REFERENCE DATA for | RADIO ENGINEERS second edition Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation an associate of International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation 67 Broad Street e New York 4, N. Y.Copyright 1946 by Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation Second Edition Printed in the U.S.A. by J. J. Little & Ives Co., N. ¥. ayREFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS 3 Foreword Widespread acceptance of the four printings of the first edition of Refer- ence Data for Radio Engineers prompted this larger and improved second edition. Like its predecessor, it is presented by the Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation as an aid in the fields of research, development, produc- tion, operation, and education. In it will be found all the material that proved so useful in the first edition along with much additional data—some the result of helpful suggestions from readers, others stemming from rapid advances in the art, and still others now made possible by declassification of many war developments. While the general arrangement remains unchanged, the present edition has been greatly enlarged and a subject index included. Chapters on trans- formers and room acoustics have been added. The material on radio propagation and radio noise has been revised. Because of their importance in television, in radar, and in laboratory technique, the data on cathode-ray tubes have been considerably expanded. The section on electrical circuit formulas has been greatly enlarged; addi- tions include formulas on T-II and Y-A transformations, amplitude modula- tion, transients, and curves and numerous formulas on selective circuits. The attenuator section contains comprehensive design formulas and tables for various types of attenuators. The number of mathematical formulas also has been considerably increased. As revised, the wave-guide chapter includes equations for both rectangular and cylindrical guides plus illustrations of field distribution patterns. Several methods of coupling to the TEo.. mode are illustrated. A table of standard rectangular wave guides and connectors, giving useful frequency range and attenuation, has been added. Design curves for the gain and, beam width of rectangular electromagnetic horn radiators are included, and a simple formula for the gain of a paraboloid reflector is given.Many very helpful suggestions were received from the Armed Services. Acknowledgment is made to Edward J. Content, consulting engineer, for his contribution of the chapter on room acoustics; its inclusion was made possible largely through the courtesy of the Western Electric Company in permitting the use of their engineering data. Acknowledgment also is due to |. E. Lempert, Allen B. Dumont Laboratories, Inc., for the descriptive material on cathode-ray tubes; and to Professor L. Brillouin of Harvard University for advice and suggestions on the wave-guide chapter. In the compilation of this reference book, the cooperation of the following 1.T. & T. associate companies was invaluable: International Telecommunication Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y. E. M. Deloraine, president, and E. Labin, technical director American Cable and Radio Corporation, New York, N. Y. Haraden Pratt, vice president and chief engineer Standard Telephones and Cables, Ltd., London, England. C. E. Strong, chief engineer of radio division International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation, New York, N. Y. George Lewis, assistant vice president, and H. P. Westman, associate editor of Electrical Communication. Recognition for contribution of specific material: Federal Telecommunication Laboratories, Inc., New York, N. Y. H. Busignies, director, G. S. Burroughs, W. A. Cobb, S. Frankel, J. J. Glauber, D. D. Grieg, A. G. Kandoian, N. Marchand,* C. R. Muller, E. M. Ostlund, W. Sichak, L. D. Smullin, N. S. Tierney, A. R. Vallarrino, M. W. Wallace, A. J. Warner, and J. K. Whitteker Federal Telephone and Radio Corporation, Newark, N. J. E. G. Ports, technical director of radio division, H. Baker, W. F. Bonner, C. L. Howk, W. W. Macalpine, G. T. Royden, and A. K. Wing Mackay Radio and Telegraph Company, New York, N. Y. R. McSweeny, C. E. Scholz, and L. Spangenberg International Standard Electric Corporation, New York, N. Y. J. C. Frick, G. H. Gray, and E. S. Mclarn H. H. Butiner, chairman Radio Reference Book Committes. H. T. Kohthaas, editor Editor of Electrical Communication F. J. Mann, assistant editor Managing Editor of Electrical Communication ‘formerly of Federal Telecommunication Laboratories, Inc.REFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS 5 Contents Chapter 1— General information Conversion factors. a Fractions of an inch with metric equivalents Miscellaneous data Greek alphabet. Unit conversion table. Electromotive force—series of the elements. Position of metals in the galvanic series Atomic weights, Centigrade table of relative humidity or percent of saturation. Atmospheric pressure chart. Weather data. Temperature extremes Precipitation extremes World temperatures. World precipitation. Principal power supplies in foreign countries. World time chart Electromagnetic frequency spectrum. Radio frequency classifications. Wavelength vs frequency chart. Wavelength vs frequency formulas, Frequency tolerances. Frequency band widths occupied by the emissions Tolerances for the intensity of harmonics of fixed, land, and broadcasting stations__ Classification of emissions Relation between decibels and power, voltage, and current ratios____6 REFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS Chapter 2 —Engineering and material data Copper wire table—standard annealed copper. 35 Copper wire table—English and metric units 36 Solid copperweld wire—mechanical and electrical properties 37 Standard stranded copper conductors—American wire gauge. 38 Machine screw head styles, method of length measurement. 38 Standard machine screw data including hole sizes 8 Insulating materials. — 40 Plastics: trade names___ Wind velocities and pressures 42 Temperature chart of heated metals Physical constants of various metals and alloys 44 Thermocouples and their characteristics Melting points of solder a Spark gap voltages gs Head of water in feet and approximate discharge rate Materials and finishes for tropical and marine use SO Torque and horsepower Chapter 3 — Audio and radio design Resistors and capacitors—color code. 52 Resistors, fixed composition, 52 Standard color coding for resistors Capacitors, fixed mica dielectric Capacitors, fixed ceramic Inductance of single-layer solenoids 8B Magnet wire data. 60 Reactance chars Impedance formulas, Skin effect. 71 Network theorems Hh Electrical circuit formulas, 74 Attenuators. - 100 Filter networks. Ws Chapter 4— Rectifiers and filters Typical rectifier circuit connections and circuit data TTB Re filter design—ripple voltage vs LC for choke-input filters___________ 120 Rectifier filter design—ripple voltage vs RC for capacitor-input filters___ 121Chapter 5—Iron-core transformers and reactors Major transformer types. 122 “Major reactor types. 122 ‘Temperature, humidity, and pressure effects 123 General limitations 128 Design of power-supply transformers. 124 Round enameled copper wire data Chapter 6— Vacuum tubes Nomenclature. 127 Coefficients. 127 Terminology. 128 Formulas 129 Performance limitations 30 Electrode dissipation data Filament characteristies 82 Ultra-high-frequency tubes 8 Cathode-ray tubes 938 ‘Army-Navy preferred list of electron tubes. 142 Chapter 7— Vacuum tube amplifiers Classifteation 4 General design at Graphical design methods Classification of amplifier circvits_- Cathode follower data Resistance-coupled audio amplifier design 158 Negative feedback. 159 Reduction in gain caused by feedback 1 Distortion, 164 Chapter 8—Room acoustics General considerations for good room acoustics. 165 Good acoustics—goveming factors. 165 Room sizes and proportions for good acoustics 1S Optimum reverberation time. _—_— 166 Computation of reverberation time 1 Electrical power levels required for public address requirements 171 General__ 178 REFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS Chapter 9— Wire transmission Telephone transmission line data. 179 Frequency allocation chart for type J and K carrier systems___——— BS Frequency allocation chart for carrier systems____ 8 , Frequency allocation and modulation steps in the L carrier system (coaxial cable). 188 Noise and noise measurement—wire telephony. 189 Telegraph facilities 192 Telegraph printer systems 9 Frequency of printing telegraph systems in cycles per second. Comparison of telegraph codes. 193 Chapter 10— Radio frequency transmission lines Formulas for uniform transmission lines. ___. 194 Surge impedance of uniform lines. 195 dota 196 attenuation due to load mismatch —____--___—_ 198 Impedance matching with shorted stub 199 Impedance matching with open stub. 199 Impedance matching with coupled section 200 Army-Navy standard list of radio-frequency cables, 208 Attenuation of standard r-f cables vs frequency 20K Length of transmission fing 205, Attenuation and resistance of transmission lines at ultra-high frequencies__"_ 206 Chapter 11— Wave guides and resonators Propagation of electromagnetic waves in hollow wave guides. 207 Rectangular wave guides. 208 Cirevlar wave guides. 213 Electromagnetic horns. 217 Resonant cavities Some characteristics of various types of resonators 222 Additional cavity formulas. 223 Recommended rectangular wave guides. 223 Chapter 12— Radio propagation and noise Propagation of medium and long waves. 224 Propagation of short waves 226 Propagation forecasts for short waves. 231 Propagation of very short waves. 237 U-H-F path length and optical line-of-sight distance range of radio waves____———«238 Great circle calcevlations_- 2 Time interval between transmission and reception of reflected signal___...._——=s_s 244 Radio noise and noise measurement. 244CONTENTS q Chapter 13 — Antennas Field intensity from an elementary dipole 250 Field of an elementary dipole at great distance 252 Field of an elementary dipole at short distance 2S Field of an elementary dipole at intermediate distance__________. 253 Field intensity from a vertically polarized antenna with base close to ground_____. 253 Vertical radiators. 25 Field intensity and radiated power from a half-wave dipole in free space______. 258 Radiation from end-fed conductor of any length in space_________. 260 Maxima and minima of radiation from a single-wire radiator_______. 261 Rhombic antennas Antenna arrays 268 Chapter 14—Non-sinusoidal and modulated wave forms Relaxation oscillators 272 Electronic integration methods Electronic differentiation methods Fourier analysis of recurrent wave forms 277 Analysis of commonly encountered wave forms 28 Modulated wave forms. 288 Chapter 15 — Mathematical formulas Mensuration formulas. 291 Formulas for complex quantities 294, Algebraic and trigonometric formulas Approximations for small angles 96 Quadratic equation 96 Arithmetical progression 296 Geometrical progression, 297 Combinations and permutations 97 Binomial theorem. 297 Maclaurin's theorem, 297 Taylor's theorem. 297 Trigonometric solution of triangles 298 ‘Complex hyperbolic and other functions 29 Table of integrals 09,10 REFERENCE DATA FOR RADIO ENGINEERS Chapter 16— Mathematical tables Exponentials. . 303 Common logarithms of numbers and proportional parts. 304 Natural trigonometric functions for decimal fractions of a degree 3008 Logarithms of trigonometric functions for decimal fractions of a degree. 310 Natural logarithms 314 Hyperbolic sings CCS Hyperbolic cosines, 317 Hyperbolic tangents, 318 Multiples of 0.4343. 88 - Multiples of 2.3026. 318 Bessel functions 8DConversion factors CHAPTER ONE Il General information Acres Acres Ampere-hours Amperes per sq cm Ampere turns Ampere turns per cm Atmospheres Atmospheres Atmospheres Atmospheres Atmospheres Bry Bry Btu Btu Bushels Centigrade Circular mils Circular mils cups feet Cubic meters Cubic meters Degrees (angle? Dynes Ergs Fathoms: Feet Feet of water @ 4°C Feet of water @ 4°C Square feet Square meters Coulomb Amperes per sq inch Gilberts Ampere turns per inch Mm of mercury @ 0°C Feet of water @ 4°C Inches mercury @ 0° C Kg per sq meter Pounds per sq inch Foot-pounds Joules Kilogram-calories Horsepower-hours Cubic feet Fahrenheit Square centimeters Square mils Cords Gallons (liq US) liters Cubic centimeters Cubic feet Cubic meters Gallons tliq US) Cubic feet Cubic yards Radians Pounds Foot-pounds Feet Centimeters Inches of mercury @ 0°C , Kg per sq meter 2.296 X 10% 2471 X 10+ 2.778 X 10-* 0.1550 0.7988 0.3937 1.316 X 1078 2.950 X 1072 3.342 X 107 9.678 X 10 6.804 X 107 1.285 X 107 9.480 X 10+ 3.969 2,545 0.8036 tc? X 9/5) +32 (f° — 32) X 5/9 5.067 X 10-8 1.973 X 108 0.7854 1.273 78125 10# 128 7.481 0.1337 28.32 3.531 X 10% 16.39 6.102 X 10% 5787 X 104 1,728 1.639 X 10-8 6.102 X 10 4.329 X 10-8 231 35.31 2.832 X 107 1.208 0.7646 1.745 X 10% 57.30 2.248 X 107* 4.448 X 108 7.367 X 10-* 1.356 X 107 6 0.16666 30.48 3281 X 10? 0.8826 304.8 aaa x 10%12 Conversion fact continued ———— conversely to convert into multiply by multiply by Feet of water @ 4° C Pounds per sq foot 6243 1.602 X 107% Foot-pounds Horsepower-hours 5.050 X 107 1.98 X 10° Foot-pounds Kilogram-meters 0.1383 7233 Foot-pounds Kilowatt-hours 3766 X 107 2.655 X 108 Gallons Cubic meters 3.785 X 10% 264.2 Gallons {liq US) Gollons (liq Br Imp) 0.8327 1.201 Gauss, Lines per sq inch 6.452 0.1850 Grams Dynes 9807 1.020 X 1078 Grams Grains 15.43 6.481 X 107 Grams Ounces lavoirdupois) 3.527 X 107? 28.35 Grams Poundals 7.093 X 107 14.10 Grams per cm Pounds per inch $.600 X 107% 178.6 Grams per cu cm Pounds per cu inch 3.613 X 107 27.68 Grams per sq cm Pounds per sq foot 2.0481 0.4883 Hectares Acres 2471 0.4047 Horsepower (boiler) Btu per hour 3.347 X 10¢ 2.986 X 10% Horsepower (metric) Btu per minute 41.83 2.390 X 1072 (542.5 ft-lb per sect Horsepower (metric) Foot-lb per minute 3.255 X 108 3.072 X 10> (542.5 ft-lb per sec} Horsepower Imetric) Kg-calories per minute 10.54 9.485 X 10? (542.5 ft-lb per sec) Horsepower Btu per minute 4241 2357 X 107 (550 ft-lb per sec} Horsepower Foot-lb per minute 3.3 X 10 3.030 X 10-* (550 ft-lb per sec) Horsepower (metric) Horsepower 0.9863 1.014 (542.5 ft-lb per sec) {550 ft-lb per sec) Horsepower Kg-calories per minute 10.69 9.355 X 107 (550 ft-lb per sec) Inches Centimeters 2.540 0.3997 Inches Feet 8.333 X 107 12 Inches Miles 1.578 X 10% 6.336 X 104 Inches Mils 1,000 0.001 Inches Yards 2778 X 10% 36 Inches of mercury @0°C tbs per sq inch 0.4912 2.036 Inches of water @4°C Kg per sq meter 25.40 3.937 X 107 Inches of water Ounces per sq inch 0.5781 1.729 Inches of water Pounds per sq foot 5.204 0.1922 Joules Foot-pounds 0.7376 1.356 Joules Ergs 10° 107 Kilogram-catories Kilogram-meters 426.9 » 2343 X 10% Kilogram-calories Kilojoules 4,186 0.2389 Kilograms Tons, long (avdp 2240 tb) 9.842% 104 1,016 Kilograms Tons, short (avdp 2000 Ib) 1.102 X 10° 907.2 Kilograms Pounds (avoirdupois) 2.205 0.4536 Kg per sq meter Pounds per sq foot 0.2048 4.882 Kilometers Feet 3,281 3.048 10 Kilowatt-hours Bru 3,413 2.930 X 104 Kilowott-hours Foot-pounds 2.655 X 108 3.766 X 107 Kilowatt-hours Joules 3.6 X 108 2.778 X 107 Kllowatt-hours Kilogram-calories 860 1.163 X 10% Kilowatt-hours Kilogram-meters 3.671 X 10% 2.724 X 10 Kilowatt-hours Pounds carbon oxydized 0.235 4.26 Kilowatt-hours Pounds water evaporated 3.53, 0.263 from and at 212° FConv. to convert Kilowatt-hours liters liters liters liters liters liters Loge.N of In N Lumens per sq foot lux Meters Meters per min Meters per min Meters per min Microhms per cm cube Microhms per cm cube Miles (nautical) Miles (navticall Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles (statute) Miles per hour Miles per hour Miles per hour Miles per hour Pounds of water (dist) Pounds of water (dist) Pounds per cu foot Pounds per cu inch Pounds per sq foot Pounds per sq inch Poundals Poundals Sq inches Sq inches Sq feet Sq miles Sq miles Sq miles Sq millimeters Tons, short (avoir 2000 Ib} Tons, long tavoir 2240 Ib} Tans, fong (avoir 2240 Ib} Tons (US shipping) Watts Watts Watts Watts, Watts Watts GENERAL INFORMATION B in factors continued conversely into multiply by multiply by Pounds water raised 22.75 4.395 X 107 from 62° to 212°F Bushels (dry US) 2.838 X 107% 35.24 Cubic centimeters 1,000 0.001 Cubic meters 0.001 1,000 Cubic inches 61.02 1.639 X 1078 Gallons tliq US 0.2642 3.785 Pints tliq US) 2.113 0.4732 togioN 0.4343, 2.303 Foot-candles i 1 Foot-candles 0.0929 10.764 Yards 1,094 0.9144 Knots [nautical mi per 3.238 X 104 30.88 hour Feet per minute 3.281 0.3048 Kilometers per hour 0.06 16.67 Microhms per inch cube 0.3937 2.540 Ohms per mil foot 6.015 0.1662 Feet 6,080.27, 1.645 X 10 Kilometers 1.853 0.5396 Kilometers 1.609 0.6214 Miles (nautical) 0.8684 1.1516 Feet 5,280 1.894 10-4 Kilometers per minute 2.682 X 10% 37.28 Feet per minute 88 1.136 X 107 Knots {nautical mi per 0.8684 11516 hour Kilometers per hour 1.609 0.6214 Cubic feet 1.603 X 10% 62.38 Gallons 0.1198 8.347 Kg per cu meter 16.02 6,243 X 102 Pounds per cu foot 1728 5.787 X 10 Pounds per sq inch 6.944 X 1078 144 Kg per sq meter 703.1 1.422 X 10-8 Dynes 1.383 X 104 7.233 X 10% Pounds (avoirdupois) 3.108 X 10-2 32.17 Circular mils 1.273 X 108 7.854 X 1077 Sq centimeters 6.452 0.1550 Sq meters 9.290 X 10% 10.76 Sq yards 3.098 X 108 3.228 X 107? Acres 640 1.562 X 10° Sq kilometers 2.590 0.3861 Cireular 1973 §.067 X 10-4 Tonnes (1000 kg 0.9072 1.102 Tonnes (1000 kg 1.016 0.9842 Tons, short {avoir 2000 Ib) 1.120 0.8929 Cubic feet 40 0.025 Bru per minute 5.689 X 10% 17.58 . Ergs per second 10 107 Foot-lb per minute 44.26 2.260 X 10 Horsepower (550 ft-lb per 1.341 X 10-8 7457 secl Horsepower Imetriel 1.360 X 10-@ 735.5 (542.5 ft-lb per sec) Kg-calories per minute 1.433 X 10% 6977i Fractions of an inch with metric equivalents ————$———— decimals of fractions an inch inch millimeters Ma 0156 0.397 3364 5186 13.097 % 0313 0794 Ng -$313 13.494 EA 0469 1191 35g, 5469 13.891 % 0625 1.588 % ~5625 14.288, Ks 0781 1.984 3 5781 14.684 % 0938 2381 19% 5938 18.081 iy «1094 2778 39%, 6094 15.478 \y 1250 3.175 % -6250 15.875 % 1406 3.572 N 6406 16.272 ig 1563, 3.969 eo 6563 16.669 Vey 719 4366 436 679 17.066 % 1875 4763 % «6875 17.463 194, 2031 5.159 4564 7031 17.859 % 2188 5.556 3% 7188 18.256 Ug, 2344 5.953 Ay (T3A4 18.653, % 2500 6.350 % 7500 19.050 WG 2656 6747 46 7856 19.447 % 2813 7.144 2% 7813 19.844, 196 2969 7.541 5 7969 20.241 % 3125 7.938 W%6 8125 20.638 Ny 3281 8.334 556 8281 21.034 Ng 3438 8731 % 8438 21.431 3G 3594 9.128 55g, 8594 21.828 % 3750 9.525 kh 8750 22.225 256, 3906 9.922 6 8908 22.622 Bg 4063, 10319 2% 9063 23.019 2G, A219 10.716 5964 9219 23.416 % 4375 1.3 W% 9375 23.813 2% 4531 11.509 Ora 9531 24,209 6 A688 11.906 3g 9688 24.606 ora AB44 12.303 636, 9844 25.003 ve 5000 12.700 - 1.0000 2.400 1 cubic foot of water at 4° C (weight)_______62.43 Ib 1 foot of water at 4° C (pressure)_—___________0.43352 Ib per sq in Velocity of light in vacuum_______ «86,284 mi per sec Velocity of sound in dry air at 20° C_____1129 ft per’sec Degree of longitude at equator____ 69.17 miles Acceleration due to gravity, g, at sea-level, 40° N Latitude (NY)___ 82.1578 ft per sq sec V2q 8.02 J inch of mercury——_______ id ft water 1 inch of mercury———_—___________0.4912 Ib per sq in 1 radian. 180° + © = §7.3° 360 degrees___ 2 or radians: Tr. - 3.1416 Sine 1. 0.0002929 Side of square-—_______0,707 diagonal of squareGreek alphabet ALPHA A a BETA B 6 GAMMA Tr v DELTA A 8 EPSLON =-E ‘ ZETA Z ¢ ETA z 2 THETA e o 1OTA I ‘ KAPPA K ® IAMBDA A » MU M B NU N ° xl z & OMICRON O ° Pt r wv RHO P e SIGMA = o TAU T r UPSILON = v PHI e ¢ CHI x x Pst v y OMEGA = @ e GENERAL INFORMATION 15 used to designate Angles, coefficients, attenuation constant, absorption factor, area Angles, coefficients, phase constant Complex propagation constant (capl, specific gravity, angles, electrical conductivity, propagation constant Increment or decrement [cap or small), determinant (cap), permittivity (cap), density, angles Dielectric constant, permittivity, base of natural logarithms, electric intensity Coordinates, coefficients Intrinsic impedance, efficiency, surface charge density, hysteresis, coordinates Angular phase displacement, time constant, reluctance, angles Unit vector Susceptibility, coupling coefficient Permeance {capl, wavelength, attenuation constant Permeability, amplification factor, pré Reluctivity, frequency Coordinates 31416 Resistivity, volume charge density, coordinates ‘Summation (cap!, surface charge density, complex propagation constant, electrical conductivity, leakage coefficient Time constant, volume resistivity, time-phase displacement, transmission factor, density ‘Scalar potential (cop), magnetic flux, angles * Electric susceptibility, angles Dielectric flux, phase difference, coordinates, angles Resistance in ohms (cap), solid angle (cap), angular velocity Small letter is used except where capital is indicated.Ib Unit Conversion. Table 2 2) 2 ————<$—$ 5) 5 z sis 1 o£] 8 2 2 E 23 g 5 | 3a cos - eas wz [rz i symmetric quantity SYE "| equation | Seetrostotic |W [electromagnetic | or Gaussian wn icra T centimeter 7 mass 7m eran I fine i second I i | vyelociy ® en/see r 1 acceleration a cm/sec T 1 |i force F dyne 1 work, eneray W ee, T | ere ere 7 | power P era [ee T | era/see ‘erase | 107 permittivity of space & Astatfarad/em | 1 A/c? abfarad/em | 1 statfarad/om charge a stateoulomb, T7e__|“abeoulomb stateoulomb | 10/e_{ 10 surface charge density | statcoulomb/emt 1/e | abeoulomb7em? | abeoulomb/em® | 107e | 10 Volume charge density |p _ statcoulomb/em'| i/e | sbooulomb/em* | stateoulomb/em') 10/e_| 10 lectric field strength | _ statvolt/em —|"0 | abvolt/em statvoltem | e/i08 | 10-8 tlectric Aux density ‘Yee statooulomb Yer abeoulomb | 34x stateoulomb Gisplacoment densty__|_? om? Ve ent emt 10/0 ‘electric fox = line = abeoulomb | ine = isplocement YY =PA | 56s statooutomd| MO} 4 b | dar stateoutomb | 1°/° capacitance C_| C=0/7__| statfarad = em | T/o? | abfarad statfarad or em | 10°76? | 10" elastance 3_|S=1/C__| statdarat | sbdaraf statdaral e108 | 10 polarizarion P ‘statcoulomb/em!| 17e | abeoulomb/emt_| ‘statcoulomb/em} 10/6 potential v [vara ™ | statvort ° abvolt statvolt o/to8 | 10-8 potential difference a emf @ [es —db/at_| Fatvort © __| abvolt Satvol Fie 04 current T_| T= dyrdt__| statampore 1/¢_| abampere statampere 1/e_|"10 current density «| e=1/A___| statampere/em? | 1/e | abampere/em* | statampere/em* |10/e | 10 resistance R_| R=e/T=V7\ statohm ef __| abohm statohin #108 | 10> resistivity ? statohm Kem |e | abohm Xom | statohm Xom_| e108 | 107 conductance | C= 17k | statmho “et abmaho atatmbo 10/6 | 107 onductivity y_| r=" statmho/em | i/o | abmho/em atatmho7om | 102/e* | 10-9 permeability af space. wo thea abhenry/om abhenry/om Feluctivity + | w= We pole strength m_| P= mma sur) statunit @__| unit pote Wait pole magnetic moment T statpole X em} ¢ | pole X em pole x em intensity of magnetization | J ole/em* ‘pole/em? ‘magnetic potential 7 We magnetic potential dif ‘i a mmoanetic poreniol gif | Ye | gilbert gilbert tofe | 10 magnetizing force a |H=M/r 1/o | oersted cersted 10/e | 10 magnetic ux density = 2 3 magnetic fx dens B | BauH statweber/em* |¢ | gauss gauss e/108 | 10 etic Nox = maxwell orline | maxwell or line magnetic f a» |o=Bs statweber © | mnevellor tine | maswel or ine | o/108 | 10-8 reluctance R, | R= w/e tet | gilbert/maxwell | gilbert/maxwell | 102/et | 10° permeance P | P= Y/R, a maxwell/gilbert | maxwell/gilbert inductonce L | DS [lata statheary | abhenry or em | abhenry or em | 7/10" | 10 From “Radio,” May, 1944 {compiled by John M. Borsit Tho toble gives the name and defining equation for each unit in six systems and shows factors for the conversion of all units from o1 system into, any other, Column 3 “equation, of the toble fists the relationships of the physical quontiies involved. Consider, as en example, columa Tesu = N emu. The conversion factor in this column con be applied in any of the following ways:GENERAL INFORMATION I g g = 2,23 z| 2 a38| 3z 1 z z 3 ig g seg 3s "oy 4 | tz 3 = est # | 3 E |g gz | bz =z] iz | = = el i =l ast} aa Ni [NL | NJ junrationatzed | Ni | N! | subectionotized | NI | NJ lactical unit Ks | MKS er MKS subrational- | MKS or JAKS subration- Giorgi vnit ized Giorgi unit lized meter 10% 107 meter 1 407 Tilogram 10 | 10°? | kilogram: 1 bond T [second a 1 |"seeond 1p t i/se0 10"? _ | meter/second | 10"? 10? |‘ meter/second 1 107 sect 10-7 | ‘meter /aoet 10% | 10% _ | meter/seot 1107 ole joule ineter Bewton | 10-6 10-8 ineter newton 1 ile ‘ 1 joule 107 107 joule 1 1 He Cad 107 1 watt, 107 1077 vate L 1 OXI) farad saameed/on sei ulomb- 10/e 10 1 ‘coulomb 10/¢. 10 coulamb 1 1 nlomb/em? 105/e 105 104 coulomb/m* 10/e 105 coulomb/ tm? 1 T6e domb/ems 10°/e 108 108 ‘colomb/m* 10°/o Ww coxtamb/ms 1 1g it7em, o/10* | 10-8 | 102 | volt/m o/108 | "10-*_ | voit/mm 1 | 08 f Ver coulomb > 10/¢ 108 ‘meter? 108/4xre | 108/4x | coulornb/m’ Me i 10/e 10 Mex coulomb 10/4ne | 10/4 | coulomb Mx | iad 10%/ct 108 1 farad 108/er 10% farad 1 T raf /100_| 10-7 |_| dara efi" {10-7 | dara I 1 10/c 105 coulomb/m® 10°76. 108 ‘coulomb/m* T Ne of} 10+ | 1 | velb of | 10-4 | volt ata It of 108 10-* 1 ‘volt of 1 10-8 volt 1 T ipere 10/6 10 T ‘ampere 10/0 10 ‘ampere 1 T ppere/em? 107e_ |" 105 104 | "ampere/m? 10/6 | 108 ‘ampere/m? T 10" boa o#/i? | 10-* 1 ‘ohin 7/10? | 107 | ohm 1 T im X om 7/108 | 10-1 108 ohm X meter 7/108 | 10-0 ohm X meter 1 10 po 10%/e? |" 10° 1 | mho 10%7e? "10° | mho 1 T ho/em 10n/e? | 101 Jo? | mho/meter 104/e | 100 mho X meter 1 107 > henry/em 10 henry/m Fe X 10-7 henry / 18 10-8 ‘4x0/108 | 4/108 | weber te 0/100 107" 40/1019} “4x/10"°) “weber X meteor an o/iot_|~10-F “Fre/10" | 4x/10* | “weber/m* te 10/6__|~10 ¥ T0/Ere_| 10/ae Yer fx amp turn 10/e | 10 1 | Mx amp turn | 10/Aee | 10/4 | ampere turn Ma | Me (amp turn 10/c | 18 yor f 24m asap turn | 101/40 | 108/4e | ampere turn/m Mr | 10/4r pber/em? toe | 108 | 106 | weber/m* efit | 10-4 | weber/m* 2 fto ber or volt-see | 10/0 |” 108 1 | weber = volt-sec) ¢/108 | 10-* | weber =voltwec | 2 | 1 aon tara Ver amp tam ra 10%/et | 108 1 “weber 10%/4xet| 10%/4x | amp turn/weber | Me | Me Fweder 7 ‘weber Pomp e/i0 | 10% 1 Se amp barn | 470/109] 4x10" | weber/amp turn re my o/108 [10 Tl benry’ ei | 10? | henry T T 1."Multioly number of esu by N to obtain emu c= 2.998 X 1010 ct = 8.988 X 1000 2. Number of emu/number of esu = N H/o = 3.385 X lot Vek = 1.132 KH 3, Magnitude of 1 esu/magnitude of 1 emu =N 4a = 12.57 Mw = 0.7958 To convert from emu to esu multiply by 1/Ns note: MKS [R} = subrationalized MKS unit18 Electromotive force series of the elements —_——_ al volts ion Lithium 2.9595 Tin 0.136 Rubidium 2.9259 lead 0,122 Pbt* Potassium 2.9241 Iron 0.045 Fott+ Strontium 292 Hydrogen 0,000 Barium 2.90 Antimony 0.10 Calcium 287 Bismuth 0.226 Sodium 27146 Arsenic —0.30 Magnesium 240 Copper ~0.344 Cutt Aluminum 170 Oxygen —0.397 Beryllium 1.69 Polonium 0.40 Uranium 1.40 Copper 0.470 Cur Manganese 110 lodine 0.5345 Tellurium 0.827 Tellurium 0.558 Tetttt Zine 07618 Silver —07978 Chromium 0.557 Mercury 0.7986 Sulphur Ost Lead 0.80 Phttt+ Gallium 0.50 Palladium 0.820 Iron 0.441 Fott Platinum 0.863 Cadmium 0.401 Bromine 1.0648 Indium 0.336 Chlorine. 1.3583 Thallium 0.330 Gold 1.360 Auth Cobalt 0.278 Gold 1.50 Aut Nickel 0.231 Fluorine -190 Position of metals in the galvanic series Correded end (anodic, Nickel (active) or least noble) ., Inconel (active) Magnesium I Brasses lagnesium alloys Copper Zine Bronzes Aluminum 2S Copper-nickel alloys _— Monel Cadmium = Silver solder Aluminum 17ST 7 . Amin Nickel (passive) Steel or Iron Inconel (passive) Cast Iron —_——— Chromium-iron (active) Ni-Resist 18-8 Stainless (active) 18-8-3 Stainless (active) Lead-tin solders lead Tin Silver Graphite Gold Platinum Protected end (cathodic, or most noble) Note: Groups of metals indicate they are closely similar in properties. Chromium-iron (passive) 18-8 Stainless (passive) 18-8-3 Stainless (passive)Atomic weights Aluminum Antimony Argon Arsenic Barium Beryllium Bismuth Boron Bromine ‘Cadmium Calcium Carbon Cerium Cesium Chlorine Chromium Cobalt Columbium Copper Dysprosium Erbium Evropium Fluorine Gadolinium Gallium Germanium Gold Hafniym Helium Holmium Hydrogen In Iridium fron Krypton Lanthanum lead Lithium Lutecium Magnesium Manganese Mercury cr Cb Kr la Pb ui lo Mg Mn Hg NhSo8 SRaoBa BB SSSR 88 Rss. YOR 28 S88 atomic weight 26.97 121.76 39.944 7491 137.36 52.01 162.46 167.2 152.0 19.00 156.9 6972 72.60 197.2 178.6 4.003 164.94 1.0080 114.76 126.92 193.1 55.85 837 138.92 207.21 6.940 174.99 24.32 54.93 200.61 Molybdenum Neodymium Neon ! Nitrogen Osmium Oxygen Palladium Phosphorus Platinum Potassium Praseodymium Protactinium Radium Radon Rhenium Rhodium Rubidium: Ruthenium Samarium Scandium Selenium Silicon Silver Sodium Strontium Sulfur Tantalum Tellurium Terbium Thallium Thorium Thulium Tin Titanium Tungsten Uranium Vanadium Xenon Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium From the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1943. symbol Mo Nd Ne Ni N Os ° Pd atomic GENERAL INFORMATION 19 atomic number weight 42 60 10 2B SeBsN 40 9595 144.27 20.183 $8.69 14,008 190.2 16.0000 106.7 30.98 195.23 39.096 140.92 226.05 186.31 102.91 85.48 1017 150.43 45.10 78.96 28.06 107.880 22.997 87.63 180.88 127.61 159.2 204.39 + 232.12 169.4 118.70 47.90 183.92 238.07 50.95 131.3 173.04 88.92 65.38 91.22~> S Centigrade table of relative humidity or percent of saturation chy bot difference belween readings of wel and dry bulbs in degrees centigrade ay belb 3.013.514.0145! 5 16 17 | 819 [10111112113 | 14115] 161 181 20 | 22| 24126 | 28130] 32/341 36! 381401 centigrade | Se 2 | 92| 83] 75| 67 | 59| s2/ 43| 36] 27 | 20 2 4 [931 85] 77 | 70) a3 | 86 | 48 41 | 34 | 28 a5 4 6 — |94) 87 | 80| 73 | 66 | 60| 54 | a7 | 41 | 35 | 23 | 11 ‘ 8 | 94] a7 | a | 741 68 | 62 | 86} 60 | 45| 39 | 28 | 17 8 wo | 94} 8 | 82 | 76] 71 | 65 | 40 54 | 49 | 4s | 344 23] 14 10 ya | 94! e9| 84] 78 | 70] 68 | 63 58 | 53| 48] 38 | a0! 21 | 12] 4 12 14 | 95) 90} 84] 79) 74] 4 | 48 | 40 | 55] 51 | ai | 33| 24/18] 10 “4 1 |.95] 90] 85 | 81 | 76] 71 | 67 | 62 | 58 | 54 45 | 37 | 29 | 21 | 14 6 18 | 98| 90] 86 | 82| 73 | 73 | 49 | 65 | oi | 57 | 49 | 42| 35 | 7 | 20 18 2 [96] 91| 7 | 82] 78 74) 701 66 | 62| 83] 51 | 44 | 36 | 30 20 22 |96| 92] a7 |as| 79} 75| 72| «8 | 64 | «0 53 | 46 40} 24 | 27 2 24 196] 92] 88 | 85| a1 | 77 | 74 | 70 | 66 | 63 | $6 | 49 | «3 | 37 24 26 | 96] 92] 8 | 95 | 61 | 77| 74) 71 | 67 | 64 | &7 | 51| 45 2 2% —1.96| $2| 89 | 85 | 62 78| 75| 72 | 8 | 65 | so | s3| 47 28 30 |96| 93} 69| a6 | 92] 79 | 76 73 | 70| a7 | at | 65 | 50 2 20 32 |96| 93] 90 a6] 3 20] 77 | 74] 71 | aa] 62! 56] 51 15 2 34 | 97 | 93| 90 | a7 | ea | a1 | 77] 74) 71 | | a3 | 58 | 63 | 28 | 23 18) 10 3 36 | 97 | 93 | 90 87 | 84 | a1 | 78 | 75) 72| 70] e4 | 59 | $4 | 50 | 45 2/13 36 38 [97] 94] 90| 87 | 4 | 81 | 79 | 76 |73| 70| 65 | 60 | $6| 51 | 46 23 | 18} 10 38 40 |[97| 94] 91 | @5| 25 | e279] 75 | 74 | 71 | 66 | 61 | 67 | 82 | 48 2819} 13, 4% 42 }97| 94] 91 J 98| a5 a2] a0] 77| 74] 721 a7 | a2 | 50 | 53 | 49 7} |1s 2 4& [97 | 94] 91 | 83 | 86 | 83 | 80| 77 | 75 | 734 68 | 63 | 89 | 54 | 50 | 23] 1712 “4 as [97] 94| 91 | a9 | 65] 83 | a1 | 78 | 76 | 73 | 68 64 | 60 | 55] 52 ai} 25} is] 14 48 as |57| 94] 92| a9 | 66 | a4| 81 72 | 76] 74] 69 | 65 | 1 | 56 | 53 33/7} 21| 16/12 8 1971 94921 69| a7 18482791771 751 70 | 45 | a2 | 57 [354i 26 [231 i814 % Reprinted by permission of the Foxboro Company, Foxboro, Mass. Example: Assume dry bule reading thermometer exposed directly to atmosphere) Is 20° C and wet bulb reading is 17° C, or a difference of 3° C. Tho relative humidity ot 20° Cis then 74%.continued Centigrade table of relative humidity or percent of saturation Some, | difference between readings of wet and dry bulbs in degrees centigrade dry bulbs centigrade [0.811.011.5120 1516171819 130141112113 / 141 15 116] 18| 201 22/ 24126 | 28] 30132134136 136 140 contigrade 52 | 97 | 94] 92 | @9| 87 | 94 | 92 | 79 | 77 | 751 70 | 66 | 62 | 58 | 55] 51 | 48 | 44) 41 | 98] 35 | 30 | 25] 20) 18 11 2 54 |.97 195) 92 | 90 a7 | 85 | 82 | 80 | 78 | 76} 71 | 67 | 63 | 59 | 56] 52 | 49 ) 45 | 42 | 37 | 36 | 31 | 26 21 J 17 | 13 a | % 197 (95 | 92 | 90 | 87 | 85 | 83 | 80 | 78 | 764 72 | 68 | 64 | 60 | 57 | 53 50 | 48 | 43 | 40| 38 [32 | 27 | 23/19 15/11 56 { $B 197 | 95 | 93 | 90 | BB | 85 | a3 | BO | 79 | 77 | 72 | 68 | 44 | 41 | 57 | 54) St | 47 | 44 | 42] 39 | 33 | 29 | 24 | 20] 16 | 12 58 | 6 |.98} 95 | 93 | 90 | 88 | 86 | 63 | Bt | 79 | 77 | 73 | 69 | 65 | 62 | 58 | 55 | 52 | 48 | 45 | 48 | 40 | 35 | 20 | 26 j 21 | 18 | 14) 1 0 | | 2 | 98] 95| 93} 91 | 88] 86 | 94 | 81 77 | 78] 73 | 47 | 66 | 62 | 59] 56] 53 | 49 | 46 | 43) 41 | 36 | 31] 27) 23 J a9 | a5 | 12 a | 4 ~— [98] 95] 93 | 91 | 88] a6 | 84 | 82 | 80 | 78 | 74 | 70 | 66 | 63 | 59 | §6 | 53 | 50 | 47 | 44 | 42 | 37 | 32 28 | 24] 20| 17 | 13 6 . I 4 198/95) 93 | 91 | a9 | 86 | a4 | 82 | 80 | 78 | 74 | 70 | 67 | 44 | 60] 57 | 54 | 51 | 48 | 45] 43 | 38 [33 | 29 | 25] 21 | 18) 15 | 12 6% i 8 — 198/95] 93} 90 | 89 | 87 | 85 | 82 | Bt | 791 75 | 71 | 67 | 64 | 61 | 58 | 55 | 52 | 49 | 46 | 44 | 39 | 34 | 30 | 26} 22) 19 | 16 | 13 3 f 70 [98 | 96| 93 | 91 | 89 | 67 | 85 | 83 Jai | 79] 75 | 71 | 68 | 65 | 61 | 58 | 55 | 52 | 50 | 47 | 44 | 40 (35) 31 | 27 | 23 | 20) 17/141 1 70 72 |98|96} 94 | 92| 8] 87 | 85 | 83 | e1 | 80] 76 | 72| 69 | 65 | 62] 59 | 56 | 53] 50] 48] 45 | 40) 36 | 32] 28] 24 | 21 | 181 15/12 72 74 —|98|96| 94 | 92 | 90 | a7 | 85 | 83 | 82 | 80] 76 | 72 69 | 66 | 63} 60 | 57 | 84 | 51 | 48 | 46 | 41 | 37 | 39) 9 | 25 | 22) 19 | 18] 13] 11 7 78 198] 96 | 94 | 92 | 90} 98 | 86 | 84 | a2 | 80 76 | 73 | 70 | 66 | 63 | 40 | 57 | 54 | 52 | 49 | 47 | 42) 38! 34 | 30] 26 | 23 | 20/17 | 14] 12] | 7 78 98) 96| 25 | 92 | 90| 88 | 86 | 84 | 82 | 81 | 77 | 73| 70 | 67 | 64| 61 | $8 | 85 | 52 | 50} 47 | 43 | $8 | 34 | 30] 27 | 24 | 21] 18] 15113 | 10 8 8 | 98| 96) 94 | 92| 90] 88 | 86 | 84 | 83 | 81 | 77 | 74) 71] 67 | 64} 61 | $8 | $6 | 53 | 50} 48 | 49 | 39 | 35} 31 | 28 | 24 | 22/19] 16} 14/17 80 eo 82 | 98] 96| 94} 92] 90 88 | 86 | 94 | 89 | si | 77 | 74 70 | 68 | 65 | 62 | 59 | 56 | 54] 51] 49] 44 | 40] 36] 32] 29 | 25 | 22) 20] 17] 15/12] 10[ a2 Z 84 198] 96) 94 | 92| 90] 88 | 86 | 85 | 83 | 81 | 78 | 74) 71 | 68 | 65] 42 | 59 | 57 | 4 | 52] 49 | 45 | 40) 37 | 39] 29 26 | 23/20] 18] 16) 13) 1} ee g 8 [98 96 | 94 | 92 | 91 | as | 87 | 85 | 83 | 82] 78 | 75 | 22 69 | 66} 63 | 60 | 57 | 85 | 52] £0 45 | 41) 37| 34) 30] 27 | 24/21] 19 [is] 14] 12] Be > 88 |.98|96| 95 | 93) 91 | a9 | 87 | 85 | 83 | 82 | 78 | 75 | 72 | 69 | 66 | 63 | 60 | 58 | 55 | 53] 51 | 46 | 42] 38 | 2431 | 28/25 | 22] 19/17 | 15/13] 88 e 90 98) 97| 95 | 93) 91 | a9 | 87 | as | 84 | 82] 79 | 76 | 73 | 69 | 67 | 64 | 61 | 58 | 6 | 53} 51 | 47 | 42| 39 | 35 | 32 | 28 | 26 | 23] 20/18) 16/14] 90 z a 92 | 98| 97] 95| 93) 91 | 89 | 87 | 86 | 84 | 82] 79 | 76] 73| 70| 67 | 44 | ot | 59 | 56 | 54] 52| 47 | 43/99] 36] 32] 27] 26/24 afistis|r4] 92 Q 94 — 199/97] 95 | 93) 91 | a9 | 88 | 86 | 84 | 83] 79 | 76 | 73| 70| 67 | 65 | 62 | 59 | $7 | 54] 52 | 48 | 44 | 40] 36] 3330) 27 | 24) 22419117) 15] 94 96 — | 99| 97 | 95 | 93 | 91 | 90 | 88 | 86 | 84 | 83 | 80 | 76 | 74) 70 | 68 45 | 62 | 60 | 57 | 55] 53 | 48 | 44 | 41 | 37] 34 | 31 | 26] 25 | 224 20) 18] 16] 96 = 8 99 | 97 | 95 | 93 | 92] 90 | 88 | 86 | BS | 83 | 80 {77 | 74 | 71 | 68] 45 | 63 | 60} £8 | 55] £3 | 49 | 45 | 41 | 3B [34 | 31 | 28 | 26 | 234.21 | 19] 16. 