Professional Documents
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Green Marketing: Science and Policy For Sustainable Developm Ent
Green Marketing: Science and Policy For Sustainable Developm Ent
GR E E N MAR KE T I NG
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This article was published in the June 2006 issue of Environment.
Volume 48, Number 5, pages 22—36. © Heldref Publications, 2006.
http://www.heldref.org/env.php
© TODD DAVIDSON P T Y LTD—GE T T Y IMAGES
I N 1994 , Philips launched the “EarthLight,”
a super energy-efficient compact fluores-
cent light (CFL) bulb designed to be an
environmentally preferable substitute for
the traditional energy-intensive incandes-
cent bulb. The CFL’s clumsy shape, however,
was incompatible with most conventional
lamps, and sales languished. After study-
ing consumer response, Philips reintro-
duced the product in 2000 under the name
“Marathon,” to emphasize the bulb’s five-
year life. New designs offered the look and
versatility of conventional incandescent
light bulbs and the promise of more than
$20 in energy savings over the product’s
life span compared to incandescent bulbs.
The new bulbs were also certified by the
WAY S T O I M P R OV E C ON S U M E R A P P E A L
F O R E N V I R ON M E N T A L L Y P R E F E R A B L E P R O D U C T S
by Jacquelyn A. Ottman,
Edwin R. Stafford,
and Cathy L. Hartman
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s over foreign oil dependency, and calls for either succeeded or failed in the market-
(EPA) Energy Star label. Repositioning energy conservation are creating business place over the past decade, some impor-
CFL bulbs’ features into advantages that opportunities for energy-efficient products, tant lessons emerge for crafting effective
resonated with consumer values—con- clean energy, and other environmentally- green marketing and product strategies.10
venience, ease-of-use, and credible cost sensitive innovations and products—col- Based on the evidence, successful green
savings—ultimately sparked an annual lectively known as “cleantech”5 (see the products are able to appeal to mainstream
sales growth of 12 percent in a mature box on page 26). For example, Pulitzer consumers or lucrative market niches and
product market.1 Prize–winning author and New York Times frequently command price premiums by
Philips’ experience provides a valuable columnist Thomas L. Friedman argues that offering “non-green” consumer value
lesson on how to avoid the common pit- government policy and industry should (such as convenience and performance).
fall of “green marketing myopia.” Philips engage in a “geo-green” strategy to pro-
called its original entry “EarthLight” to mote energy efficiency, renewable energy,
communicate the CFL bulbs’ environmen- and other cleantech innovations to help Green Marketing Myopia
tal advantage. While noble, the benefit alleviate the nation’s dependency on oil Defined
appealed to only the deepest green niche from politically conflicted regions of the
of consumers. The vast majority of con- world.6 Friedman asserts that such inno- Green marketing must satisfy two
sumers, however, will ask, “If I use ‘green’ vations can spark economic opportunity objectives: improved environmental qual-
products, what’s in it for me?” In practice, and address the converging global chal- ity and customer satisfaction. Misjudging
green appeals are not likely to attract main- lenges of rising energy prices, terrorism, either or overemphasizing the former at
stream consumers unless they also offer climate change, and the environmental the expense of the latter can be termed
a desirable benefit, such as cost-savings consequences of the rapid economic devel- “green marketing myopia.” In 1960, Har-
or improved product performance.2 To opment of China and India. vard business professor Theodore Lev-
avoid green marketing myopia, marketers To exploit these economic opportuni- itt introduced the concept of “marketing
must fulfill consumer needs and interests ties to steer global commerce onto a more myopia” in a now-famous and influential
beyond what is good for the environment. sustainable path, however, green products article in the Harvard Business Review.11
JU NE 2006 ENVIRONMENT 25
ica’s dependence on foreign oil.22 Since for being distinctive. Others say the Prius vehicles, such as Honda’s Insight, are
then, the quirky-looking Prius’ badge of is just fun to drive—the dazzling digital granted free parking and solo-occupancy
“conspicuous conservation” has satis- dashboard that offers continuous feedback access to high occupancy vehicle (HOV)
fied many drivers’ desires to turn heads on fuel efficiency and other car opera- lanes.25 In sum, hybrid vehicles offer con-
and make a statement about their social tions provides an entertaining driving sumers several desirable benefits that are
responsibility, among them Google found- experience. More recently, however, the not necessarily “green” benefits.
