– Unspecialized and are found in all organs of plant.
• Can divide and give rise to more specialized cells.
• Living at maturity
• Isodiametrical/ polyhedral(many sided)-capable 4 cell division
• Thin 1st cell wall and without 2nd cell walls
• Loosely packed
• Involved in food storage.
• Involved in apoplast pathway 4 mvment of water and minerals.
• Divide to 4 type: 1) epidermis
2) mesophyll
3) endodermis

4) pericycle
Collenchyma
- thicker primary walls.
- Polygonal shape
- f(x) : mechanical support
• Form bundles underneath epidermis. 34
– Flexible support to immature regions of the plant.
Sclerenchyma
– Sclerenchyma cells have thick secondary walls impregnated with lignin.
– Most are non living.
– More rigid than collenchyma cells
– Most cells death at functional maturity
– Can be divided into 2 types:
a) fibres- elongated
b) scelereids( stone cells ) - spherical - can be found in the
cortex, pith and phloem
* Function – supporting element of the plant

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 Specialized cell : Plant

Xylem
• Xylem transports water and minerals from
the roots to the leaves.
– Tracheids
• elongated, with tapered ends and have lignified
walls
• Matured cells death with empty lumen
– Pits in end walls.
– Vascular rays
– Fibers
– Vessel Elements
• Larger, with perforated plates in their end walls.
• Long ,narrow tube formed 37
Xylem

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 Specialized cell : Plant
Phloem
• Phloem transports sucrose and other organic
compounds from the leaves to the roots.
– Sieve-tube members are conducting cells.
• Contain cytoplasm but no nuclei.
• Channels in end walls.
• Plasmodesmata extend from one cell to another through
sieve plate.
• Companion cells- contain nucleus, vacuoles, ribosomes and
mitochondria

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Phloem

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SUMMARY OF SPECIALISED PLANT CELLS: FUNCTION & DISTRIBUTION
PARENCHYMA CELLS SPECIALIZED PARENCHYMA
Characteristic : 1) Epidermis : single layer covering plant body, elongated
>Living and unspecialized and flattened, protection against desiccation and infection
>isodiametrical,sometimes elongated 2) Mesophyll : between upper and lower epidermis of
leaves
>Composition :cellulose, pectins and hemicellulose, covering
of cutin 3) Pericyle : between central vascular tissue and
>Large central vacuole with cytoplasm pushed to side of wall endodermis in roots,isodiametrical,retain meristematic
activity giving rise to lateral root and 2 nd growth
>Thin cell wall
4) Endodermis :singled celled betwn outer cortex and
>Loosely packed, large intercellular air space inner pericycle tissue; impregnated suberin forming
Function : Casparian strip which prevent passage of water via apoplast
> Provided support in herbaceous plant pathway
> Gaseous exchange
> Food storage
> Replacement of injured and damage cells
Distribution :
>Cortex ,pith , medullary rays ,packing tissue in xylem and
phloem

COLLENCHYMA CELLS
Characteristic :
> Living , unevenly thickened (extra cellulose at corners of
he cells)
> Polygonal and elongated with tapering ends
> Composition: cellulose , pectins and hemicelluloses
> small intercellular air spaces@ non exist
Function:
> support And mechanical strength
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Distribution : Outer region of cortex: below epidermis
SCLERENCHYMA CELLS
Characteristic :
> Polygonal and elongated with tapering
ends, tightly packed with no intercellular air
spaces
> Deposits of lignin on 1st cell wall resulting
in death matured cells ; incapable of
elongation at maturity
Function :
> support and mechanical strength
:provided great tensile and compressional
strength as a result of deposits of lignin at
cellulose cell wall
2 types of sclerenchyma cells :
fibre and sclereids
Sclerenchyma fibre : elongated,
polygonal with tapering ends, death
at maturity, no protoplasm ,narrow
empty lumen, pit present, tapering
ends overlapping and interlocked
with one another thus provided
mechanical strength
Scelereids(stone cells): shorter
than fibres , dead cells with thicker
lignified cell wall, simple pit present ,
found in stems,leaves, fruits and
provide strength and support plant
structures and organs
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 Specialized cell : Animal
Epithelial cell/ epithelium
• One of the simplest tissues.