8 > 100 99 197195 1931 921 90 188 | 86 [85 | 831 80 | 77174 (71 168 1 66 | 63 | 60! $8 | 56154 | 49 | 45] 421 381351321291 261241 list i71 100 3 =2 Atmospheric pressure chart | inches of mercury column HHH Ht | — SHARE EEE er — {|__| Hi HEE HE HEEEEEEEHERE PEEP 2 }——t fant nt ° 10,000 20,000 3,000 40,000 50,000 40,000 70,000 altitude in feet 1 inch of mercury = 0.4912 pounds per square inchGENERAL INFORMATION 3 Weather data ‘Compiled from Climate ond Man, Yearbook of Agriculture, U. $. Dept. of Agriculture, U. S. . Govt. Printing Office, Washington, D. C, 1941. : Temperature extremes 66°F Riverside Range Station, Wyoming (Feb. 9, 1933) Highest temperature 134° F Greenland Ranch, Death Valley, California Uuly 10, 1933) Alaska Lowest temperoture =78F Fort Yukon Uan. 14, 1934) Highest temperature 100° F Fort Yukon World Lowest temperature 90° F —_Verkhoyansk, Siberia (Feb. § and 7, 1892 Highest temperature 136° Azizia, Libyo, Africa (Sept. 13, 19221 lowest mean temperature (annual) 14° F + Fromheim, Antarctica Highest mean temperature lanavall 86°F — Massawa, Eritrea, Africa Precipitation extremes United States Wettest state Lovisiona—average annual rainfall 55.11 inches Dryest state Nevado—average anavel rainfall 8.81 inches Moximum recorded New Smyrna, Fla., Oct. 10, 1924—23.22 inches in 24 hours Minimum recorded Bagdad, Callt, 1 133.93 Inches in 5 years Greenland Ronch, Colif.—1.35 inches canual average World Maximum recorded Cherrapunji, India, Aug. 1841—241 Inches in 1 month (Average annual rainfall of Cherrapunii is 426 inches) Bagui, Luzon, Philippines, July 14-15, 1911—46 Inches in 24 hours ‘Minimum recorded Wai Helfo, Anglo-Eayptian Sudan and Awan, Egypt are in the “roinless"” ‘rea; average annual rainfall is too small to be measured World temperatures mut ir veitory mmoxipum | mtn nom| entery |rexipum | mingem NORTH AMERICA ASIA continued Alaska 100 78 India 120 -9 ‘Canada 103 -70 123 19 Canal Zone 7 63 lol -7 Greenland 86 46 7 4 Mexico 8 W 101 58 USA. 134 66 106, 52 fest Indies 102, 45 85 -20 m —2 SOUTH AMERICA 109, -90 ns -a 82 25 AFRICA 108, 2 Algeria 133, 1 9 19 ‘Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 126 2B 102, 45 Angola a 3 Belgion Congo. 97 34 Egypt 124 31 100 4 Ethiopia mM 32 107 -14 French Equatorial Africa 118 46 100 16 French West Africa 122 a 7 -6 Italian Somaliland 93 4l 4 4 libya 136 co] 95 2% Morocco ne 5 124 10 Rhodesia 103, 25 92 49 Tunisia 12 yoy Turkey 100 7 Union of South Africa Mm a USSR 10 él AUSTRALASIA ASIA, Australia. iw Ww Arabia Ww 53 Howoil 1 $1 China mM -10 New Zealand 9 B East Indies Jol 40 ‘Samoan Islands % 6 French Indo-China 13 3 Solomon Islands. 7 70a World precipitation —— highest average yeorly territory Jan] April | July average inches | inches | inches inches. NORTH AMERICA Aloska i371 | 1079 | ast | 2294 43 3.40 Conada e40 | 497 | 407 | 618 31 2685 Canal Zone 374 | 430 | 1600 | 1513 272 9754 Greenland 346 | 244 | 327 | 628 a7 2470 Mexico 163 | 1.53 | 1344 | 5.80 00 29.82 USA. B00 West Indies 445 | 665 | 580 | 6.29 118 on SOUTH AMERICA ‘Argentina 650} 472 | 216 | 335 238 16.08 Bolivia eat | 77 | 16 | Van 146 2418 Brazil 1326 | 1213 | 1047 | se 263 5542 Chile 178 | 118 | 1663 | 888 00 4613 Venezuela 275 | 690 | 633 | 1044 ‘61 40.01 EUROPE British Isles 549 | 367 | 378 | 557 1.54 36.18 Fronce 327 | 264 | 295 | 402 165 27.48 Germany vga | 279 | S02 | 297 134 26.84 leeland s47 | 370 | 307 | S95 370 291 Italy 402 | 441 | 240 | 5.32 1.63 B74 Norway ass | 413 | 579 | Boe 134 40.51 Spain 283 | 370] 205 | 358 154 274 Sweden 152 | 107 | 267 | 220 78 1812 Turkey 343 | 16s | 106 | 2:52 65 28.86 USSR 14s | 161} 3.50 | 207 3 18.25 ASIA lis | 40 | 03 | 09 18 3.05 197 | sao | 1383 | 692 1 063 ve4s | 10.67 | 6.54 | 10.00 260 78.02 French Indo-China 79 | 405 | 1208 | 1041 207 $5.84 India 329 | 3307 | 99.52 | 13.83 08 7518 Iraq 137 | “93 | 00 | 08 48 475 Japan 1079 | a7 | 9.94 | 7.48 283 70.18 Malay States 988 | 754 | s77 | B07 764 95.08, Philippine Islands 223. | 144 | 1728 | 10.72 128, 3.31 Siom 33 | 165 | 624 | 839 165, 5236 Turkey 413 | 275} 173 | 334 173 25.08 U.S.S.Re 179} 205 | 361 | 491 | 08 | 116 1185 ARICA ‘Algeri 402} 206} 35] aa] 2} | oo 973 ‘Anglo-Egyption Sudan 08 | 417 | 787 | 429 | ‘00 | ‘00 | 00 1827 ‘Angola ari | ss | “00 | 380 | ‘0 | ‘63 | 00 B45 Belgian Congo gor | esi | 13 | 277 | 369 | 181 | ‘00 39.38 Egypt 209] 16 | 00 | (28 | “00 | 00 | 00 3:10 Ethiopia ‘9 | 942 | 1098 | 339 | 28] air | 823 817 French Equatoriol Africa’) 984 | 1342 | 633 | 1358 | 00 | 34 | 04 57.55 French West Africe slo) isi | 802 | 187 | 00 | 00 | 8 19.51 Italian Somotilond 10 | 366 | 167 | 242 | 00 | 360 | 167 1728 libya 324 | (48 | 02 | 13 | 274 | 18 | 00 1317 Morocco 348 | 278 | 07 | 247} 131 | 36 | 00 1587 Rhodesia e4o | 95 | ‘04 | 120 | sai | %5 | 00 B65 Tunisia 236 | 130 | 08 | 154 | 236 | 130 |. ‘08 1580 Union of South Africa | 619 | 379 | 33 | 579 | “05 | 23] 27 26.07 AUSTRALASIA Australia 1564 | 533 | 657 | 284 a5] oF 78.31 Hawaii ui77 | 1306 | 989 | 1097 206 | 104 243 New Zealand 334 | 380 | 555 | 419 278 | 299 43.20 ‘Samoan Islands 1690 | 11.26 | 260 | 7.05 1126 | 2.60 118.47 Solomon Islands va44 | 824 | 626 | 791 a2 | 626 11837Principal power supp! GENERAL INFORMATION 4 s in foreign countries terttory 1 de volts i o< volts | frequency NORTH AMERICA Alaska 10, 220 oO British Honduras 110, 220 Cenada 10 #110, 150, 115, 230 60, 25 Costa Rica Ho *110 60 Cuba 110, 220 *110, 220 60 Dominican Republic 10 *110, 220 cu Guatemala 220, 125 #110, 20, 60, 50 Heit 110, 220, 60, 50 Honduras 110, 220 #110, 220 60 Mexico No, 220 110, 125, 15, 220, 220 60, 50 Newfoundland 110,118 50, 60 Nicaragua: 10 #110 60 Ponama Republic) 119, 220 60, 50 Ponamo {Canal Zone) 10 25 Puerto Rico 10, 220 #110 60 Sa N10, 220 #10 r) 110, 220 WEST INDIES: Boharros ts, NS 0 Barbados No 50 Bermuda M0 60 ‘Curacao 127 50 Jertco no 40,60 Wertirique no “110 50 Trinidad 10, 220 60 SOUTH AMERICA Arcentina #220 *220, 225, 50, 60, 43 Belvia Tio #10, 220 £0, 60 Brozil 11, 120, 220 110, 115, 120, 125, 220, 230 52, 69 Chile 220, 10 *220 $9, 60 Colombia *110, 220, 150, ©, Fouaor #0 ye 220 3 co raguay s Perv 220, 10 #220, 110 60, 50 Uruguay. 220 #220 50 Venezuela 110, 220 HO 50, 60 EUROPE Albania 220 +220, 125, 150 0 Austria 220, 110, 150 *220, 120, 127, 10 50 ‘Azores 220 20 % Belgium 220, 110, 120 #220, 127, 110, 115, 135 50, 40 Bulgaria 220, 120 #220, 120, 150 0 Cyprus (Br) #220 10 ‘50 Czechoslovakia 220, 120, 150, 110 #220, 110, 115, 127 50, 42 Denmork 220, 110 *220, 120, 127 50 Estonia #2290, 110, 220, 127 0 Finlond 120, 220, 110 220, 120, 115, 110 50 france 119, 220, 120, 125 #110, 115, 120, 125, 220, 230 80, 28 Germany 220, 110, 120, 250 *220, 127, 120, 110 50, 25. Gibraltar 440, 220 110 76 Greece *220, 110, 150 #127, 110, 220 0 Hungory 220, 110, 120 *100, 105, 110, 220, 120 42, 50 Iceland 20 50 Irish Free State #220 *220, 200 50, Maly 110, 125, 150, 220, 250, 160 150, 125, 120, 110, 115, 260, 220, 42, 50, 45 135 letvia 220, 110 220, 120 50, lithuania 220, 110 +220 50 Malta 105 00 Monaco 10 2 Netherlands 220 220, 120, 127, 50, Norway 220 #220, 230, 130, 127, 110, 120, 150 50 Poland 220, 110 #220, 120, 110 50 Portugal 220, 150, 125, *220, 110, 125 50, 42 Rumonia #220, 110, 105, 120 120, 220, 110, 115, 105 50, 42 Russia 220, 110, 120, 115, 250 #120, 110, 220 50 Spoin *110, 120, 115, 105 120, 125, 150, 110, 115, 220, 130 50 Sweden 220, 110, 120, 115, 250 #220, 127, 110, 125 50, 20, 25 Switzerland 220, 120, 110, 150 120, 220, 148, 150, 110, 120 $0, 40, Turkey 110, 220 #220, 110 coa Principal power supplies in foreign countries continued forritory, 1 de volts 1 2c volts EUROPE continued United Kingdom 230, 220, 240 #230, 240, others Jugoslavia Tio, 120 #120, 220, 150 ASIA ‘Arobia 220 British Moloya Fed. Maloy Stotes 20 Non-Fed. Malay Stetes | 230 Straits Settlements 220 230 North Borneo no Ceylon 20 230 China 229, 110 #110, 200, 220 Howell M10, 220° ledia 220, 110, 225, 230, 260 230, 220, 110, others French Indo-China 110, 120, 220, 240 #120, 20, 110, 115, 240 tron (Persia) 220, 110 20 req #220, 200 (220, 230 taper 100 #109, 110 Manchuria No Palestine 220 Philippine Islands 220 Sy No, 115, 220 Siom 100) Turkey 20, 110 #220, 10 ARICA ‘Angola (Port) ne) Algeria 220 #115, 110, 127 Belgion Congo 20 British West Africa 20 20 British Eost Africa 20 #240, 230, 110, 100 Canary Islands io "177, No Egyet 220 1200, 110, 220 Ethiopia (Abyssinia) 220, 250 Italien Africa Cyrenaica 150 119, 150 Eritres 127 Libya (Tripoit 125, 110, 270 Somaliland 120 +230) Moroceo (Fd no Nis, no Morocco (Spanish! 200 #127, 10, 18 ‘Madagascar (Fr 120) Senegal (Fr 220 120 Tunisia no #110, 115, Union of South Africa 220, 230, 240, 110 220, 230, 240 OCEANIA Australia. New South Wales 240 240 Victoria 20 230 Queensland 220, 240 #240 South Australia 200, 230, 220 #200, 220, 240 West Australia #790, 110, 230 250 Tasmenia #0 0 New Zealand 2 a 250 #230 120 vio Note: Where both ac and de ore avatlable, an asterisk Indicates the type of supoly ond. voltage predominating. Where approximately equal quantities of ac and de are available, an tori precedes each ofthe principal voltage, Voltoges and frequencies are Inted In order preference. The electcal authors of Great Bian have adopted a plan of unving electrical ditribu- tion systems. The stondard potential for both ac ond de supplies will be 230 volts. Systems using other voltages will be changed over. The standard ac frequency will be 50 cycles. Coution: The listings in these tables represent types of electrical supplies most generally used In particulor countries. For power supply characteristics of particutar cities of foreign coune ties, refer to the country section of World Electrical Markets, a publication of the U. S. Dew partment of Commerce, Bureau of Foreign ond Domestic Commerce, Washington, D.C. In cases ‘where definite information relative to specific locations Is necessary, the Electrical Division of the above-named Bureau should be consulted, 8 & BRSs B 88 BR s8 g BBsseessss seeseess eeesesgssesgssese BS BB 8 & Bs sssssssWorld time chart i ° i is 2| § 3 iz| 3 og 2] f] ls |egdlds Hla h| Gf B| ot | 2/4, (82/4 = ae se sz | «| 2a | 58 5 | & sewl w |ees| 8s | 2 3 | 22 = 3 Hl] SHARIR HIE af) | 2 a3 HH] S (HEE) G2 (22 | a3 | gz | 38 | gb 228] G2 | 38 1:00pm | 1:30pm Midnite | 0000 | 1:00am | 2:00am | 3:00am { 5:30am | 7:00am | 8:000m | 9:00am |10:00am | 11:00am [11:30am 2:00pm } 2:30pm T:60am | 0100 | 2:00am | 3:00am | 4:00am | 6:30am | 8:000m | 9:000m |10:0Gam |11:00am ) Noon |1230pm 3:00pm | 3:30pm 2:00am | 0200 | 3:000m | 4:00am } 5:00am | 7:30am | 9:00am }10:000m |11:00am | Noon | 1:00pm | 1:30pm 4:00pm 3:000m | 0300 | 4:00am | 5:00am | 6:00am | 8:30am |10:000m {11:00am | Noon | 1:00pm | 2.00pm | 2:30pm §:00pm 4:00am | 0400 | 5:00am } 6:00am | 7:00am | 9:30am |11:00am | Noon | 1,00pm| 2.00pm | 3.00pm | 3:30pm 8:00pm 5:00am | 0500 | 6:00am | 7:00am } 8:00am |10:30am | Noon | 1:00pm | 2:00pm | 3.00pm | 4:00pm | 4:30pm 7:00pm 6:00am } 0600 | 7:00am | 8:00am } 9:00am |11:30am | 1:00pm } 2.00pm | 3:00pm } 4:00pm | 5:00pm | 5:30pm 8:00pen 7:00am | 0700 | 8:00am | 9:00am |10:00am |12:30pm | 2.00pm | 3.00pm | 4:00pm | 5:00pm | 6:00pm | 6:30pm 9:00pm 8:00am | 0800 | 9:00am |20:00am |11:00am | 1:30pm } 3:00pm | 4:00pm | 5:00pm | 6.00pm | 7:00pm | 7:30pm 104 9:00am | 0900 |10:00am |11:00em | Noon } 2:30pm | 4:00pm | 5:00pm | 6:00pm] 7:00pm } 8:00pm | 8:30pm 1.00pm 10:00am | 1000 {11:00am | Noon | 1:00pm | 3:30pm | 5:00pm | 6:00pm | 7:00pm | 8:00pm | 9.00pm | 9.30pm Midnite 11:00am { 1100 { Noon | 1:00pm | 2:00pm | 4:30pm | 6:00pm | 7:00pm | 8:00pm | 9:00pm {10:00pm {10:30pm 1:00am Noon | 1200 | 1:00pm | 2.00pm | 3.00pm | 5:30pm | 7:00pm | 8:00pm | 9:00pm |10:00pm |+1-00pm {11:30pm 2.00am | 2:300m 1:00pm | 1300 | 2:00pm | 3:00pm | 4:00pm } 630m | 8:00pm | 9:00pm |10:00pm |11:C0pm | Midnite [I2:30am” 000m | 330m 2.00pm | 1400 ] 3:00pm } 4:00pm | 5:00pm | 7:30pm | 9:00pm 10:00pm |11:00om | Midnite | 1:00am | 1:30am 4:000m | 4:300m 3.00pm | 1500 | 4:00pm | 5:00pm | 6:00pm | 8:30pm |10:00pm Midette | 7-Goam | 200am | 2:30am 5:00am | 5:300m 4:00pm | 1400 | 5:00pm | 6:00pm | 7:00pm | 9:30pm |11:00pm T:60am { 2:000m | 3:00am | 3:30am 60am | 6:30am | 7:00am | 9:00am |11:00am 7,000m | 7:300m | 8:000m |10:00am | Noon 800m | 8:30am | 9:000m |11:000m } 1:00pm 9.00am | 9:304m 10:00am | Noon | 2:00pm 10:00am {10:30am |11,00om | 1:00pm | 3:00pm 11:00am |11:30am | Noon | 200pm | 4:00pm Noon [12:30pm | 1:00pm | 3.00pm | §:005m 1:00pm | 1:30pm | 2.00pm | 4:00pm | 6:00pm This chart is based on STANDARD TIME, ‘When passing the line going to the right ADD one doy. Passing heavy line denotes change of date. ‘When passing the line going to left SUBTRACT one day, Courtesy, American Cable & Radio Corporation 00pm | 1700 | 6:00pm | 7:00pm | 8:00pm [10:30pm | Midnite [1:00em | 2:00am | 3:00am | 4.000m | 4:30am 60pm | 1800 | 7:00pm | 8:00pm 1:00am } 2:000m | 3:00am | 4:00am | 5:00am } 5:30am 7:00pm | 1900 | 8:00pm | 9:00pm 00am } 3:00am } 4:00am | 5:00am } 6:00am | 6:300m 8:00pm | 2000 | 9:00pm [10:00pm 3,00am | 4:00am | 5:00am | 6:00am | 7:00am } 7:30am 9:00pm | 2100 |10:00pm [17:00pm 4:00am | $:000m | 6:00am | 7:00am | 8:00am | 8:30am 10:00pm | 2200 }11:00pm | Midnite 5:00am | 6:00am } 7:00am | 8:00am | 9:00am | 9:30am 11:00pm | 2300 | Midnite [ 1:00am ‘ 600am | 7:00am | 8:00am | 9:00am {10:00am {10:30am [Midnite | 2400 {7:00am | 2:000m | 3:60am | 5:30am | 7:00am | 8:00am | 9:00am }10:000m {11:00am {11:30am Q NOILVW4OINI 1V4INID.Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum ———_—_———_———— Angstrom units 0.00014 30,000 ‘SAM 875M IOMETERS (METER 10CM IGM WOK B50 1600 30,000KG_300NG 3000MG 10- 30 Very Low VLF 30,000 10,000 98,424 —32,808 30- 300 tow iF 10,000 ~ 1,000 32,808 - 3,281 300- 3,000 Medium MF 1,000 - 100 3,281 - 328 3,000- 30,000 High HE 100 - 10 328 - 328 30,000- 300,000 Very High VHF Ww - 1 32.8 - 3.28 309,000- 3,000,000 Ultra High UHF l= 01 3.28- 0.33 3,000,000-30,000,000 Super High SHE OL 0.01 0.33- 0.03 * Officiol FCC designation, March 2, 1943, { Based on the established practice of considering the velocity of propaga- tion in ofr as 300,000 kilometers per second instead of the true velocity of propagation of 299,796 kilometers per second.GENERAL INFORMATION 4 Wavelength vs frequency chart 2 = wavelength in feet 328 4400 S00 600 600 1000 1s00 2000 3000 # = frequency in kilocycles 1800 1000 900 800 700 180 200-250 300 «= 400-800 606 = 800-1000 wavelength in meters Conversion factors for wavelength vs frequency chart for frequencies from |___muttiply f by | _ multiply \ by 30-300 kilocycles, 01 10.0 300- 3,099 kilocycles 1.0 1.0 3,000- 30,090 kilocycles 10.0 0.1 30,099- 309,009 kilocycles 100.0 0.01 309,000- 3,090,000 kilocycles 1,000.0 0.001 '3,000,000~30,000,000 kilocycles 10,000.0 0.0001 Wavelength vs frequency fo! = 300,000 ~~ frequency in kilocycles Wavelength in feet, Xyp == 20000. 9.28 _ frequency in kilocycles Wavelength in meters, Xowwy ogy We 308 i ak 7 Frequency tolerances Cairo revision 1938 IO aC ve Ol oe , ‘ frequency bands (wavelengths) column 1 | column 2 A. From 10 to 580 ke (30,000 to 545 meters): a. Fixed stations 01% 0.1% b. Land stations 0.1% 0.1% ¢. Mobile stations using frequencies other than those of bands indicated under (d) 0.5% 0.1% d. Mobile stations using frequencies of the bands 110-160 ke (2,727 to 1,875 meters), 365-515 ke (822 10 583 meters)t 0.5%* 03%* e. Aircraft stations 05% 0.3% {. Broadcasting stations 50 cycles 20 cycles B. From 550 to 1,500 ke (545 to 200 meters): @. Broadcasting stations 50 cycles 20 cycles b. Land stations 01% 0.05% ¢. Mobile stations using the frequency of 1,364 ke (220 meters) 0.5% 0.1% C. From 1,00 to 6,000 ke (200 to 50 meters!: a. Fixed stations 0.03% 0.01% b. Land stations 0.04% 0.02% ¢. Mobile stations using freqdencies other than those of bands indicated in (d): 1,560 to 4,000 ke (192.3 to 75 meters) | O1%* 0.05%* 4,000 to 6,000 ke (75 to 50 meters} 0.04% 0.02% d. Mobile stotions using frequencies within the bands: 4,115 to 4,165 ke (72.90 to 72.03’ meters) 01% 0.08%" 5,500 to 8,550 ke (54.85 to 54.05 meters) Ve 8 70 e. Aircraft stations 0.05% 0.025% f, Broadcasting: between 1,500 and 1,699 ke {200 and 187.5 meters} 50 cycles 20 cycles between 1,600 and 6,000 kc (187.5 and 50 meters) 0.01%, 0.005% D. From 6,000 to 30,000 ke {50 to 10 meters): a. Fixed stations 0.02% 0.01% 6. Land stations 0.04% 0.02% c. Mobile stations using frequencies other than those of . bands indicated under (d) 0.04% 0.02% d. Mobile stations using frequencies within the bands: 6,200 to 6,250 ke (48.39 to 48 meters) 8,230 to 8,330 ke (36.45 to 36.01 meters) 11,000 to 11,100 ke (27.27 to 27.03 meters) * * 12,340 to 12,500 ke (24.31 to 24 meters) 01% 0.087) 16,460 to 16,840 ke 118.23 to 18.01 meters) 22,000 to 22,200 ke (13.64 to 13.51 meters) e. Aircraft stations 0.05% 0.025% f. Broadcasting stations 0.01% 0.005% Column 1: Tronsmitters in service now and untit Jonvary 1, 1944, after which dato they will conform to the tolerances indicated in column 2. ‘Column 2: New transmitters instolled beginning January 1, 1940. * See preamble, under 3. ris recognized that @ great number of spark tronsmitters ond simple self-oscillator trans- mitters exist in this service which are not able to meet these requirements.GENERAL INFORMATION 31 Frequency tolerances continued The frequency tolerance is the maximum permissible separation beween the actual frequency of an emission and the frequency which this emission should have (frequency notified or frequency chosen by the operator). This separation results from the following errors: a. Error made when the station was calibrated; this error presents a semi- permanent character. b. Error made during use of the station (error variable from one transmis- sion to another and resulting from actual operating conditions: ambient temperature, voltage of supply, antenna, skill of the operator, et cetera). This error, which is usually small in other services, is particularly important in the case of mobile stations. c. Error due to slow variations of the frequency of the transmitter during a transmission. Note: In the case of transmissions without a cartier wave, the preceding definition applies to the frequency of the carrier wave before its suppression, In the case of ship stations, the reference frequency is the frequency on which the transmission begins, and the figures appearing in the present table, marked by an asterisk, refer only to frequency separations observed during a ten-minute period of transmission. In the frequency tolerance, modulation is not considered. Note 1: The administrations shall endeavor to profit by the progress of the art in order to reduce frequency tolerances progressively. Note 2; It shall be understood that ship stations working in shared bands must observe the falerances applicable to land stations and must conform to article 7, paragraph 21 {2} la). No. 186. Note 3: Radiotelephone stations with less than 25 watts power, employed by maritime beacons for communications with beacons isolated at sea, shall be comparable, with reference to fre- quency stability, to mobile stations indicated ia C above. Note 4: Ships equipped with a transmitter, the power of which is under 100 watts, working in the band of 1560-4000 ke 192.3-75 meters), shall not be subject to the stipulations of column 1, Reproduced from "Treaty Series No. 948, Telecommunication—General Radio Regulations (Cairo Revision, 1938) and Final Radio Protocol (Cairo Revision, 1938) annexed to the Tela- communication Convention (Madrid, 19321 Betwoen the United States of America and Other Powers,” Appendix 1, pp. 234, 235 and 236, United States Government Printing Office, Wash- ington, D. C. References refer to this publication,22 Frequency-band widths occupied by the emissions Cairo revision, 1938* The frequency bands necessary for the various types of transmission, at the present state of technical devetopment, are indicated below. This table is based sotely upon amplitude modula tion, For frequency or phase modulation, the band widths necessary for the varlaus transmissions ‘are many times greater. type of transmissi AO Continuous waves, no signaling —_| Al Telegraphy, pure, continuous wave | Numerically equal to the telegraph speed in bauds Morse code for the fundamental frequency, 3 times this width Baudot code for the 3d harmonic, etc. Stop-start printer [for a code of 8 time elements (dots or blanks} per letter and 48 time elements per ward, the speed in bauds shall be equai ta 08 times the speed in words par minute. Scanning-type printer 300-1,000, for speeds of 50 words per minute, according to the conditions of operation and the number of lines scanned (for example, 7 or 12). (Harmonies are not considered in the above values.) 2 Telegrophy modulated to musical | Figures appearing under Al, plus twice the highest frequency ‘modulation frequency. 3 Commercial radiotelephony Twice the number indicated by the C.C.LF. Opinions (about 6,000 to 8,000.1 Broadcasting 15,000 to 20,000. A Facsimile ‘Approximately the ratio between the number of pictura components? to be transmitted and the number of seconds necessary for the transmission, ‘Approximately the product of the number of picture ‘components? multiplied by the number of pictures transmitted per second. AS Television ized thatthe band width may be wider for multiple-channelradlotslephony and 3t radiotelephony. 3 iwa picture components, one block and one white, constitute a cycle: thus the modulation {reauency equals one holf tho nunber of components transnitted per second. * See Footnote under Frequency Tolerances, Treaty Series No. 948, Telecommunication. Tolerances for the intensity of harmonics of fixed, land, and broadcasting stations! — Cairo revision, 1938" frequency bands I tolerances Frequency under 3,000 ke twavelength | The field intensity produced by any harmonic must be above 100 meters) under 300 xv/m at § kilometers from the trans- hl mitting antenna. Frequency above 3,000 ke wavelength | The power of a harmonic in the ontenna must be under 100 meters) 40 db under the power of the fundamental, but in No case may it be above 200 milliwatts? 1. With regard to tolerances for mobile stations, an attempt shol/’be made to achieve, s0 far os possible, the figures specified for fixed stotions. # A transmitter, the harmonic intensity of which is not above the figures specified but which nevertheless causes interference, must be subjected to special measures intended to eliminate reference. Footnote under Frequency Tolerances, Treaty Series No. 948, TelecommunicationGENERAL INFORMATION 3 Classification of emis: NS — Cairo revision, 1938 * © 1. Emissions shall be classified below according to the purpose for which they are used, assuming their modulation or their possible keying to be only in amplitude. a. Continuous waves: Type AO. Waves the successive oscillations of which are identical under fixed conditions.! Type Al. Telegraphy on pure continuous waves. A continuous wave which is keyed according to a telegraph code. Type A2. Modulated telegraphy. A carrier wave modulated at one or more audible frequencies, the audible frequency or frequencies or their combi- nation with the carrier wave being keyed according to a telegraph code. Type A3. Telephony. Waves resulting from the modulation of a carrier wave by frequencies corresponding to the voice, to music, or to other sounds. Type A4. Facsimile. Waves resulting from the modulation of a carrier wave by frequencies produced at the time of the scanning of a fixed image with a view fo its reproduction in a permanent form. Type AS. Television. Waves resulting from the modulation of a carrier wave by frequencies produced at the time of the scanning of fixed or moving objects.” Note: The band widths to which these emissions correspond are indicated under Frequency-Band Widths Occupied by the Emissions. b. Damped waves: Type B. Waves composed of successive series of oscillations the amplitude of which, after attaining a maximum, decreases gradually, the wave trains being keyed according to a telegraph code. 2. In the above classification, the presence of a carrier wave is assumed im all cases. However, such carrier wave may or may not be transmitted. This classification does not contemplate exclusion of the use, by the admin- istrations concerned, under specified conditions, of types of waves not in- cluded in the foregoing definitions. 3. Waves shall be indicated first by their frequency in kilocycles per second {kc) or in megacycles per second (Mc). Following this indication, there shall be given, in parentheses, the approximate length in meters. In the present Regulations, the approximate value of the wavelength in meters is the quo- tient of the number 300,000 divided by the frequency expressed in kilocycles per second, 1 These waves are used only in special cases, such as standard frequency emissions, 2 Objects is used here in the optical sense of the word. *See Footnote under Frequency Tolerances, Treaty Series No. 948, Tele- communication., Voltage, and current rat The decibel, abbreviated db, is a unit used to express the ratio between two amounts of power, Pi and Ps, existing at two points. By definition the number of db = 10 logue! 2 It is also used to express voltage and current ratios. Vy i The number of db = 20 logo — = 20 logie + Ve h Strictly, it can be used to express voltage and current ratios only when the two points at which the voltages or currents in question have identical impedances. 19983 14125 3.0 Tot X 2.5119 158.49 449 2.2387 “1.4962 35 Jor x 39811 199.53 460 25119 15849 40 Tot 6.3096 251.19 480 28184 1.6788 45 108 31623 50.0 ‘31623 1783 50 108 X 1.5849 an 520 3.5481 1.8896 55 Woe x 2.5119 0119 540 398i 1.9953, 60 108 X 3.9811 63096 56.9 5019 20387 79 105 X 6.3096 79433 58.0 63096 25119 80 10! 1,000.00 60.0 79433 28184 90 1 3,162.3 700 1010000 31623 100 108 10,000.0 800 12.589 3.5481 no 10 31,623 30.0 15849 ‘9811 120 To 100,000 100.0 Decibels to nepers multiply by 0.1151 Nepers to decibels multiply by 6.686 ‘Where the power ratio Is less than unity, itis usual to Invert the fraction ‘and express the answer os @ decibel lossCHAPTER TWO 35 @ Engineering and material data Copper-wire table—standard annealed copper American wire gauge (B & S)* diam- ft per ohm | ohms per Ib gauge | ster, "oper | perth | at 20°C | af 20°C re | mils 1,000 (68° F) (68°F) 0000 | 460.0 211,600 0.1662, 0.04901 | 640.5 1,561 | 20,400 0,00007652 000 | 409.6 167,800 0.1318 0.06180 | 507.9 1.968 | 16,180 0.001217 00 | 3648 | 133100 | 01045 0.07793 | 4028 2482 | 12/890 .0001985 O | 3249 105,500 0.08289 0.09827 | 319.5 3.130 | 10,180 0,0003076 + | 289.3 83,690 0.06573 0.1239 | 253.3, (3.947 | 8,070 0,0004891 2| 2576 | e370 | ooszi3 0.1563 | 200.9 497 | 6400 0.000778 3 | 229.4 52,640 0.04134 0.1970 | 159.3 6.276) 5,075 0.001237 4 | 2043 41,740, 0.03278 0.2485 | 1264 7914) 4,025 0.001966 5 | 1819 | 33,100 | 0.02600 03133 | 100.2 9980 | 3,192 o.003127 & | 162.0 26,250 0.02062 0.3951 79.46 12:58 | 2,531 0.004972 7 | 144.3 20,820 0.01635, 0.4982 | 63.02 1887 | 2,007 0.007905 8 | 128.5 16,510 0.01297 0.6282 | 49.98 20.01 1,592 0.01257 9} 144 | 1390 | 001028 07921 | 99.63 2523 | 1,262 0.01999 10 | 1019 10,380 0.008155 0.9989 | 31.43 31.82 1,001 0.03178 u 90.74 8,234 0.006467 1.260 24.92 40.12 794 0.05053 12} 081 | 6530 | ooosi2e 1588 | 19.77 sos | 66 o.0803s 13 | 7198 | 5178 | coder 2003 | 1548 $380 | 4993. 0.1278 4 64.08 4,107 0.003225 2.525 12.43 80.44 396.0 0.2082 18 | $7.07 3,257 0.002558 3.184 9.858 101.4 314.0 0.3230 16 50.82 2,583, 0.002028 4.016 7.818 179 249.0 0.5136 VW | 45.26 2,048; 0.001609 $,064 6.200 161.3 197.5 0.8167, 18 | 4030 | 1424 | aoora76 4385 | 4917 | 2034 | 1566 1.299 19 | 35.89 1,288 0.001052 8.051 3.899 256.5 124.2 2.065 20 | 31.96 1,022 0,0008023 10.15 3.092 3234 98.50 3.283 2 28.46 810.1 0.0006363 12.80 2.452 407.8 78.11 $.221 z| 2535 | 6424 | ooos«s | i6i4 | i945 | si42 | oi9s 5301 2 |) 22.57 509.5 | 0.0004002 20.36 1,542 648.4 49.13 13.20 24 20.10 404.0 | 0,0003173, 25.67 1.223 8177 38.96 20.99 25 17.90 320.4 | 0.0002517 32.37, 0.9699 | 1,031.0 30.90 33.37 ey 15.94 2541 0.0001996 40.81 0.7692, 1,300 24.50, 53.06 a 14.20 201.5 | 0.0001583 ‘$1.47 0.6100 | 1,639 19.43 84.37 eB 12.64 159.8 | 0,0001255 64.90 0.4837 | 2,067 15.41 1342 a 1.26 1267 — | 0.00009953 81.83 0.3836 | 2,607 12.22 213.3 +30 10.03 100.5 | 0.00007894 103.2 0.3042 | 3,267 9.691 339.2 31 8.928 79.70 | 0.00006260 130.1 0.2413 | 4,145 7.685 539.3 32 7950 63.21 | 0.00004964 164.0 1913 | 5,227 6.095 857.6 33 7.080 $0.13 | 0,00003937 206.9 0.1517 | 6,597 4833 | 1,364 4 6.305 39.75 | 0.00003122 260.9 0.1203 | 8,310 3.833 | 2,168 35 5.615 31.52 | 000002476 329.0 0.09542 | 10,480 3.040 % 000, 25.00 | 0.00001964 4148 0.07568 | 13,210, 2411 5,482 37 4453 19.83 | 0.00001 557 $23.1 0.06001 | 16,660 1912 | 8,717, 38 3.965 15.72 | 0,00001235, 659.6 0.04759 | 21,010 1.516 | 13,860 9 3.531 12.47 | 0.000009793 | 831.8 0.03774 | 26,500 1.202 | 22,040 40, 3.145 9.888 0,000007766 | 1,049.0 0.02993 | 33,410 0,9534 | 35,040 Temperature coefficient of resistance: The resistance of a conductor at temperature +°C is given by Ry = Roo [1 + alt — 201) where Rag is the resistance at 20° C ond ow is the temperature coefficient of resistance at 20°C. For copper, ox = 0.00393. That Is, the resistance of a copper conductor increases approxke nately 4/10 of 1 percent per degree centigrade rise in temperature. * For additional data on wire, soe pages 36, 37, 38, 60, and 126,i Copper-wire table—English and metric unitst imperial English units Amer Birr ‘Bai resistance wire | wire [OT BHHSN | diam | elubt | chime per | diam gevse | gauge | ij Violet | Brown 4709 4700 4700 Yellow | Violet | Red é | 300 Black | Brown 5,000 | Green | Black | Red 3 ! range | Brown 5,100 Green | Brown | Red 3 350 Green | Brown 5,600 5,600 Green | Blue | Red Blue | Brown 6200 Blue | Red | Red > i White | Brown 6800 6,900 $800 Bie | Gray | Red z : 400 Black | Brown 7,500 7,500 | Violet | Green | Red 3 ‘Orange | Brown 8200 8,200 Groy | Red | Red 450 Green| Brown 91100 White | Brown | Red 2 Violet’ | Brown { 10,000 10,000 10,059 10,000 | Brown | Black | Orange > 500 Bleck | Brown 11/030 Brown | Brown | Orange g Brown | Brown 12,000 12,000 12,000 | Brown | Red | Orange 6 \ Blue | Brown 1300 Brown | Oronge | Orange 1 600 Black | Brown | 15,000 15,000 15,009 15,000 | Brown | Grean | Orange g Red | Brown 18009 Brown | Blue } Orange B Gray | Brown 18,000 18,000, Brown | Groy | Orange 3 750 Green | Brown 2.000 20,000 | Red” | Black | Orange g Red | Brown | 22,000 22,000 zon Red |} Red | Orange Brown | Brown 24/000 Red | Yellow | Orange 2= wet resistance designation #20% | +10% D = no col| D = silver | D = A 8 c ‘Grange Green| Brown | Yellow 27,000 27,000 Red | Violet | Orange Green | Blue | Yellow 30/000 30,000 | Oronge | Black | Orange Blue | Black | Yellow 33,000 33,000 33,000 Orange | Orange | Orange Bie | Red | Yellow 36,000 Orange | Blue | Orange Blue | Groy | Yellow | 39/000 39/000 Orange | White | Orange Violet | Green | Yellow j 40,000 | Yeliow | Black | Orange Gray | Red | Yellow ‘ 43000 Yellow | Orange | Qronge White | Brown | Yellow | ‘47,000 47,000 47,000 Yellow | Violet | Orange Brown | Block | Green 50,000 | Green | Biock | Orange Brown | Brown | Green 1 51,000 Green | Brown | Orange Brown | Red | Green I $6,000 56,000 Green | Bie | Oronge Brown | Orange | Green ! 60,000 | Blue Black Orange Brown | Green | Green ! 62,000 Ble {Red | Orange Brown | Blue | Green 68,000 8,000 66,000 Blue | Gray | Orange Brown | Gray | Green : 75,000 75,000 | Violet | Green | Orange Red | Back | Green 2,000 82,000 Gray | Red | Orange Red | Red | Groen 91,000 White | Brown | Orange Red | Yellow | Green 100,000 | 100,000 | 100000 | 100,000 | Brown | Black | Yellow fed | Violet | Green 110000 Brown | Brown | Yellow Orenge | Biack | Green 120000 } 120000 } 120,000 } Brown | Red | Yellow Orange | Orange } Greon 130000 Brown | Orange | Yellow range | Bue | Green 180,000 | 150,000 | 150000 | 180,000 | Brown | Groen | Yellow Oronge | White } Green 180000 Brown | Blue | Yellow Yellow | Bock | Green 180,000 | 180000 Brown | G Yellow Yellow | Orange | Green 200000 | 200,000 | Red” | Biock | Yellow Yellow | Violet” | Green 70,000} 220,000 | 720000 Red | Red | Yellow Green | Black | Green 240,000 Red — | Yellow | Yellow Green | Brown | Green 250,000 | Red | Green | Yellow Green | Blue | Green 270900 | 270000 Red | Violet | Yellow Blue | Black | Green 300000 } 300,000 |} Orange | Black | Yellow Blue | Red | Green 330,000 | 330,000 | 330000 Qronge | Orange | Yellow Bie | Gray | Green 360000 Orange } Blue | Yellow Violet} Block | Green 390,000 | 390,000 Orenge | White | Yellow Violet | Green | Green 400,000 | Yellow | Black | Yellow Gray | Block | Green 430.000 Yellow | Orange | Yellow Gray | Red | Green 470900 | 470000 | 470000 Yellow | Violet | Yellow White | Bleck | Green 500,000 | Green | Biock | Yellow White | Brown | Green Brown | Black’ { BlueAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 55 Capacitors, fixed mica dielectric Fixed mica-dielectric capacitors of the American War Standards and Joint Army-Navy Specification are designated differently from the 1938 RMA Standard. AWS and JAN mica capacitors have a characteristic defined in Table |. Table | temperature maximum verification of a coefficient capacitance | characteristics parts/million/* drift by production test * Not specified | Not specified Not required t Not specified Not specified Not required t —200 to +200 | 0.5 percent Not required t —100 to +100 0.2 percent Not required t Oto +100 0.05 percent Not required t Oto +50 0.025 percent Required t Oto —50 0,025 percent Required * Q must be greoter thon 34 of minimum allowable @ for other characteristics UAN). + Minimum acceptable Q ot 1 MC is defined by 0 curve; valve varies with capacitance. Type designations of AWS or JAN fixed mica-dielectric capacitors are a comprehensive numbering system used to identify the component. The capacitor type designation is given in the following form: A 050 M ae NO COMPONENT ‘CASE CHARACTERISTIC CAPACITANCE TOLERANCE Component designation: Fixed mica-dielectric capacitors are identified by the symbol CM. Case designation: The case designation is a 2-digit symbol which identifies a particular case size and shape. Characteristic: The characteristic is indicated: by a single letter in accordance with Table |. Capacitance value: The nominal capacitance value in micromicrofarads is indicated by a 3-digit number. The first two digits are the first two digits of the capacitance value in micromicrofarads. The final digit specifies the number of zeros which follow the first two . If more than two significant figures are required, additional digits may be used, the last digit always indi- cating the number of zeros. Capacitance tolerance: The symmetrical capacitance tolerance in percent is designated by a letter as shown on page $2.AWS and JAN fixed capacitors mica copactors—block (AWS paper capacitors—ailver) decimal mutiplier characteristic tolerance RMA fixed capacitors The 1938 RMA Standard covers a simple 3-dot color code showing directly only the capacitance, and a more comprehensive 6-dot color code showing 3 significant figures and tolerance of the capacitance value, and a voltage rating. Capacitance values are expressed in micromicrofarads up to 10,000 micromicrofarads. first significant figure —} second significant figure: RMA 3-dot —500-volt, + 20% tolerance only decimal multiplier first significant figure second significant figure \— decimal multiplier voltage rating tolerance RMA 6-dot Examples RMA dot) | red | green | brown | none | none | none | 280 ypf 4 20%, 500 volts RMA brown] black | black | blue | green | brown | 1000 mul © 5 Hv MA brown] red | groen | gold | ved ° | brown | 1250 nut 27%, 1000 vals Comtopest) | black’) be | aray | Brown | gold | brown | 680 auf 8%, charactorstic B CM35E332G | block | orange | orange | yellow | red | red ‘aut = 2%, characteristic EAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN HY Capacitors, fixed ceramic Tubular ceramic dielectric capacitors are used for temperature compenso- tion of tuned circvits and have mony ather applications as well. If the capacitance, tolerance, and temperature coefficient are not printed on the capacitor body, the following color code will be used. The change in capacitance per unit capacitance per degree centigrade is the tempera- ture coefficient, usually stated in parts per million per centigrade (ppm/°C). capacitance tolerance temperature in% in wut coefficient €>10put | ¢ S10 uut_| parts/million/? ¢ significant figure color multiplier black brown red orange yellow green ‘A first significant figure B second significant figure C decimal multiplier D capacitance tolerance temperature coefficient Examples wide narrow bands or dots band A_[ .B }] ¢ | Db description black black | black | 2.0 yf + 2 mul, zero temp coeff blue black j} green | 22 uuf +5%, —470 pom/° C temp coeft violet brown | silver | 829 uf ++10%, —750 ppm/° C temp coeft3B Inductance of single-layer solenoids The approximate value of the low-frequency inductance of a single-layer solenoid is: L = Fn®d microhenries* where F = form factor, a function of the ratio d/. The value of F may be read from the accompanying chart, Fig. 1: n = number of turns, d = diameter of coil {inches), between centers of conductors, / = length of coil {inches} =n times the distance between centers of adjacent turns. The formula is based on the assumption of a uniform current sheet, but the correction due to the use of spaced round wires is usually negligible for practical purposes. For higher frequencies skin effect alters the inductance slightly. This effect is not readily calculated, but is often negligibly small. However, it must be borne in mind that the formula gives approximately the true value of inductance. In contrast, the apparent value is affected by the shunting effect of the distributed capacitance of the coil. Example: Required a coil of 100 microhenries inductance, wound on a form 2 inches diameter by 2 inches winding length. Then d/I = 1.00, and F = 0.0173 on the chart. L 100 agi aaj = ay "= Ved ~ Vooia xa ~ 4 ms Reference to Magnet Wire Data, page 60, will assist in choosing a desirable size of wire, allowing for a suitable spacing between turns according to the application of the coil. A slight correction may then be made for the in- creased diameter (diameter of form plus two times radius of wire), if this small correction seems justified. In the use of various charts, tables, and calculators for designing inductors, the following, relationships.are useful:in extending the range of the devices. They apply to coils of any type or design. 