ers Larry Page and Sergey Brin, columnist Prius has garnered fans for more practi- Many environmental products have
Arianna Huffington, comic Bill Maher, cal reasons. A 2006 Maritz Poll finds that become so common and widely distrib-
and Charles, Prince of Wales.23 The Prius owners purchased hybrids because of the uted that many consumers may no longer
ultimately was named Motor Trend’s Car convenience of fewer fill-ups, better per- recognize them as green because they buy
of the Year in 2004. The trendy appeal formance, and the enjoyment of driving them for non-green reasons. Green house-
of the Prius illustrates that some green the latest technology.24 In some states, hold products, for instance, are widely
products can leverage consumer desires the Prius and other high-mileage hybrid available at supermarkets and discount
In a 1960 Harvard Business Review markets, and products.4 Throughout the mandates, such as “renewable portfolio
article, Harvard professor Theodore twentieth century, many technologies standards,” requiring utilities to provide
Levitt introduced the classic concept and business practices have contributed increasing amounts of electricity from
of “marketing myopia” to characterize to the destruction of the very ecological clean, renewable sources such as wind
businesses’ narrow vision on product systems on which the economy and life and solar power, are also driving cleaner
features rather than consumer benefits.1 itself depends, including toxic contami- technology markets.
The consequence is that businesses focus nation, depletion of fisheries and for- While some firms have responded
on making better mousetraps rather than ests, soil erosion, and biodiversity loss. grudgingly to such pressures for more
seeking better alternatives for control- Recent news reports indicate, however, efficient and cleaner business prac-
ling pests. To avoid marketing myopia, that many companies and consumers are tices, others are seizing the the clean-
businesses must engage in “creative beginning to respond to programs to help tech innovation opportunities for new
destruction,” described by economist conserve the Earth’s natural resources, twenty-first-century green products and
Joseph Schumpeter as destroying exist- and green marketing is making a come- technologies for competitive advantage.
ing products, production methods, mar- back.5 The need for sustainability has Toyota, for instance, plans to offer an
ket structures and consumption patterns, become more acute economically as all-hybrid fleet in the near future to chal-
and replacing them with ways that better soaring demand, dwindling supplies, lenge competitors on both performance
meet ever-changing consumer desires.2 and rising prices for oil, gas, coal, water, and fuel economy.7 Further, Toyota
The dynamic pattern in which innova- and other natural resources are being is licensing its technology to its com-
tive upstart companies unseat established driven by the industrialization of popu- petitors to gain profit from their hybrid
corporations and industries by capital- lous countries, such as China and India. sales as well. General Electric’s highly
izing on new and improved innovations Politically, America’s significant reliance publicized “Ecomagination” initiative
is illustrated by history. That is, the on foreign oil has become increasingly promises a greener world with a plan to
destruction of Coal Age technologies by recognized as a security threat. Global double its investments (to $1.5 billion
Oil Age innovations, which are being concerns over climate change have led annually) and revenues (to $20 billion)
destroyed by Information Age advances 141 countries to ratify the Kyoto Pro- from fuel-efficient diesel locomotives,
and the emerging Age of Cleantech— tocol, the international treaty requiring wind power, “clean” coal, and other
clean, energy-and resource-efficient the reduction of global warming gases cleaner innovations by 2010.8 Cleantech
energy technologies, such as those created through the burning of fossil is attracting investors looking for the
involving low/zero-emissions, wind, fuels. Although the United States has “Next Big Thing,” including Goldman
solar, biomass, hydrogen, recycling, and not signed the treaty, most multinational Sachs and Kleiner Perkins Caufield &
closed-loop processes.3 corporations conducting business in sig- Byers.9 Wal-Mart, too, is testing a sus-
Business management researchers natory nations are compelled to reduce tainable 206,000-square foot store design
Stuart Hart and Mark Milstein argue their greenhouse gas emissions, and in Texas that deploys 26 energy-saving
that the emerging challenge of global many states (such as California) and cit- and renewable-materials experiments
sustainability is catalyzing a new round ies (such as Chicago and Seattle) have that could set new standards in future
of creative destruction that offers or are initiating their own global warm- retail store construction.10 In sum, eco-
“unprecedented opportunities” for new ing gas emission reduction programs.6 nomic, political, and environmental pres-
environmentally sensitive innovations, State and city-level policy incentives and sures are coalescing to drive cleaner and
JU NE 2006 ENVIRONMENT 27
the green product’s appeal. In practice, models.35 Consequently, an Energy Star biotic-laced meats, mercury in fish, and
the implication is that product designers product often commands a price pre- genetically modified foods.39 Mainstream
and marketers need to align environ- mium. Whirlpool’s popular Duet front- appeal of organics is not derived from
mental products’ consumer value (such loading washer and dryer, for example, marketers promoting the advantages of
as money savings) to relevant consumer cost more than $2,000, about double the free-range animal ranching and pesticide-
market segments (for example, cost- price of conventional units; however, the free soil. Rather, market positioning of
conscious consumers). washers can save up to 12,000 gallons of organics as flavorful, healthy alternatives
water and $110 on electricity annually to factory-farm foods has convinced con-
Efficiency and Cost compared to standard models (Energy sumers to pay a premium for them.