• However, it can be built up into tissues of

varying complexity.

• Lining tissues : in it simplest form, it consists of a

single layer of cells covering the surface of the
body and the organs within it.
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 Specialized cell : Animal
Epithelial cell
• Also lines various spaces and tubes ( in
which situation it is usually referred to as
endothelium).

• Typically the individual cells : firmly

attached to each other.

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 Specialized cell : Animal
Epithelial cell
• rest on a basement membrane.
• have a free surface
• The main function of epithelial tissues is
protection.

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 Specialized cell : Animal
Epithelial cell
• Other functions:
To increase the surface area for the
reabsorption of materials/which absorption
can take place.
Exchange materials by diffusion.
As a gland ; secrete mucus or enzyme.

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Types of Epithelial Tissues

E p it h e lia l
T is s u e s

S im p le S t r a t if ie d P s e u d o s t r a t if ie d
E p it h e lia l E p it h e lia l E p it h e lia l
T is s u e s T is s u e s T is s u e s

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 Simple Epithelial Tissues

1. Simple squamous epithelial tissues.

2. Simple cuboidal epithelial tissues.
3. Simple columnar epithelial tissues.

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 Simple squamous epithelial tissues

• Cells are flattened.

• Disc- shape nucleus
• The sheet of cell is delicate, thin and leaky. 49
 Simple squamous epithelial tissues
• Functions:

 exchange of material/protect underlying tissues

 lubricates the movement between adjacent
surface./facilitated diffusion of gaseous across alveoli

 Distribution:
 the linings of blood vessels.
 alveoli
 mouth cavity
 Bowmann capsule

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 Simple cuboidal epithelial tissues
• Cells are cubical in shape.

• View from free

surface are polygonal.

• Specialized for
secretion.

• Make up the epithelia

of kidney tubules and many glands – thyroid and
salivary glands.
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 Simple columnar epithelial tissues

• Cells are elongated at right angle to the basement membrane.

• Relatively large cytoplasmic volume.

• Often located where

secretion or active
absorption is an
important function.

• Distribution:
 linings of small intestine( stomach)
 oviduct/ ventricles of brain
 nasal cavity. 52
Stratified Epithelial Tissues

• Several layer of cells.

• With only the lower ones

columnar and metabolically
active.

• Division of lower cells causes

older one to pushed upward
forward surface, becoming
flattened as they move.

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 Stratified Epithelial Tissues

• Functions – only for protection.

• Main location – skin; mouth and vaginal lining.

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Pseudostratified Epithelial Tissues

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 Specialized cell : Animal
Nerve cell
• Neurons
– Cell body contains nucleus.
– Dendrites receive signals from sensory receptors.
– Axon conducts nerve impulses.
• Any long axon is also called a nerve fiber.
– Covered by myelin sheath.
• Types of Neurons:
1) Motor Neurons take nerve impulses from the CNS to muscles
or glands.

2) Sensory Neurons take impulses from sensory receptors to

CNS.

3) Interneuron convey nerve impulses between various parts of

the CNS.
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 Neurons
• The pathway of communication between the brain and the
body.

• Electrical impulses pass along the neurons from stimuli

receivers to the effectors .

• Neurons differ considerably in structure but all neurons

have three things in common;

– Cell body
– Fine cytoplasmic fibre – dendron or dendrite
– Axon.

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 Neurons
• The cytoplasm of neurons cell body is densely
packed with mitochondria, ribosomes, golgi
body and rough endoplasmic reticulum.

• Neurons can be classified by their function.