1. If all dimensions are held constant, inductance is proportional to n?. 2. If the proportions of the coil remain unchanged, then for a given number of turns the inductance is proportional to the dimensions of the coil. A coil with all dimensions m times those of a given coil (having the same num- ber of turns} has m times the inductance of the given coil. That is, inductance has the dimensions of length. ** Formulas and chart (Fig. 1) derived from equations and tables in Bureau of Standards Circular No. 74,‘ AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 59 | | Inductance of single-layer solenoids continued ————————— 0.09 fodorF 00 form Too 0.07, 30 60 80 | 08 a0 se ° on. 20 5 enero 0.05 20 is ++ wet | LE fo 0.039, ‘ y fo | ap: [2 i 00: ts 0.020, . « 3 i 15, 3 po 10 00080, on 08 0 2008 \—i_les | 00304 ” | a “s yo 0.008 : oe 018 | 0.00: | st 0.004} |Ye10 2 & 200194 . a 008 Z1__| wt For solenoids where the diameterjlength is less than on 0.02, use the formula: dia F = 0.0250 Tength Fig. 1—Inductance of a single-layer solenoid, form factor: F60 Magnet wire data 41 | -0028 | 0031 ‘ ‘ cow | 0029 | ‘0029 -| ‘0032 42 | (0025 | (0028 ‘0024 | <0026 | ‘0026 | 0029 43 | 0022 | 0005 o02t | .0023 | .0023 | .0026 44 | [0020 | 0023 ‘oo19 | ‘ovat | ‘ooai | 0024 * Nominal bare diameter plus moximum additions. For additional data on copper wire, see pages 35, 36, and 126,AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 61 Reactance charts Inductance reoctonce XL or XC eapocitance C frequency f. v Vv na 2000: Vv 10. D 1000. 1000 5 60 24 2 s00 200 = 800 Jo00: 200 os 9.001. 0.002 300 02 t 100 0,008 o 0.01 200 z 50 0.05 0.02 50 0.02 0.08 on bad 0.01 o2 100 10 0.008 os "4 5 0.002 2 0 9.001 : tooo 8 5 ao & 2 8 500 0 2 = 20 30 200 ' 50 "00 100 20 0s so 200 . 500 20 ovo oe ' T 0.001 10 0 ~ 0,00 on 5 0.008 0.0 2 0.08 0.02 5 1 0.05 4 0.02 08 og o2 § 3 0.01 oe os on ; 2 0.005 008 2 s 0.02 5 0.002 10 ' o.01 20 Figs 2,3, and 4 give the relationships of capacitance, inductan be determined in terms of two others by use of a straight edge ial consideration, Fig. 2—1 cycle to 1000 cycles. reactance, and frequency. Any one value may ‘cross the correct chart for the frequency under62 Reactance charts continued lnduetence L_——_ewoctance XL or XC capecitance C frequency f 200 a v Vv 10 1000: 1000 5 500 2 500 ' 400 200 os ' 2 300 02 3 100 OS EES or % 2 2 io 200 50 0.05 20 50 c 0.02 so 20 100 0.01 200 100 10 0.005 500 ooo : 0.002 0.00%: F ec0i 0,002 50 { 1000 0.008 40g 2 2 500 0.01 3 a 0.02 30 / & 200 3 ' 0.05 100 J bow 20 08 50 8 13 20 eg 02 10 2 a 0 on $ 5 Eb 0.05 2 20 5 ' $0 4 0.02 O5 100 200 3 o2 500 on 1000: e 0,001 0.08 o.008 | 1s 4 ; : 0.02 0.005 § 0.01 4 01 0.02 ' Example: Given a capacitance of 0.001 pf, find the reactance at £0 kilocycles and inductance required to resonate. Place a straight edge through these values and read the intersections on the other scales, giving 3,180 ohms and 10.1 millihenries. Fig. 3—1 kilocycle to 1000 kilocycles.0g. Reactance charts continved inductance L_——_eeactance XL or XC Fe 2000: v 1000 500 200 100 50 ries phe os 0.2 or 0.05 0.02 og On 0.05 0.02 0.01 ———- - AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN ‘copacitonce C 0.00002 0,00005 0,001 0,002 0.0005 9,001 0.002 0.005 0.01 0,02 too 200 500 1000 0.001 0,002 0,005 0,08 0.02 0.05 Fig. 41 megacycle to 1000 megacycles. 63 frequency # to00- 500 400 200 150 100 ae megarysles/secImpedance formules = impedance Z = R + jX ohms phase angle ¢ = tan x phase angle of the admittance magnitude |Z| = [R? + X° ohms admittance ¥ = ¥ mhos ts = tant * diagram | impedance 1 magnitude phase angle 1 ‘admittance ASTTIT I jal wl +8 —id o£ -——o art a _t eC oc oc 2 uy us bs . z= _ 1 FRA. jo th + a 2M) wlly + by 2M) +5 uae c &s i/t 4 Wty * ac oat 4 (eta) 2(&+a) 73 tS R A fi aot R= jl ANSI He a+ Ie? + wt} ton woot t Rice R c 1 1 1 wo AATF R-9 gel Force} mtn ey oe L < 1 1 = « ATO: (4-3) (rx #5 rE evangelion) [fee GoayT | trad | SSRik RiRe ° (2+ RR RR aT tL tela = MP [boom 4t {fetus Liat GF mM, Li + LF 2M 2 “hh = MF b © : -j;—— —_— _ = < ISGTa eGata 2 julCa + Cad R ou Ot, alk ton & Tt RF ort roe ol RO Jat x RU — ja) R 1 LY} > TF wtCine TF tes tort wR Rt ee . ot x i ef a bk T= wie +3 e-3) Pil Ht Re) + wl? + fool Ry ERD? oA? x RP + wl? + BRR Poll, tan 6 - #c) ol wie Ri UR + Rd + wl? ton? lend) Rul + Ra) + wl? — jul RalRi? + co7L%) qq NOIsId Oldva GNV Olanvimpedance Z = R + jX ohms magnitude |Z| = tontinued Impedance formulas phase angle ¢ = tant * phase angle of the cdmittance [r? +- x]! ohms admittance Y = i mhos is— ton * R + jolL tt — wl) — CRY] impedance + ilu = lo 8 magnitude [a — Ete! op + phase angle tart ond — ore — crt L admittance | RB mlu = ote) — Ce impedance x BBE Att ttt magnitude x [ae - ms a al phase angle janrt B+ Yat + Xe RoX1— J Ro? + Xa* + XiXa) admittance XR? 2) 8R 2 RiRoAR, + Rad + oPL?Ra aia cola? — & 5 ol = impedance Tae Ly PI aE mPa (a + Ro +(a-3) 1 4 (Ry? + PL) ( Ro? + a3) magnitude — th Ry bE Rad? (a at oC, Rot 1 elk? — ( -= phase angle ton? ne RiRelRt + RW b @PLPRe tes it Ry wPCPRRSRs Rad + coll ?C7Re CR? — E+ wLCIL — CRD admittance wo T+ eer Tt PF wl (+ wR RaRa(Ri Ea) + RX? + ROX? | RPXa RPK + XaKalXe + Kad Impedance BERET Re REE OG + 2 2 . magnitude [ (RE +X) Rt + X91 TH (Ry + Ral? + OG + X02, phase angle admittance RiPXe + ReXa + XiXa Xt Xo RsRalRy + Re) +b RiXa® + Roki? tan? RilRa® + XM tp Rati? + XD XalRa? + Xo! + Yolk? + XD (Ri? EX) (Ra? “Xa? (Ri? EX) (Ra? + Xa") 19 NOISIa Oladva GNV Oldnv68 Impedance formulas continved Parallel and series circuits and their equivalent relationships Conductance G = w = nf Susceptance B = tot_ we, P X% ol, Reactance Xp = oly 2 1 = e'L,C, Admittance Y = i =lec-~ : Jo? 4 BP & =vVo? +B L-9=|¥| 4-6 58 =F Ll RoXp « Impedance Z = 77ye mre Xp + Rp) x. Rp Xi parallel circuit —=L46= |2Z|4¢ VRE Xp? Phase angle —@ = tan Resistance = Ry 1 Reactance X, = wl, — mo pee Impedance Z = £ =R+iX Rs =VRE +X? £9 = (Z| 26 Phase angle ¢ = tan! Xs = cost Re > Re {Z| ixy Vectors E and J, phase angle ¢, and Z, Y are * identical for the parallel circuit and its equival- 1 Rg ent series circuit equivalent series circuit [Xe] Re _ 18| I Wl Q=|tang|= PF=cosp= te = 1Z1_ GS’ _ Za REPKE =AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 65 Impedance formulas continued z REE XE ett Re Approximate formulas 2 Reactor Ry = . and X = X,=Xp (See Note 1) x 2 Resistor R = Ry = Rp and X, = £ (See Note 2) - Simplified parallel and series circuits € . %¥ _ _ _ R AK - iE ee i woul BE .” = tle _ Re ath = Pe , tno OR aly by PF = Re = oly 5 VRP + wl? VR? + wily? € < PF = § opprox {See Note 3) R TR 1 R= Ray Rp = Re (CQ? + 1 1 1 h=b— > Leablita Ita ! Q10 Impedance formulas continued i VIF wR VIF w'CyRy? PF = E approx (See Note 3) Rp = (Q+ 1 c=<,(1+3) @=a—t. : lta Approximate formulas wl? Inductor Ry = ra andL =L, = 1, (See Note 1) P 2 Resistor R = Re = Rpand Ly = = (See Note 2) Capacitor Rp = 1 and C=C, =C, (See Note 1) oR, Resistor R = Re = Rpand C, = aOR (See Note 2) sti : 100 Note 1: (Small resistive component) Error in percent = — at (for Q = 10, error = | percent low) a Note 2: (Small reactive camponent) Error in percent = — 100 Q? (forQ = 0.1, error = 1 percent low) Note 3: Error in percent = + % approximately for Q = 7, error = | percent high) QAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN i Skin effect A = correction coefficient D = diameter of conductor in inches f = frequency in cycles per second Rae = resistance at frequency f Ra. = direct-current resistance T = thickness of tubular conductor in inches Ti = depth of penetration of current & = permeability of conductor material (u = 1 for copper and other nonmagnetic materials) resistivity of conductor material at any temperature resistivity of copper at 20°C (1.724 microhm-centimeter) Fig. 5 shows the relationship of Rec/Rae versus DVf for copper, or versus ovique® ~ for any conductor material, for an isolated straight solid con- ductor of circular cross section. Negligible error in the formulas for Rac results when the conductor is spaced at least 10D from adjacent conductors. When the spacing between axes of parallel conductors carrying the same current is 4D, the resistance Rac is increased about 3 percent. The formulas are accurate for concentric lines due to their circular symmetry. For values of DV ate greater than 40, Ree _ 0.0960 DVI 4 u2! + 0.26 a Rae p The high-frequency resistance of an isolated straight conductor: either solid; or tubular for T < ao he e is given in equation (2). If the current flow is along the ‘inside surface of a tubular conductor, D is the inside diameter. Roe = mw, AX 10-* ohms per foot (2 D Pe The values of the correction coefficient A for solid conductors are shown in Table Il and, for tubular conductors, in Table Ill. The value of TV iy [a hat just makes A = 1 indicates the penetration of2 Skin effect continued o scaleC 40 80 5.0 1.20) 180 160. 40 26 4.0 115) 20 Hw 2 3.0 1.10] is 20 1.05) 0 33 i 3 g § g 1.9 100 s scale A 2 “« ¢ 2 7 © scale B. 10 20 30 40 50 D Vi for copper at 20°C, or D VF V # & for any conductor material resistance at frequency f Ric direct-current resistance Fig. 5—Resistance ratio for isolated straight solid conductors of circuldr cross section.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN B Skin effect continued the currents below the surface of the conductor. Thus, approximately, 3.5 Ty = alt inches. @) vi f Vip When Ti < ; the value of Rac as given by equation (2) (but not the value R of z in Table Ill) is correct for any value T 2 Th. de Under the limitation that the radius of curvature of all parts of the cross section is appreciably greater than T;, equations (2) and (3) hold for isolated ~ straight conductors of any shape. In this case the term D = (perimeter of cross section) + 7. Examples 1. At 100 megacycles, a copper conductor has a depth of penetration Ti = 0.00035 inch. 2. A steel shield with 0.005-inch copper plate, which is practically equiva- lent in Rae to an isolated copper conductor 0.005-inch thick, has a value of A = 1.23 at 200 kilocycles. This 23-percent increase in resistance over that of a thick copper sheet is satisfactorily low as regards its effect on the losses ‘of the components within the shield. By comparison, a thick aluminum sheet has a resistance ae Pe e 1.28 times that of copper. Table Il—Solid conductors Table [Il—Tubular conductors tVi 4 ae A | Rac/ Rae = B where a>as } 1.00 0.384 B 35 1.00 1.35 315 1.01 1.23 285 1.05, 115 2.60 1.10 1.10 2.29 1.20 1.06 13 1.20 2.08 1.30 1.04 96 1.30 $3 2.00 Ww 1.50 1.02 < 30 Rae = Rae 131 2.00 1.00 10.37 = 2.60 Re ex 1078 ohms per foot B where} 20 | 1.004 Network theorems Reciprocity theorem If an emf of any character whatsoever located at one point in a linear net- work produces a current at any other point in the network, the same emf acting at the second point will produce the same current at the first point. Thévenin’s theorem If an impedance Z is connected between two points of a linear network, the resulting steady-state current J through this impedance is the ratio of the potential difference V between the two points prior to the connection of Z, and the sum of the values of (1) the connected impedance Z, and (2) the impedance Z, of the network measured between the two points, when all generators in the network are replaced by their internal impedances v I=———— Z+2Z Principle of superposition The current which flows at any point in a network composed of constant resistances, inductances, and capacitances, or the potential difference which exists between any two points in such a network, due to the simultaneous aétion of a number of emf's distributed in any manner throughout the network, is the sum of the component currents at the first point, or the potential differ- ences between the two points, which would be caused by the individual emf's acting alone. (Applicable to emf’s of any character.) . In the application of this theorem, it is to be noted that: for any impedance element Z through which flows a current J, there may be substituted a virtual source of voltage of value —Z/. Electrical circuit formulas 1. Self-inductance of circular ring of round wire at radio fre- quencies, for non-magnetic materials o léa = —> | 7.353 logis — — 6.370 Ak Og TF ] = inductance in microhenries = mean radius of ring in inches = diameter of wire in inches > 25 aia@aqanmAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 55 Electrical circuit formulas continued 2. Capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor ¢ = 00885 N=" nicromicroforods A. = area of one side of one plate in square centimeters N = number of plates thickness of dielectric in centimeters K = dielectric constant This formula neglects “fringing” at the edges of the plates. 3. Reactance of an inductor X = 2nfl ohms f = frequency in cycles per second L = inductance in henries or fin kilocycles and L in millihenries; or f in megacycles and Lin microhenries 4 Reactance of a capacitor x= ohms 2nfC ie ™ f = frequency in cycles per second C = capacitance in farads —159.2 This may be written X = ohms f = frequency in kilocycles per second C = capacitance in microfarads or f in megacycles and C in milli-microfarads (0.001 fl. 5. Resonant frequency of a series-tuned circuit f = a cycles per second L = inductance in henries . C = capacitance in farads This may be written LC = a f = frequency in kilocycles L = inductance in millihenries C = capacitance in milli-microfarads (0.001pf or f in megacycles, L in microhenries, and C in micromicrofarads.Ik Electrical circuit formulas continued ——— 6. Dynamic resistance of a parallel-tuned circuit at resonance pee ohms RoR 1 X=ol = — ° eC R=nt+r L = inductance in henries C = capacitance in farads R = resistance in ohms The formula is accurate for engineering x purposes provided 5 > 10. 7. Parallel impedances lf Z; and Zs are the two impedances which are connected in parallel, then the resultant impedance is gw Fite, IRM) Ra Hh) _ (Ra = XiKa) H FARIXa + ROX Zit Ze +R) + ih + Xd Ri + Ral + 7% + Xo) {Z| |Z] ml [a+z1 °° ¢= 22,4 42,-— 2142) Xe Xe MEM = tant? + tant 2? — tant 2 or Re Re Given one impedance Z; and the desired resultant impedance Z, the other impedance is ZZ, 1-Z Z,= 8. Impedance of a two-mesh network Zu = Ru + Xu is the impedance of the first circuit, measured at terminals 1 — 1 with terminals 2 — 2 open-circuited, Zag = Ree + jXeaAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN Tl Electrical circuit formulas continued ——— is the impedance of the second circuit, measured at terminals 2 — 2 with terminals 1 — 1 open-circuited. Za = Rea + Xe is the mutual impedance between the two meshes, i.e., the open-circuit voltage ap- pearing in either mesh when unit current flows in the other mesh. Then the impedance looking into terminals 1 — 1 with terminals 2 — 2 short-circuited is Ris? — Xia? + QiRioXie Zt = RY ob aK! = Zn — Fe = Ra + X= Rea + iXaa When Ry = 0 Zi = RY EH! = Zab = Rat Rt Ree Hed Example 1: Two resistors in parallel, Zu =Ri Ze = Ri + Re Zn =R x * R? _ _RRe Hi = Rf =R— lence Z;’ = Ri = Ri RHR RER Example 2: A transformer with tuned secondary and negligible primary resistance. Zu = jolr ™ Zon = R, since Xeg = 0 a= Re since Xeg 2, a Za = joM 4 Le Re Then Zy’ = Joly +16 Electrical circuit formulas continued TT 9. Currents in a two-mesh network =e Zo9 = eo? ZuZn — Zy* p : "a =o Raz + iXen : a (RuRez — XuXsz — Riz® + Xia") + j(RuXe2 + ReaXtr — WRioXia) aeass 2 ZZ — Zu? 10. Power transfer between two impedances connected directly Let Z, = Ri + jX; be the impedance of the source, and Zz = Re-+ jXz be the impedance of the load. The maximum power transfer occurs when Re = Ri and X2 = —X The reflection loss due to connecting any two impedances directly is bh l|A+tz| L 2V RiRe In decibels db = 20 logio lA+ZeI Rika I, = current which would flow in Zz were the two impedances connected through a perfect impedance matching network. 1 = current which flows when the impedances are connected directly. 11, Power transfer between two meshes coupled reactively In the general case, Xi and Xsz are not equal to zero and Xi may be any re- active coupling. When only one of the e quantities Xi, Xo2, and X12 can be varied, x Xn Ra the best power transfer under the cir- cumstances is given by Rr XaiAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 13 Electrical circuit formulas continued For X22 variable XX Xe. = ——+——,, [zero reactance looking into load circuit) en Rat + Xue 8 For Xu variable Xi2?Xoe as aa Xu = —=—— [zero reactance looking into source circuit) Rat + Kost $ For X12 variable ’ Nat = VRE FM Ra? + Hoe When two of the three quantities can be varied, a perfect impedance match is attained and maximum power is transferred when Xa? = ViRu? Xa) (Raa? + ea) and Xn _ Xee sent —~ = —= (both circuits of same Q or phase angle) Ru Res For perfect impedance match the current is aR, a= Z tant Ru Wake Xn In the most common case, the circuits are tuned to resonance Xy = 0 and Xe2 = 0. Then Xie? = RuRee for perfect impedance match, 12, Optimum coupling between two circuits tuned to the same frequency From the last result in the preceding section, maximum power transfer (or an impedance match) is obtained for w?M? = RiRe where M is the mutual inductance between the circuits, Ri and Re are the resistances of the two circuits. 13. Coefficient of coupling By definition, coefficient of coupling k is k= where M = mutual inductance M Vib 4, and Le are the inductances of the two coupled circuits.0 Electrical circuit formulas continued el Coefficient of coupling is a geometrical property, being a function of the proportions of the configuration of coils, including their relationship to any nearby objects which affect the field of the system. As long as these pro- portions remain unchanged, the coefficient of coupling is independent of the physical size of the system, and of the number of turns of either coil. 14, Selective circuits Formulas and curves are presented for the selectivity and phase shift Of n single tuned circuits Of m pairs of coupled tuned circuits The conditions assumed are 1. All circuits are tuned to the same frequency fo. 2. All circuits have the same Q, or each pair of circuits includes one circuit having Qi, and the other having Qs. 3. Otherwise the circuits need not be identical. 4. Each successive circuit or pair of circuits is isolated from the preceding and following ones by tubes, with no regeneration around the system. Certain approximations have been made in order to simplify the formulas. In most actual applications of the types of circuits treated, the error involved is negligible from a practical standpoint. Over the narrow frequency band in question, it is assumed that 1. The reactance around each circuit is equal to 2X, a. fo X 2. The resistance of each circuit is constant and equal to a 3. The coupling between two circuits of a pair is reactive and constant. {When an untuned link is used to couple the two circuits, this condition fre- quently is far from satisfied, resulting in a lopsided selectivity curve.) 4, The equivalent input voltage, taken as being in series with the tuned circuit (or the first of a pair), is assumed to bear a constant proportionality to the grid voltage of the input tube or other driving source, at all frequen- cies in the band. 5. likewise, the output voltage across the circuit lor the final circuit of a pair) is assumed to be proportional only to the current in the circuit. "AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 81 Electrical circuit formulas continued —————— The following symbols are used in the formulas fof] resonance frequency f = signal frequency fy = frequency to which all circuits are independently tuned Xo = reactance at fo of inductor in tuned circuit Q = quality factor of tuned circuit. For a pair of coupled circuits, there is used Q = VQiQ; Qi and Q) are the values for the two circuits of a coupled pair 7 = 20102 Ata E = amplitude of output voltage at frequency f | both for the same value Eo = amplitude of output voltage at frequency i of input voltage n = number of single tuned circuits m = number of pairs of coupled circuits ¢ = phase shift of signal at f relative to shift at fo, as signal passes through cascade of circuits k = coefficient of coupling between two coupled circuits p = k°Q? or p = k’QiQs, a parameter determining the form of the selec. tivity curve of coupled circuits =p— (ay @ B=p e+ Selectivity and phase shift of single tuned circuits £./—_1___p E ° ai + (a ze). fo oat ey 1 fo 20 E single tuned + circuit Decibel response = 20 logio (é) 0, (db response of n circuits) = n times (db response of single circuit) ¢@ =ntan! (-20 2) fo These equations are plotted in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7, following.2 Electrical circuit formulas continued 20 * 7 +10 aa ° peck] ‘note change of db scale “3 i +0 a5 20. 1 5 AAA Vo. SOQ AWA, pak aD Ps -28) oF 02 03 8 or io 2 3 st @ @ a =e i+ The selectivity curves are symmetrical about the b response of axis @ Z = 0 for practical purposes. — a single circuitn =1 —a pair of coupled | Extrapolation beyond lower limits of chart: circuits m = 1 A response doubling Af circuit —12db | par! £02 (3to4 db Fig. 6—Selectivity curves. As an example of the use of the curves, suppose there are three single-tuned circuits (n = 3). Each circuit has a Q = 200 and is tuned to 1000 kilocycles. The results of this example are shown in the following table: abscissa At ordinate db o ot at db response | response = = er ke forn=1 | forn=3 | %"—" | form 0.5 +25 —3.0 45° =F 138° 15. 47.5 10.0 72° 215° 5.0 25.0 20.2 —6l =F84° =F252° * $ is negative for Af positive, and vice versa.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 83 Electrical circuit formulas continued 0] : -20 | 40 — - 07ho-\o. mi WY = \s single circuit | “CECT o 2 @ 6 8 lO 8 AF f Q-~=Q— The curves are symmetrical about the origin. fo fo AF For negative values of QF is posit ative phase angle ¢ in degrees +6 i positive and same numerical value as for corresponding —a single circuit n =1 AF —« pair of coupled circuitsm =1 | negative value of @ 7 | Fig. 7—Phaso-thift curves.84 - Electrical circuit formulas continued Selectivity and phase shift of pairs of coupled tuned circuits Case 1: When Qi = Q =Q These formulas can be used with reasonable accuracy when Qi and Qe differ by ratios up fo 1.5 or even 2 to 1. In such cases use the value Q = Vide. EL pt+l Im E ° v[ (7) -e- 0] +4 fo Af 1 Ey\2. Me pone fp 4 1{\R — 4 hb ave Ip + (ey i ‘one of several types For very small values of E the formulas reduce to of coupling ‘0 E fet [ey fo . E Decibel response = 20 loguo 5B 0, (db response of m pairs of circuits) = m times (db response of one pair) @ =m tant | ——_—_—~—__, ip+tl— (i) fo As p approaches zero, the selectivity and phase shift approach the values for n single circuits, where n = 2m (gain also approaches zero). The above equations are plotted in Figs. 6 and 7. For overcoupled circuits (p > 1) Location of peaks: af =+ avVp —1 fo J nea 2Q Amplitude of peaks: () at = Gey Phase shift at peaks: — peak = m tan*(#4/p — 1)AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 85 Electrical circuit formulas continued Approximate pass band (where E = ) ‘0 AF ‘Al Al 1 p-l Ar =0 and(—> = VA ase (ue en (Do. ‘om av 2 Case 2: General formula for any Q; and Qe E Elf ett f q[(@4) -e]'+ (+ 12— B fo z F z =+ dve[o + (2) —ptue+ =| 68+ J) zai at Va, f @=mtart oR +1) - (24) fo For overcoupled circuits ‘A vB ' Location of peaks: {— Self ot ron ones (aa 2a *2 Amplitude of ts (E) - (yea! PMUCE OF POOKS: NE Jneak «LV ip + 1)? — BP, Case 3: Peaks just converged to a single peak il 1 Here B=0 or. e=Hata) Qe EL 2 lm AF vof1 1) “EE _. e[peyey: ea OF (20 Z)+4 ° fo ag ] ¢=mtort}) — © The curves of Figs. 6 and 7 may be 2—{ 2! afy’ applied to this case, using the value p = |, and substituting Q’ for Q.86 Electrical circuit formulas continued ————<—<— 15, T — x or Y — A transformation The two networks are equivalent, as far as conditions at the terminals are concerned, provided the following equations are satisfied. Either the impe- dance equations or the admittance equations may be used. ’ au 2 2 ' Zu 2 2, “2s Za 3 3 3 3 T or Y network mor A network Impedance equations Admittance equations In = ZiZ2 + ZiZs + 222s Yu = YiYa “ Zs Ow Ya Ya Ye Zp = BAA Es + ZZ Yo = 18 * Zs Ya-F Ya Yo yg = 2IZB +223 + ZZ Yop = Yo¥s * Z n+ ¥2 + ¥s z= Zaks yy = Vaan + Yeon + YiaYan 1= ss TF qe Res Za + Zis + Ze3 Yos Zi2Z23 = Ye¥is + Yves + YisYos + B= see Yq = ets Mates 7 isles Zi + Lis + Zs Yss B= Z1sZo5 Y= YuYis + Yi2¥os + YisYos Zit Zis + Los Yaa 16. Amplitude modulation In design work, usually the entire modulation is assumed to be in My. Then Mo, Ms;, etc, would be neglected in the formulas below. When the expression (I -+ Mi + Mz -+ ....) is used, it is assumed that «1, wz, etc, are incommensurate. i = I] + Mi cos tat + gi) + Me cos (wat + dal + ....] sin lwot + dolCf, Finn AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 8] Electrical circuit formulas continued modvlction height B percenoge t oO. ' rw? wv 5 O15 oz r— 90, 0.3 80 i 04 70 O85 “Free 50 or 40 30 ' 20 1 ° ts [aa 3 i i i it 8 8 To determine the modulation percentage from an oscillogram of type illus- trated apply measurements A and B to scales A and B and read percentage from center scale. Example: A = 3 inches, B = 0.7 inches—Modulation 627%, Any units of measurement may be used. Fig. 8—Modulation percentage from oscillograms.Electrical circuit formulas continued = Hsin tat +) + ME sin og Fon t+ do + Od sin fay ot + dy — Ga] +2 sin laa Font + do 4) sin ( — ot + go — gal] + ....} Percent modulation = (Mi + Mz + ....) X 100 __ crest ampl — trough ampl = X 100. crest ampl ++ trough ampl Percent modulation may be measured by means trough crest of an oscilloscope, the modulated carrier wave being applied to the vertical plates and the modulating voltage wave to the horizontal plates. The resulting trapezoidal pattern and a nomograph for computing percent modu- lation are shown in Fig. 8. The dimensions A and B in that figure are proportional to the crest amplitude and trough amplitude, respectively. Peak voltage at crest: Vere = Vecerien: rme (1 Mi -E Me + 2. V2 Kilovolt-amperes at crest: kvdoret = KVdcarrier (1 + Mi + Me + ., .)* Average kilovolt-amperes over a number of cycles of lowest modulation frequency: M2, Me Kvaaverage = kVcarrier ( + > + > +. ) Effective current of the modulated wave: Ma, Ma Tay = Tearrier, rm 1+ ata 17. Elementary R-C, R-L, and L-C filters Simple attentuating sections of broad frequency discriminating characteris- tics, as used in power supplies, grid-bias feed, etc. The output load impedance is assumed to be high compared to the impedance of the shunt element of the filter.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 89 Electrical circuit formulas continued ltime constant diagram type or formula and approximation lresonant freq| ri 2 f 1 “4 0 H R in ohins Lin henries C in farads 1 pf = 10-8 farad) T = time constant (seconds) fo = resonant frequency {cps) w = Ont _ 1 en | = 2m = 6.28 a 0.1592 4x? = 39.5 ie 0.02530 Electrical circuit formulas continued ———— The relationships for low-pass filters are plotted in Figs. 9 and 10, Examples 1 low-pass R-C filters a. R = 100,000 ohms, C = 0.1 X 10-° (0.1 wf Then T == RC = 0.01 second At f = 100 cps, a = 0.16— ‘in At f = 30,000 cps, i = 0.00053 in 1 sos -2008 001 Gal carves intersect line ot fap 780 DB -40 0B aooor 001 a < 2 2s g 8 aio -e908 1 Sat . 1oxn —xcole A i0okW To0OKN To20xN f000XN scale B 10,000 XM 100,000% t08%xXN | frequency in cycles per second . .. Eout. N is any convenient factor, usually 19e reduction ratio ¢ token ds an integral power of 10. Fig. 9—-Low-pass R-C and R-L filters.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 9] Electrical circuit formulas continued b. RR = 1,000 ohms, C = 0,001 X 107° T = 1 X 10-® second = 0.1 + N, where N = 108 Att Fog = 10 megacycles = 100 X N, EB, = 0.016— in 2. Low-pass L — C filter At f= 120 eps, required At = 0.03 Then from curves: LC = 6 X 10°® approximately. Whence, for C = 4 pf, we require L = 15 henries. ‘curves intersect this. as 1 line at P = 4008 ic Sai 6008! ‘0.001 1OXN tOOXN, 4O00KN 10,000 XN frequency in cycles per second ut Nis any convenient factor, usually voltage reduction ratio —"* " 9° re rato ee taken as an integral power of 10. Fig. 10—Low-pass L-C filters.2 Electrical circuit formulas continued 18. Transients The complete transient in a linear network is, by the principle of superposi- tion, the sum of the individual transients due to the store of energy in each inductor and capacitor and to each external source of energy connected to the network. To this is added the steady state condition due to each ex- ternal source of energy. The transient may be computed as starting from any arbitrary time + = O when the initial conditions of the energy of the network are known, Convention of signs: In the following formulas, one direction of current is assumed to be positive, and any emf on a capacitor or in an external source, tending to produce a current in the positive direction, is designated as positive. In the case of the charge of a capacitor, this results in the capacitor voltage being the negative of the value sometimes conventionally used, wherein the junction of the source and the capacitor is assumed to be grounded and potentials are computed with respect to ground. Time constant (designated T): of the discharge of a capacitor through a resistor is the time fg — ty required for the voltage or current to decay to L of its value at time f. For the charge of a capacitor the same definition applies, the voltage “decaying” toward its steady state value. The time con- stant of discharge or charge of the current in an inductor through a resistor follows an analogous definition. Energy stored in a capacitor = 4 CE? joules (watt-seconds). Energy stored in an inductor = } LJ joules (watt-seconds). ©=2718 103679 — logise = 0.4343 T and t in seconds ¢ Rin ohms Linhenries Cinfarads Ein volts Jin amperes Capacitor charge and discharge Closing of switch occurs at time t = 0 Initial conditions {at + = 0): Battery = Es; ec = Eo Steady state (at f = ©): i = 0; e = ~Ex Transient: Z RC i 0.4343 logo (-) = —-——>t EeAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 93 Electrical circuit formulas continued 1 fe a a en 6-L | i= —6)(1~ 6) ° Time constant: T = RC . t Fig. 1] shows current ~ = 7 lo Fig. 11 shows discharge (for FE, = 0) — =e Fig. 12 shows charge (for Fy = 0) — & ~ ° oe o ae 2.0 Fig. 11. Fig. 12. These curves are plotted on a larger scale in Fig. 13. Two capacitors Closing of switch occurs at time f = 0 Initial conditions (at t = 0): e1 = Fi; e2 = Ee. Steady state (att = © e: = Ex, eg = — Ex; i £, =f BG 6 _OG +s “G+G re) Transient: | { je. on CF ci T e] j= BEB oweal circuit formulas continued tl - 7 Cc ~h a =Est lh —Epe =e — e+e E (im =) GQ at q - ote en = — Est (+E) e = & -— (A+ a € ( —e a) 2 Original energy = $ (CyEy? + CoEs) joules Final energy = $ (Cy + C2) Ey? joules Loss of energy = j i? Rdt = 4 C’ (E, + £2)? joules 0 (Loss is independent of the value of R.) 1 exponential e 7 min Qe cf srtnl 0100 5 020030080 070 10 1 Ne (2 | Aye Ay fy ere ® ! () zs Bo age ’ 33 098 097 0.95 G83 090 0.80 070 0.50 030 0.00 t ‘exponential Ie 7 | “4 Use exponential € ~ 7 for charge Use exponential 1 — €~ 7 for | or discharge of capacitor or dis- charge of capacitor: | charge of inductor: | current at time t voltage at time # ial current battery or final voltage | discharge of capacitor: charge of inductor: yoltage at time + current at time ¢ initial voltage final current 1 £ Fig. 13—Exponential functions «| 7 and 1 —«~ 7 applied to transients in R-C and L-R circuits.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 95 Electrical circuit formulas continued ———————— Inductor charge and discharge Initial conditions (at f = 0): Battery = Fy; i = fo E % et Steady state (at f = @):i = Ip = z Transient: . E inu(ine the * ‘ . Rt ep = —t% = te — Re ® Time constant: T = i . + Fig. 11 shows discharge (for Ey = 0) + =e? Fig. 12 shows charge (for Jp = 0) i = (: —e a ° These curves are plotted on a larger scale in Fig. 13. Series circuit of R, L, and C charge and discharge Initial conditions (at t = 0): Battery = Ey; eg = Eo; i = In Steady state (att = ©): i = 0; e, = —E, Differential equation: di =0 dt 1 ft Bethe [jist— 8 —L di jd, i whence baat Rotene Solution of equation: 8 _ _ a a Rlo oh eb + Ip cosh avo | where o-1-4 RIC96 Electrical circuit formulas continued ———— Case 1: When x is small i= 1 Ext Eo » | ep tt 4t24n i iam {[ Fata |e . Raia + [aa -AnAy-Bt& + eet oa wl where A= = For practical purposes, the terms A? can be neglected when A<0.1. The terms A may be neglected when A<0.01. Case 2: When = <1 for which VD is real # Le BIE)" + EC + ve) - Bo] CH Case 3: When D is a small positive or negative quantity Meee (Ei) +4[1~5 rig i) - iG i)? }} This formula may be used for values of D up to 0.25, at which values the error in the computed current i is approximately 1 percent of Ip or of Ey + Eo, R Case 3a: When x = 1 for which D = 0, the formula reduces to Rt ._ FET Eo + Eo Rt 1-2) j- eM th B41 (1- 8 ori = i: + is, plotted in Fig. 14. For practical purposes, this formula may be used when = = 1 + 0.05 with errors of 1 percent or less.