Effectiveness Star does not rate dryers).36 A study conducted by the Alliance
Laundry detergents are also touting for Environmental Innovation and house-
As exemplified by the Marathon CFL energy savings. Procter & Gamble’s hold products-maker S.C. Johnson found
bulbs, the common inherent benefit of (P&G) newest market entry, Tide Cold- that consumers are most likely to act
many green products is their potential water, is designed to clean clothes effec- on green messages that strongly con-
energy and resource efficiency. Given tively in cold water. About 80 to 85 nect to their personal environments.40
sky-rocketing energy prices and tax incen- percent of the energy used to wash clothes Specifically, findings suggest that the
tives for fuel-efficient cars and energy- comes from heating water. Working with majority of consumers prefer such envi-
saving home improvements and appli- utility companies, P&G found that con- ronmental household product benefits as
sumers could save an average “safe to use around children,” “no toxic
of $63 per year by using cold ingredients,” “no chemical residues,” and
rather than warm water.37 “no strong fumes” over such benefits
Adopting Tide Coldwater as “packaging can be recycled” or “not
gives added confidence to tested on animals.” Seventh Generation,
consumers already washing a brand of non-toxic and environmen-
in cold water. As energy and tally-safe household products, derived its
resource prices continue to name from the Iroquois belief that, “In
soar, opportunities for prod- our every deliberation, we must consider
ucts offering efficiency and the impact of our decisions on the next
savings are destined for mar- seven generations.” Accordingly, its prod-
ket growth. ucts promote the family-oriented value
of making the world a safer place for the
Health and Safety next seven generations.
Indoor air quality is also a growing
Concerns over exposure to concern. Fumes from paints, carpets, fur-
toxic chemicals, hormones, niture, and other décor in poorly venti-
or drugs in everyday prod- lated “sick buildings” have been linked
ucts have made health and to headaches, eye, nose, and throat irrita-
safety important choice con- tion, dizziness, and fatigue among occu-
siderations, especially among pants. Consequently, many manufacturers
vulnerable consumers, such have launched green products to reduce
as pregnant women, children, indoor air pollution. Sherwin Williams,
and the elderly.38 Because for example, offers “Harmony,” a line
ances, long-term savings have convinced most environmental products are grown of interior paints that is low-odor, zero-
cost-conscious consumers to buy green. or designed to minimize or eliminate VOC, and silica-free. And Mohawk sells
Recently, the home appliance industry the use of toxic agents and adulterating EverSet Fibers, a carpet that virtually
made great strides in developing energy- processes, market positioning on con- eliminates the need for harsh chemical
efficient products to achieve EPA’s Ener- sumer safety and health can achieve broad cleaners because its design allows most
gy Star rating. For example, Energy Star appeal among health-conscious consum- stains to be removed with water. Aside
refrigerators use at least 15 percent less ers. Sales of organic foods, for example, from energy efficiency, health and safety
energy and dishwashers use at least 25 have grown considerably in the wake of have been key motivators driving the
percent less energy than do traditional public fear over “mad cow” disease, anti- green building movement.