• On the basic, there are three types of neuron;

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 Types of Neurons

Motor
neuron
Sensory Intermediary/
neuron Relay neuron
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 A Nerve Cell (Neuron)
Dendrites Cell Body Myelin
Sheath

Axon of another Dendrites of another 60

neuron Axon neuron
 Neuroglia
• Supporting cells in the central nervous
system.
• There are several types of glial cell in the
brain and spinal cord.
• As a group, they do far more than simply
glue neurons together.

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 Specialized cell : Animal
Muscle cell
• In the invertebrate body there are three
types of muscle cell;
a) Skeletal muscle.
b) Smooth muscle.
c) Cardiac muscle.

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 Skeletal muscle
• Attached to the bones by tendons.
• Responsible for voluntary movement.
• Also called striated muscle.

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 Smooth muscle
• Found in the walls of internal organs – digestive tract, urinary
bladder etc.

• Spindel shaped.

• Responsible in involuntary activities.

• Contract more
slowly than
skeletal muscle.

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 Cardiac muscle
• Form the contraction wall of the heart.
• Striated like skeletal muscle but have branched.
• The ends of the cells are joined by intercalated
disc.

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Specialized cell : Animal

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 Connective tissues
• The major types of connective tissues in
vertebrates are:
a) Bone
b) Cartilage
c) Blood

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 Bone Tissue
• The skeleton supporting
the body of most
vertebrates.

• Bone is a mineralized
connective tissues.

• Bone-forming cells called

osteoblasts; deposit a
matrix of collagen.

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 Bone Tissue
• The combination of hard mineral and flexible collagen makes bone
harder than cartilage.

• Hard mamalian bone consists repeating units called Harvesian

systems.

• Each system has concentrate layers of the mineralized matrix,

deposited around a central canal containing blood vessels and nerves
that service the bone.

• Once osteoblast become trapped in their own secretion , called

osteocytes.

• The osteocytes are located in lacunae, space surrounded by the hard

matrix and connected to each other by long thin extensions.
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 Cartilage Tissue
• Has an abundance of collagenous fibers embedded in
a rubbery matrix called chondroitin sulphate.

• Chondroitin sulphate and collagen are secreted by

chondrocytes

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 Cartilage Tissue

• Cells confined to scattered spaces called

lacunae in the matrix.

• The composite of collagenous fibers and

chondroitin sulphate make cartilage a strong yet
somewhat flexible support material.

• Main locations ; nose, ears, the rings that

reinforce the windpipe,caps on the ends of some
bones.

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 Blood

 Although blood functions differently from other

connective tissues, it does meet the criterion of having
an extracellular matrix called plasma.

 The plasma consists of water, salts and a variety of

dissolved proteins

 Suspended in plasma are two classes of blood cells,

erythrocytes (red blood cells), leukocytes (white blood
cells) and cell fragments called platelets.

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 Erythrocytes
o the most numerous blood cells (5 to 6 million per cubic
millimeter)

o the structure of the red blood cell is another excellent of

structure fitting function.

o a human erythrocytes is
a biconcave disk, thinner
in the center than
at its edges.

o mammalian erythrocytes
lack nuclei an unusual
characteristic for living cells

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 .
Erythrocytes
 the major function of erythrocytes is to carry
oxygen.

 the small size of erythrocytes also suits their

function – the smaller the cells, the greeter the
total area of plasma membrane in a given volume
of blood.

 the biconcave shape also adds to its surface area.

 erythrocytes production occurs in the red marrow

of bone 74
Leukocytes

5 major types:

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 Leukocytes

their collective function is to fight infections in various

ways

monocytes and neutrophils are phagocytes which engulf

and digest bacteria and debris from our own dead cells.

lymphocytes become specialized as B cells and T cells

which produce the immune response against foreign
substances

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 Platelets
the third cellular element of blood, platelets are fragments of
cells about 2 – 3 µm in diameter.
they have no nuclei.
originate as pinched – off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in
the bone marrow.
the function of platelets is in the important process of blood
clotting.

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END OF THIS TOPIC

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