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 7 Electrical circuit formulas — continved 4L ich VD is i Case 4; When RC >1 for which V D is imaginary nt HY EE — BT no + fcor od i= “a wol. 2wol. Rt = Im€ 22 sin (wot + W) +10 wh _ fl R? +05 ere wo Ie 42 3 el Me PO) + In = — —& — ~2 2L2Iy? 0.8 == oa (@ + Eo 2 ) ch ea? 4a y= toot wol. Ip 5 Fig. 14—Transients for & = B+h- > The envelope of the voltage wave across the inductor is: . ~ 2 sel —\(e + — %) + exPl? a VIC 2 Example: Relay with transient suppressing capacitor. Switch closed till time f = 0, then opened. Let L = 0.10 henries, Ri = 100 ohms, E = 10 volts Suppose we choose C = 10°® farads, Ry = 100 ohms. Then R = 200 ohms, Ig = 0.10 amperes, Eo = 10 volts, wo = 3 X 10°, fy = 480 cps Maximum peak voltage across L (envelope at t = 0) is approximately 30 volts. Time constant of decay of envelope is 0.001 second. If it had been desired to make the circuit just non-oscillating, (Case 3a): AL RC Re = 530 ohms. = 1 or R = 630 ohms for C = 107° farads. Initial voltage at t = 0, across L is —Ep + Rp = 53 volts,% Electrical circuit formulas — continved Series circuit of R, L, and C with sinusoidal applied voltage By the principle of superposition, the transient and steady state conditions are the same for the actual circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in the accompanying illustrations, the closing of the switch occurring at time t = 0. In the equivalent circuit, the steady state is due to the source e acting continuously from time t= — «, while the transient is due to short circuiting the source actual circuit —e at time t = 0. Source: e = E sin (wt + a) Steady state: i = ; L-$= & sin lot ta ¢) where, | 21C — 1 Z= |r L ; it =okh— Tet fe) 7 tare = Leg equivatent circuit The transient is found by determining current i = Io and capacitor voltage e, = Eo at time t = 0, due to the source —e. These values of Io and Eo are then substituted in the equations of Case 1, 2, 3, or 4, above, accarding to the values of R, L, and C. At time t = 0, due to the source —e: i=h= —$sin la—- 9) es = Ey = a cos fa — 4) This form of analysis may be used for any periodic applied voltage e. The steady-state current and the capacitor voltage for an applied voltage —e are determined, the periodic voltage being resolved into its harmonic com- ponents for this purpose, if necessary. Then the instantaneous values i = Ip and e, = Ep at the time of closing the switch are easily found, from which the transient is determined. It is evident, from this method of analysis, that the wave form of the transient need bear no relationship to that of the applied voltage, depending only on the constants of the circuit and the hypothetical initial conditions Ip and Eo.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 9g Electrical circuit formulas continued 19. Effective and average values of alternating current (Similar equations apply to a-c voltages) i= [sin of Average value Jay = 2 I T which is the direct current which would be obtained were the original current fully rectified, or approximately proportional to the reading of a rectifier- type meter. I v2 which represents the heating or power effectiveness of the current, and is proportional to the reading of a dynamometer or thermal-type meter. When Effective or root-mean-square (rms) value Jay = Jo + Asin wit + h’sin wt + 2... lg = VIFF SEF BET.) Note: The average value of a complex current is not equal to the sum of the average values of the components. 20. Constants of long transmission lines ow = VE{ViR FL) G+ CA + GR — otc} B= Vi{ Vike + ol) (Gt + iC — GR + wilC} where @ = attenuation constant in nepers B = phase constant in radians R = resistance constant in ohms G = conductance constant in mhos L = inductance constant in henries C = capacitance constant in farads © = 2n X frequency in cycles per second Using values per mile for R, G, L, and C, the db loss per mile will be 8.686 a per unit length of line. and the wavelength in miles will be 3100 Electrical formulas continued If vector formulas are preferred, a and 8 may be determined from the fol- lowing: a+ iB =VZY = VR + fol) (G + uC) where all constants have the same meaning as above. Characteristic impedance a= f= (t oS NYT NG wt Note: For radio frequency applications, see formulas under R-F Transmission line Data. Attenuators An attenuator is a network designed to introduce a known loss when work- ing between resistive impedances Z; and Zz to which the input and output impedances of the attenuator are matched. Either Z1 or Ze may be the source and the other the load. The attenuation of such networks expressed as a power ratio is the same regardless of the direction of working. Three forms of resistance network which may be conveniently used to realize these conditions are shown on page 106. These are the T section, the section, and the Bridged-T section. Equivalent balanced sections also are shown. Methods are given for the computation of attenuator networks, the hyperbolic expressions giving rapid solutions with the aid of tables of hyper- bolic functions on pages 313 to 315. Tables of the various types of attenuators are given on pages 108 to 114. In the formulas Z, and Zz are the terminal impedances (resistive) to which the attenuator is matched. N is the ratio of the power absorbed by the attenuator from the source to the power delivered to the load. K is the ratio of the attenuator input current to the output current into the load. When Zi = Zs, K = VN. Attenuation in decibels = 10 logioN Attenuation in nepers = 9 = 3 log.N - For a table of decibels versus power and voltage or current ratio, see page 34. Factors for converting decibels to nepers, and nepers to decibels, are given at the foot of that table.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 101 Attenuators continued General remarks The formulas and figures for errors, given in Tables IV to VIII, are based on the assumption that the attenuator is terminated approximately by its proper terminal impedances Z; and Zz. They hold for deViations of the attenuator arms and load impedances up to = 20 percent or somewhat more. The error due to each element is proportional to the deviation of the element, and the total error of the attenuator is the sum of the errors due to each of the sev- eral elements. When any element or arm R has a reactive component AX in addition to a resistive error AR, the errors in input impedance and output ‘current are AZ = ALAR + jAX) Ai _ , (AR + 10x i R where A and B are constants of proportionality for the elements in question. These constants can be determined in each case from the figures given for errors due to a resistive deviation AR. The reactive component AX produces a quadrature component in the output current, resulting in a phase shift. However, for small values of AX, the error in insertion loss is negligibly small. For the errors produced by mismatched terminal load impedance, refer to Case I, page 105. Ladder attenuator Fig. 15—Ladder attenuator. Ladder attenuator, Fig. 15, input switch points Po, P1, Ps, Ps at shunt arms. Also intermediate point Pm tapped on series arm. May be either unbalanced, as shown, or balanced.I Attenuators continued —_— ladder, for design purposes, Fig. 16, is resolved into a cascade of 7 sections by imagining each shunt arm split into two resistors. Last section matches Zz to 2Z,. All other sections are symmetrical, matching impedances 2Z,, with a Fig. 16—Ladder attenuator resolved into a cascade of 7 sections. terminating resistor 2Z; on the first section. Each section is designed for the loss required between the switch points at the ends of that section. (2Z, + Zo)? it to Po: Loss, db = 101 are Input to Po: Loss, di logio WL, Input impedance Z,’ = a ZizZe Output impedance = ————— utput impedance = ~~ Input to Py, Ps, or Ps: Loss, db = 3 db + sum of losses of @ sections between input and output. Input impedance Z,' = Z; Input to Pm (on a symmetrical a section): eo _ 1 ml —m K—W+2K em 2 K=mKk— where eo = output voltage when m =.0 (Switch on Py). €m = output voltage with switch on Pm. and K = current ratio of the section (from Pi to Pal. K > 1.” . K-12 Input impedance 2,’ = Zi] mil — ml —[— +1 (kK —W? 4K Mox 2 = 2: | +1] form = 08.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 103 Attenuators continued The unsymmetrical fast section may be treated as a system of voltage divid- ing resistors. Solve for the resistance R from Po to the tap, for each value of output voltage with input on Po output voltage with input on tap A useful case: Zi = Z, = 500 ohms. Then loss on Pp is 3.52 db. Let the last section be designed for loss of 12.51 db. Then Ris = 2444 ohms (shunted by 1000 ohms! : Ras = 654 ohms (shunted by 500 ohms! Riz = 1409 ohms. The table shows the location of the tap and the input and output impedances for several values of loss, relative to the loss on Po. relative tap input output loss R impedance impedance db ohms ohms ohms ° 0 250 250 2 170 368 304 4 375 478 353 6 615 562 394 8 882 600 428 10 VWS57 577 454 12 1409 500 473 Fig. 17—A variation of the ladder attenuator, useful when Z; = Z: = design, with improved impedance characteristics, but having minimum 2.5 db higher than attenuator of Fig. 16. All 7 sections are symmetrical. Simpler in ertion lossiu Attenuators} continved Input to Po: Output impedance = 0.6Z (See Fig. 17.) Input to Po, Pi, Pa, or Ps: Loss = 6 db + sum of losses of m sections between input and output. Input impedance = Z eo _ 1 mil —m) (KK — 1)2?+ 4K Input to Pm: = — = 2 —————_—__ mpuiolm an 4 Km K-01 aqe— —y Input impedance Z’ = Z [sue + ‘| 2K (kK — 1% 8K Max 2” = z [ +1] form = 08 Effect of incorrect load impedance on operation of an attenuator In the applications of attenuators the question frequently arises as to the effect upon the input impedance and the attenuation by the use of a load impedance which is different from that for which the network was designed. The following results apply to all resistive networks which, when operated between resistive impedances Z; and Z2, present matching terminal impe- dances Z; and Zs, respectively. The results may be derived in the general case by the application of the network theorems, and may be readily con- firmed mathematically for simple specific cases such as the T section. For the designed use of the network, let a= ‘input impedance of properly terminated network Zz = load impedance which properly terminates the network N = power ratio from input fo output K = current ratio from input to output K= E =. [NZ iz a Z = Zi). (different in the two directions of operation except when For the actual conditions of operation, let az; (22 + AZ) = 2(1 + 2 ) = actual load impedance (+ Az) = 2(1 + *) = resulting input impedance 7 (kK + AK) = «(1 + “) = resulting current ratio.AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 105 Attenuators continved While Z1, Zz, and K are restricted to real quantities by the assumed nature of the network, AZ2 is not so restricted, e.g., AZ, = ARs + jAXy As a consequence AZ; and AK can become imaginary or complex. Further- more AZz is not restricted to small values. The results for the actual conditions are 2a% AZ Zs and a-Cx)# 2 w+ in— 0 22 KON ON | 4 Za Certain special cases may be cited Case 1: For small AZ: Za AZ, _ 1 AZ 1 Ais 1 AZ, te 8 oO? AZ, = — AZ. nt ZN OR ee 22 but the error in insertion power loss of the attenuator is neglibly small. eet AZ, —2 Case 2: Short- ited output = —— = ——— a: jort-circuited output Z N41 N-1 or input imped = | ——- ] Z, = Z; tanh 0 r input impedance (R=) 1 1 fan where 9 is the designed attenuation in nepers. . AZ; 2 Case 3: Open-circuited output + = —~— pen-circuited outpt Zo No or input impedance = G4) 2, = Zi coth@ Case 4: For N = 1 (possible only when Z; = Zz and directly connected) AzZt _ AZ: 4 AK 4 2, K Case 5: For large N106 Attenuator —Z- configuration description unbalanced balanced Unbalanced T ‘ond balanced H see Table VIII Symmetrical T and H {Z, = Z2 = Z) see Table IV Minimum loss pad matching Z, and Zz (Z1>Z2) see Table VII Unbalanced and balanced 0 Symmetrical mand 0 (Z, = Z2 = Z) see Table V Bridged T and bridged H see Table VIAUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 10) network design see page 100 for symbols —— design formulas hyperbolic arithmetical v: 2V NDZ: a= 22: a= “Za Zz R= 2 eGR Zz 2k Zz RR Toho KE & _ @ sinh 8 Bemeosh = 1=2 sinh 5 e Kan? Ry=Z tanh 5 Tan Re ZRII z Riko ZiZa meazVi-2 HANIF, RZ Z Re Ze -(VEe NE-)’ R= V ZiZa sinh O 1 1 1 R Zitanh OR 1 1 1 Re Zrtanh OR Ra=Z sinh 0 R= tanh = 2 RX N= acadiai) “a Le 204) - 1 RRs =Z411-+-cosh 6) = Z?- “ut (K+ 1)? 2K Four-terminal networks: terminal networks in general, working between input ond output i respective image impedances. In this cose: Z1 and Z2 are the image become complex impedances; ond @ is the image transfer constant, the image attenuation cons RFR =Z RRe=: Ree ZIK—=1) te Be Zz = (K-11? R= The hyperbolic formulas above are valid for possive linear four- ypedances matching the sdances; Ri, Re and Ra =a + JB, where ais stant and fis the image phase consta108 Attenuators Table IV—Symmetrical T or H attenuator continued Z = 500 ohms resistive (diagram page 106) attenuation db 0.0 02 04 06 08 10 2.0 3.0 40 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0 22.0 24.0 26.0 28.0 30.0 35.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 series arm Ri ohms 0.0 58 1s 17.3 23.0 288 m3 85.5 n3.1 140.1 166.1 191.2 2183 2597 2992 363.2 388.2 409.1 426.4 440.7 452.3 461.8 409.3 490.1 496.8 499.0 499.9 500.0 shunt orm Rs ohms inf 21,700 10,850 7,230 5,420 4,330 2,182 1,419 1,048 822 669 558 473.1 405.9 3514 268.1 207.8 162.6 1279 101.0 79.94 63.35, 50.24 39.87 31.65 W779 10.00 3.162 1.000 0.1000 0.01000 0.0000 0.0461 0.0921 0.1383 0.1845 0.2308 0.465 0.705 0.954 1.216 1.494 ogi Rs 2.826 2747 2.675 2.546 2428 2318 221 2.107 2.004 1.903, 1.802 1701 1.601 1.500 12250 1000 0.500 —1.000 2.000AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 109 Attenvators continued Interpolation of symmetrical T or H attenuators Column Ri may be interpolated linearly. Do not interpolate Rs column. For 0 10 6 db, interpolate’ the “2° column, Above 6 db, interpolate the column 3 Logio Rs and determine Rz from the result. Errors in symmetrical T or H attenuators Series arms R; and Rz in error Error in input impedances: 1 AZ, = AR + zB ARe and nominally Ry = Ry and Z; = Zz 1 AZ, = ARs + Fe AR Error in insertion loss, db = 4 ‘Gs + 2) approximately. 1 2 Shunt arm Rs in error (10 percent high) . error in input designed loss, error in insertion impedance db loss, db 100 42 percent : Zz 0.2 —0.01 0.2 1 —0.05 1.0 6 —03 3.3 12 0.5 3.0 20 —07 16 40 —08 0.2 100 —08 0.0 ini . K—1. ARs E it id . = QQ rror in input impedance: z KKH fe . Ai _ K — 1 ARs Error in output i — =~ 3 output current 7 k + 1 Re See General Remarks on page 101.110 Attenuators continued — Table V—Symmetrical 7 and 0 attenuators The values of the series and shunt arms of these attenuators may be de- termined from Table IV of sym- 1 2 metrical T attenuators by means ° of the following formulas. z Shunt Zz bead Ri Rog = = Zz arms; Fis = Res = Ri + 2Rs RB Seri R zn eries 1 Re = Rif = at om fenR(Et2)—<@ Ce : x section with source and load + . Ru = R: ys Error in loss, db== —8 — (approximately) 22 = Rep and Z! ig 1 oR m2 K-—1 AR; ARos AR = 4E ot (Me She 2 he K+1 Ris Res Rw Ry Error in input impedance: AZ’ K—1(ARs , 1 ARs , 2 ARn\ 3 3 ZZ’ K+IUARs — K® Reg K Re equivalent symmetrical T section Table VI—Bridged T or H attenuator Z = 500 ohms resistive Ri = R: = 500 ohms (diagram page 106) shunt | ctenvation | bridge shunt arm Rs WE arm Ry arm Rs hms. bhms ohms 0.0 00 © 120 1491 1677 02 ns 21,500 140 2,008 1246 OM 23.6 10,610 16.0 2,655 2 06 358 6,990 18.0 3,472 72.0 08 48.2 5,180 20.0 4,500 556 10 61.0 4,100 25.0 8,390 298 20 129.5 1,931 30.0 15,310 16.33 3.0 2063 1212 40.0 49,500 5.05 40 292.4 855 50.9 157,600 1.586 50 389.1 542 60.0 499,500 0.501 60 498 502 80.0 5.00 X 10° 0.0500 70 619 404 100.0 $0.0 X 10° 0.00500 8.0 756 331 9.0 909 2750 10.0 1,081 231.2AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN i Attenuators continved Interpolation of bridged T or H attenuators Ib Bridge arm Ry: Use the formula logio [Ry + 500) = 2.699 + 2 for Z = 500 ohms. However, if preferred, the tabular values of Ry may be interpolated linearly, between 0 and 10 db only. Shunt arm Rs: Do not interpolate Rs column. Compute Rs by the formula 6 R= for Z = 500 ohms, Note: For attenuators of 60 db and over, the bridge arm Ry may be omitted, provided a shunt arm is used having twice the resistance tabulated in the Rs column. (This makes the input impedance 0.1 of | percent high at 60 db.) Errors in bridged T or H attenuators For resistance of any one arm 10 percent higher than the correct value designed loss col 1* col 2* col 3* db db percent percent 02 0.01 0.005 0.2 1 0.05 1 1.0 6 02 25 25 12 03 58 19 20 04 elo. 09 40 04 10 1 100 04 10 0.0 * Refer to following tabulation. element in error error in | error in terminal (10 percent high) Joss impedance remarks Series arm Ri (analogous | Zero Col 2, for adjacent | Error in impedance at op- for arm Re) terminals posite terminals is zero Shunt arm Rg Col I Col 3 loss is lower than de- signed loss Bridge arm Ry ~ | +11 Col 3 loss is higher thon de- signed loss —1\t - Error in input impedance: e = (S) = + S 1 e + ) For ce use subscript 2 in formula in place of subscript 1. 2 Error in output current: Ai K~1 (ARs _ Ae m - 2K \ Rs Re See General Remarks on page 101.2 Attenuators continued . — Table Vil— Minimum loss pads Matching Z; and Z; — bath resistive (diagram page 106) Lh Lh ZB loss series arm Ry shunt arm Rs ohms | ohms h a ohms ohms 10,000 $00 20.00 18.92 9,747 513.0 8,000 500 16.00 17.92 7,746 5164 6,000 500 12.00 16.63 5,745 522.2 5,000 500 10.00 1879 4743 527.0 4,000 500 8.00 1477 3,742 534.5 3,000 500 6.00 13.42 2.739 M77 2,500 500 5.00 12.54 2,236 559.0 2,000 500 4.00 1144 1,732 STA 1,500 500 3.00 9:96 1,247 6124 1200 500 2.40 873 916.5 6547 1,000 500 2.00 7.66 707.1 707.1 '800 $00 1.60 6.19 489.9 816.5 600 500 1.20 377 244.9 1,204.7 500 400 1.25 418 223.6 894.4, 500 300 1.667 6.48 316.2 4743, 500 250 2.00 7.66 353.6 353.6 500 200 2.50 896 387.3 258.2 500 160 3.125 10.17 4123 194.0 500 128 4.00 14d 433.0 1443 500 100 5.00 12.54 447.2 111.80 500 80 4.25 13.61 . 4883 87.29 500 65 7.692 14.58 466.4 69.69 500 50 10.00 1579 4743 5270 500 40 12.50 16.8 479.6 41.70 500 30 16.67 18.11 4848 30.94 500 25 20.00 18.92 4873 25.65 Interpolation of minimum loss pads Z, This table may be interpolated linearly with respect to Z1, Zs, or 3 except 2 when 2 is between 1.0 and 1.2. The accuracy of the interpolated value’ be- 2 comes poorer as 2! passes below 2.0 toward 1.2, especially for Rp. 2AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 113 Attenuators continued For other terminations If the terminating resistances are to be Z,4 and Zz instead of Zi and Z2, Z _ Z, respectively, the procedure is as follows. Enter the table at z = z and 2 B read the loss and the tabular values of Ri and Rs. Then the series and shunt Zz. Z arms are, respectively, MR: and MRi, where M = <4 = <2. Z Zs Errors in minimum loss pads Impedance ratio x col 2* Z percent Ps 12 02 +41 +17 20 0.3 71 12 40 0.35 8.6 06 * 10.0 04 95 0.25 20.0 04 97 0.12 * Notes Series arm Ry 10 percent high: Loss is increased by col 1. Input impedance Z; is increased by col 2. Input impedance Zs is increased by col 3. Shunt arm Rs 10 percent high: Loss is decreased by col 1. Input impedance Zs is increased by col 2. Input impedance Z; is increased by col 3. Errors in input impedance AZ Z2fARr , 1 ARs mole h —~ 27847 OS vay 2(2 + N Rs AZ sf Za(aRe 1 ak Za Zi\ Rs NR Error in output current, working either direction at tf 22(a8 _ ans i 2 Zi\Rs Ry See General Remarks on page 101.if Attenuators continved —_—_—, Table Vill— Miscellaneous T and H pads (diagram page 106) eosistiv h §,000 2,000 10 3,889 222 2,222 5,000 2,000 18 4165 969 1,161 5,000 2,000 20 4,462 1,402 639 5,000 500 20 4,782 190.7 319.4 2,000 500 15 1,763 1654 367.3 2,000 $00 20 1,838 308.1 202.0 2,000 200 20 1,913 763 127.8 500 200 10 388.9 22.2 222.2 500 200 15 416.5 969 116.1 500 200 20 446.2 140.2 839 500 50 20 478.2 19.07 31.94 200 50 15 W763 16.54 36.73 200 50 20 183.8 30.81 20.20 Errors in T and H pads . Series arms Ri and Ry in error. Error in input impedances: 1a 1 Ze AZ, = AR + — = AR, and AZ, = AR, + — = AR NZ NZ fn teats AR, , AR; Error in insertion loss, db = 4 (& + x , approximately, 4 2 Shunt arm R; in error (10 percent high) error in input impedance x designed loss | error in loss Aq ab Ze ib 1007 100 25 10 —04 11% 71% 25 15 06 12 46 25 20 -07 09 28 40 15 0.5 08 6.0 40 20 0.65 06 36 10 20 06 03 61 > = wat om + Wik 2) Hoe a interchange. subécripts 1 and 2, qi +2 Ai Nv NtI-VR(V 2 +2) 2) ARs. a Ai here i is the output current. i N-1AUDIO AND RADIO DESIGN 115 Filter networks Explanation: Table IX shows, in the first column, the fundamental series impedance, Zi, and the fundamental shunt impedance, Zs, from which the various types of filter sections shown in subsequent columns are composed. For example, a FT section (third column! is composed of two half-series arms, Z. Fin series, with a full shunt arm Zz connected to their junction point, The subsequent tables (Tables X, XI, XIl, and XII) give formulas for computing the full series arm and the full shunt arm. These must then be modified according to the type of section used. Example: Design a series M derived high-pass, T-section filter to terminate in 500 ohms, with cutoff frequency equal to 1000 cycles, and peak attenua- tion frequency equal to 800 cycles. 0.53, 0.53, Using Table XIII: os — f, = 1000 fo = 800 o6.3mh R= 500 i - (@Y 0.5974 m=a/l—- (= . 1000, —_l. c--L- | = 0.159(10~%) farad = 0.159 microfarad = GatR ~ 4x X 1000 x 500 ~ 19?! ore EN R 500 ==“ x0 = 39.8 millih Ge 7 Tex 00 7 0098 henry = 398 millihenry a= c = 0.159 = 0.265 microfarad m 06 bale 2 = 663 millihenry ~ 4X06 X 0.159 084 = 0.597 microfarad . . Zi, . For a T-section, each series arm must be 5 while the full shunt arm is used. Thus for the series arm use 2Cy, or 0.53 microfarad, The accompanying figure shows the final result.NG Filter networks continued ————a Table IX—Combination of filter elements configuration Zs oWW-0 CRNA qh . 2Zy Zp 22, Table X—Band-pass filters type _|__configuration _|_series arm | shuntarm | _ notations uy a STIT—]o y= hohe Constant ath = fb ane K 4 fof 1 c; = ich = = "| C= pap Fie AR] fs = ypper cutoft frequency f, = lower cutoff Three hs frequency e WTI] R element + 8 FW Ie, 1 R = nominal ‘i 2 = ap terminating series G ath + DR termnetin ia T G Three o~|f-—o, element co fith shunt u cy | aahihk type Table X!—Band-elimination filters fs = upper cutoff = foie |= * frequency fh ~ = =k itoff Constant “ ohh darth =H) fh lower cuto K a= afaoh R = nominal “ * hie terminating T° resistanceFilter networks continued —— Table XIl—Low-pass filters configuration t HTT Ho Constant L tak K T © whe Series M uy =a derived T° iu Shunt a 1 derived & T* Table XIII—High-pass filters type _| configuration | series arm _| c oo Constant t ca K Amt R c. Series | 74° M 4 aaf derived " T° Shunt M derived Ce, = mC C2 = mC f. = cutot frequency feo = frequency of peok attenuation R = nominal terminating resistance notations fe = cutoff frequency fg = frequency of peak attenuation ey R = nominal terminating resistanceVIB cunere Four @ Rectifiers and filters Typical rectifier circuit single-phase single-phase ‘Sephase 34 inteve fullewave hallawave beiwove rectifier (bridge) type cireuit in transtormor | “contotton. single-phase ‘delto-wye dolta-zig 20g ani] B-| Be Number of phases of supply 1 1 3 3 Number of tubes* 2 4 3 3 Ripple voltage 048 048 0.18 0.8 Ripple frequency of a 3t 3f Line voltage wl 1a 0.855 0.855, Line current 1 1 Bis 0816 line power factor 090 0.90 0.826 0.826 Trans primary volts per leg at 1 0855 0.855, ‘Trans primary amperes| per leg ] 1 our 0471 Trans primary kya. 1a qt 121 12i Trans average kva 134 ql 1.35 146 ‘Trans secondary volts per leg Lana, w 085s 0.49314) Trans secondory am- pores per leg o707 1 os? os77 Transformer second. ary kva 187 ai 148, i Peak inverse voltage per tube aa4 157 2.09 2.09 Peak current per tube 1 1 1 1 Average current per tube 05 05 0338 0.333, ‘Unless otherwise stated, factors shown express the ratio of the RMS valve of the circuit quantities designated to the average DC ovtput values of the rectifier. foctors ere based on a sine wave voltage input, infrite impedance choke and no transformer or rectifier losses.RECTIFIERS AND FILTERS 119 connections and. circuit data. S-phase 64 phase 3-phase S-phase heibwave halwave | (double 3-phase) foll-wove foll-wave wave delta-double delta-ster delta. 6 phase wye with, delta-wye dolta-delta balance coil n fe S| Satay, 3 3 3 3 3 é ‘ 6 ‘ 6 0.042 0.042 0.042) 0.042 0.042 éf 6 of a o 0740 0.428 0.855 042% 0749 08i6 La o707 14 0816 0955 0955 0955 0985 0.955 0740 0428 088s 0.478 0740 os7 0816 0.408 oss oan 128 1.05) 1.05 1.08 1.08; 1.55 142 128 1.05 1.05 0.740141 zeta) 08st) 0.428 0740 : 0.57718) 0.408 {oa } 0.289 ois oun 181 ee 148 105 10s 2.09 2.09 24 1.05 1.905 1 1 os Y 1 i o167 0167 0.167 0333 * These circuit factors are equally applicable to tube or dry plate rectify t Une PF = DC output watts/line volkomperes120 Rectifler filter design ——————— RMS tipple voltage in DB with reference to D-C output volts 80 +70 60 -50 fitted) Zz 1000 T B 800 5 . 2 XE Cort = 400 178 0.25 0.0t0 13 0.0738 12 Al 2.24 0.25 0.010 4 0.0659 3 32 2.82 0.25 0.010 15 0.0588 4 26 3.56 0.188 0.010 16 0.0524 16 20 449 0.188 0.010 7 0.0469 19 161 5.66 0.188 0.010 18 0.0418 2 1.28 7.14 0.125 0.005 19 0.0374 24 1.01 9.0 0.125 0.005 20 0.0334 26 0.80 n4 0.125 0.005 2 0.0299 30 0.64 43 0.128 0.005 2 0.0266 34 0.50 18.1 0.125 0.003 23 0.0238 39 0.40 28 0.125 0.003 24 0.0213 43 0.32 87 0.125 0.003 25 0.0190 48 0.25 36.2 0.125 0.002 26 0.0169 54 0.20 45.6 0.125 0.002 7 0.0152 38 0.158 57.5 0.125 0.002 28 0.0135 6 0.126 72.6 0.125 0.002 2 0.0122 74 0.100 fy) 0.125 0.002 30 0.0108 a4 0.079 ns 0.125 0.0015 31 0.0097 94 0.063 146 0.125 0.0015 32 0.0088 104 0.050 183 0.094 0.0015 2 0.0078 17 0.039 231 0.094 0.0015 34 0.0069 131 0.031 292 0.094 0.001 35 0.0061 146 0.025 368 0.094 0.001 36 0.0055 162 0.0196 464 0.094 0.001 7 0.0049 183 0.0156 585 0.094 0.001 38 0.0044 204 0.0124 737 0.063 0.001 39 0.0038 27 0.0098 930 0.063 0.00075 40 0.0034 261 0.0078 1173 0.063 0.00075 * Current capacity at 1000 omperes per squaré inch. For other current densities, multiply by (current dersiyt /1000, { Interiayer insulation is usally Kraft paper. See also page 4CHAPTER SIX 127 @ Vacuum tubes Nomenclature* . cH instantaneous total grid voltage instantaneous total plate voltage instantaneous total grid current instantaneous total plate current average value of grid voltage E) = average or quiescent value of plate voltage average or quiescent value of grid current average or quiescent value of plate current instantaneous value of varying component of grid voltage instantaneous value of varying component of plate voltage instantaneous value of varying component of grid current instantaneous value of varying component of plate current effective or maximum value of varying component of grid voltage effective or maximum value of varying component of plate voltage effective or maximum value of varying component of grid current effective or maximum value of varying component of plate current filament or heater current total electron emission (from cathode) r, = external plate load resistance Cop = grid-plate direct capacitance Cyx = grid-cathode direct capacitance Cpx = plate-cathode direct capacitance 6» = plate current conduction angle tp = variational (a-c) plate resistance Ry» = total (d-c) plate resistance Note: In the following text, the superscript M indicates the use of the maxi- mum or peak value of the varying component, i.e., ME, = maximum or peak value of the alternating component of the plate voltage. * From IRE standard symbols (Electronics Standards, 1938) Coefficients ‘ Amplification factor p: Ratio of incremental plate voltage to control- electrode voltage change at a fixed plate current with constant voltage on other electrodes, E. _} constantnts continued Transconductance sn: Ratio of incremental plate current to control-electrode voltage change at constant voltage on other electrodes. n= [2] ™ Sec} Eo, Eco: 1, =0 Een constant When electrodes are plate and control grid, the ratio is the mutual conduct- ance gm of the tube. gm = 'p Variational (a-c) plate resistance rp: Ratio of incremental plate voltage to current change at constant voltage on other electrodes. tp = | 2 ? big | Ee " Een constant Total (d-c) plate resistance R,: Ratio of total’ plate voltage to current for constant voltage on other electrodes. Rp = “| ” [: Ea Terminology --Eon constant Control grid: Electrode to which plate-current-controlling signal voltage is applied. Space-charge grid: Electrode, usually biased to constant positive voltage, placed adjacent to cathode to reduce current-limiting effect of space charge. Suppressor grid: Grid placed between two electrodes to suppress the effect of secondary electrons. Screen grid: Grid placed between anode and control grid to reduce the capacitive coupling between them. Primary emission: Thermionic emission of electrons from a surface. Secondary emission: Usually of electrons, from a surface by direct impact not thermal action, of electronic or ionic bombardment. Total emission J,: Maximum (saturated, temperature-limited) value of elec- tron current which may be drawn from a cathode. Available total emission is that peak value of current which may safely be drawn.VACUUM TUBES a Terminology continued —— Transfer characteristic: Relation, usually graphical, between voltage on one electrode and current to another, voltages on all other electrodes remaining constant. . Electrode characteristic: Relation, usually graphical, between the voltage on, and current to, a tube electrode, all other electrode voltages remaining constant. Composite-diode lines: Relation, usually two curves, of the currents flowing to the control grid and the anode of a triode as a function of the equal voltage applied to them (grid-plate tied). Critical grid voltage: Instantaneous value of grid voltage (with respect to cathode) at which anode current conduction is initiated through a gas tube. Constant current characteristics: Relation, usually graphical, between the voltages on two electrodes, for constant specified current to one of them and constant voltages on all other electrodes. Formulas Fer unipotential cathode and negligible saturation of cathode emission parallel plane cathode cylindrical cathode and plate -and plate _ Diode plate current Gest Git {amperes} mo Triode plate current o:{% + nee\$ | oi (% +tnec\$ {amperes} l+u “XA g. ; . Ab Ae Diode perveance Gy 23% oe . 23X 10 et Triode perveance Gz 23X 10-6 4 23 x tore Ae dade Br 27 de (?@ - ') tog Amplification factor » os 2rd de log —P- e a Plog Qary log ae Mutual conductance gm} °15G2 2. Ve, | 1.5G: 4 Vey, : atl ut+l of = ete of) = et wee Tu lV +e130 Formulas continued — where A» = effective anode area in square centimeters dy = anode-cathode distance in centimeters d. = grid-cathode distance in centimeters B = geometrical constant, a function of ratio of anode to cathode radius; B22 1 for S > 10 (see curve Fig, 1) f p = pitch of grid wires in centimeters grid wire radius in centimeters anode radius in centimeters cathode radius in centimeters grid radius in centimeters Note: These formulas are based on theoretical considerations and do not provide accurate results; for practical structures, however, they give a folr dea of the relationship between the tube geometry and the constants of the tube. n/t Fig. 1—Valves of 6 for values of 2 < 10. Performance limitations _ Tube performance limitation factors include electrode dissipation, filament emission, and: the transit time of electrons in the active part of the tube. For a given tube, the ultimate limitation may be any one or a combination of these factors,VACUUM TUBES 131 ‘ipation data Tube performance is limited by electrode dissipation. In turn, tube dissipation is limited by the maximum safe operating temperatures of the glass-to-metal seals {approximately 200° C), glass envelope, and tube electrodes. Thus excessive dissipation may result in breakage, loss of vacuum, and destruction of the tube. Typical operating data for common types of cooling are roughly specific average dissipation cooling surface watts/em? of cooling medium type temperature °C cooling surface supply Radiation 400-1000 4-10 Water 30-60 ~ 30-110 0.25-0.5 gpm per kw Forced-air 180-200 05-1 50-150 cfm per kw The operating temperature of radiation-cooled anodes for a given dissi- pation is determined by the relative total emissivity of the anode material. Thus, graphite electrodes which approach black-body radiation conditions operate at the lower temperature range indicated, while untreated tantalum and molybdenum work at relatively high temperatures. In computing cooling- medium flow, a minimum velocity sufficient to insure turbulent flow at the dis- sipating surface must be maintained. In the case of water and forced-air cooled tubes, the figures above apply to clean cooling surfaces, and may be reduced to a small fraction of these values by heat-insulating coatings such as mineral scale or dust. Cooling surfaces should, thus, be closely observed and cleaned periodically. Dissipation and temperature rise of cooling water KW = 0.264 QITs — Ti) where KW= power in kilowatts, Q= flow in gallons per minute, Tz and T)= outlet and inlet temperatures in degrees centrigrade. An alternate formula is liters per minute (Tz — Ty) 143 or KW = liters per minute when the temperature rise is a reasonable figure, namely 14.3° C. KW= Air flow and temperature rise P Q = 592 IT, + 273) at hon * where Q = air flow in cubic feet per minute.12 iment characteristics ———_____ ‘The sum of the instantaneous peak currents drawn by all of the electrodes must be within the available total emission of the filament. This emission is detemined by the filament material, area, and temperature. Typical data on the three types of filament most used are ratlo type hot-to-col resistance Puretuagsten (W) 5-10 0.25-0.7 70-84 | 14:1 ‘trumgsten (ThW) 40-100 05-3 26-28 1950-2000 10:1 (Oxide coated (BaCaSe 50-150 05-25 +10 1100-1250 2.5 to 55:1 In the cases of thoriated-tungsten and oxide-coated filament tubes, the emission data vary widely between tubes around the approximate range indicated in the table. The figures for specific emission refer to the peak or saturated value which is usually two or more times the total available value for these filaments. Instantaneous peak current values drawn during opera- tion should never exceed the published available emission figure for the given tube. Thoriated-tungsten and oxide-coated type filaments should be operated close to the specified published voltage. Deviation from these values will result in rapid destruction of the cathode surface. th the case of pure tungsten, the filament may be operated over a consider- able temperature range. It should be borne in mind, however, that the total filament-emission current available varies closely as the seventh power of the filament voltage. Likewise, the expected filament life is critically de- pendent on the operating temperature. The relationship between filament voltage and life is shown by Fig. 2. It will be seen that an increase of 5 per- cent above rated filament voltage reduces the life expectancy by 50 percent. Where the full normal emission is not required, a corresponding increase in life may be secured by operating a pure tungsten filament below rated fila- ment voltage. From the above tabulated values of hot-to-cold resistance, it may be seen that a very high heating current may be drawn by a cold filament, particularly ‘one of the tungsten type. In order to avoid destruction by mechanical stresses which are proportional to 2°, it is imperative to limit the current to a safe value, say, 150 percent of normal hot value for large tubes and 250 percent for medium types. This may be accomplished by resistance and time-delay relays, high-reactance transformers, or regulators.VACUUM TUBES 13 Filament characteristics continved Ltt yl [Ay tT | | ft 8 3 percent of normal life and emission 100) ° Percent of rated filament voltage Fig. 2—Effect of change fn filament voltage on the life and emission of bright tungsten filament (based on 2575° K normal temperature).134 Filament characteristics — continved ——< In the case where a severe overload has temporarily impaired the emission of a thoriated-tungsten filament, the activity can sometimes be restored by operating the tube with filament voltage only in accordance with one of the following schedules: 1. At normal filament voltage for several hours or overnight. Or, if the emission fails to respond. 