JU NE 2006 ENVIRONMENT 29
CFL bulbs, for example, need infrequent or boating or in homes situated off the Given consumer demand for conve-
replacement and gas-electric hybrid cars power grid). That convenience, however, nience, incorporating time-saving or ease-
require fewer refueling stops—benefits is being exploited for other applications. of-use features into green products can
that are highlighted in their marketing In landscaping, for example, self-con- further expand their mainstream accep-
communications. Another efficient alter- tained solar-powered outdoor evening tance. Ford’s hybrid Escape SUV comes
native to incandescent bulbs are light- lights that recharge automatically dur- with an optional 110-volt AC power out-
emitting diodes (LEDs): They are even ing the day eliminate the need for elec- let suitable for work, tailgating, or camp-
more efficient and longer-lasting than trical hookups and offer flexibility for ing. Convenience has also enhanced the
CFL bulbs; emit a clearer, brighter light; reconfiguration. With society’s increasing appeal of Interface’s recyclable FLOR
and are virtually unbreakable even in cold mobility and reliance on electronics, solar carpeting, which is marketed as “practi-
and hot weather. LEDs are used in traf- power’s convenience is also manifest in cal, goof-proof, and versatile.” FLOR
fic lights due to their high-performance solar-powered calculators, wrist watches, comes in modular square tiles with four
convenience. Recently, a city in Idaho and other gadgets, eliminating worries peel-and-stick dots on the back for easy
became a pioneer by adopting LEDs for over dying batteries. Reware’s solar-pow- installation (and pull up for altering, recy-
its annual holiday Festival of Lights. “We ered “Juice Bag” backpack is a popular cling, or washing with water in the sink).
spent so much time replacing strings of portable re-charger for students, profes- Modularity offers versatility to assemble
lights and bulbs,” noted one city official, sionals, and outdoor enthusiasts on the tiles for a custom look. Interface promotes
“[using LEDs] is going to reduce two- go. The Juice Bag’s flexible, waterproof the idea that its carpet tiles can be changed
thirds of the work for us.”49 solar panel has a 16.6-volt capacity to and reconfigured in minutes to dress up a
To encourage hybrid vehicle adoption, generate 6.3 watts to recharge PDAs, cell room for any occasion. The tiles come in
some states and cities are granting their phones, iPods, and other gadgets in about pizza-style boxes for storage, and ease of
drivers the convenience of free parking 2 to 4 hours.52 use is FLOR’s primary consumer appeal.
and solo-occupant access to HOV lanes. Finally, Austin (Texas) Energy’s “Green
A Toyota spokesperson recently told the Bundling Choice” program has led the nation in
Los Angeles Times, “Many customers are renewable energy sales for the past three
telling us the carpool lane is the main rea- Some green products do not offer years.54 In 2006, demand for wind energy
son for buying now.”50 Toyota highlights any of the inherent five consumer- outpaced supply so that the utility resort-
the carpool benefit on its Prius Web site, desired benefits noted above. This ed to selecting new “Green Choice” sub-
and convenience has become an incen- was the case when energy-efficient scribers by lottery.55 While most utilities
tive to drive efficient hybrid cars in traf- and CFC-free refrigerators were intro- find it challenging to sell green electric-
fic-congested states like California and duced in China in the 1990s. While ity at a premium price on its environ-
Virginia. Critics have charged, however, Chinese consumers preferred and were mental merit, Austin Energy’s success
that such incentives clog carpool lanes willing to pay about 15 percent more comes from bundling three benefits that
JU NE 2006 ENVIRONMENT 31
To be persuasive, past research suggests agencies, private consultants, or non- and bolster the believability of product
that green claims should be specific and profit advocacy organizations) can pro- claims.65 The “Energy Star” label, dis-
meaningful.59 Toyota recognizes the ambi- vide green product endorsements and/ cussed earlier, is a common certifica-
guity of the term “green” and discourages or “seals of approval” to help clarify tion that distinguishes certain electronic
its use in its marketing of its gas-electric
hybrid cars. One proposed slogan, “Drive
Table 1. Marketing messages connecting green products
green, breathe blue” was dismissed in
favor of specific claims about fuel effi- with desired consumer value
ciency, such as “Less gas in. Less gas- Value Message and business/product
ses out.”60 Further, environmental claims
Efficiency and cost effectiveness “The only thing our washer will shrink is
must be humble and not over-promise. your water bill.”