2. At 30 percent above normal for 10 minutes, then at normal for 20 to 30 minutes. Or, in extreme cases when 1] and 2 have failed to give results and at the risk of burning out the filament. 3. At 75 percent above normal for 30 seconds followed by schedule 2. Ultra-high-frequency tubes Tubes for u-h-f application differ widely in design among themselves and from those for lower frequency. The theory of their operation and the principles of their design have not been fully expounded, and great progress in this field still lies ahead. Ultra-high-frequency tubes may be classified according to principle of operation as follows: 1. Negative-grid tubes 2. Positive-grid tubes 3. Velocity-modulated tubes 4, Magnetrons 1, Negative-grid tubes: Effectiveness of negative-grid tubes at ultra-high- frequencies is limited by two factors a. difficulty of designing the circuit associated with the tube b, effect of electron inertia. a. Design of u-h-f circuit associated with negative-grid tubes: The circuit must be tunable at the operating frequency. This leads to the use of trans- mission lines as associated circuits of the parallel or coaxial type. The tubes themselves are constructed so as to be part of the associated transmission line. Lines in some cases are tuned on harmonic modes, thus making possible the use of larger circuit elements. Circuit impedance must match the optimum loading impedance of the tube, a requirement difficult to satisfy inasmuch as the capacitive reactances are very small and u-h-f losses are important in both conductors and insulators. Difficulty in obtaining the proper Q of the circuit is increased with fre- quency. : :VACUUM TUBES 135 Ultra-high-frequency tubes continued b. Effect of electron inertia: The theory of electron inertia effect in receiving tubes has been formulated by Llewelyn, but no comparable, complete theory is now available for transmitting tubes. In both cases the time of flight of an electron from cathode to anode must be a small fraction of the oscillating period. When this period is so short as to be of the same order of magnitude as the transit time, receiving tubes cease to amplify and transmitting tubes cease to oscillate. Small tubes with close spacing between electrodes have been built that can be operated up to about 3000 megacycles. To compare results obtained with different tubes and circuits pertaining to a family ruled by the law of similitude, it is useful to know that dimensionless magnitudes, such as efficiency, or signal-noise ratio, are the same when the dimensionless parameter {Xd . tant o= VV remains constant! where f = frequency in megacycles d athode-to-anode distance in centimeters V = anode voltage in volts. Transit-time effect appears when ¢ becomes greater than 1. Spacing between electrodes of u-h-f tubes then must be small, and operation at high voltage isnecessary. In addition cathodes must be designed for high current density operation. 2. Positive-grid tubps: Utilize an oscillating space charge produced by acceleration of electrons through the positive grid toward a negative reflecting anode. This principle has been used for generating waves down to lengths of one centimeter. Low power output and low efficiency have hitherto, limited their wide application. 3. Velocity-modulated tubes: Utilize, the acceleration and retarding action of an alternating electron voltage on an electron beam to vary the velocity in the beam. After passage of the beam through a field-free drift space, the beam arrives with variations of space-charge density. In passing through the opening of a resonant cavity at this point, the variation of the beam density induces a current in the external circuit. Several types of amplifiers and oscil- lators employ this principle of operation; some, such.as the reflex Klystron, have a single cavity. While a theoretical efficiency of about 50 percent may thereby be achieved, the actual efficiency in the frequency range around 10 centimeters is only a few percent. 4, Magnetrons; May be considered as another form of velocity-modulated tube in which the electron stream instead of being accelerated linearly is136 Ulira-high-frequency tubes continued © given a circular trajectory by means of a transverse magnetic field. Energy from this beam is not lost directly to an acceleration electrode at d-c po- tential as in the linear case and accordingly a higher operating efficiency may be obtained. Usually acceleration and retardation of the rotary beam is accomplished by one or more pairs of electrodes associated with one or more resonant circuits. Wavelengths down to a centimeter are produced by the so-called first order {n = 1) oscillations generated in a magnetron having a single pair of plates. Relatively low efficiency and power output are obtained in this mode of operation. Design formulas relating dimensions, d-c anode voltage, mag- netic field strength, and output frequency for this case are obtained from the basic relation for electron angular velocity where H = field intensity in gauss E, = d-c accelerating voltage in volts X = generated wavelength in centimeters 1 = anode radius in centimeters 1% = cathode radius in centimeters Higher order oscillations of the magnetron may be obtained at high outputs and efficiencies exceeding that of the linear velocity-modulated tubes. Cathode-ray tubes Electrodes* Control electrode (modulating electrode, grid, or grid No. 1): Is operated at a negative potential with respect to the cathode in conventional cathode- roy tubes. The negative potential controls the beam current and, therefore, the trace brightness, * Sections on Electrodes, Characteristics, and Application Notes prepered by I. E. Lempert, Allen 8. Dumont Laboratories, Inc.VACUUM TUBES BI Cathode-ray tubes continued Screen grid (grid No. 2): Is not utilized in all cathode-ray tube designs. Its introduction makes the control characteristic independent of the accelerat- ing potential when operated at fixed positive potential. In electrostatic- focus, it makes the screen current (beam current to fluorescent screen} substantially independent of the focusing electrode voltage over the focus region. In some tube designs, it is used fo change the contro! characteristic dynamically by application of varying potential. ABCD E& F CG a 3 e ot a Fig. 3—Electrode arrangement of typical electrostatic focus and deflection cathode-ray tube. A heater. B cathode. C control electrode. D screen grid or pro-accelerator. E focusing electrode. F accelerating electrode. G deflection plate pair. H deflection plate pair. J conductive coating connected to accelerating electrode. K intensifier electrode terminal. L intensifier electrode (conductive coating on glass). M fluorescent sereen. Focusing electrode (anode No. 1): Is used in electrostatic-focus cathode-ray tubes and operates at a positive potential,* adjustable to focus the spot. Accelerating electrode (anode No. 2 or anode): In usual usage, the second anode is the last electrode, prior to deflection, which produces acceleration. The second anode potential is the potential of the electron beam in the deflection region. Intensifier electrode (post-accelerating electrode, anode No. 3): Provides acceleration after deflection. Preaccelerating electrode: In common usage, is an electrode like a screen grid or second grid, but connected.to the accelerating electrode internally. It makes the screen current (beam current to fluorescent screen) substan- tially independent of the focusing electrode voltage over the focus region. Deflection plates (deflection electrodes): Conventional cathode-ray tubes have two pairs of deflection plates at right angles to each other. The electric field between the plates of a pair causes deflection of the beam and, there- fore, displacement of spot, in a direction perpendicular to plates of a pair. * All potentiols are with respect to the cathode except when otherwise indicated,138 Cathode-ray tubes continued ———— Characteristics Cutoff voltage (Eco): Negative grid potential at which screen current be- comes zero (as indicated by visual extinction of a focused undeflected spot), or some specified low value. It varies directly with the accelerating electrode potential except in tubes with independently connected screen grids where it varies approximately as the screen-grid potential, the accelerating elec- trode potential having a second order effect (Eco increases slightly with accelerating electrode potential). E.. is independent of intensifier electrode potential. Control characteristic (modulation characteristic): Is a curve of beam current versus grid potential. It is often expressed in terms of grid drive {grid potential above cutoff) rather than actual grid potential. This method of expressing it has the advantage that the characteristic then varies less with accelerating potential and with individual tubes of a given design. Focusing voltage: In electrostatic focus tubes, the focusing electrode voltage at which the spot comes to a focus varies directly with accelerating electrode voltage in most tube designs and is substantially independent of the intensifier electrode potential. Focusing current or focusing ampere turns: Applies to magnetic-focus cathode-ray tubes and is usually expressed in terms of a definite focus coil in a definite location on the tube. While more than one value of current will focus, the best focus is obtained with the minimum value, i.e., the one ordi- narily specified. The focusing current (or ampere turns) increases with ac- celerating potential. Deflection factor (for electrostatic-deflection tubes): Is defined as the voltage required between a pair of deflection plates to produce unit deflection of the spot, and is usually expressed in d-c volts per inch of displacement. It varies directly with the accelerating potential in intensifier-type tubes so long as the ratio of the intensifier potential to accelerating-electrode po- tential (all potentials with respect to cathode) is constant. The application of twice the accelerating electrode potential to the intensifier electrode increases the deflection factor 15 percent to 30 percent above the value with the accelerating electrode and intensifier electrode at the same potential, depending on the tube design. Deflection factor (for magnetic deflection tubes): Usually expressed in terms of a definite deflection yoke in a definite location on the tube, in amperes or milliamperes per inch of spot deflection, it varies as the square root of the accelerating electrode potential.VACUUM TUBES 139 Cathode-ray tubes continued Deflection sensitivity: Is the reciprocal of the deflection factor. Usually, however, it is expressed in millimeters per volt for electrostatic deflection tubes. Spot size: Must be expressed in terms of a defined method of measurement since spot edges are not usually sharp. When the accelerating potential is varied and the screen current maintained constant, the spot size usually decreases with increasing accelerating potential. If the brightness is held constant while varying the accelerating potential, the spot size decreases even more with increasing accelerating potential. Brightness: Increases with beam current and with accelerating potential. At constant screen current, it usually increases with accelerating potential at a rate between the first and second power of the accelerating potential, approaching a maximum depending upon the screen material. Application notes Grid voltage: To permit variation of brightness over the entire range, the grid voltage, should be variable from the maximum specified cutoff bias of a cathode-ray tube to zero. Allowance should be made for a-c grid voltages if they are applied, and for potential drops which may occur in d-c grid- return circuits due to allowable grid leakage. Focusing electrode voltage source (electrostatic-focus tubes): Bleeder design should be such as to cover the range of focus voltage over which tubes are permitted to vary by specifications, both at the value of focusing-elec- trode current that may be encountered in operation, and at cutoff (zero focusing-electrode current). Deflection-plate potentials (electrostatic-deflection tubes): To avoid de- focusing of the spot, the instantaneous average potential of the plates of each deflection-plate pair should always be the same as that of the accelerat- ing electrode. Magnetic shielding: Magnetic shielding is necessary if it is desired to eliminate magnetic effects on the beam. The earth's and other magnetic fields may shift the beam considerably. Approximate formulas Electrostatic deflection: !s proportional to deflection voltage, inversely Proportional to accelerating voltage, and at right angles to the plane of the plates and toward the more positive plate. For deflection electrode structures using straight parallel deflection plates140 Cathode-ray tubes continued — p = fall 2E,A D = deflection Ea = deflection voltage E. accelerating voltage A = separation of plates 1 = length of plates L = length from center of plates to screen D, A, J, L are all in the same units Electromagnetic deflection: |s proportional to flux or current in coil, inversely proportional to the square root of the accelerating voltage, and at right angles to the direction of the field 0.3LJH Vea D = deflection in’ centimeters L = length in centimeters between screen ond point where beam enters deflect- ing field = length of deflection field in centimeters flux density in gauss accelerating voltage deflecting coil ampere turns D 1 H Ea NI ad Deflection sensitivity: Is linear up to frequency where phase of deflecting voltage begins to reverse before electron has reached end of deflecting field. Beyond this frequency, sensitivity drops off reaching zero and then passing through a series of maxima and minima asn = 1,2,3.... Each succeeding maximum is of smaller magnitude Decro = a’). c, A\ fv Dmoz = (2n — 0) (:) D = deflection v = electron velocity ¢ = speed of light (3 X 10" cm/sec) Electron velocity: For accelerating voltages up to 10,000 v (km per sec) = 593VE,VACUUM TUBES 141 Cathode-ray tubes continued Beyond 10,000 volts, apply Einstein's correction for the increase in mass of the electron. Earth's magnetic field: Maximum 0.4 gauss horizontal (Philippine Islands) 0.6 gauss vertical (Canada) City of New York 0.17 gauss horizontal; 0.59 gauss vertical Magnetic focusing: There is more than one value of current that will focus. Best focus is at minimum value. For.an everage coil IN = move f IN = ampere turns Vo = kv accelerating voltage d = mean diameter of coil f = focal length d and f are in the same units XY) \) xX) KX) ay yy x “ fh M4 Ki UX K) A well-designed, shielded coil will require fewer ampere ‘turns. Example of good shield design ah X= 20Army-Navy preferred list of electron tubes Receiving 1 November 1945 filament diode bwin Pentodes tuning miscellaneous ode converters [Klystrone| Power voltage elodes | Modes | icdes | remote | shop | "| output | indicators | ‘eetifters leathode| — coystats 4 143, 1sst wes | 3As 14 Ws cs 34 ZAPIA | INZIB IN2B MNS | 185 304 30PIA | 1NZ38IN3I ssf 384 Bier | N25) N32 50 BUG SYSGT/G. 63 | 22 [ena 2c Ge caer | excrw | esa | kaa | cae | ARG | exscT/G. bas sare | 2ca0 | ssw | esc7* | gar 2x25 | ears | ES. {00s shot | asere ace | asN7W | ask — | aks: 2k26 | 6AS7G Fat | 778 9003, SANS 2x7 | BAG ry) SASS 2x28 | 66WGA est ssH7* 2k29 | eN7GT/G 5002 6si7* 2x41 | vect/S wr 2K4s | 6Y6G. 3001 726A 7208 726C 126 Tae | Tasa7* | Taser | T2si7Gt_ | Tasc7* | Tasnz | TaSA* Tae | Tee 2887 wanzer | ask | 125I7* aw Boi BLSGT/S BUGIS on 3516G1/6. Only pes for 28 woh | OS eae | eos BAS cenode supply operation Ab BEAIGT - Transmitting ‘ peice | rectifiers la pes switching wiodos fetrodes | twin tetrodes | pentodes | nodulation magnetrons vacuum | _gos_|_ grid controt_| ‘tubes | ATR | TR 204A all oor | ais 22 321A 230-4 apsi-ss | 1z2 3628 | 2021 3826 acs, 813 | BB 225 3c4s Dual 403642 | 22a | 486 | CoB. 4831 2643 = 862A} Bla | BBA 4a 3e 22 4us-44 | aeanw | 4835 | 604 790 3c 880 | amet 803, 4035 M3 4150 SRAGY | 5821 | 393A Cyszwat s8me-A | 1625 837 5022 2u9 451 a7 sc | 354A Voor 14626 scat 2150 4182 536 | eM 250TH 825A rect 2st 5126 16i6 asa | 2050 30eTH 2153, 5129 8016 866A, 450TH 255-55 5190 8020 8698 @ 2158 58 872A 2160 5152 1c08 2IBIA~82A © Where direct Interchongecbility with prototype listed above Is ostured ond its JAN-1A Specification hos been issued @ counterpart of the prototype indicated by suffix letter's) GI, GT/G, Y, W, A, B, etc. may be used, Diode Pentode. t Consultation with applicable service laboratory's electron tube group Is recommended before application in equipment, OhlCHAPTER SEVEN 1483 @ Vacuum tube amplifiers Classification It is common practice to differentiate between types of vacuum tube circuits, particularly amplifiers, on the basis of the operating regime of the tube. Class A: Grid bias and alternating grid voltages such that plate current flows continuously throughout electrical cycle (6, = 360 degrees). Class AB: Grid bias and alternating grid voltages such that plate current flows appreciably more than half but fess than entire electrical cycle (360° > @, > 180°). Class B: Grid bias close to cut-off such that plate current flows only during approximately half of electrical cycle (6, 4 180°). Class C: Grid bias appreciably greater than cut-off so that plate current flows for appreciably less than half of electrical cycle (0) < 180°). A further classification between circuits in which positive grid current is conducted during some portion of the cycle, and those in which it is not, is denoted by subscripts 2 and 1, respectively. Thus a class AB; amplifier op- erates with a positive swing of the alternating grid voltage such that positive electronic current is conducted, and accordingly in-phase power is required to drive the tube. General design For quickly estimating the performance of a tube from catalog data, or for predicting the characteristics needed for a given application, the ratios given in Table | may be used. Table I—Typical amplifier operating data Maximum signal conditions—per tube Plate efficiency % 20-30 35-65 60-70 65-85 Peak instantaneous to d-c plate current ratio Mis/Iy ’ 15-2 31 31 8145 RMS alternating to d-c plate *“* current ratio [p/h 05-07 Mw WW T-1.2 RMS alternating to d-c plate voltage ratio Ep/Es 03-05 05-06 0.5-0.6 05-06 D-C to peak instantaneous grid current Jo/™Mig 0.25-0.1 0.25-0.1- 015-0114 General design continued Table | gives correlating data for typical operation of tubes in the various amplifier classifications. From this table, knowing the maximum ratings of a tube, the maximum power output, currents, voltages, and corresponding load impedance may be estimated. Thus, taking for example, a type F-124-A water-cooled transmitting tube as a class C radio-frequency power amplifier and oscillator—the constant-current characteristics of which are shown in Fig. |—published maximum ratings are as follows: D-C plate voltage E, = 20,000 volts D-C grid voltage E, = 3,000 volts D-C plate current Jy = 7 amperes R-F grid current 1, = 50 amperes Plate input P; = 135,000 watts Plate dissipation Py = 40,000 watts Maximum conditions may be estimated as follows: For n = 75% P; = 135,000 watts Ey = 20,000 volts Power output Po = 9 P; = 100,000 watts Average d-c plate current I, = P:/Ey = 67 amperes From tabulated typical ratio Miz/I, = 4, instantaneous peak plate current Mi, = 41, = 27 amperes The rms alternating plate current component, taking ratio Ip/Ip = 1.2, Ip = 1.2 ly = 8 amperes The rms value of the alternating plate voltage component from the ratio E,/Ey = 0.6 is Ey = 0.6 Ey = 12,000 volts. The approximate operating load resistance r, is now found from Ep ‘Dp ry = =* = 1500 ohms. An estimate of the grid drive power required may be obtained by reference to the constant current characteristics of the tube and determination of the peak instantaneous positive grid current Mi. and the ‘corresponding instan- taneous total grid voltage Me,. Taking the value of grid bias E, for the given operating condition, the peak a-c grid drive voltage is ME, = (Me, — E) from which the peak instantaneous grid. drive power Mp, = ME, Min Li eeVACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 145 General design continued An approximation to the average grid drive power Py, necessarily rough due to neglect of negative grid current, is obtained from the typical ratio I, se = 02 je of d-c to peak value of grid current, giving Py = LE, = 0.2 Mi.£, watts. Plate dissipation Pp may be checked with published values since Pp = Pim Po. grid amperes ic 1600 65 4 3 oe 2 B 400 2 & 1200 . 1 1000 28, LI ‘800 e 26) 200 AAS p24 as 400 Tit “ 0 jit | #200 18 | ie S vy oO 12] a Ole He 8 : i 4 400 2 ¢ 218 600 | q 3 800 “ 100 Ep | ° 4 ® ‘2 6 r=) 2 ! plate kilovolts es Fig. —Constant-current characteristics with typicel load Ines: A8—class C, CD— 8, EFG—class A, and HiK—class AB.M6 General design continued It should be borne in mind that combinations of published maximum ratings as well as each individual maximum rating must be observed, Thus, for example in this case, the maximum d-c plate operating voltage of 20,000 volts does not permit operation at the maximum d-c plate current of 7 amperes since this exceeds the maximum plate input rating of 135,000 watts. Plate load resistance r; may be connected directly in the tube plate circuit, as in the resistance-coupled amplifier, through impedance-matching elements as in audio-frequency transformer coupling, or effectively represented by a loaded parallel resonant circuit as in most radio-frequency amplifiers. In any case, calculated values apply only to effectively resistive loads, such as are normally closely approximated in radio-frequency amplifiers. With appreciably reactive loads, operating currents and voltages will in general be quite different and their precise calculation is quite difficult. The physical load resistance present in any given set-up may be measured by audio-frequency or radio-frequency bridge methods. In many cases, the proper value of r; is ascertained experimentally as in radio-frequency ampli- fiers which are tuned to the proper minimum d-c plate current. Conversely, if the circuit is to be matched to the tube, r; is determined directly as in a resistance-coupled amplifier or as ry = N%, in the case of a transformer-coupled stage, where N is the primary-to-second- ary voltage transformation ratio. In a parallel-resonant circuit in which the output resistance r, is connected directly in one of the resistance legs, n= == = OK, tn Ct where X is the leg reactance at resonance (ohms). Land C are leg inductance (henries) and capacitance (farads), respectively, a=* te Graphical ign ‘methods When accurate operating data are required, more precise methods must be used. Because of the non-linear nature of tube characteristics, graphical methods usually are most convenient and rapid. Examples of such methods are given below. o . A comparison of the operating regimes of class A, AB, B, and C amplifiers is given in the constant-current current characteristics graph of Fig..1. TheVACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS W Graphical design methods continved lines corresponding to the different classes of operation are each the locus of instantaneous grid e, and plate ey voltages, corresponding to their re- spective load impedances. For radio-frequency amplifiers and oscillators having tuned circuits giving an effective resistive load, plate and grid tube and load alternating voltages are sinusoidal and in phase (disregarding transit time), and the loci become straight lines. For amplifiers having non-resonant resistive loads, the loci are in general non-linear except in the distortiontess case of linear tube characteristics {constant rp) for which they are again straight lines. Thus, for determination of radio-frequency performance, the constant- current chart is convenient. For solution of audio-frequency problems, how- ever, it is more convenient to use the (i, — e,) transfer characteristics of Fig. 2 on which a dynamic load line may be constructed. Methods for calculation of the most important cases are given below. Class C r-f amplifler or oscillator Draw straight line from A to B (Fig. 1) corresponding to chosen d-c operating plate and grid voltages, and to desired peak alternating plate and grid voltage excursions, The projection of AB on the horizontal axis thus corre- sponds to ME,. Using Chaffee’s 11-point method of harmonic analysis, lay out on AB points: e’, = ME, e!’, = 0.866 ME, e’", = 0.5 ME, to each of which correspond instantaneous plate currents i's, i’, and i’, and instantaneous grid currents i’., i’’. and i’’’.. The operating currents are obtained from the following expressions: nak iota + 2" n= heb $20" My, = f [ie #173", $i") M), = i [e173 i"e bid. Substitution of the above in the following give the desired operating data. Mp My Power output Po = > Power input P; = Ey I, Me, MI, Average grid excitation power =| total grid volts e¢ for tube 1 4 8 1000 =800 -600 400 continued Graphical design methods 200 o 200 400 600 800 Bo 7 fo, plate amperes fs 4 0.707-0.5 plate kilovolts E, Tubel == 22 20 18 16141210 8] 6,464 ‘0 [+0.5+0707+ Me +tt44 900 600, 400 Fig. 2—Transfer character- '°00 809 800 istics ip versus ep with class Ar—CKF and class B—OPL load lines. ac grid volts e, Mie I | ey ey er | ee, fe” fo.309]_] os. e707 9° 66] Me, is E, Tobe Th ct © 10 121418}8 20 22 — plate hilovo He HEH H I ° 200 8 =409 =600 800 1000 -1290 ‘800 total grid volts e. for tube I — _— oocontinued Graphical design methods Peak grid excitation power = ME, i’e ME, Plate load resistance r, = 5” tp id by . E. Grid bias resistance Re = i le Plate efficiency » = Po Ps Plate dissipation Pp = P; — Po VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 149 The above procedure may also be applied to plate-modulated class C amplifiers. Taking the above data as applying to carrier conditions, the analysis is repeated for * E, = 2E, and “* Py = 4P9 keeping rz constant. After a cut-and-try method has given a peak solution, it will often be found that combination fixed and self grid biasing as well as grid modulation is indicated to obtain linear operation. To illustrate the preceding exposition, a typical amplifier calculation is given below: Operating requirements (carrier condition) Po = 25,000 watts Ep = 12,000 volts Preliminary calculation (refer to Table II) 1 = 75% Table Il—Class C r-f amplifier data 100% plate modulation preliminary symbol carrier Ep Wolts) 12,000 ME, (volts) 10,000 Ez (volts) ME, (volts) Js (amp) 29 My, (amp) 49 I, lamp) Mj, (amp) Py (watts) 35,000 Po (watts) 25,000 Py (watts) 9 (percent) 78 1 (ohms) 2,06¢ Re tohms) Eee (volts) crest . 12,000 24,000 10,000 20,000 1,000 700 1,740 1,740 28 64 5 10.2 0.125 0.083 0.255 0.183 33,600 154,000 25,570 102,000 "220 160 76 66 1,960 1,960 7,100 7,100 —110 ' =10180 Graphical design methods continued Ep = 0.6 X 12,000 = 7200 volts ME, = 1.41 X 7200 = 10,000 volts Po Lhe ee I= oe = 3.48 amperes My, = 4.9 amperes fee 1.2 I, _ 348 h= TD = 29 amperes P; = 12,000 X 2.9 = 35,000 watts Mi, rts Mi, = 4.5 X 29 = 13.0 amperes E, 7200 "= = Bag ~ 2060 ohms Complete calculation Layout carrier operating line, AB on constant current graph, Fig. |, using values of Es, “Ep, and Miy from preliminary calculated data. Operating carrier bias voltage, E, is chosen somewhat greater than twice cutoff value, 1000 volts, to locate point A. The following data are taken along AB: ip’ = 13 amp = 1.7 amp E, = —1000 volts is!’ =.10 amp —0.1 amp ee’ = 740 volts in’”’ = 0.3 amp if’! = 0 amp ME, = 10,000 volts From the formulas, complete carrier data as follows are calculated: MI, = ys +173 X 10 + 0.3) = 5.1 omp _ 10,000 X 5.1 Po 2 = 25,500 watts y= G19 +2X 10-42 03] = 28 amp P; = 12,000 X 2.8 = 33,600 wattsVACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 151 Graphical design methods continued = Ea X 100 = 76 percent = oe = 1960 ohms I pur +2 (-0.1)] = 0.125 amp My, = haz + 17 (=0.1)] + 0.255 amp Py x DAO O28 = 20 watts Operating data at 100 percent positive modulation crests are now calcu- lated knowing that here Ey = 24,000 voits 1, = 1960 ohms and for undistorted operation r Po = 4 X 25,500 = 102,000 watts ME, = 20,000 volts The crest operating line A’B’ is now located by trial so as to satisfy the above conditions, using the same formulas and method as for the carrier condition. It is seen that in order to obtain full-crest power output, in addition to doubling the alternating plate voltage, the peak plate current must be in- creased. This is accomplished by reducing the crest bias voltage with re- sultant increase of current conduction period, but lower plate efficiency. | The effect of grid secondary emission to lower the crest grid current is taken i advantage of to obtain the reduced grid-resistance voltage drop required. By use of combination fixed and grid resistance bias proper variation of the 1 total bias is obtained. The value of grid resistance required is given by at \ R= mlb med I, — ef, and the value of fixed bias by | Exe = Ey — Up Rel Calculations at carrier and positive crest together with the condition of Zero output at negative crest give sufficiently complete data for most purposes. If accurate calculation of audio-frequency harmonic distortion is hoe necessary the above method may be applied to the additional points re- quired.i design methods continued Class B r-f amplifiers A rapid approximate method is to determine by inspection from the tube li, — es) characteristics the instantaneous current, i’, and voltage e’, cor- responding to peak alternating voltage swing from operating voltage Es. A-C plate current “Ip = = D-C plate current Ih = A-C plate voltage ME, = Es — e's (Ey — e's) i’y Power output Py = Eoi’s (-4) 4 Es, Power input P; = Plate efficiency 9 = = Thus 7 S¥ 0.6 for the usual crest value of ME, & 0.8 Ey. The same method of analysis used for the class C amplifier may also be used in this case. The carrier and crest condition calculations, however, are now made from the same E;, the carrier condition corresponding to an alter- ™ E nating-voltage amplitude of —* such as to give the desired carrier power output. 2 For greater accuracy than the simple check of carrier and crest conditions, the radio-frequency plate currents MI’p, MI''p, MI'’p, MI°p — MI’'y, — MI''y, and — MI’, may be calculated for seven corresponding selected points of the audio-frequency modulation envelope + “Eg, + 0.707 ME,, + 0.5 ME,, 0, —0.5ME,, — 0.707ME,, and — “E,, where the negative signs denote values in the negotive half of the modulation cycle. Designating si = MY, + (— MIs) Dp’ =™/', — (— MI’), etc, the fundamental and harmonic components of the output audio-frequency current are obtained as si!" 5D’. p’ pr s! MI = — + ——- lfund tal Mpg = = pt at va fundamental) Tye od + 7 3VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 183 Graphical design methods continued eee 1 gt “ys = Oy pope pop opm Mp,= 2-20 Mp, = --— 2-4 me Bg em 4 8 This detailed method of calculation of audio-frequency harmonic distortion may, of course, also be applied to calculation of the class C modulated amplifier, as well as to the class A modulated amplifier. Class A and AB a-f amplifiers Approximate formulas assuming linear tube characteristics: ME, MI, Maximum undistorted power output MPo = 9 2 Ee when plate load resistance n = fp | xz -1 Ep —? —E, A and ™ Ep (nate, Negative grid bias Fp = —* z 8 gn ° B \nt Bp, giving MEM), Maximum plate efficiency 7 = —?—? Piers emereney 1 BEL Te Mpe Maximum maximum undistorted power output MMP» = len '» when 3 ME, n=2r, E, = > —? P or ay An exact analysis may be obtained by use of a dynamic load line laid out on the transfer characteristics of the tube. Such a line is CKF of Fig. 2 which is constructed about operating point K for a given load resistance 7 from the following relation: R 8 e e 3 2 iad ip = ——— +5 where R, S, etc, are successive conveniently spaced construction points.ik Graphical design methods continued Using the seven-point method of harmonic analysis, plot instantaneous plate currents i's, i's i!" is, — i's, — i's, and — i’, corresponding to +™E,, + 0.707E,, + 0.5@E,, 0,—0.5ME,,—0.707™E,, and—ME,, where 0 corresponds to the operating point K. In addition to the formulas given under class B radio-frequency amplifiers: ’ ” I, average = In + e + a from which complete data may be calculated. Class AB and B a-f amplifiers Approximate formulas assuming linear tube characteristics give (referring to Fig. 1, line CD) for a class B audio-frequency amplifier: My = i's py = wEe Mle Poa M E nat 4B Again an exact solution may be derived by use of the dynamic load line JKL on the i, — e2) characteristic of Fig. 2. This line is calculated about the operating point K for the given r; lin the same way as for the class A case). However, since two tubes operate in phase opposition in this case, an iden- tical dynamic load line MNO represents the other half cycle, laid out about the operating bias abscissa point but in the opposite direction (see Fig. 2). Algebraic addition of instantaneous current values of the two tubes at each value of e, gives the composite dynamic characteristic for the two tubes OPL. Inasmuch as this curve is symmetrical about point P it may be analyzed for harmonics along a single half curve PL by the Mouromtseff 5-point method. A straight line is drawn from P to L and ordinate plate current differ- ences a, b, c, d, f between this line and curve, corresponding to e’’», e//"5, el, e%g, and e%",, are measured, Ordinate distances measured upward from curve PL are taken positive.VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 155 . Graphical design methods continued Fundamental and harmonic current amplitudes and power are found from the following formulas: Mig = i's — lpn + Migs — Mig + Mo — MI Myyg = 0.4475 lb + fl + g — 0.578 d — 1p Mis = 04 la — f Migr = 0.4475 (b + f) — lpg + 0.5 “Ips Mig = MIyg — A d Mp = 0.707¢ — MIps + Ips. Even harmonics are not present due to dynamic characteristic symmetry. The direct current and power input values are found by the 7-point analysis from curve PL and doubled for two tubes. Classification of amplifier circuits The classification of amplifiers in classes A, B, and C is based on the operat- ing conditions of the tube. Another classification can be used, based on the type of circuits associated with the tube. A tube can be considered as a four-terminal network with two input termi- nals and two output terminals. One of the input terminals and one of the out- put terminals are usually common; this common junction or point is usually called “ground”. When the common point is connected to the filament or cathode of the tube, we can speak of a grounded-cathode circuit. It is the most conventional type of vacuum tube circuit. When the common point is the grid, we can speak of a grounded-grid circuit, and when the common point is the plate or anode, we can speak of the grounded-anode circuit. This last type of circuit is most commonly known by the name of cathode follower. A fourth and most general class of circuit is obtained when the common point or ground is not directly connected to any of the three electrodes of the tube. This is the condition encountered at u-h-f where the series impedances of the internal tube leads make it impossible to ground any of them. It is also encountered in such special types of circuits as the phase-splitter, in which the impedance from plate to ground and the impedance from cathode to ground are made equal in order to obtain an output between plate and cathode balanced with respect to ground.196 Table {ll—Classification of triode amplifier circuits arevt | classification | 1 Cirevit schematic grovnded- cath grounded- grid grounded-plate or cathode follower Equivalent cir- cuit, a-¢ com-| ponent, class Al operation neglecting Cop neglecting Cpe neglecting Cox Voltage gain, 7} ~#2, a ule for output load] = YF, y=+—) —5 impedance =Za ere ths ott) Z: & =e -E Or Ze (Z, includes Cp) (Zp includes Cop) {Zz includes Cpid Input odmit- tance Ya = fofCon tl Cop] [¥1 = sel Cy 4 Y= jolCopt U— Coe] I+ h =n HY yak vy Colts +7; A neglecting Cop neglecting Coe neglecting Cox Equivalent gen- erator seen by 4 load ot output Te. terminals outpytVACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 15] Classification of amplifier circuits continued Design information for the first three classifications is given in Table Il, where 2 = load impedance to which output terminals of amplifier are connected £, = rms driving voltage across input terminals of amplifier E, = rms output voltage across load impedance Z2 1, = rms current at input terminals of amplifier . m Ey ¥ = voltage gain of amplifier = B 1 fh; Y, = input admittance to input terminals of amplifier = z 1 @ = 2m X frequency of excitation voltage Fi jav-1 and the remaining notation is in accordance with the nomenclature of pages 127 and 128. Cathode follower data General characteristics 1. High impedance input, low impedance output. 