When Ford Motor Company publicized —ASKO
in National Geographic and other maga-
zines its new eco-designed Rouge River “Did you know that between 80 and
85 percent of the energy used to wash
Plant that incorporated the world’s largest
clothes comes from heating the water?
living roof of plants, critics questioned
Tide Coldwater—The Coolest Way to
the authenticity of Ford’s environmental Clean.”
commitment given the poor fuel economy —Tide Coldwater Laundry Detergent
of the automaker’s best-selling SUVs.61
Even the Prius has garnered some criticism “mpg:)”
—Toyota Prius
for achieving considerably less mileage
(approximately 26 percent less according Health and safety “20 years of refusing to farm with toxic
to Consumer Reports) than its govern- pesticides. Stubborn, perhaps. Healthy,
ment sticker rating claims, although the most definitely.”
actual reduced mileage does not appear to —Earthbound Farm Organic
be hampering sales.62 Nonetheless, green “Safer for You and the Environment.”
product attributes need to be communicat- —Seventh Generation
ed honestly and qualified for believability Household Cleaners
(in other words, consumer benefits and
environmental effectiveness claims need Performance “Environmentally friendly stain removal.
to be compared with comparable alterna- It’s as simple as H2O.”
—Mohawk EverSet Fibers Carpet
tives or likely usage scenarios). For exam-
ple, Toyota includes an “actual mileage “Fueled by light so it runs forever. It’s
may vary” disclaimer in Prius advertising. unstoppable. Just like the people who
When Ford’s hybrid Escape SUV owners wear it.”
complained that they were not achieving —Citizen Eco-Drive Sport Watch
expected mileage ratings, Ford launched Symbolism “Think is the chair with a brain and a
the “Fuel-Economy School” campaign to conscience.”
educate drivers about ways to maximize —Steelcase’s Think Chair
fuel efficiency.63 Further, EPA is recon-
“Make up your mind, not just your face.”
sidering how it estimates hybrid mileage
—The Body Shop
ratings to better reflect realistic driving
conditions (such as heavy acceleration and Convenience “Long life for hard-to-reach places.”
air conditioner usage).64 —General Electric’s CFL Flood Lights
JU NE 2006 ENVIRONMENT 33
save by using the detergent, learn other credible product messages dispatched by desirable for consumers. The question
energy-saving laundry tips, and refer e- a respected non-profit group and consum- that remains, however, is, what is green
mail addresses of their friends to take the ers’ Internet networks—set the stage for marketing’s future? Historically, green
challenge as well. Tide.com offered an Tide Coldwater’s successful launch. marketing has been a misunderstood con-
engaging map of the United States where, cept. Business scholars have viewed it as
over time, visitors could track and watch a “fringe” topic, given that environmental-
their personal networks grow across the The Future ism’s acceptance of limits and conserva-
country when their friends logged onto of Green Marketing tion does not mesh well with marketing’s
the site to request a free sample. traditional axioms of “give customers
Given the immediacy of e-mail and the Clearly, there are many lessons to be what they want” and “sell as much as you
Internet, word-of-mouse is fast becoming learned to avoid green marketing myopia can.” In practice, green marketing myo-
an important vehicle for spreading cred- (see the box on this page)—the short pia has led to ineffective products and
ible news about new products. According version of all this is that effective green consumer reluctance. Sustainability, how-
to the Pew Internet & American Life marketing requires applying good mar- ever, is destined to dominate twenty-first
Project, 44 percent of online U.S. adults keting principles to make green products century commerce. Rising energy prices,
(about 50 million Americans) are “content
creators,” meaning that they contribute
to the Internet via blogs, product recom-
mendations, and reviews.74 To facilitate SUMMARY OF GUIDEPOSTS
buzz, however, marketers need to create FOR THE “THREE C’S”
credible messages, stories, and Web sites
about their products that are so compel- Evidence indicates that successful green (for example, “rechargeable batteries
ling, interesting, and/or entertaining that products have avoided green marketing offer longer performance”).
consumers will seek the information out myopia by following three important • Create engaging and educational
and forward it to their friends and fam- principles: consumer value positioning, Internet sites about environmental
calibration of consumer knowledge, and products’ desired consumer value (for
ily.75 The fact that P&G was able to the credibility of product claims. example, Tide Coldwater’s interactive
achieve this for a low-involvement prod- Web site allows visitors to calculate their
Consumer Value Positioning
uct is quite remarkable. likely annual money savings based on
• Design environmental products to
International online marketing consul- their laundry habits, utility source (gas
perform as well as (or better than) alter-
tant Hitwise reported that ASE’s e-mail or electricity), and zip code location).
natives.
campaign increased traffic at the Tide • Promote and deliver the con- Credibility of Product Claims
Coldwater Web site by 900 percent in the sumer-desired value of environmental • Employ environmental product
products and target relevant consumer and consumer benefit claims that are
first week, and then tripled that level in
market segments (such as market health specific, meaningful, unpretentious,
week two.76 Within a few months, more benefits among health-conscious con- and qualified (that is, compared with
than one million Americans accepted the sumers). comparable alternatives or likely usage
“Coldwater Challenge,” and word-of- • Broaden mainstream appeal by scenarios).
mouse cascaded through ten degrees of bundling (or adding) consumer-desired • Procure product endorsements or
value into environmental products eco-certifications from trustworthy third
separation across all 50 states and more
(such as fixed pricing for subscribers of parties, and educate consumers about
than 33,000 zip codes.77 In October 2005, renewable energy). the meaning behind those endorsements
Hitwise reported that Tide.com ranked as
Calibration of Consumer and eco-certifications.
the twelfth most popular site by market Knowledge • Encourage consumer evangelism
share of visits in the “Lifestyle—House • Educate consumers with marketing via consumers’ social and Internet com-
and Garden” category.78 No other laundry messages that connect environmental munication networks with compelling,
detergent brand’s Web site has gained a product attributes with desired consum- interesting, and/or entertaining informa-
er value (for example, “pesticide-free tion about environmental products (for
significant Web presence in terms of the
produce is healthier”; “energy-effi- example, Tide’s “Coldwater Challenge”
number of visits. ciency saves money”; or “solar power Web site included a map of the United
P&G’s savvy implementation of “The is convenient”). States so visitors could track and watch
Three Cs”—consumer value positioning • Frame environmental product attri- their personal influence spread when
on money savings, calibration of con- butes as “solutions” for consumer needs their friends requested a free sample).
sumer knowledge about cold wash effec-
tiveness via an engaging Web site, and
JU NE 2006 ENVIRONMENT 35
tion: Does it Work? The Super Energy Efficient Refrig- tem, see http://www.usgbc.org. The 69-point LEED 55. T. Harris, “Austinites Apply to Save With Wind
erator Program,” ACEEE Proceedings, 1996, 3.69–3.80. rating system addresses energy and water use, indoor Power,” KVUE News, 13 February 2006.
13. Ibid. air quality, materials, siting, and innovation and design. 56. J. Ottman, note 3 above.
Buildings can earn basic certification or a silver, gold,
14. The California Air Resources Board (CARB) 57. J. Ottman, note 3 above.
or platinum designation depending on the number of
adopted the Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV) regulations in
credits awarded by external reviewers. Critics charge, 58. Generation Green, “Splenda Letter to Feder-
1990. The original LEV regulations required the intro-
however, that the costly and confusing administration of al Trade Commission,” 13 January 2005, http://www
duction of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) in 1998 as 2
the LEED system is inhibiting adoption of the program .generationgreen.org/2005_01-FTC-letter.htm (accessed
percent of all vehicles produced for sale in California,
and impeding the program’s environmental objectives; 7 February 2006).
and increased the percentage of ZEVs from 2 percent
see A. Schendler and R. Udall, “LEED is Broken; Let’s 59. J. Davis, “Strategies for Environmental Advertis-
to 10 percent in 2003. By 1998, significant flexibility
Fix It,” Grist Magazine, 16 October 2005, http://www ing,” Journal of Consumer Marketing 10, no. 2 (1993):
was introduced through partial ZEV credits for very-
.grist.com/comments/soapbox/2005/10/26/leed/index1 23–25.
low-emission vehicles. For a review, see S. Shaheen,
.html.