2. Input and output have one side grounded. 3. Good wide-band frequency and phase response. 4. Output is in phase with input. 5. Voltage gain or transfer is always less than one, 6. A power gain can be obtained. 7. Input capacitance is reduced. General case R, Transter = —2 "4 — or gm Zp gmRy t+ 1 Z, = resultant cathode to ground impedance = Ryw in parallel with Re Rou = Output resistance B+ = —* or approximately i at) Om R,, = total load resistance Cox T+amk, ™ k gm = transconductance in mhos (1000 pape > micromhos = 0.001 mhos) Input capacitance = Cyp +188 Cathode follower data continued Specific cases 1, To match the characteristic imped- 2. If Row is less than Zo, add resistor ance of the transmission fine, Row Rc’ in series so that Ro! = Zo — Rou must equal Zo. The transfer is ap- The transfer is approximately 0.5, proximately 0.5. Bt ot e, 3. If Row is greater than Zp add resistor Re B+ ” in parallel so that Zo Rout Rowe — Zo gm Zo leput z R= Transfer = Note: Normal operating bias must be provided, For coupling @ high impedance into o low Impedance transmission line, for maximum tronsfer choose a tube with a high gine Resistance-coupled audio amplifier design Stage gain at Medium frequencies = An = R 7 High frequencies = A, = fn Vit w*C? Low frequencies* = A; = 5 naan \'+ ada *The low-frequency stage gain olso. is affected by the values of the cathode by-pass capacitor and the screen by-pass capacitor.VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 159 id audio amplifier design continued where G B Re ty Re . oh + p= Re R+1 ¢ re, A—plate. p=h+—e B—grid. tit tp (C—ground or cathode. # = amplification factor of tube w = 2x X frequency plate load resistance in ohms grid leak resistance in ohms Tp = a-c plate resistance in ohms Cy = total shunt capacitance in farads C2 = coupling capacitance in farads Given Cu, Cz, Rz, and X = fractional response required At highest frequency paevin® pate a RR wi X yr RR At lowest frequency* x Or vin * The lowsfrequency stage goin clso Is offected by the values of the cathode by-poss capacitor and the screen by-pass capacitor. Negative feedback The following quantities are functions of frequency with respect to magnitude and phase: E, N, and D = signal, noise, and distortion output voltage with feedback e, n, and d = signal, noise, and distortion output voltage without feedback A = voltage amplification of amplifier at a given frequency 8 = fraction of output voltage fed back; for usual negative feedback, 8 is negative @ = phase shift of amplifier and feedback circuit at a given frequency166 Reduction ii gain caused by feedback ‘original amplifier original goin (decibels) amplifier gain ‘percent feedback we (0000 yr we ‘additional gain needed to maintoih 50 original gain, 5000 40 chonge in goin (decibels) 20 Wy 0! 6 To 3000 2000 20 0.005, 60 =F 1000 0.01 4 40 to 500 30 : 0.05 50 300 01 20 200 3 2 03 Lio 40 —E 100 05 8 so \ 07 40 08 2 30 30 os 1 20 0.5 0.95 05 20-10 08 098 0.2 0.99 6 0.998 . oe ac to 3 Fig. 3—in negative gainA back amplifier consider- input output value. A line across the 8 and A scales intersects the center scale to indicate change in gain. tt also Indicates the amount, in.decibels, the input must be increased to maintain original output.Negative feedback continued The fotal output voltage with feedback is _¢ apt T—AB It is assumed that the input signal to the amplifier is increased when negative feedback is applied, keeping E = e. EFN+D= etna lk (1 — A A) is a measure of the amount of feedback. By definition, the amount of feedback expressed in decibels is 20 login f E— AB} (2) Voltage gain with feedback = TAB (3) and change of gain = > 1, the voltage gain be- comes — i and so is independent of A. (5) In the general case when ¢ is not restricted to 0 or r the voltage gain = sn (or VI+ |AB)?—2|AB| cose and change of gain = | ” Vi+ [ABl?—2)AB| case Hence if |AB| > > 1, the expression is substantially independent of On the polar diagram relating (A 8) and ¢ (Nyquist diagraml, the system is unstable if the point (1, 0) is enclosed by the curve. Feedback amplifier with single beam power tube The use of the foregoing negative feedback formulas ts illustrated by the amplifier circuit shown in Fig. 4. The amplifier consists of an output stage using a 6V6-G beam power tet- rode with feedback driven by a resistance-coupled’ stage using a 617-G in a pentode connection. Except for resistors Ry and Ry which supply the feedback voltage, the circuit constants and tube characteristics are taken from published data.182 Negative feedback continued The fraction of the output voltage to be fed back is determined by specifying that the total harmonic distortion is not to exceed 4 percent. The plate supply voltage is taken as 250 volts. At this voltage, the 6V6-G has 8 percent R Fig. 4—Feedback amplifier with single beam power tube, total harmonic distortion. From equation (1), it is seen that the distortion output voltage with feedback is —d_ 1-AB This may be written as D= 8 1 Stan? 1-AB=2 0 B= > and where A = the voltage amplification of the amplifier without feedback. The peak a-f voltage output of the 6V6-G under the assumed conditions is E, = V4.5 X 5000 X 2 = 212 yolts This voltage is obtained with a peak a-f grid voltage of 12.5 volts so that the voltage gain of this stage without feedback is 212 A= er 7VACUUM TUBE AMPLIFIERS 163 Negative feedback continued Hence B= ~-— = — = = — 0.0589 or 5.9% approximately The voltage gain of the output stage with feedback is computed from equa- tion (3) as follows 17 A= =a=es Ap 2 and the change of gain due to feedback by equation (4) thus 1 1-Ag . The required amount of feedback voltage is obtained by choosing suitable values for Ri and Re. The feedback voltage on the grid of the 6V6-G is reduced by the effect of Ry, Rr and the plate resistance of the 6J7-G. The effective grid resistance is =05 where Ry = 0.5 megohm, This is the maximum allowable resistance in the grid circuit of the 6V6-G with cathode bias. rp = 4 megohms, the plate resistance of the 6J7-G tube 74X05 4+05 The fraction of the feedback voltage across Re which appears at the grid of the 6V6-G is R! 0.445 oe eo Ry +R, 0.445 + 0.25 where Ry, = 0.25 megohm. ‘0 = 0.445 megohm Thus the voltage across Rp to give the required feedback must be SF = 9.2 f te 0.64 % of the output voltage. This voltage will be obtained if Ry = 50,000 ohms and Re = 5000 ohms. This resistance combination gives a feedback voltage ratio of 5000 X 100 Rem = HI yf the tage. 50,000 + 5000 % of the output voltage.1 Negative feedback continued In a transformer-coupled output stage, the effect of phase shift on the gain with feedback does not become apprecjable until a noticeable decrease in gain without feedback also occurs. In the high-frequency range, a phase shift of 25 degrees lagging is accompanied by a 10 percent decrease in gain. For this frequency, the gain with feedback is computed from equation (6). A a . VI+{AB) —2/AB | cos where A = 153, 6 = 180°, cos $ = 0.906, 8 = 0.059. , 153 153 _ 153 _ = Eee + 2169 Tome 344 185 The change of gain with feedback is computed from equation (7). 1 1 = = 05 VIFABE-2)ABl cose 185 If this gain with feedback is compared with the value of 8.5 for the case of no phase shift, it is seen that the effect of frequency on the gain is only 2.7 per- cent with feedback compared to 10 percent without feedback. The change of gain with feedback is 0.541 times the gain without feedback whereas in the frequency range, where there is no phase shift, the corre- sponding valve is 0.5. This quantity is 0.511 when there is phase shift but no decrease of gain without feedback. Distortion —. A rapid indication of the harmonic content of an alternating source is given by the distortion factor which is expressed as a percentage. Distortion sum of squares of amplitudes of harmonics fi = X 100% lactor square of amplitude of fundamental If this factor is reasonably small, say fess than 10 percent, the error involved in measuring it sum of squares of amplitudes of harmonics x 100% sum of squares of amplitudes of fundamental and harmonics ° is also small. This latter is measured by the distortion factor meter.CHAPTER EIGHT 16 @ Room acoustics* General consi rations for good room acoustics The following information ts intended primarily to aid field engineers in appraising acoustical properties of existing structures and not as a camplete treatise on the subject. Good acoustics—governing factors a. Reverberation time or amount of reverberation: Varies with frequency” and is measured by the time required for a sound, when suddenly inter- rupted, to die away or decay to a level 60 decibels (db) below the original sound. . The reverberation time and the shape of the raverberation-time/frequency curve can be controlled by selecting the proper amounts and varieties of sound-absorbent materials and by the methods of application. Room occu- pants must be considered inasmuch as each person present contributes a fairly definite amount of sound absorption. b. Standing sound waves: Resonant conditions in sound studios cause stand- ing waves by reflections from opposing parallel surfaces, such as ceiling- floor and parallel walls, resulting in serious peaks in the reverberation-time/ frequency curve. Standing sound waves in a room can be considered com- parable to standing electrical waves in an improperly terminated transmission line where the transmitted power is not fully absorbed by the load. , Room sizes and proportions for good acoustics The frequency of standing waves is dependent on room sizes: frequency de- creases with increase of distances between walls and between floor and ceiling. In rooms with two equat dimensions, the two sets of standing waves occur at the same frequency with resultant increase of reverberation time at resonant frequency. In a room with walls and ceilings of cubical contour this effect is tripled and elimination of standing waves is practically impossible. The most advantageous ratio for height: width: length is in the proportion of 1.2% :2% or separated by 1% or 34 of an octave. In properly proportioned rooms, resonant conditions can be effectively re- duced and standing waves practically eliminated by introducing numeraus surfaces disposed obliquely. Thus, large-order reflections can be avoided by breaking them up into numerous smaller reflections. The object is to pre- * Compiled by Edward J, Content, consulting engineer.166 Room sizes and‘proportions for good acoustics — contiiued vent sound reflection back to the point of origin until after several re- reflections. Most desirable ratios of dimensions for broadcast studios are given in Fig. 1. 200) 20 10) sooo 2 456780452 8 4567850002 8 4 Se 7e9 volume in cubic feet Courtery of Acoustical Society of America and RCA chart type room | H:W:l designation {Smal 121.25:1.6| ED:Cr JAverage shape|1:1.60:2.5, RD:B: jimensions in feet = * Low ceiling |1:2.50:3,2} GiCiB Long 1:1,25:3.2| REAr Fig. 1—Preferred room dimensions based on 2¢ ratio. Permissible deviation +5 percent, Optimum ‘beration ti Optimum, or most desirable reverberation time, varies with (1) room size, and (2) use, such as music, speech, etc. (see Figs. 2 and 3).ROOM ACOUSTICS 167 Optimum reverberation time continued S t4 22 s § 20 2 . coy s gor gue 3 dE & ® S al Di iu aoe wes? of ue Fate 8 peech only to 8 proodcot |_| 8 5900 10,000 28,000 80,000 100,000 £280,000 00,000 1,000,000 volume in cubic feet Courtesy Architectural Forum Fig. 2—Optimum reverberation tme in seconds for various room volumes at 512 cycles per second. 2 20 g 4 L T room volume in cubic feet tz \1,000,000 | | + { 1 tt 100,000 13) 1 1 pf 1} 4 10, 43) 4 : desirable L ups PE ts ry LU 50 60 80100 150 200 300 400 600 1000 2000 4000 10,000 frequency in cycles per second Courtesy Western Electie Company Fig. 3—Desirable relative reverberation time versus frequency for various structures and auditoriums. Note; These curves show the destrable ratio of the reverberation time for various frequencies to the reverberation time for $12 cycles. The desirable reverberation time for any frequency between 60 and 8000 cycles may be found by multiplying the reverberation time at $12 cycles (from Fig. 2} by the number in the vertical scale which corresponds t0 the frequency chosen.18 Optimum reverberation time — continved A small radio studio for speech broadcasts represents a special case. The acoustic studio design should be such that the studio neither adds nor de- tracts from the speaker's voice, which on reproduction in the home should sound as though he were actually present. ’ © * { loge (1 — aus) o w 0.45 ot 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 | 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.015 — 0.01 0.01 0.015 0,02 0,03 0.05 007 OO O15 Of 03 04 OS Gar Courtesy Western Electric Company Fig. 4. For optimum characteristics of a speech studio, the reverberation time should be about one-half a second throughout the middle and lower avdio-fre- quency range. At high frequencies, the reverberation time may be 20 percent to 25 percent greater than at 512 cycles. This rise at the higher. frequencies enhances intelligibility and allows for the presence in the studio of one or fwo extra persons without materially affecting the reverberation-time/ frequency curve.ROOM ACOUSTICS 169 um reverberation time —continved Speech sounds above about 1000 cycles promote intelligibility. Apparent intensity of speech sounds is provided by frequencies below this value. Preponderance of low bass reverberation and standing waves tends to make the voice sound “boomy” and impairs speech intelligibility. 0.008) —F 7 m(feet™) 0.0041 6000 eycles ol 0 20 » 4 50 ‘60 © 80 30 100 percentage relative humidity (21° to 22° C) Fig. 5—Valve of attenuation constant m at different Frequencies and relative humid- ittes.* Computation of reverberation fime Reverberation time at different audio frequencies may be computed from room dimensions and average absorption. Each portion of the surface of a room has a certain absorption coefficient @ dependent on the material of the surface, its method of application, etc. This absorption coefficient is equal to the ratio of the energy absorbed by the surface to the total energy impinging thereon at various audio frequencies. Total absorption for a given surface area in square feet § is expressed in terms of absorption units, the number of units being equal to aaeS. — fotal_ number of absorption units Sow total surface in square feet One absorption unit provides the same amount of sound absorption as one square foot of open window. Absorption units are sometimes referred to as “open window” or “OW” units. _ 0.05V ~ =$ logell = Ged) where T = reverberation time in seconds, V = room volume in cubic feet, S = total surface of room in square feet, aay = average absorption coeffi- cient of room at frequency under consideration. * Reprinted by permission from Architectural Acoustics by V. O. Knudsen, published by John Wiley ond Sons, inc.110 Computation of reverberation time continued _————— For absorption coefficients a of some typical building materials, see Table I. As an aid in using the formula for reverberation time, Fig. 4 (page 168) may be used for obtaining [—loge (1 — aay)] from known values of aay. . Table Ii shows absorption coefficients for some of the more commonly used materials for acoustical correction. Table I—Acoustical coefficients of materials and persons* ‘sound absorption coefficients ‘cycles per second description thority 128 | 256 | 512 | 1024 | 2048 | 4096 Brick wall unpainted 0.024 | 0.025 | 0.031 | 0.042 | 0.049 | 0.07_ | W.C. Sabine Brick wall pointed 0012 | 0.013 | 0.017 | 002 | 0.023 | 0.025 | W: C. Sabine Plaster +f finish coat ‘Wood loth—wood studs 0.020 | 0.022 } 0.032 | 0.039 | 0.039 | 0.028 | P. E. Sabine Plaster + finish coat on metal loth | 0.038 | 0.049 | 0.060 | 0.085 | 0.043 | 0.056 | V. O. Knudsen Poured concrete unpainted O10 | O12 | O16 | 0.019 | 0.023 | 0.038 | V. O. Knudsen Poured concrete pointed and varnished | 0.009 | O11 | 0.014 | 0.016 | 0.017 | 0.018 } V. O. Knudsen Carpet, pile on concrete oop | 008 | o21 | 026 | 027 | a37 Research Station on 34" felt oat fois | 037 | 043 | 027 | 025 Research Station Draperies, velour, 18 oz per sa yd in ‘contact with wall os }orz }035 | 045 | 038 | 036 | P.E Sobine Orite 36° ost | 012 } 0.17 | 033 | 045 | 047 | PE Sabine Rug, oxminster G1 | 014 | 0.20 | 033 | 0.52 | 082 | Wente and Bedell Audience, seated per sq ft of area | 072 | 089 | 095 | 099 | 1.00 | 1.00 | W.C. Sabine Each person, seated 14 | 225 38 | 54 | 66 | — | Bureau of | Stondords, overages of 4 tests Each person, seated —}— | — | — | — | 70 | estimated Glass surfoces 00s [0.04 | 0.03 | 025 | o.022 | 002 | Estimated * Reprinted by permission from Architectural Acoustics by V. O. Kaudsen, published by John Wiley and Sons, Inc. Table li—Acoustical coefficients of materials used for acoustical correction material Amstrong Cork Co. * Corkoustic—84 Corkoustic—B6 os | 028 0.58 | 0.38 | 0.55 | Armstrong Cork Go, Coshiontone AS 017 | 08 076 | 071 | 0.75 | Armstrong Cork Co. Koustex 0.10 | 024 077 | 075 | 065 | David E. Kennedy, Inc. Sonacoustic (metal) files 025 | 056 0.91 | 0.82 | 0.85 | Johns-Monville Sales Corp, Permacoustic tiles 4” 19 | 034 075 | 0.74 | 0.65 | Johns-Monville Sales Corp. low-frequency element 0.66 | 0.60 035 | 0:20 | 0.50 | Jonns-Monville Sales Corp. Triple-tuned element 066 | 061 079 | 075 | 075 | Johns-Manville Sales Corp. High-frequency element 0.20 | 0.46 079 | 0.75 | 0.60 | Johns-Manville Sales Corp. ‘Absorbatone 0.15 | 0.28 07 | 0.98 | 075 | Luse Stevenson Co. ‘Acoustex 60R 0.14 | 0.28 0.83 | 0.80 | 070 | National Gypsum Co. Econacoustic 1” 0.25 | 0.40 079 | 0.48 | 0.70 | Notional Gypsum Co. Fiberglas ocoustical tiletype TW PF 9D 022 | 0.46 048 | 0.62 | 075 | Owen-Coming Fborals orp. Acoustone D 114" 013 | 0.26 076 | 074 | 045 | U. § Gypsum Company ‘Acoustone F 18%) 016 | 033 0.80 | 0.75 | 0.70 | U.S. Gypsum Company ‘Acousi-cetotex type C-6 114" 030 | 056 0.49 | 0.56 | 080 | The Celotex Corp. ‘Absorbex type AT? oat | 071 085 | 0.96 The Celotex Corp. 085 085 | 0.57 | 085 | The Cetotex Corp. Courtesy Acoustics Materials Association The nolse-reduction coefficient is the average of the coefficients at frequencies from 256 to 2048 cycles inclusive, given to the nearest 5 percent, This average coefficient Is recom- mended for use in comparing materials for noise-quieting purposes as in offices, hospitals, banks, corridors, ete. Acousteel B metal facing 156” 029 | 0.57ROOM ACOUSTICS iN . Computation of reverberation time continued Considerable variation of sound-absorption in air at frequencies above 1000 cycles occurs at high relative humidities (see Fig. 5). Calculation of reverber- ation time, therefore, should be checked at average relative humidities applicable to the particular location involved. For such check calculations the following formula may be used: _ 0.05V —S loge (1 dav) -+ 4m V~ where m is the coefficient in feet! as indicated in Fig. 5, page 169. Electrical power levels for public address req . i Note: Curves are for an exponential trumpet-type horn. a. Indoor: See Fig. 7, page 172. Speeth level above telerencom overage 70 db, peak , i Gb. For a loudspocker of 25 percent efficiency, 4 fines b. Outdoor: See Fig. 8, page 173. fh Sover output would be required or on equivalent of 6 decibels. For one of 10 percent efficiency, 10 imes the power oviput would be required or 10 decibels Peco EEA 800) {4 © 400) 8 i 8 maximum safe current S300] g ., = 200 —| & 3 6% 3 y 3 s 3 3 1% om 0 Se ol a | ‘ol ‘ x 8 vo L 7 lo f om 3 Cy i” 6 3 {| { 45 11 10 20 30 40 60 70 100 200 400 600, 1000 tenth of run in feet (one-half total wire used) Courtesy Western Electric Company Fig. 6—Wire sizes for loudspeaker cirevits assuming maximum loss of 0.5 decibel.™ Electrical power levels for public address requirements continued watts 9.001 0.01 or to to, , 100 33000; 000 8,000;000 7,000,000 000,000 5,000,000 4,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 volume of room in cubic feet 1,000,000 299.00 100500: 700,000 600,000 500,000 400,009 300,000 200,000 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 40,000 2 i 7a a] Ts e € "34.888 a f +—1¥ & & é 30,000 g 20000 19,009 3383 Yooo 000 5,000 4900 3,000 8,000 o 8 © % 2 2% 30 3 40 4 60 relative amplifier power copacity—maximum single-frequency output rating in decibels above 0.001 wott Courtesy Wester Efechic Company 1,000 Fig. 7—Room volume and relative amplifier power capacity. To the indicated power level depending on loudspeaker efficiency, there must be added a correction factor which may vary from 4 decibels for the most efficient horn-type reproducers to 20 decibels for less efficient cone loudspeakers.ROOM ACousTICS 123 Electrical power levels for public address requirements continued ee wots: 0.008 om oO ' 10 ‘300 —- — B00 700 600 500 distance in feet 400 4 7 cer | | |_ TN L PTT LLL —| 4 3 2 Ls T ‘ 10 5 ° s 10 58. 20 25 30, 35 40 45 relative amplifier power capacity—maximum single-frequency output rating in ‘decibels above 0.001 watt Courtesy Western Else rie Company speech, average for 30° angle of covera: and propertional output power are required. Depending on loudspeaker ficiency s correction factor must be added to the indicated power level, varying approximately from 4 to 7 decibels for the more-efficient type of horn loudspeakers, Fig. 8=Distance from loudspeaker and relative amplifier power capacity required for Fe id14 ranges and levels g intensity level in deci 3 g 2 30 “100 3007 1005 "3000 “10000 80000 frequency in cycles per second Courtesy Western Electric Company Fig. 9—Frequency ranges of musical instruments. Intensity levels of music. Zero level equals 10-'* watt per square centimeter.ROOM ACOUSTICS 15 Acoustical speech levels and ranges of other sounds = 3 8 intensity level in decibels “20 2 8 wo $00 4000 8000. . 12000-20000 frequency In cycles per second ‘Courtesy Western Electric Company Fig. 10—Frequency ranges of m: levels of conversational speech. Z and female speech and other sounds. Intensity vel equals 10-16 watt per square centimeter.Ww. Acoustical sound level and pressure ——— 1000 800 600 $00 400 300 200 100 80 66 50 40 20 acoustical pressure in dynes per square centimeter waaaad 0.8 a8 as a4 08 aa ot 0.08 e208 9.65; 0.04 0,03 0,02 0.01 a 40 na oe 1) a 9 Oe ne no Be MO sound level in decibels above 1G" watt per square eentinefer ‘Courtesy Western Electric Company Fig. 11—One dyno per square centimeter Is equivalent fo an acoustical level of plus 74 decibels.Table Ill—Noise levels neise avt-of-doors cirplane, 1600 rpm, 18 feet riveter, 35 feet elevated train, 15 feet noisiest spot at Niagara Falls very heavy street traffic, 15 feet average motor truck, 15 feet average automobile, 15 feet quiet residential street, New York city 15 to 300 feet minimum street nolse, midtown, New York city, 50 to 500 feet quiet garden, London rustle of leaves in a gentle breeze reference level Zera level = 10"! watt per square centimeter General noi: vel In decibets ROOM Acoustics Wi neise in building threshold of painful sqund boiler factory subway, local station with express pasting lian's rear, Bronx zoo house, 18 feet average of 4 factory locations department store average office quiet office average residence quietest residence measured quiet whisper, 5 feet threshold of hearing of street noise Courtesy Western Electric Company a. Loudspeaker wire sizas: See Fig. 6 page 171. b Acoustical musical ranges and levels: See. Fig. 9, page 174, ¢. Acaustical speech levels and ranges of ather sounds: See Fig. 10, page 175. 4. Acoustical sound levels: See Fig. Lt, page 176, e. Noise levels: See Table Hl.178 Ib continued —_ #. Equal loudness contours: Fig. 12 gives average hearing characteristics of the human ear at audible frequencies and at loudness levels of zero to 120 db versus intensity levels expressed in decibels above 10-!* watt per square centimeter. Ear sensitivity varies considerably over the audible range of sound frequencies at various levels. A loudness level of 120 db is heard fairly uniformly throughout the entire audio range but, as indicated in Fig. 12, z 3 feeling 3 3 3 3 8 3 3 8 8 Intensity level in decibels above 107" watt per square centimeter @ 8 I | 20 30 $0 70 1090 2090 00 500 1090 2000 $000 1Op00 20,000 frequency in cycles per second Courtesy Western Elecric Company Fig. 12—Equal loudness contours. a frequency of 1000 cycles at a 20 db level will be heard at very nearly the same. intensity as a frequency of 60 cycles at a 60 db level. These curves ex- plain why a loudspeaker operating at lower than normal level sounds as though the higher frequencies were accentuated and the lower tones seriously attenuated or entirely lacking; also, why music, speech, and other sounds, when reproduced, should have very nearly the same intensity as the original rendition. To avoid perceptible deficiency of lower tones, a symphony orchestra, for example, should be reproduced at an acoustical level during the loud passages of 90 to 100 db fsee Fig. a.Telephone transmission line data Line constants of copper open-wire pairs 40 pairs DP (double pettic 12-inch spacing resistance reaweney ohms per loop mile 165 mit_|_126 mil_|_104 mil. 0 4.02 558 1.12 500 4.04 670 10.13 1000 4 674 1ols 2000 435 639 10.26 3000 471 713 1043 5000 556 783 1094 10000 751 998 1286 20000 10.16 13.54 17.08 30000, 1219 16.15 2042 40000 1390 18.34 23.14 0000 1841 029 25:51 infin Capacitance on 40-wire lines microfarad per loop mile 165 mi In space 0.00898 Qn 40-wire line, dry 0.00915 On 40-wire line, wet lopproxd 0.00928 Line constants of copper open-wire pairs 53 poirs CS (special glass with steel pin) insulators per mile 8-inch spacing tomperature 68° F millihenries per loop mile 165 mil_| 128 mil_| 104 mil eeeeereeueus BRRBERERELE & 128 mil 0.00855 0.00871 0.00886 resistance frequency ‘ohms per loop mile 165 mit_| 128 mil_| 104 mil 0.0 4.02 10.12 31 10 4M TONS 3.10 20 435 1028 | 3:0 30 471 10.43 3.09 50 536 1094 | 308 10.0 7.5) 12.86 3.04 20.0 10.16 17.08 3.02 50.0 SAL 25.51 2.99 100 | 2130 3490 | 298 200.0 2.77 48.25 297 500.0 46.45 7465 2% ooo | 6530 1048 236 Infin 295 Capacitance on 40-wire lines microfarad per loop mile 165 mil 128 mil In space {no insulators) 0.00976 0.00928 On 40-wire line, dry ooiac3 | 0.00981 Inductance millihenries per loop mile 165 mil_| 128 mit_| 104 mil SERBEERRSSESE “CHAPTER NINE 119 Bf Wire transmission leakance a 0.082 0.220 0.408 0.748 149, 32 p mile: 165, 128, or 104 mil wot 01 25 01s 30 0.29 35 os7 48 085 55 M4 75 28 121 5 20.5 84 230 na 35.0 40 aid Jeakance gap miler joop mile: 165, 128, or 175 3.40 54 159 m6continued Telephone transmission line data Characteristics of standard types of aerial copper wire telephone circuits at 1000 cycles per second space primary constants ne ty ne veloc- | atten- me per loop mile polar rectangulor polar rectangular ‘iy | cation mag- | angle |g X | wave- | miles onion! at | uho en ee Non-Pole Pair Phys | 165 | 8 | it | cost | .oo96 | 14 | 0353 | 3.99 | 00870 | 0351 | sss | 58 | soz | 58 | 1790 | 179000! .oa2t Non-Pole Pair Sido | 165 | 12 | air | cooa7 | oomis | 27 | .oss2 | 84.36 | .00a46 | 0350 | 612 | 535 | sto | s7 | 179.5 | 179,500] .0300 Pole Pair Side wes | 18 | 4.1 } 00364 | .co8es | 27 | 0355 | e475 | 00325 | 0353 | 653 | 500 | os: | 57 | 1780 | 178,000} 0282 Non-Pole PoirPhon | 165 | 12 | 206 | .ooz08 | .o1sia | 58 | .0055 | 5.34 | .oome | osss | s73 | 490 | a72 | 28 | 1775 | 177,00] .0250 Non-Pole Poir Phys | 128 | 8 | 674 | oso | .oopas | 14 | 0368 | a0.as | ose | 0353 | 603 | 897 | se | 94 | 1780 | 178,000] .o4ve Non-Pole Pair Side | 128 | 12 | 674 | .00363 | 00871 | 27 | 0256 | a1.39 | .00533 | 0362 | 450 | @s2 | 443 94 | 1785 | 178,500] .o462 Pole Patr Side 128 | 18 | 674 | 00380 | .coe2s | 27 | 0358 | Bi.95 | .ooso2 | 0355 | 693 | 7.72 | 486 | 93 | 170 | 17000] 016 Non-Pole PoirPhon | 128 | 12 | 337 | oom | cuss | 58 | .oas7 | 8294 | .oos4s | .oass | aor | 673 | a8 | 47 | 177.0 | 177,000] .oaes Non-Pote Pair Phys | 104 | 8 | 10.15 | cso | coos | a | 0367 | 77.22 | oogi1 | 0358 | 644 | 12463 | 429 | iar | 1755 | 175,500] .o704 Non-Pole Pair Side | 104 | 12 | 10.15 | .00366 | .oo8a7 | 27 | .0363 | 77.93 | coro | ass | 62 | 1178} o77 | 1m | i770 |177,000| ..0660 Pole Poir Side Yor | 18 | rors | 00393 | .00797 | 29 | .0965 | 78.66 | .co7e | ass | 730 | 1097 | 17 | 139 | 1755 | 175,500| 064 Non-Pole Poir Phan | 104 | 12 | 508 | 00229 | ovsor | 58 | .0363 | 79.94 | .o0s40 | .oas7 | 421 | 9701 ats | nm | 1760 | 176000! 0556 Notes: 1. All values ove for dry weather conditions. 4, DP (Double Petticoat) tnsulators assumed for all 12-inch ond 18-inch spaced 2 All capacitence volves assume o line carrying 40 wires. wires—CS (Special Glass with Steel Pind Insulators oswumed for all B-inch . Resistance volues are for temperature of 20° C (68? FA. spaced wires. 06WIRE TRANSMISSION 181 Telephone transmission line data continued Attenuation of 12- Toll and DP (double petticoat) insulators size wire woathor dry, froquency. cycles gar sec 100 500 1000 2000 +3000 ‘5000 7020 10000 15000 20000 30000 "40000 50000 wet 0279 10320 ‘0367 0387 0431 10485 “0598 “070 ‘085 108 "17 1181 1192 C$ (spectal glass with stee! pin) insulators 20 0126 100 10230 509 0286 10296 3000 10348 5000 “0412 7000 048 10900 087 Attenuation of 8-inch spaced 0; CS insulators size wire 165 mil *0803 10348 0354 10399 0497 ‘9531 ‘ost 072 087 attenuation in db per mile ey ch spaced open-wire pairs 128 mit pen-wire pairs ‘attenuation in ds per mila 128 mil 1 104 mil 104 mil 0402 10693, 10735 10767 1079; 0856 1093 Tos 1123 m4 71 1195 215 10900 033, 20000 004 30000 2101 50000 13 70000 1150 00000 1178 120000 1195 149000 cai 150000 218 O74 for 1124 181 1194 236 281 285 129 079 hoa 1125 1135 [220 240 259 109 14s v7 270 "325 389182 Telephone transmission line data continued Line and propagation constants of 16- and 19-AWG toll cable loop mile basis non-loaded temperature 55° F characteris impedance ohms 1097 1 0.0588 0.69 25\—f215 1.095 2 0.0588 0.94 190-141 1094 4 0.0587 1.05 170-108 1.092 8 0.0588 115 1s 1085 9 0.0587 130 14242 11066 9 0.0585 4 137723 1.046 83 0.0584 v7 13517 1.013 164 0.0582 2.35 133-913, 0963 410 0.0580, 3.30 12-9 0934 690 0.0578 47 1w—j7 1.108 1 0.0609 1.05 0132 | 3457319 11108 3 0.0609 144 0.190 | 254—s215 3 wor 4 0.0607 173 0249 | 215—si70 5 1.108 9 0.0609 2.02 0347 iei—i21 10 1.103, 2 0.0608 243 0.584 183972 20 104 % 0.0607 27 1.07 aja 30 1 8 0.0606 3.02 1.56 Ww 50 1.062 193 0.0604 353 255 1394920 100 136.0 1016 484 0.0601 479 494 31-3 150 1644 0985 830 0.0899 6.01 7a 19—10 Approximate characteristics of standard types of paper-insulated cing |!04 coll constants] constants assumed to be distributed Propagation wire | type iced | per load section per loop mile polar magnl- | angle ale | Soa side circuit 9 I NLS. = = — | 858.) 001 062 1s 183 | 47.0 yw | HSLS | 1.135 27 | 031 | 82 | 028 (062. 15 a7 | 766 [Haas | 135 41 | (043 | g94 | 039 | 062 15, 319 | 799 | HeBS | 135 73 | ‘088 | 922 | 078 062 VS aa | BAe w | Harzs} 135 | 130 | ‘70 | 973 | “151 | ‘062 15 ‘io | 87.0 wy [peas | 0568 | 73 | 1098 | 987 | ‘156 | 062 15 20 | 87.0 1% INA = = — | ari | ‘oor | 082 15 ie | a1 1 HSS | 1.135 27 | 031 | 445 | 028 | ‘082 1s 266 | 828 we [Haas | 135 41 | 043 | 457 | 039 | 062 1s ris | 846 ef H88S | 1.135 73 | (088 | #5 | 07 | & 1s 438 | 87.6 6 [HAs } 135 | 130 | “70 | 536 | 181 | 062 Vs 8 | 883 16 | 888s | 0. 73 | 088 | 549 | 156 082 1s ‘618 | 883 13 I NLS. = = — | 219 | ‘001 062 15 4 | 829 NLP. = - — | 429 | 0007 | 100 24 65 | 47.8 HBP | 1.135 14 {ors |} 4a | ‘017 | “100 24 70 | 787 w [wasp | 113s | 21 } 1025 | 447 | 023 | ‘too | 24 308 | 813 ay |Hsop | 1135 | 37 | ‘050 | 462 | 045 | ‘100 | 24 ‘za | 853, wy [Hee | 1135 61 063 | 483 | 1066 | 100 | 24 472 | 86.0 19 | esr } 0568 | 37 } 1050 | 494 | ‘099 | ‘00 } 24 94 | 87.4 16 | NLP. = = — | 210 | 0007 | “100 24 me | 0.0 16 [HBP | 1.135 14 | og | 222 | co | 00 | 24 "262 | B40 We | H25sP | 1138 | 21 | 02s | 228 | 023 | “00 24 7303 | 854 16 |} HSOP f+ 1135 a7 060 | 243 | (045 | “100 24 mm | B74 16 [Heap | 1135 61 063 | 264 | 1058 | ‘100 | 24 un | 877 16 | 850.2 | 0: 37 | 1050 } 27-5 | 089 | ‘100 24 193 | 88.5 13 | NLP = = = | 109 | 007 | “100 24 186 | 551 physical circult g We 1822 | 0568 1 125 | 022 1 431 | 040 | Oe | 15 1 31S t * The letters H and B indicate loading coil spacings of 6000 and 3000 feet, respectively.WIRE TRANSMISSION 183 Telephone transmission line data continved Line constants of shielded 16-gauge spiral-four toll-entrance cable mile basis non-loaded temperature 70° F frequency resistance inductance capacitance attenvati ke per sec__| ohms per mife_| mh per mile | umho per mile | _uf per mi db per mile. side circuit 4 435 1913 0.02 0.0247 092 06 435 1907 0.04 0.0247 093 08 436 1901 0.08 0.0247 093 10 439 1391 0.08 0.0247 094 2 442 1857 020 0.0247 095 3 452 1821 032 0.0247 095 5 49.0 1753 0.53 0.0247 os7 10 55.1 1.626 qin 0.0247 4.00 20 816 1539 249 0.0247 1.06 30 S61 1.507 377 0.0247 4s 0 71.0 1.490 5.50 0.0247 126 0 als 14g 8.80 0.0247 144 80 90.1 1.450 122 0.0247 140 100 78 1.438 1581 0.0247 Ww 120 1049 1439 196 0.0247 190 40. mo 1.421 BS 0.0247 203 200 i273 141 351 0.0246 235 250 137.0 1.408 46.0 0.0246 = 300 149.5 1.406 565 0.0246 = 350 199.9 1.405 oe 0.0246 = Characteristic Impedance of this cable ot 140 kilocyeles approximately 240 ohms. Fora description and illustration of this vpe cable age Kendall and Afel, “A Twalve-Channel Carrier Telephone System for Open-Wire Lines,” B.S.T.J., January 1939, pp. 129131. toll telephone cable circuits at 1000 cycles per second tine impedance constant lor oHtenvation Rd ok ohms | ohms 11249 | 134 470. | 428 US, | 3194 | 46.9 | 46900 — 1,08 “0643 | “269 710. | 13.2 gr. | 1622 | 233 | 23300 6700 7356 0561 | 314 a8. 99 806.) 1408 | 200 } 20000 5700 a 10418 | 439 | 131. 52 | 1126 | 1028 | 143 14300 4000 35 323 | 609 | 156s, 28 | 1563 | 769 | 103 10300 2900 8 0322 | 419 | 1590. 28 | 1588. | 767 | 102 10200 5700 28 10842 | ‘097 aa. | 407 251. | 2154 | 645 | 64500 — 3 10334 | (264 683. 70 677, | “830 | 238 } 23800 6700 @ 0296 | 313 808. 52 es | 728 | 201 20000 5700 2% 0724 | 4g7 | 1124. 27 | 173. | S31 | 144 14400 4000 a9 ores | 608 | 1562. vs | sez | aia | 103 10300 2900 as 0185 | 618 | 1587. V5. 1587, | 414 | 102 10200 5700 18 0568 | .075 242. | 369 iss. | 1452 | 83.6 | 63600 — 9 N08 | 122] 262 | 420 19S. | 1752 | S15 | 51500 — % 10529 | (264 49. | WI ai. | 826 | 238 | 23800 7000 ard 0486 | [305 ai. 85 485.) 724 | 206 | 20600 $300 40 ‘0351 | 1423 os. 45 | 673 | 333 | 149 14900 4200 30 0331 | 471 752. |, 38 750. | 49.8 ) 133 13300 3700 2 0273 | 1593 45. 24 44. | 378 | 106 10600 5900 24 74s | 089 les | 390 M& | tsa | 7oe | 70800 — 65 0273 7 | AB | Dat 24100 7000 m4 10243) “302 483, 44 ai. | 368 | 208 | 20800 5900 a 189 | 422 672. 24 oz } 275 | 149 | 14900 4200 6 018s | 47t 749. 20 749, | 266 | 134 13400 3700 216 WO1S7 |) 1593, 944, 13 54g, | DLA | 106 10600 5900 a4 10442 | 071 isn | 339 4 (763 | 691 87100 = 43 Os | 3 | BR | 4B 1 8 1 at 1 0 1 2000 1 9m 1i ( | | | | | continued Telephone transmission line data Approximate characteristics of standard types of paper-insulated exchange telephone cable circuits 22 CSA NL HI35 Bes BIS 19 CNB NU DNB NL Ms H88- HI35 HI75 B88 16 NH Nt M88 H88 083 033 083 083 083 083 085 066 066 066 066 066 066 064 064 064 constants 1000 cycles per second mid-section propagation constant characteristic impedance velocity atten rectangular polar rectangular | wave | miler’ | cute | ab angle length of | per mag | (deg) | 2 | Za taal freq mil 910 29 439 | 45.30 | 307 | 310 | 1007 | 448 | 719 | 706 | 204 | 20,400 | — | 207 725 — | 23 355 | 45.53 | 247 | 251 | 778 | 442 | 558} 543 | 250 | 25000 | — | 215 “43 | 70.25 | ‘151 | 421 | 987 | 237 | 904} 396 | 149 | 14900 | 3100] 135 ‘512 | 75.28 | -130 | 495 | 1160 | 14.6 | 1122 | 292 | 127 | 12700 | 3700 | 1.13 484 | 81.70 | 099 | 677 } 1532 | a1 | isis | 215 | 93 | 9270 | 300 | 0.86 297 | 45.92 | 207 | .213 576 | 43.8 416 | 399 29.4 29,400 _ 1,80 1447 | 76.27 | 1108 | 434 | 905 | 137 | 880 | 214 | 14.5 | 14,500 | 2900 | on 526 | 80.11 | .0904 | 619 | 1051 | 97 | 1040 } 177 | 124 | .12,100 | 3590 | 079 644 | 83.50 | .0729 | 640 | 1306} 63 | 1300] 144 | 98 | 9,800 | 3800] 043 718 | 84.50 | 0689 | 718 | 1420 | 53 | 1410} 130 | 875 | 8750 | 5000 | 040 890 | 86.50 | .0549 | .90 | 1765 | 33 | 1770} 102 | 7.05 | 7,050 | 4000} 048 —}|—}]—|/—| m}/—-};-—-];—}] —}] — | —jJ iz 198 | 47.00] .128 | 138 | 453 | 428 | 333 | 908 | 457 | 45,700 }.— | 112 "383 | 82.42 | .0505 | 380 | 950} 89 | 939 | 146 | 166 | 14600 |-200 | 0.44 459 | 84.60 | 0432 | 459 | 1137 | 52 | 1130 | 103 | 137 | 13,700 | 3900 | 038 569 | 86.53 | .0345 | 670 | 1413 | 40 | 1410 | 99 | 11.0 | 11,000 | 3200 | 030 2651 | 87.23 | 0315 | 651 | 1643 | 33 | 1640 | 95 | 97 | 9700 | 2800 | 027 “641 | 86.94 | 0342 | 641 | 1565 | 28 | 1560} 77 | 98 | 9,800 | 5500 | 030 133 | 49.10 | .0868 | .1004 | 320 | 40.6 | 243 | 208 | 626 | 62600 | — | 076 ‘377 | 85£3 | 0271) 377 | 937 | 46] 934] 76 | 167 | 16700 | 3200 | 0.24 458 | 87.14 | 0238 | 453 | 1130 | 28 | 11301 55 | 137 | 13700 | 39c0 | ot In the third column cf the cbove table the letters M, H, and B indicate loading colt spacings of 9000 feet, 6000 feet, and 3000 feet, respectively, and the figures show the inductance of the loading coils used. HalType J ye’ NA Ye 5) 6)7 101 [ Ag sae i 4 NB | 1Ye bal 5] 6l7 iF nie} TH 2) 3/4 B{9 fon tZ 7 fiers 4 ke rt SA he io jog 7} 615 1 ‘idobonds eclode speech from 200 rT [i Tt fe} 4) 8]6 7 8 soft fet | ee eee SB haviholag 76 {sb 32¥1 ei? 34 aie hy Cabie Jz |3 4 9 6|7 |e b 1b 412) K ° 50 100 fre: In kilocycles per second quency ie 12, 28, and solid arrows denote carriers Pilot frecuencies for the K system ore 12, 28, and 56 kilocycles per second rowed tr queries ‘denotes east—west ¢deriotes west—east Gechannel no 7 the line frequencies shown ore obtained Note: Frequency allocations shown in this chart and in the charts on pages | bytwo or more stages of modulation 186, 187, and_188 are as used by the Bell System and the |. T. & T. System. SBI NOISSIWSNVUL 34MCarrier telephone CA 9A-1 SOA-1 (short haul] SOB-1 (long ha ah SOS-3-B POC SCROLL og Lt iia E ae 1 se CETERA EraProgram Carrier telegraph Voice frequency 40B* 40C voice frequency carrier telegraph High frequency BL Miscellaneous 4-channel duplex wnit type TO-4 Us frequency in kilocvelac nar 0 acne dotted arrows denote pilot frequencies 4 denotes east—west or AB 4. denotes west—east or BA = channel no 2 * manufacture discontinued riy {Bl NOISSIWSNVUL 3Frequency allocation and modulation steps in the L carrier system ———————————— Sedation 12 vice chomels coaxial cable | 12-channel group {ene of 48 such groups) st group f modulation 420 | 516 | 612 ke _ ioup carrion, 468 | 564) ——_ grovp bank of § home! ‘groups ‘one of 8 such 60- ? 60 Oss an channel group bonks 2nd group mod er group carriers group super-group carrer line pilots { i Oo bie nly whe 2108 2356 2064 3096 ke ' singin ohy ohn conn’ ? B super groups. oe oo 1556 ~~ 41796 wos ee: frequency in kilocycles per seoondWIRE TRANSMISSION 183 Noise and noise measurement wire telephony —— Definitions The following definitions are based upon those given in the Proceedings of the tenth Plenary Meeting (1934) of the Comité Consultatif International Teléphonique (C.C.LF.). Note: The unit in which noise is expressed in many of the European countries differs from the two American standards, the noise unit and the db above reference noise. The European unit is referred to as the psophomeiric electro- motive force. Noise: Is a sound which tends to interfere with a correct perception of vocal sounds, desired to be heard in the course of a telephone conversation. ° It is customary to distinguish between: 1. Room noise: Present in that part of the room where the telephone appa- ratus is used. 2. Frying noise (transmitter noise): Produced by the microphone, manifest even when conversation is not taking place. 3. Line noise: All noise electrically transmitted by the circuit, other than room noise and frying noise. Psophometric electromotive force In the case of a complete telephone connection the interference with a telephone conversation produced by extraneous currents may be compared with the interference which would be caused by a parasitic sinusoidal current of 800 cycles per second. The strength of the latter current, when the inter- ference is the same in both cases, can be determined. If the receiver used has a resistance of 600 ohms and a negligible reactance lif necessary it should be connected through a suitable transformer), the psophometric electromotive force at the end of a circuit is defined as twice the voltage at 800 cycles per second, measured at the terminals of the re- ceiver under the conditions described. The psophometric electromotive force is therefore the electromotive force of a source having an internal resistance of 600 ohms and zero internal re- actance which, when connected directly to a standard receiver of 600 ohms resistance and zero reactance, produces the same sinusoidal current at 800 cycles per second as in the case with the arrangements indicated above.190 Noise and noise measurement continued —— An instrument known as the psophometer has been designed. When connected directly across the terminals of the 600-ohm receiver, it gives a reading of half of the psophometric electromotive force for the particular case con- sidered, In a general way, the term psophometric voltage between any two points refers to the reading on the instrument when connected to these two points. If, instead of a complete connection, only a section thereof is under con- sideration, the psophometric electromotive force with respect to the end of that section is defined as twice the psophometric voltage measured at the terminals of a pure resistance of 600 ohms, connected at the end of the sec- tion, if necessary through a suitable transformer. The ©. C. |. F. has published a Specification for a psophometer which is included in Volume Il of the Proceedings of the Tenth Plenary Meeting in 1934, An important part.of this psophometer is a filter network associated with the measuring circuit whose function is to weight each frequency in accordance with its interference value relative to a frequency of 800 cycles. Noise levels The amount of noise found on different circuits, and even on the same circuit at different times, varies through quite wide limits. Further, there is no definite agreement as to what constitutes a quiet circuit, a noisy circuit, etc. The fol- lowing values should therefore be regarded merely as a rough indication of the general levels which may be encountered under the different conditions: Open-wire circuit Quiet Average Noisy Cable circuit Quiet 15 Average 25 . Noisy 40 Relationship of European and American noise units The psophometric emf can be related to the American units: the noise unit and the decibel above reference noise. The following chart shows this relationship together with correction factors for psophometric measurements on circuits of impedance other than 600 ohms,Noise and noise measurement continued ————————— Relationship of European and Am American CCE, standards standard mv db obove psophometric noise units relerence noise emf v vw v 7000 90 6000 80 — 2000 70 eo 4000 80 3000 “0 30 2000 so 20 1000 800 800 10 700 0 3 ‘600 : 800 ‘ 400 8 4 300 3 200- so 2 100 30 80 70 20 60 80 40 30 03 20 ad of to , 8 ot T ° oe WIRE TRANSMISSION 191 ican units 1, The relationship of noise units to dbs above reference noise is obtained from tech- nical report No. 1B-5 of the joint subcom- mittee on development and research of the Bell Telephone System and the Edison Electric Institute, 2. The relationship of db’s above reference noise to psophometric emf is obtained from the Proceedings of C.C.LF. 1934, 3. The C.CALF. expresses noise limits In terms of the psophometric emf for a circuit of 600 ohms resistance and zero reactance, ter- minated in a resistance of 600 ohms. Measure- ments made in terms of the potential difference across the terminations, or on circuits of im- pedance other than 600 ohms, should be cor- rected as follows: Psophometric emf = E=2 a psophometer measures V not E 1 4 e R E R = 2v' 4f 600 © Re 4, Reference noiso—with respect to which the American noise measuring set is calibrated —is a 1000 cycles per second tone 90 db below 1 milliwatt,192 Teregraph facilities speed of usual types frequency cycles bauds Grounded wire 75 150 Simplex (telephone) 50 100 Composite 15 30 Metallic telegraph 85 170 Carrier channel Narrow band 40 80 Wide band 75 150 Telegraph printer systems. Speed depends an two factors: 1, Code used, and 2. frequency handling capacity of transmission facilities. One (1) word = 5 letters and | space. Frequency of printing telegraph systems in cyclés per second let S = number of units in code (plus allowance for synchronizing) N = number of channels W = revolutions per second _ words per minute X characters per transmitted word 60 (1 word is assumed ta consist of 5 lettars and | space, or 6 characters.) f = frequency in cycles per seeond f = 4 SNW Examples 1. Three-channel multiplex operating at 60 words per minute, 5-unit code. P= BX 5X 9X BEE» 46 cycles or 90 bovds 2, Single-printer circuit operating at 60 words per minute, 5-unit code -+- 23 units for synchronizing. 60 X 6 f=3X7X1X EX 7EX IX 3. Two-channel Baudot operating at 50 words per minute, 5-unit code + 2 units for synchronizing. fapetax2x LX = 223 cycles or 45 bauds = 35 cycles or 70 bauds 6QWIRE TRANSMISSION 193 Comparison of telegraph codes American Morse Continental Morse Bain Creed Barclay Buckingham Hughes Rowland Murray Automatic Baudot Morkrum Cable Morse ‘Cook Multiple Add 2 units to each channel for 2-channel PA R FS see and 1 unit to each character for 4-channel femcxtfrsmperrjzeaiza] operation, These conditions allow for syn- chronization and retardation, PA RF Sepa IBM (Globe Wireless) pancxapexme}recafnorafreraarrccd RCA PAR FS eece prseaefemeecomfefe}194 CHAPTER TEN @ Radio frequency transmission lines Formulas for uniform transmission lines losses neglected ———$—$—$——— = 1016 Ve Z, ve C = 1016 — Zo vit c Ve Ze Z, + jZ.tan 2? TZ. + Ze tan 2° Z= for 1° = 90° (quarter wave) . Zu = +7Z, tan I? _ _ iz 20 = tani ° pr = 300! » 0) ¢, where L = inductance of transmission line in micromicrohenries per foot capacitance of transmission line in micromicrofarads per foot velocity of propagation in transmission line velocity of propagation in free space sending end impedance of transmission line in ohms surge impedance of transmission line in ohms terminating impedance of transmission line in ohms length of line in electrical degrees length of line wavelength in transmission line ¢ same units wavelength in free space dielectric constant of transmission line medium 1 for oir sending end impedance (ohms) of transmission line shorted at far end Zso = sending end impedance (ohms) of transmission line open at far endRADIO FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES 195 Surge impedance of uniform lines—O to 210 ohms Coo er ‘G90 | ase —|— | 2 3 170 1} ttt sos bso { co a 90 oxi ol 70 Ss 80] 30| J Crt 4 tt 16 Wie 1S 1a 1S 1g 17 BIS D/d o . ° a jpedance of uniform lines—O to 700 ohms a ¢ (4 ® 3 8 8 surge impedance in ohms 3 8 Xe oot LU 20 80 405060 60100 200 300 800 700 1000 ~_ ,12 _ D = Be 120 ele SF a 138 loan g 2276 log 2 6 4 iv D for D> >d a Parallel wire coaxial196° Transmission tine data type of line A single coaxial line te Fy. @)! m8, 2 Bo Fe 8 characteristic impedance ry dielectric constant 1 in oir B balanced shielded line f~0—>| for D> >d,h>>d 2 die = 278 logio [2 1 Fa] oat D af h ved C beads—dielectric e1 for cases (A) and (B) if ceramic beads are used at frequent intervals—call_new surge impedance Zo’ e Z = 140 cosh? 2 d 2D ‘ 2276 logis 2DRADIO FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES 19] Transmission line data—miscellaneous types rey fO-OF 7 characteristic impedance 2 Ze = 69 logio [yi (@y] Ah Zo = 276 logio [Wry] Zo = 138 logio 4 - D - d | 2.=138 logn | 1.078 0.078 (8) 2D2 Z = 138 loguo +2) 1, I>>w ~ w Zo 3777198 Transmission line attenuation due to load mismatch Qrnorow ¢ 28 an oo 33% A, normal line attenuation in decibels L i é z 5 3 3 é i 2 A= A = total attenuation (mismatched) Vinox Vinin = standing wave ratio at the load Pe — A, attenvation in decibels due to load mismatchRADIO FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES 199 Impedance matching with shorted stub Le 90 42 2 60 s g 70] & 4 T | 3 id | 4 8 40] |_| :"}—— & 20 a ~ oF 2 Fa SEF a IS 20 lop = Ym 1 = length of shorted stub 4 = location of stub I mecwured from Vem aie Siete for stub Impedance matching with 9 stub : a 9% "| a= : > @0 3 £ 70] 1 & a so z | 1 & $0} —— + a 40 8 :* x g 20) be | i =n [ 2.6 ° v. . Es 3 4 5 6 TBR 15 20 ratio p =x Ven. 5 1 = length of open stub Vow ” & = location of stub ‘measured from Vw toward transmitter oO200 lala! shorter than resonant section a longer than resonant section Detuning from resonance for a particular type of section to = : | | 1m in degrees ao ‘ 2 3 4 5 6 7 e910 15 20 ratiop= Vee ie ‘A = coupled section—two 0.75-inch diameter copper tubes, coplanar with line B = transmission line—two 0.162-inch diameter wires C = alternative positions of shorting bar for impedance matching { of 7mie 1 D = position of shorting bar for maximum current pit 4 less 6 approx—>] in section conductorsArmy-Navy standard list of ra: -frequency cables Army nominal ominat | nominal | maximum vY imped- | capaci- | operat type inner shielding | protective ‘ance | tance | voltage number_| conductor, bral covering ms | at At rms. 50-55 | Single | RG-58/U | 20 AWG 0.116 | Tinned Copper | Vinyl 55 28.5 1,900 | General purpose small ‘ohms | braid copper size flexible cable RG-8/0 | 7/21 AWG 0.285 | Copper Vinyl 040s | 0,106 20 BS 4200 | Generel purpose medium copper size flexible cable RG-10/U-| 7/21 AWG 0285 | Copper Vinyl tnon- (mad | 0.146 #20 BS 4000 | Same os RG-8/U or- copper contaminating) | 0475 mored for noval equip- armor ment RG=I7/U | 0.188 0.660 | Copper 0870 | 0.460 520 DS 11,000 | Large hich power low at copper fenvation tronsmission coble RG-18/0 | 0.188 0.680 | Copper Vinyl thon- imax | 0.585 52.0 DS 11,000 | Some os RG-I7/U_ or- copper contaminating! | 0.945 mored for naval’ equip armor ment RG-19/U | 0.250 0910 | Copper Vinyl o120 | 0.740 2.0 25 14,000 | Very lorge igh power copper {non-contami- low. attenuotion ‘trans- nating) rrission cob’e “ RG-20/U | 0.250 0910 | Copper Vinyl (non. (max) | 0.925 520 2.8 14,000 | Some or RG-19/U ar. copper contaminating) | 1.195 mored for naval eqvip- armor ment Double | RG-55/U | 20AWG 0.116 | Timed copper | Polyethylene | imax | 0.034 538 BS 1900 | Small size flexible cable braid copper. : 0.206 RG-5/U_ | 16 AWG 01185} Copper Vinyl 0332 | 0.087 535 28.5 2,000 | Small microwave cable copper RG-9/U_ | 7/21 AWG 0.280 | Inner—sitver | Vinyl 0420} 0.180 51.0 30.0 4,000 | Medium size, low level silvered coated copper. | {non-contami- circuit cable copper Outer-copper | nating Notes: 1. Dielectric materials ‘A Siabilized polyethylene € Synthetic rubber compound D layer of synthetic rubber dielectric between thin layers of conducting rubber 102 SANIT NOISSIWSNV4L ADNINOSIA OldVacontinued Army-Navy standard list of radio-frequency cables et nominal nominal nominal nomin ‘maximum wped- | capaci- | operatin class of inner | mate- | dielectric ‘ance | “tonce | ‘voltoge RG-14/U | 10 AWG A 0.370 | Copper Vinyl 0.545 0.216 52.0 BS 5,500 General purpose semi- copper {non-contami- flexible power tronsmis- nating) sion coble RG-74/U | 10 AWG A 0.370 | Copper Vinyl {non- 0615 0.310 52.0 2.5 §,500 Some os RG-14/U ar copper contaminating) mored for naval equip- ormor mment 70-60 | Single | RG-59/U | 22 AWG A 0.146 | Copper Vinyl 0.242 0.032, 73.0 21.0 2,300, General purpose small ohms: braid copperweld size video cable RG-11/U | 7/26 AWG A 0.285 | Copper Vinyl 0.405 0.096 75.0 20.5 4,000 Medium size, flexible tinned video end communication copper ; cable ~ | RG-12/U {7/28 AWG | A 0.285 | Copper Vinyl (non- 0475 o.41 750 205 4000 | Some os RG-11/U_ ar- tinned contaminating) mored for naval equip- copper ermor ment Double | RG-6/U | 21 AWG A 0.185 | Inner—silver | Vinyl 0.332 0.062 76.0 2,700 Smell size video and 1-F broid copperweld coated copper.| inon-contami- coble Outer—copper| noting) i. . RG-13/U 7/28 AWG A 0,280 | Copper Vinyl 0.420 0.126 740 20.5 4,000 LF cable, tin copper ’ Cables | Twin RG-22/U | 2 Cond. A 0.285 Single—tinned | Vinyl 0.405 0.107 95.0 16.0 1,000 ‘Smell size twin conductor of spe- cons 7/18 AWG copper coble cl ductor copper charac- teristics RG-57/U | 2 Cond. A 0.472, Single—tinned | Vinyl 0.625 0.225 95.0 16.0 3,000 large size twin conductor 7/21 AWG ‘copper cable copper RG-21/U | 16 AWG A 0.185 | Inner—siiver | Vinyt 0,392 0.087 53.0 Bo 2,700 Special attenuating cable resistance coated copper.| inon-contami- with smell temperature wire ‘Outer—eopper| nating! coefficient of attenuation RG-65/U | No. 32 For A 0.285 | Single—cop- | Vinyl 0.405, 0.0976, 950 440 1,000 | High impedance . video mex F hel per coble, High deloy diam 0.128 in, wmArmy- dielec | nominal nominal |” nominal | nominal | maximum ‘Navy mate- | diam of ‘overall |, imped- | capaci- | operating class of type Inner tial | dielectric | shielding protective: diam ovielt ance: tance: voltage number braid covering cy low RG-62/U | 22 AWG Copper Small size low capaci. capaci. copperweld mox 14.5 tance alr-spaced cable RG-63/U | 22 AWG A 0.285 Copper Vinyl 0.405 0.0632 125 10.0 1,000 Medium size low capaci- . copperweld mox 11.0 tance cir-spaced cable RG71/U | 22 AWG A 0.146 Inner—plain Polyethy ene 0.250 0.0457 93.0 13.5 750 Small size low copaci- copperweld copper. Outer max 14.5 fonce air-speced coble —tinnedcopper| for |-F purposes |__| RG~26/u [19/0.0117 D (2 | Tinned copper | Synthetic rub-| (max) 0.189 48.0 50.0. 8000 | Medium size pulse coble tinned 0.308 ber ond armor) 0.525 (peak) ‘armored for naval equip- copper iment RG-27/U | 19/0.0185 D 2 Single—tinned | Vinyl {mox) 0.304 48.0 50.0 15,000 lorge size pulse cable finned 0.455 | copper ond armor 0.675 (peak) armored for naval equip- copper ment RG-64/U | 19/0.0117 Do 2 Tinned copper | Neoprene 0.495 0.205 48.0 50.0 8,000 Medium size pulse cable finned | 0308 peal) copper RG-25/U | 19/0.0117 D (2) ‘Tinned copper | Neoprene 0.565 0.205 48.0 50.0 8,000 Special — twistir pulse tinned 0.308 (peal) cable for neval equip. copper ment RG-28/U | 19/0.0185 Dd (2) Inner—tinned | Synthetic rub- 0.805 0370 48.0 50.0 15,000 Large size puise cable tinned: 0.455 | copper. Outer | ber (peak) copper telvanized Heel RG-41/U | 16/30 Cc 0.250 | Tinned copper | Neoprene 0.425 0.150 67.5 m0 3,000 Special! twist cable. ‘AWG tinned ‘copper 1 Dielectric moterils A Stabilized polyethylene € Synthetic rubber compound D Layer of synthetic rubber dielectric between thin layers of conducting rubber 2. This value is the diameter over the outer layer of conducting rubber. £02 SANIT NOISSIWSNY4L ADNINOI Clava204 Attenuation of standard r-f cables vs frequency ———$— es attenuation in decibels per 100 feet “ON o> v 2 3 4 567890 20 8 45678900 200 3 456769 frequency in megacycles The above chart refers to cables listed in the Army-Navy standard list of radio-frequency cables on pages 201, 202, and 203. For an explanation of the letters accompanying the curves, see the table below. Each letter refers to one or more A-N standard cables. The number following the letter in the table is the numerical part of the RG- /U number as listed under “Army-Navy type number” in the third column of the preceding list. RG—number Assju |p su | Fiou | 4e3/u | maizju | 0 26/u Ass/U | D 6/u.| Gii/u | J65/uU | M18/U | O64/U Bs9/U | E21/u | Gi2/u | K14/U | NI9/U | P27/U Cc 62/U } B 8/uU | GI3/U | K74/U N20/U | P28/U ce7i/u | F 9/u | Hau | Ls7/u | O25/U | .@ 4/URADIO FREQUENCY TRANSMISSION LINES 206 Length of transmission line ‘frequency wavelength ength of fre tength of fine Umegacycies) {centimeters} length of fine in inches in centimeters ‘ta olectricat degrees 20 5 io . Ls 0.08 This chart gives the actual length of line in centimeters and inches when given the length in electrical degrees and the frequency provided the velocity of propagation on the transmission line is equal to that in free space, The length is given on the L scale intersection by a line between 360 L in centimeters Pr p= and 7° where /' Yin ces ; Example: f = 600 megacycles /° =30 Length L= 1.64 inches or 4.2 centimeters . 38% Soy wer wr = Wy 1 +E 300 70 = 150 200 50 “ . 200 =~ 150 30 4 OW 20 5 3000+ 10206 Attenuation and resistance of transmission lines at ultra-high frequencies A= 495 4278Vep F where A = attenuation in decibels per 100 feet Ry otal line resistance in ohms per 100 feet P = power factor of dielectric medium F = frequency in megacycles R= a + ive for coaxial copper line D. 2 = 2 VE for open two-wire copper line where d = diameter of conductors (center conductor for the coaxial line) in inches D = diameter of inner surface of outer coaxial conductor in inchesCHAPTER ELEVEN 201 Ml Wave guides and resonators Propagation of electromagnetic waves in hollow wave guides For propagation of energy at ultra-high frequencies through a hollow metal tube under fixed conditions, a number of different types of waves are avail- able, namely: 1, TE waves: Transverse electric waves, sometimes called H waves, char- acterized by the fact that the electric vector (E vector) is always perpen- dicular to the direction of propagation. This means that £,=0 where x is the direction of propagation. 2. TM waves: Transverse magnetic waves, also called E waves, character- ized by the fact that the magnetic vector (H vector) is always perpendicular to the direction of propagation. This means that Hz =0 where x is the direction of propagation. Note: TEM waves: Transverse electromagnetic waves. These waves are characterized by the fact that both the electric vector (E vector) and the magnetic vector (H vector) are perpendicular to the direction of propaga- tion, This means that ‘ E,= Hz =0 where x is the direction of propagation. This is the mode commonly excited in coaxial and open-wire lines. It cannot be propagated in a wave guide. The solutions for the field configurations in wave guides are characterized by the presence of the integers m and n which can take on separate values from 0 or 1 to infinity. Only a limited number of these different m,n modes can be propagated, depending on the dimensions of the guide and the fre- quency of excitation. For each mode there is a definite lower limit or cutoff frequency below which the wave is incapable of being propagated. Thus, a wave guide is seen to exhibit definite properties of a high-pass filter. The propagation constant ‘Yn,m determines the amplitude and phase of each component of the wave as it is propagated along the length of the guide. With x the direction of propagation and w equal to 2 m times the frequency, the factor for each component is ofan?208 Propagation of electromagnetic wave: hollow wave guides continued Thus, if Yn,m is real, the phase of each component is constant, but the ampli- tude decreases exponentially with x. When Yn,m is real, it is said that no Propagation takes place. The frequency is considered below cutoff. Actually, Propagation with high attenuation does take place for a small distance, and a short length of guide below cut- off is often used as a calibrated attenuator. y ¢ When Yn, is imaginary, the amplitude of each component remains constant, but the phase varies with x. Hence, propagation takes place. Ynm is a pure im- aginary only in a lossless guide. In the practical case, Yn, usually i secsecensesereecede Z comprises both a real part, which is the attenuation constant, and an imaginary part, which is the phase propagation constant. Fig. 1—Rectangular wave guide. Rectangular wave guides Fig. 1 shows a rectangular wave guide and a rectangular system of coordi- nates, disposed so that the origin falls on one of the corners of the wave guide; x is the direction of propagation along the guide, and the cross- sectional dimensions are yp and Zo. For the case of perfect conductivity of the guide walls with a non-conducting interior dielectric (usually air), the equations for the TMa,m Or En,m waves in the dielectric are: E, = Asin ( r) sin (= 2) ofan Yo Zo Ey = — Aa te (=) cos (= ) si (= :) fn Yam + w7uxer \Yo Yo Zo nm m\ (ne ma \ sot-7, A———™™—— ( — } sin [ —y } cos ( :) tne Vom + Oper (=) (= ’) 20 2=0 po AB — (BE) in (BEy) cos (BE 2) tant vam + weer \ Zo Yo Zo Hew = Att (28) cos (Mr) sn (REx) oem Yam + wprer \Yo Yo Zo where €g is the dielectric constant and yz the permeability of the dielectric material in MKS (rationalized) units. I | MlWAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS 208 Rectangular wave guides continued Constant A is determined solely by the exciting voltage. It has both ampli- tude and phase. Integers m and n may individually take on values from 1 to infinity. No'TM waves of the 0,0 type or 0,1 type are possible in a rectangular guide so that neither m nor n may be O. Equations for the TEp.m waves or Ham waves in a dielectric are: Hz = Bos (= ) cos (m2) ft nant Yo Zo Yam n . (nr mr Jt Yq Hy = B-———~— {— ) sin|— y } cos | —z) ne 1 Pam + otunee (*) ¢ ) G ) m H.=B8 a (2) cos (« r) sin (2 ) et nent Pam + wpner \Zo Yo Zo E, =0 Jone mr aT Ey = B —————_——_{ — } cos | — 0 Pam + ures (=) ¢ ’ jopr nw\ . (nw —, = — B-——_—_._ (2) sin ( , Pam + wurer \Yo Ye where ex is the dielectric constant and “x the permeability of the dielectric material in MKS (rationalized) units. Constant B again depends only on the original exciting voltage and has both magnitude and phase; m and n individually may assume any integer value from 0 to infinity. The 0,0 type of wave where both m and n are 0 is not possi- ble, but all other combinations are. As stated previously, propagation only takes place when ‘Yn,m the propaga- tion constant is imaginary; nw\? ma\? Yum = (=) + (Z) — wane Yo Zo This means, for any n,m mode, propagation takes place when 2 2 une > () + (=) Yo Zo . or, in terms of frequency f and velocity of light c, when 2 2 ae) +E) 2nV mies ¥ \¥o Zo where 1 and € are the relative permeability and relative dielectric constant, respectively, of the dielectric material with respect to free space.Rectangular wave guides continued —— N LLL Vor is YY LLL RLLT TE Sy PLLA LILLIA TTA HI TILL SIS LISI ‘TE, , | 7S id TTT Yj y y Z y y = Ae r=y y ry H A ZN LM tf? 4 Orr IIL Fig. 4—-Characteristic E lines for TE waves. electric intensity magnetic intensityWAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS al Rectangular wave guides continued —— The wavelength in the wave guide is always greater than the wavelength in an unbounded medium. If \ is the wavelength in free space, the wave- length in the guide with air as a dielectric for the nm mode is The phase velocity within the guide is also always greater than in an un- bounded medium. The phase velocity v and group velocity uv are related by the following equation: <1% Xs where the phase velocity is given by v = ov and the group velocity is the velocity of propagation of the energy. To couple energy into wave guides, it is necessary to understand the con- figuration of the characteristic electric and magnetic lines. Fig. 2 illustrates the field configuration for a TEo: wave. Fig. 3 shows the instantaneous field configuration for a higher mode, a TEi,2 wave. In Fig. 4 are shown only the characteristic E lines for the TEo1, TEs, TE11 and TE:2 waves. The atrows on the lines indicate their instantaneous relative directions, In order to excite a TE wave, it is necessary to insert a probe to coincide with the direction of the E lines. Thus, for a TEo1 wave, a single probe projecting from the side of the guide parallel to the E lines would be sufficient to couple into it. Several means of coupling from a coaxial line to a rectangular wave guide to excite the TEo,1 mode are shown in Fig. 5. With structures such as these, it is possible fo make the standing wave rafio due to the junction less than 1.15 over a 10 to 15 percent frequency band. Fig. 6 shows the instantaneous configuration of a TMi1 wave; Fig. 7, an in- stantaneous field configuration for a TM12 wave. Coupling to this type of wave is accomplished by inserting a probe, which is again parallel to the E lines. Since the E lines in this case extend along the length of the tube, it is necessary to position a probe along its length at the center of the E con- figuration. Fig. 8 illustrates a method of coupling to an E1,1 wave and an Ers ‘wave.22 Rectangular wave guides continued Fig. 5—Methods of coupling to TEo,: mode (a = hg/4). electric intensity AX Fig. 6—Instantaneous fleld configuration for a TM:,1 wave. AAA Ca Fig. 7—Instantaneous field configuration for a TMi,2 wave.Rectangular wave guides continued Fig. 8—Mothods of coupling to rectangular wave guides for TM(E) modes. Circular wave guides The usual co-ordinate system is p, 8, z, where p is in radial direction; 4 is the angle; z is in the longitudinal direction. TM waves (E waves) H, = 0 Ez =A Jn tknm p) cos n 0 tam? By the boundary conditions, E; = 0 when p = a, the radius. Thus, the only permissible values of k are those for which Jn (kn,m a) = 0 because E, must be zero at the boundary. The numbers m, n take on all integral values from zero fo infinity. The waves are seen to be characterized by two numbers, m and n, where n gives the order of the bessel functions, and m gives the order of the root of Ja (kn, ma). The bessel function has an infinite number of roots, so that there are an infinite number of k's which make Jn (knm a) =.0. The other components of the electric vector Ey and Ep are related to E, as are Hy and Hp. TE waves (H waves) F, = 0 Hz = Bla (knmp) cos n@ Yan? Hp, Ho, Ep, Es, are all related to Hy.ri Circular wave guides continued —— Again n takes on integral values from zero to infinity. The boundary condi- tion Ez = 0 when p = a still applies. To satisfy this condition k must be such as to make J’n (knm a) equal to zero where the superscript indicates the derivative of Ja {kam al. It is seen that m takes on values from 1 to infinity since: there are an infinite number of roots of J’n (kam a). For circular wave guides, the cut-off frequency for the m,n mode is loam = SEE whore-c = velocity of light ond kay is evaluated from 7 the roots of the bessel functions and Unm © Ulam . , . ‘ kam = —=™ or —=" where a = radius of guide or pipe and Unm is the a a root of the particular bessel function of interest (or its derivative). The wavelength in the guide is Qa where Xo is the wavelength in on unbounded medium. The following tables are useful in determining the values of k. For H waves the roots U’n,m of J’, (U) = O are given in the following table, and the cor- ” responding kn,m values are —"™ Values of U’ nm m™ 0 1 2 1 3.832 1.841 3.054 2 7.016 §.332 6.705 3 10.173 8.536 9.965 For E waves the roots Unm of Jn (U) = 0 are given in the following table, and the corresponding ka,m values are Un.m a Values of Unim om 0 1 2 1 2.405 3.832 5.135 2 5.520 7.016 8417 3 8.654 10.173 11.620 where n is the order of the bessel function and m is the order of the root.CE. Pemeeds « WAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS 215 Circular wave guides — continved ————— ™,, ™,, Fig. 9 Patterns of magnetic force of TM waves in circular wave guides. Fig. 10 Method of coupling to circular wave guide for TMo,1 wave. TE, TE,» Fig. V1 Patterns of electric force of TE waves In circular wave guides. Fig. 12 Method of coupling to circular wave guide for TE,,; wave.Table I—Cut-off wavelengths and attenuation factors coaxial rectangular pipe «, circular pipe of radius a cable (a, b) TE», m or Ho, TMo.1 or Eo | TE: or Hy |___ TE: or Ho Cut-off wavelength 1.640a de Attenuation — ( + :) constant aoe ab = log= ° a 2a ,(r\? aC) where —— (emu) A.