“California’s Zero-Emission Vehicle Mandate,” Institute 60. S. Farah, “The Thin Green Line,” CMO Maga-
of Transporation Studies, Paper UCD-ITS-RP-04-14, 2 31. GreenBiz.com, “Survey: Home Builders Name zine, 1 December 2005, http://www.cmomagazine
September 2004. Energy Efficiency as Biggest Industry Trend,” 26 Janu- .com/read/120105/green_line.html (accessed 9 Febru-
ary 2006, http://www.greenerbuildings.com/news_details ary 2006).
15. C. Palmeri, “Unplugged,” Business Week, 20
.cfm?NewsID=30221.
March 2006, 12. 61. Ibid.
32. D. Smith, “Conservation: Building Grows Green-
16. “Think Tanks,” Automotive News, 6 March 2006, 62. See Jenkins, note 23 above.
er in Bay Area,” San Francisco Chronicle, 1 June 2005.
42; J. Ottman, “Lessons from the Green Graveyard,” 63. See Farah, note 60 above.
Green@Work, April 2003, 62–63. 33. E. Beck, “Earth-Friendly Materials Go Main-
stream,” New York Times, 5 January 2006, 8. 64. M. Maynard, “E.P.A. Revision is Likely to Cut
17. J. Lawrence, “The Green Revolution: Case Mileage Ratings,” New York Times, 11 January 2006.
Study,” Advertising Age, 29 January 1991, 12. 34. J. M. Ginsberg and P. N. Bloom, “Choosing the
Right Green Marketing Strategy,” MIT Sloan Manage- 65. For a more comprehensive overview of eco-cer-
18. See Roper ASW, note 7 above. tifications and labeling, see L.H. Gulbrandsen, “Mark
ment Journal, Fall 2004: 79–84.
19. “Fuel Economy: Why You’re Not Getting the of Sustainability? Challenges for Fishery and Forestry
35. Tan, note 29 above.
MPG You Expect,” Consumer Reports, October 2005, Eco-labeling,” Environment 47, no. 5 (2005): 8–23.
20-23. 36. Tan, note 29, above.
66. For a comprehensive overview of other eco-
20. J. O’Dell, “Prices Soar for Hybrids with Rights to 37. C. C. Berk, “P&G Will Promote ‘Green’ Deter- certifications, see Consumers Union’s Web site at http://
Fast Lane,” Los Angeles Times, 27 August 2005. gent,” Wall Street Journal, 19 January 2005. www.eco-labels.org/home.cfm.
21. M. Landler and K. Bradsher, “VW to Build 38. K. McLaughlin, “Has Your Chicken Been 67. Gulbrandsen, note 65 above, pages 17–19.
Hybrid Minivan with Chinese,” New York Times, 9 Sep- Drugged?” Wall Street Journal, 2 August 2005; and E.
68. Farah, note 60 above.
tember 2005. Weise, “Are Our Products Our Enemy?” USA Today, 13
August 2005. 69. Farah, note 60 above.
22. K. Carter, “‘Hybrid’ Cars Were Oscars’ Politically
39. McLaughlin, ibid. 70. See GE Global Research, Clean Coal, http://
Correct Ride,” USA Today, 31 March 2003.
ge.com/research/grc_2_1_3.html (accessed 16 April
23. See, for example, H. W. Jenkins, “Dear Valued 40. Alston and Roberts, note 2 above.
2006).
Hybrid Customer . . .,” Wall Street Journal, 30 Novem- 41. R. Leiber, “The Dirt on Green Housecleaners,”
71. A. Griscom Little, “It Was Just My Ecomagina-
ber 2005; E. R. Stafford, “Conspicuous Conservation,” Wall Street Journal, 29 December 2005.
tion,” Grist Magazine, 10 May 2005, http://grist.org/
Green@Work, Winter 2004, 30–32. A recent Civil Soci- 42. M. Alexander, “Home Improved,” Readers news/muck/2005/05/10/little-ge/index.html.
ety Institute poll found that 66 percent of survey par- Digest, April 2004, 77–80.
ticipants agreed that driving fuel efficient vehicles was 72. E. Rosen, The Anatomy of Buzz: How to Cre-
43. For example, see D. Leonhardt, “Buy a Hybrid, ate Word-of-Mouth Marketing (New York: Doubleday,
“patriotic”; see Reuters, “American See Fuel Efficient
and Save a Guzzler,” New York Times, 8 February 2006. 2000).
Cars as ‘Patriotic,’ 18 March 2005, http://www.planetark
.com/avantgo/dailynewsstory.cfm?newsid=29988. 44. See, for example, D. Cave, “It’s Not Sexy Being 73. Viral marketing is a form of “word-of-mouse”
Green (Yet),” New York Times, 2 October 2005. buzz marketing defined as “the process of encouraging
24. “Rising Consumer Interest in Hybrid Technology
Confirmed by Maritz Research,” PRNewswire, 5 Janu- 45. G. Chon, “Toyota Goes After Copycat Hybrids; honest communication among consumer networks, and
ary 2006. Buyers are Asked to Believe Branded HSD Technology it focuses on email as the channel.” See J.E. Phelps,
is Worth the Extra Cost,” Wall Street Journal, 22 Sep- R. Lewis, L. Mobilio, D. Perry, and N. Raman, “Viral
25. O’Dell, note 20 above.
tember 2005. Marketing or Electronic Word-of-Mouth Advertising:
26. J. Fetto, “The Baby Business,” American Demo- Examining Consumer Responses and Motivation to Pass
46. B. G. Hoffman, “Ford: Now It’s Easy Being
graphics, May 2003, 40. Along Email,” Journal of Advertising Research 44, no. 4
Green,” Detroit News, 31 January 2006.
27. See D. McGinn, “The Green Machine,” News- (2004): 333–48.
47. See W. McDonough and M. Braungart, Cradle to
week, 21 March 2005, E8–E12; and J. Weber, “A Super-
Cradle: Remaking the Way We Make Things (New York: 74. G. Ramsey, “Ten Reasons Why Word-of-Mouth
Natural Investing Opportunity,” Business 2.0, March
North Point Press, 2002). Marketing Works,” Online Media Daily, 23 Septem-
2005, 34.
48. R. Smith, “Beyond Recycling: Manufacturers ber 2005, http://publications.mediapost.com/index
28. A. Murray, “Can Wal-Mart Sustain a Softer .cfm?fuseaction=Articles.san&s=34339&Nid=15643&
Embrace ‘C2C’ Design,” Wall Street Journal, 3 March
Edge?” Wall Street Journal, 8 February 2006. p=114739 (accessed 16 February 2006).
2005.
29. C. Tan, “New Incentives for Being Green,” Wall 75. See Rosen, note 72 above.
49. K. Hafen, “Preston Festival Goes LED,” Logan
Street Journal, 4 August 2005.
Herald Journal, 21 September 2005. 76. Ramsey, note 74 above.
30. For an overview of the Leadership in Energy
and Environmental Design Green Building Rating Sys- 50. O’Dell, note 20 above. 77. Tide press release, “ColdWater Challenge Reach-
51. A. Covarrubias, “In Carpool Lanes, Hybrids Find es One Million,” http://www.tide.com/tidecoldwater/
Cold Shoulders,” Los Angeles Times, 10 April 2006. challenge.html (accessed 13 September 2005).
52. M. Clayton, “Hot Stuff for a Cool Earth,” Chris- 78. L. Prescott, “Case Study: Tide Boosts Traffic
® tian Science Monitor, 21 April 2005. 9-fold,” iMedia Connection, 30 November 2005, http://
53. See Ogilvy & Mather Topline Report, China www.imdiaconnection.com/content/7406.asp.
A great Energy-Efficient CFC-Free Refrigerator Study (Beijing: 79. Hawken, Lovins, and Lovins, note 4 above; see
classroom resource! Ogilvy & Mather, August 1997); E. R. Stafford, C. L.
Hartman, and Y. Liang, “Forces Driving Environmental
also A. B. Lovins, L. H. Lovins, and P. Hawken, “A Road
Map for Natural Capitalism,” Harvard Business Review,
Check out Innovation Diffusion in China: The Case of Green- May-June 1999, 145–58.
freeze,” Business Horizons 9, no. 2 (2003): 122–35. 80. J. Makower, “Green Marketing: Lessons from
www.heldref.org/env.php
54. J. Baker, Jr., K. Denby, and J. E. Jerrett, “Market- the Leaders,” Two Steps Forward, September 2005,
for lists of articles by topic. based Government Activities in Texas,” Texas Business http://makower.typepad.com/joel_makower/2005/09/
Review, August 2005, 1–5. green_marketing.html.
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