= cut-off wavelength a2WAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS 2] Circular wave guides continued The pattern of magnetic force of TM waves in a circular wave guide is shown in Fig. 9. Only the maximum lines are indicated. In order to excite this type of pattern, it is necessary to insert a probe along the length of the wave guide concentric with the H lines. For instance, in the TMo, type of wave, a probe extending down the length of the wave guide at the very center of the guide would provide the proper excitation. This method of excitation is shown in Fig. 10. Similar methods of excitation may be used for the other types of TM waves shown in Fig. 9. Fig. 11 shows the patterns of electric force for TE waves. Again only the maximum lines are indicated. This type of wave may be excited by an antenna which is parallel to the electric lines of force. For instance, the TEg1 wave would be excited by a small circular loop placed where the maximum E line is indicated in the diagram. The TE;1 wave may be excited by means of an antenna extending across the wave guide. This is illustrated in Fig. 12. Attenuation constants All the attenuation constants contain a common coefficient i V wee 2 Hy 1, #1 dielectric constant and magnetic permeability for the insulator + 92, ua electric conductivity and magnetic permeability for the metal For air and copper a = 0.35 X 10-® nepers per centimeter or 0.3 X 1078 db per kilometer Table | summarizes some of the most important formulas. The dimensions a, b ‘are measured in centimeters. Electromagnetic horns —_—_—— Radiation from the wave guide may be obtained by placing an electromag- netic horn of a particular size at the end of the wave guide. The charac- teristics for different types of circular horns are shown in Figs. 13 and 14. Fig. 13 gives data for designing a horn to have a specified gain with the - b shortest length possible. The length Li is gi oo igth ps ah br iegiven by = (1 = = where a = wide dimension of wave guide in the H plane, and b = narrow dimension of wave guide in E plane.a8 Electromagnetic horns continued —<———— zt 24 25 26 ef 26 ain in decibels above ra . CF L = axial length to apex ch] f A = width of aperture in H plane B = width of aperture in E plane 4 ha Fig. 13.WAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS 219 6 8o 40 50 160 200 10 db width in degrees =] F Lo Fig. 14=-10-decibel widths of horns. vet 2 Le x (a = longer dimension of aperture) the gain is given by G = 10cb 7 the half power width in the E plane is given by 51° x and the half power width in the H plane is given by 70° x where E is the electric vector a i . ® and H is the magnetic vector, Fig. 14 shows how the angle between 10-decibel points varies with aperture. Perabolas If the intensity across the aperture of. the parabola is of constant phase ‘and tapers smoothly from the center toMe edges so that the intensity at the edges is 10 decibels down from that at the center, the gain is given by 3A » = 2 (A = area of aperture). The half power width is given by 70° — (D = diameter of parabola). , Resonant cavities A cavity enclosed by metal walls will have an infinite number of natural frequencies af which resonance will occur. The lowest frequency or mode of oscillation is determined by the geometry of the cavity. One of the20 Resonant cavities continued ———— more common types of cavity resonators is a length of transmission line (coaxial, or waveguide) short circuited at both ends. Resonance occurs when 2h = ee where J is an integer length of the resonator d = free space wavelength A, = guide cut-off wavelength For TEn,m or TMa,m Waves in a rectangular cavity with cross section a, b. where m and n are integers For TEn,m waves in a cylindrical cavity 2ra d= nym where a is the guide radius and U’n,m is the mth root of the equation In) =0 For TMa,m waves in a cylindrical cavity 2ra oe = Uns where a is the guide radius and Yom is the mth root of the equation JntU) = 0. " For TM waves J = 0, 1, 2.... For TE waves / = 1, 2... but not 0 Rectangular cavity of dimensions a b 2h 2 h=WAVE GUIDES AND RESONATORS 22 Resonant cavities continued Cylindrical cavities of radius a and length 2h Cy where X¢ is the guide cut-off wavelength. Spherical resonators of radius a A= 2ra for a TE wave nym 2ra \ = —— for a TM wave. nm Values of Un,m: Uri= 4.5, Ue. = 5.8, Ur2 = 7.64 Values of U' n,m: U'1,1 = 2.75 = lowest order root Additional cavity formulas Xo resonant wavelength type of cavity mode Right circular cylinder TEo,1,1 (Hod wo 1+ 0.168 Gy FT 1 +0168 Gy 2.39h? + 1.730” | Téa (Hi) > 3.39 3 +0.73ah + 1.730%,2 Some characteri: jics of various types of resonators 8 is the skin depth type resonator wavelength, _| a Square prism TEo gt 10h, for equation (2) D > 4 HeH,; fme X 107% Multiplying the true radius of the earth by correction factor 1.33 to provide for average atmospheric refraction gives the radio path hosizon as Di = V2He + V 2H, statute miles If the refractive effect of the atmosphere is ignored, line-of-sight horizon is reduced to the geometric range ~ D, = 1.23 (WH, + WH) These distances may be obtained from the nomograph, Fig. 13. When the transmission distance is not large compared with antenna height, the field strength oscillates with distance and height as indicated by the sine term of equation (1). The number of oscillations for a given distance increases with frequency as illustrated in Fig. 14. This is due to interference between the space wave and the ground-reflected wave as these two components fall in or out of phase at various distances and heights.238 “U-H-F path length and optical line-of-sight distance range of radio waves receiving ontema aight fre fight radiopath transmitting aneroa height rn (feet) “horizon® (mites) (miles), (feet) Vv o ° HR The theoretical maximum path of « radio wave, the sum of the “optical” horizon distances of each antenna, is found on “line-of-sight” seale by a line connecting points representing the two ontenna heights. Atmaspheric diffraction increases this path an amount generally considered as 2/V3 times optical line of sight, given on the radio path scale. Example shown: Height of receiving antenna 60 feet, height of transmitting antenna 500 feet, and maximum radio path length 41.5 miles. Fig. 13.RADIO PROPAGATION AND NOISE 239 | Propagation of very short waves continued " 100 Le WA ol 0.05 0.01 0.005 antenna heights: 1000 feet, 30 feet power 1 kilowatt ground constants: ¢ = 5 X 107 emy illivolts per meter polarization: horizontal Fig. 14—Effect of frequency on ground-wave field intensity. To compute the field accurately under these conditions, it is necessary to calculate the two.components separately and to add them in correct phase | relationship as determined by the geometry of the path and the change in i magnitude and phase at ground reflection. For horizontally-polarized waves, the reflection coefficient can be taken as approximately one, and the phase240 Propagation of very short waves continued el shift at reflection as 180 degrees, for nearly all types of ground and angles of incidence. For vertically-polarized waves, the reflection coefficient and phase shift vary with the ground constants and angle of incidence.* For methods of computing field intensities when equations (1) and (2) do not hold beyond the radio path horizon, or when the antenna height is not negligible compared to distance, see reference below.} At points beyond the radio path horizon, field intensity decreases more rapidly than the square of the distance; and, if the antennas are raised, the field intensity increases more rapidly than the product of antenna heights. Measured field intensities usually show large deviations from point to point due to reflections from irregularities in the ground, buildings, trees, etc. In addition, fields at the longer distances are subject to fading and day-to-day variations due to changes in the refractive index of the atmosphere and tropospheric reflections. ' * Seo Burrows, C. R, Radio Propagation over Plane Earth-Field Sirength Curves, Bell System Tech. Jour., vol. 16 Uanuary + See Norton, K. A,, The Effect of Frequency on the Signal Range of an Ulira-High Frequency Radio Station. FCC Mimeo Report 48466 (March 20, 1941). Great circle calculations Referring to Figs. 15, 16, and 17, A and B are two places on the earth's surface the latitudes and longitudes of which are known. The angles X and Y at A and B of the great circle passing through the two places and the dis- tance Z between A and B along the great circle can be calculated as follows: B is the place of greater latitude, i.e., nearer the pole La is the latitude of A Lp is the latitude of B C is the difference of longitude between A and B bowls —?_ : 2. bet la 2 lp—la Then, tan and, tan give the values ofRADIO PROPAGATION AND NOISE 24l Great circle calculations continued —<—<—<—_—_—_———— from which in the above formulas, north latitudes are taken as positive and south lati- tudes as negative. For example, if B is latitude 60° N and A is latitude 20° S If both places are in the southern hemisphere and L 5+ L, is negative, it is simpler to call the place of greater south latitude B and to use the above method for calculating bearings from true south and to convert the results afterwards to bearings east of north. The distance Z lin degrees) along the great circle between A and B is given by the following: _ Y+X Z Le 2 fan 5 = tan Y-Xx 2 The angular distance Z (in degrees) between A and B may be converted to linear distance as follows: Z {in degrees) X 111.195 = kilometers Z {in degrees) X 69.093 = statute miles Z lin degrees) X 60.000 = nautical miles In multiplying, the minutes and seconds of arc must be expressed in decimals of a degree. For example, Z = 37° 45’ 36” becomes 37.755°. Example:—find the great circle bearings at Brentwood, Long Island, Longi- tude 73° 15’ 10’” W, Latitude 40° 48’ 40’ N, and at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, Longitude 43° 22’ 07” W, Latitude 22° 57’ 09” S, and the great circle distance in statute miles between the two points.Fig. 15 Ly, = latitude of A 1, = latitude of B = difference of longitude C = difference of longitudeRADIO PROPAGATION AND NOISE 243 Great circle calculations continued lotitud Brentwood 73° 15" 10" W 40° 48” 40” N ly Rio de Janeiro 43° 22! 077 W (122° 57/ 09" § ty - c . 29° 53° 03"” 17° 51 31” ba + ba 63° 45/ 49" bo — be s = 14? 56! 31” bowls = 8° 557 45” Tt = 31° 52! 54” log cot 14° 56 31” = 10.57371 log cot 14° 56" 31” = 10.57371 plus log cos 31° 52’ 54” = 9.92898 plus log sin 31° 52” 54” = 9.72277 0.50269 0.29648 minus log sin 8° 55’ 45 = 9.19093 minus log cos 8° 55’ 45 = 9.99471 log tan ee = 131176 log tan “=* = 030177 vex a X = 97° 12" 26” 3 X _ 69° 26 26” = Y = 150° 40’ 52” East of North—bearing ot Brentwood = X = 23° 44/00” West of North—bearing at Rio de Janeiro fog tan 31° 52 54” = 9.79379 plus log sin 87° 12" 26" == 31° 52" 54” 87° 12' 26” minus log sin 63° 28” 26” = = 63° 28 26” log tan Z = 9.84157 Zz i 44! o4lt 5 = 94° 46! 24 Z = 69° 32! 48” 69° 32’ 48"" = 69.547° linear distance = 69.547 X 69,093 = 4805.21 statute miles244 . Time interval between transmission and reception of reflected signal Fig. 18 gives the time interval between transmission and reception of a reflected signal based on a velocity of propagation in free space of 985 feet per microsecond or 300 meters per microsecond. A statute mile of 5280 feet or 1760 yards or 1.609 kilometers is used. 006 100 3 eas) @ £ * j s 00] 10, 10 jo* 1000; 1 J0* 10% 100) on 10%) 10, 109 1009 10% 108 io* 109 ioe microseconds Note: Ordinates show distance to point of reflection Fig. 18. Radio noise and noise measurement* Radio noise may be divided into four classifications, depending on origin: 1, Atmospheric noise (static) 2. Cosmic noise 3. Man-made noise 4, Receiver and antenna noise See also section on Wire Telephony—Noise and Noise MeasurerRADIO PROPAGATION AND NOISE 245 Radio noise and noise measurement continued ———————— Radio noise, as in Fig. 19, is usually expressed in terms of peak values. At- mospheric noise is shown in the figure as the average peaks would be read on the indicating instrument of an ordinary field intensity meter. This is lower than the true peaks of atmospheric noise. Man-made noise is shown as the peak values that would be read on the EEKNEMA-RMA standard noise meter. Receiver and antenna noise is shown with the peak values 13 decibels higher than the values obtained with an energy averaging device such as a thermoammeter. 1. Atmospheric noise: is produced mostly by lightning discharges in thunder- storms. The noise level is thus dependent on frequency, time of day, weather, season of the year, and geographical location. Subject to variations ‘due to local stormy areas, noise generally decreases with increasing latitude on the surface of the globe. Noise is particularly severe during the rainy seasons in certain areas such as Caribbean, East Indies, equatorial Africa, northern India, etc. Fig. 19 shows median values of atmosphetic noise for the U. S. A. and these values may be assumed to apply approximately to other regions lying between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north or south. Rough approximations for atmospheric noise in other regions may be ob- tained by multiplying the values of Fig. 19 by the factors in Table Ill. Table Ill—Multiplying factors for atmospheric noise in regions not shown on Fig. 19 latitvd nighttime day ede 100 ke | 10 me 100 ke | 10 me 90°-50° or 0.3 0.05 Ot 50°~30° 1 1 1 1 30°-10° 2 2 3 2 10° 0° 5 4 6 3 Atmospheric noise is the principal limitation of radio service on the lower frequencies. At frequencies above about 30 megacycles, the noise falls to levels generally lower than receiver noise. The peak amplitude of atmospheric noise usually may be assumed to be pro- portional to the square root of receiver bandwidth. 2. Cosmic noise: originates outside the earth's atmosphere and appears as a random noise like thermal agitation. Cosmic noise has been observed and measured at frequencies from 10 to 20 megacycles and at frequencies of about 160 megacycles. It is reasonable to assume that it exists at all fre- quencies between 10 and 1000 megacycles and higher.26 Radio noise and noi: measurement continued The intensity of cosmic noise is generally lower than interference produced by other sources. In the absence of atmospheric and man-made noise, it may be the principal limiting factor in reception between 10 and 30 megacycles, ter” g peak microvolts per me 8 receiver noise (hiss) O00 WOO ke 1000 ke Jome W0m< WOM 10,000.me frequency Notes: 1. All noise curves assume a bandwith of 10 kilocycles. 2. Recelver noise i¢ based on the use of a half-wave dipole entenna and is worse than an ideal receiver by 10 decibels at 50 megacycles and 15 decibels at 1000 megacycles. 3, Refer to Fig. 20 for converting man-made noise curves to bandwiths greater than 10 locycles. 4, For ail other curves, noise varies as the square root of bandwith, Fig. 19,RADIO PROPAGATION AND NOISE aay Radio noise and ni y measurement continued’ 3. Man-made noise: includes interference priduced by sources such as motorcar ignition, electric motors, electric switching gear, high-tension line leakage, diathermy, industrial heating generators. The field intensity from these sources is greatest in densely populated and industrial areas. The nature of man-made noise is so variable that it is difficult to formulate a simple rule for converting 10 kilocycle bandwidth receiver measurements to other bandwidth values. For instance, the amplitude of the field strength radiated by a diathermy device will be the same in a 100- as ina 10-kilocycle bandwidth receiver. Conversely, peak noise field strength due to automobile ignition will be considerably greater with a 100- than with a 10-kilocycle bandwidth. According to the best available information, the peak field strengths of man-made noise (except diathermy and other narrow-band noise) increases as the receiver bandwidth is increased, substontially os shown in Fig. 20. i 30) 0 100 1000 “4000 receiver bandwidth in kilocycles Fig. 20—Bandwidth factor. Multiply value of man-made noise from Fig. 19 by the factor above for receiver bandwidths higher than 10 kilocycles. The man-made noise curves in Fig. 19 show typical medion values for the U.S.A. In accordance with statistical pracfice, median values are interpreted to mean that 50 percent of all sites will have lower noise levels fhan the values of Fig. 19; 70 percent of all sifes will have noise levels less than 1.9 times these valves; and 90 percent of all sites, less than seven times these values,248 Radio noise and noise measurement continued CN 4, Receiver and antenna noise: is caused by thermal agitation in resistance components of the antenna and receiver circuits and by electronic current flow in the tubes. The basic equation for thermal agitation noise is E2 = AKTRAT where E = rms volts k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.374 & 10728 T = absolute temperature in degrees Kelvin R = resistance in ohms Af = bandwidth in cycles per second For application of this formula to receiver input circuits see Herold, E. W., An Analysis of the Signal-to-Noise Ratio of Ulira-High-Frequency Receivers; and North, D. O., The Absolute Sensitivity of Radio Receivers. RCA Review, vol. 6 Wanuary, 1942). The ideal receiver is one in which the only noise is that generated by thermal agitation in the radiation resistance of the antenna dnd in the input coupling resistance. The calculated values shown in Fig. 19 are based on the assumption that an actual receiver has.a noise level greater than the ideal receiver by a factor varying from 10 decibels at 50 megacycles to 15 deci- bels at 1000 megacycles. The peak value of this type of noise is approximately 13 decibels greater than its rms value. The amplitude is proportional to the square root of re- ceiver bandwidth. Fig. 19 shows the field intensities required to equal the peak receiver noise values calculated on the above basis. These equivalent field intensities assume the use of a half-wave dipole receiving antefina. Transmission-line loss is omitted in the calculations. For antennas delivering more power fo the receiver than a half-wave dipole, equivalent noise field intensities are less than indicated in Fig. 19 in proportion to the net gain of the antenna plus transmission line. 5. Signal-to-noise ratio: for satisfactory reception varies over wide limits dependent on the type of communication, bandwidth, type of modulation, directivity of receiving antenna, character of noise, etc. A rough general relationship applicable to many services is that the average value of field intensity should be at least 10 decibels higher than the peak noise intensity, both measured on nondirective antennas with the noise peaks as observed on the usual type of measuring devices. Due to the relationship between peak and average values for noise, this means that the average field intensity should exceed the average noise intensity by at least 20 to 25 decibels.RADIO PROPAGATION AND NOISE 245 Radio noise and noise measurement continued ‘ Considerably higher ratios of signal-to-noise fields are required for many uses such as AM program transmission, television, loop direction finding, etc. 6, Measurement of radio noise: External noise fields, such as atmospheric, cosmic, and man-made, are measured in the Same way as radio wave field strengths* with the exception that peak rather than average valves of noise are usually of interest and that the overall bandpass action of the measuring apparatus must be accurately known in measuring noise. When measuring noise varying over wide limits with time, such as atmospheric noise, it is generally best to employ automatic recorders. Internal receiver and antenna noise may be measured by a standard signal generator connected to the receiver through a resistance equal to the calcu- lated antenna radiation resistance. The amplitude of a single-frequency signal at the center of the pass band, when receiver output is V2 times the noise output with no signal, may be taken as equal to the noise amplitude. * For methods of measuring field strengths and, hence, noise, see 1.R.E. Standards on Radio Wave Propagation. Meas- uring Methods (19421, For information on suitable crevits to obtain peak values, particularly with respect fo man-made nein, es Anger, GV Foster, D. and Young, C8. Isruments end Mothods of Measuring Rodi Noise, Tons ALE tElec. Eng., March, 19401, vol. 89,ot CRAPTER THIRTEEN @ Antennas Field intensify from an elementary dipole> The elementary dipole forms the basis for many antenna computations. Since dipole theory assumes an anfenna with current of constant magnitude and phase throughout its length, approximations to the elementary dipole are realized in practice only for antennas shorter than one-tenth wave- length. The theory can be applied directly to a loop whose circumference is less than one-tenth wavelength, thus forming a magnetic dipole. For targer antennas, the theory is applied by assuming the antenna to consist of a large number of infinitesimal dipoles with differences between individual dipoles: of space position, polarization, cutrent magnitude, and phase corresponding to the distribution of these parameters in the actual antenna. Field intensity equations for large antennas are then developed by integrating or otherwise summing the field vectors of the many elementary dipoles. The outline below concerns electric dipoles. If also can be applied to mag- netic dipoles by installing the loop perpendicular to the PO line at the center of the sphere in Fig. 1. In this case, vector h becomes e, the electric field; €, becomes the magnetic tangential field; and e, the radial magnetic field. Fig. 1 Electric and magnetic components in spherical coordinates for elec- trie dipoles. In the case of a magnetic dipole, Table |, showing variations of the field in the vicinity of the dipole, can also be used. A, is then the coefficient for the radial magnetic field; A; is the coefficient for the tangential magnetic field; Ax is the coefficient for the electric field; dr; d1; and oa being the phase angles corresponding to the coefficients. * Based on Mesny, R,, Radio-Electricité Générale.‘ ANTENNAS Bl Field intensity from an elementary dipole continued For electric dipoles, Fig. | indicates the electric and magnetic field compo- nents in spherical coordinates with positive values shown by the arrows. r = distance OM wo = nf 6 = angle POM measured Qn from P toward M ery I = current in dipole c¢ = velocity of light (see page 28) wavelength Vv = wf — ar J = length of dipole The following equations expressed in electromagnetic units* lin vacuum) result: _ eM cosd = {cos v — ar sin v) " 7 ee = + ON 8 c08 v= ar sin — m On sin 8 h = — I~ (sin v — ar cos v) r ¥ See pages 16 ond 17, Table I—Variations of the field in the tk | Vor | Ar | A st Ah 0.01 15.9 4,028 8.6 | 4,012 3°.6 263 93°6 0.02 7.96 508 72 | 500 72.3 642 97°.2 0.04 3.98 65 1404 61 18°.0 16.4 1049.4 9.06 2.65 199 20°7 17.5 23°.8 7.67 | 110°7 0.08 1.99 8.86 | 2627 7.12 B89 445 | 116%7 0.10 1.59 476 | 32°) 3.52 45°.1 299 | 122° 0.15 1.06 1.66 | 42°.3 114 83°. 1.56 | 132°3 0.20 0.80 ost | 51°.5 070 | 114%.0 102 | 141°. 0.25 0.64 0.47 | 57°.5 0.55 1339.1 075 3479.5 0.30 0.56 0.32 | 62°0 0.48 | 143°.0 0.60 | 152°.0 0.35 0.45 0.23 | 65°3 042 |) 150% 0.50 | 155%.3 0.40 0.40 0.17 | 68°3 037 | 154.7 043 | 158°.3 0.45 0.35 0.134 | 70°.5 0.34 158°.0 0.38 160°.5 0.50 0.33 0.108 | 722.3 0.30 | 160%4 0.334 | 1629.3 0.60 0.265 0.073 | 75°.1 0.26 1642.1 0.275 | 165°.1 070 0.228 0.053 | 779.1 0.22 | 166%.5 0.234 | 167°. 0.80 0.199 0.041 | 78°7 0.196 | 168°.3 0.203 | 168°7 0.90 0.177 0.032 | 80°.0 0.175 | 169°.7 0.380 | 170°.0 1.00 0.159 0.026 | 80°9 0.187 | 1702.7 0.161 | 170°.9 1.20 0.133 0.018 | a4 0.132 | 17293 0.134 | 1729.4 1.40 O14 0.013 | 83°.5 0.114 | 173°.5 ond | 1739.5 1.60 0.100 0.010 | 84°3 o.100 | 1749.3 0.100] 1749.3 1:80 0.088 0.008 | 64°.9 0.088 | 1749.9 0.088 | 1749.9 2.00 9.080 9.006 | a5°4 0.080 | 175%.4 0.080 | 175°4 2.50 0.064 0,004 | 86°4 0.064 | 1762.4 0.064 | 176°4 $.00 0.032 0.001 | 88°.2 0.032 | 178°.2 0.082 | 178°2202 Field intensity from an elementary dipole cantinued These formulas are valid for the elementary dipole at distances which are large compared with the dimensions of the dipole. Length of the dipole must i be small with respect to the wavelength, soy, < 0.1. The formulas are for a dipole in free space. If the dipole is placed vertically on a plane of infinite conductivity, its image should be taken into account, thus doubling the above values, Field of an elementary dipole at great distance —_—— ee When distance r exceeds five wavelengths, as is generally the case in radio opplications, the product ar = 2m x® large and lower powers in ar can be neglected. The radial electric field ¢¢ then becomes negligible with respect to the tangential field and € =O 2nclT = — —— sin@ cos (wt — ar) € He nO Cos let — ar a h=—& c ‘ield of an elementary dipole at short distance In the vicinity of the dipole ( < oot), ar is very small ond only the first terms between parantheses in equations (1) remain. The ratio of the radial and tangential field is then T= 2coto et Hence, the radial field at short distance has a magnifude of the same order as the tangential field. These two fields are in opposition. Further, the ratio of the magnetic and electric tangential field is b ar sinv The magnitude of the magnetic field at short distances is, therefore, extremely small with respect to that of the tangential electric field, relative to their relationship at great distances. The two ftelds are in quadrature. Thus, at short distances, the effect of the dipole on an open circuit is much greater than on a closed circuit as compared with the effect at remote points.ANTENNAS 233 Field of an elementary dipole at intermediate distance At intermediate distance, say between 0.01 and 5.0 wavelengths, one should take into account all the terms of the equations (1). This case occurs, for instance, when studying reactions between adjacent antennas. To calculate the fields, it is convenient to transform the equations as follows: € = — 2a®dll cos 6 A, cos lv + ¢,) €t = ail sin 6 Az cos (v + $2 (3) h = eI sin@ An cos lv + oa) where 2 Ar Tn) tan $, = ar 2 a Ay a= Vie te Ee oy gb wy w (ar)® ar 2 Ay VIF tat oot gy = ar lar}? Vatues of A’s and ¢'s are given in Table | as a function of the ratio between the distance r and the wavelength X. The second column contains values of L which would apply if the fields e; and h behaved as at great distances. ar Field intensity from a vertically polarized antenna with base close to ground The following formula is obtained -from elementary dipole theory and is applicable to low frequency antennas, It assumes that the earth is a perfect reflector, the antenna dimensions are small compared with A, and the actual height does not exceed x. The vertical component of electric field radiated in the ground plane, at distances so short that ground attenuation may be neglected (usually when D < ION, is given by 37 TH, xD E= where E = field intensity in millivolts per meter I = current at base of antenna in amperes H, = effective height of antenna = wavelength in same units as H D = distance in kilometersa Field intensity from @ vertically polarized RR antenna with base close to ground — continued The effective height of a grounded vertical antenna is equivalent to the height of a vertical wire producing the same fleld along the horizontal as the actual antenna, provided the vertical wire carries a current that is con- stant along its entire length and of the same value as at the base of the actual antenna. Effective height depends upon the geometry of the antenna and varies slowly with ). For types of antennas normally used at low and medium frequencies, it is roughly one-half to two-thirds the actual height of the antenna. For certain antenna configurations effective height can be calculated by the following formulas 1. Straight vertical antenna (: z *) dg (rh - Bah sin’ (") » where h = actual height 2. Loop antenna {A < 0.001 4") 2anA » where A = mean area per turn of Joop He = n = number of turns 3. Adcock antenna 2mab He = dr, where 4 = helght of aritenna b = spacing between antennas in the above formulas, if H, is desired in meters or feet, all dimensions h, A, a, b, and d must be in meters or feet respectively. Vertical radiators The field intensity from a single vertical tower insulated from ground and either of self-supporting or guyed construction, such. as is commonly used for medium-frequency broadcasting, may be calculated by the followingANTENNAS vas Vertical radiators — continved formula. This is more accurate than the formula given on page 253. Near ‘ground level the formula is valid within the range 2h 0. R = resistance at base of antenna in ohms If Ie from (6) is substituted in (5), reasonable approximations to the field in- tensity at unit distances, such as one kilometer or one mile, will be obtained. The practical equivalent of a higher tower may be secured by adding a capacitance “hat” with or without tuning inductance at the top of a lower tower.* A good ground system is important with vertical-radiator antennas. It should consist of at least 120 radial wires, each one-half wavelength or longer, buried 6 to 12 inches below the surface of the soil. A ground screen of high conductivity metal mesh, bonded to the ground system, should be used on or above the surface of the ground adjacent to the tower. For additional information see Brown, G. H., Proc. IRE, vol. 24, p. 48 Uonuary, 1936) and Brown, G. H. and Leitch 4. G,, vol. 25, p. 833 (May, 19371. Field intensity and radiated power from a half-wave dipole in free space Fig. 5 on page 259 shows the field intensity and radiated power from a half-wave dipole in free space. The following formulas apply: Input power W = PR = 1173.12) watts 2 Radiated power P = sort = 9.1S06W watts per square meter ad? . d? 02V Ww Electric field intensity E = a = 1a volts per meter I = maximum current on dipole in rms amperes R = radiation resistance = 73.12 ohms d = distance from antenna in metersANTENNAS 259 Field intensity and radiated power from a half-wave dipole continued 1 ot 2.05 0.001 watts per meter squared P (solid lines) or volts per meter (dotted lines) tos lon On 0.3 050.7 LO 308 710 30 8070 100 = 309 800 1000 miles Fig. 5.260 Table ll—Radiation from an end-fed conductor of any length in space configuration (length of radiator) expression for intensity Fil Half wave cos ( sin ‘) resonant See ae cos 8 Any odd number re of half waves cos ¢ sin 8 resonant cos 6 Any even number _ (2 sin (~ sin 8 of half waves G : resonant cos 6 a [: + cost? + sin’ sin'”? Any length cos 0 ny feng ~ 2cos (I° sin 6) cos /° resonant — 2 sin @sin (/° sin ) sin /° Any length non-resonant ° tan ; sin 01 = sin 6) i° = Length of radiator in electrical >» vo wavelength angle from the vertical a degrees, energy to flow from Db left-hand end of radiator.ANTENNAS 261 Maxima and minima of radiation from a single-wire radiator 8 8 degrees measured from direction of wire 30 20 ’ ° " 2 8 « s 6 7 we length of wire in wavelengths =§———~ maximum Fig. 6. Rhombic antennas Linear radiators may be combined in various ways to form antennas such as the horizontal vee, inverted vee, etc. The type most commonly used at high frequencies is the horizontal terminated rhombic shown in Fig. 7. radiation radiation feed ‘?. mall ‘ termination: lo Fig. 7. In designing rhombic antennas* for high-frequency radio circuits, the desired vertical angle A of radiation above the horizon must be known or assumed. When the antenna is to operate over a wide range of radiation angles or is to operate on several frequencies, compromise values of H, L, and @ must *For more complete information see Harper, A. E. Rhombic Antenna Design. D, Van Nostrand Co. (1941).22 Rhombic antennas continved ———— be selected. Gain of the antenna increases as the length of L of each side is increased; however, fo avoid too-sharp directivity in the vertical plane, it is usual to limit L to less than six wavelengths. viz $ aN WN Fig, &=Rhombic antenna design chart. Knowing the side length and radiation angle desired, the height H above ground and the tilt angle ¢ can be obtained from Fig. 8 as in the following example: Problem: Find H and ¢ if A = 20° and L = 4h. Solution: On Fig. 8 draw a vertical line from A = 20° to meet 5 =4 H L curve and x curves. From intersection at x = 4, read on the right-handRhombic antennas continued scale ¢ = 71.5°, From intersection on q curves, there are two possible values on the left-hand scale 1, 2 = om or H= 074 2 4219 or H= ZI Similarly, with an antenna 4X on the side and a tilt angle ¢ = 71.5°, working backwards, it is found that the angle of maximum radiation A is 20°, if the antenna is 0.744 or 2,19A above ground. Antenna arrays The basis for all directivity control in antenna arrays is wave interference. By providing a large number of sources of radiation, it is possible with a fixed amount of power greatly to reinforce radiation in a desired direction by suppressing the radiation in undesired directions. The individual sources may be any type of antenna. Expressions for the radiation pattern of several common types of individual elements are shown in Table Ill but the array expressions are not limited to them, The expressions hold for linear radiators, rhombics, vees, horn radia- tors, or other complex antennas when combined into arrays, provided a suitable expression is used for A, the radiation pattern of the individual an- tenna. The array expressions are multiplying factors. Starting with an indi- vidual antenna having a radiation pattern given by A, the result of combining it with similar antennas is obtained by multiplying A by a suitable array factor, thus obtaining an A’ for the group. The group may then be treated as a single source of radiation. The result of combining the group with similar groups or, for instance, of placing the group above ground, is obtained by multiplying A’ by another of the array factors given. The expressions given here assume negligible mutual coupling between indi- vidual antennas. When coupling is not negligible, the expressions apply only if the feeding is adjusted to overcome the coupling and thus produce re- sulfant currents which are equal or binomial in amplitude and of the relative phases indicated. One of the most important arrays is the linear multi-element array where a large number of equally spaced antenna elements are fed equal currents in phase to obtain maximum directivity in the forward direction. Table IV gives expressions for the radiation pattern of several particular cases and the general case of any number of broadside elements.264 Antenna arrays. continued In this type of array, a great deal of directivity may be obtained. A large number of minor lobes, however, are apt to be present and they may be undesirable under some conditions, in which case a type of array, called the Binomial array, may be used. Here again all the radiators are fed in phase Table {ll—Radiation patterns of several common types of antennas type of current irectvity radiotor | distribution horizontal vo FQ) = 4 © Half-wave cos ( sin 0) Fig) = KU) dipole K oe cos = Kcosé Shortened FI6) & K cos F(B) = Kit) dipole t Fi) = Lengthened ae Tin @\ — cos || Fi) = KID Gels | ‘ cos (: sin cos + (8) cos oN Horizontal (i {) Fi) = KM Fig} = K cos 8 loop Horizontal Fle) KT) Fig) = k’() turnstile — iy and ig phased 90° @ = horizontal angle measured from perpendicular bisecting plane B = vertical angle measured from horizon K and K’ are constants and K’ &0.7Kantennas 200 Antenna arrays continued Se but the current is not distributed equally among the array elements, the center radiators in the array being fed more current than the outer ones. Table V shows the-configuration and general expression for such an array. In this case the configuration is made for a vertical stack of loop attennas Table 1V—Linear multi-element array broadside directivity configuration of array 1 expression for intensity F(6) b> an e@ .¢ fo Gor] A A A eee A-+t 2A [cos {s° sin 0] Ld A A A A . ° eeee 4A [cos (s° sin 6) cos ¢ sin 0) |e arafe-ste-sv] . ° din (» © in D) m radiators 2 A (general case! A? SL sin (5 sin 0) > i 1 for horizontal loop, vertical dipole cos (: sin ‘) A= for horizontal dipole cos 8 = spacing of successive elements in degrees266 Antenna arrays continued ~ a in order to obtain single-lobe directivity in the vertical plane. If such an array were desired in the horizontal plane, say n dipoles end to end, with the specified current distribution the expression would be m cos (F sno) Fig) = 2? | —\~__* | cos! (4 S° sin 0) cos 6 The term binomial results from the fact that the current intensify in the suc- cessive array elements is in accordance with the binomial expansion (1 + 11, where n is the number of elements. Examples of use of Tables il, 1V, V, and VI Problem 1: Find horizontal radiation pattern of four colinear horizontal dipoles, spaced successively x (180°). Solution: From Table IV radiation from four radiators spaced 180° is given by FI) = 4A cos (180° sin 6) cos (90° sin 6}. From Table Ill the horizontal radiation of a half-wave dipole is given by cos ( sin ) Ask— fi cos 8 therefore, the total radiation G ) cos {= sin 8 Fig) = K | ————“ | cos (180° sin 6) cos (90° sin 6) cos @ Problem 2: Find vertical radiation pattern of four horizontal dipoles, stacked one above the other, spaced 180° successively. Solution: From Table {V we obtain the general equation of four radiators, but since the spacing is vertical, the expression should be in terms of vertical angle B. FB) = 4A cos (180° sin BI cos (90° sin 8). From Table Ill we find that the vertical radiation from a horizontal dipole lin the perpendicular bisecting plane) is non-directional. Therefore the vertical pattern is F(8) = K(1) cos (180° sin 8} cos {90° sin 8)Antenna arrays continued ANTENNAS a6] Table V—Development of binomial array configuration of array Lk [expression for intensity F(s) cos Al] 2 cos B [cos (§ sin s)| t— 1 oA Eco = Oe 2? cos B [cos G sin )| 1d Oo 1) oO 2 cos al cor § sin s)| 2! cos a| cost (5 sin 6) and in general: r-tcoes [cot in) where n is the number of loops in the array248 Antenna arrays continved Problem 3: Find horizontal radiation pattern of group of dipoles in prob- lem 2. Solution: From Table Ill. cos (; sin 0) Fig) = K ——~~---“ = K cos @ cos # Problem 4: Find the vertical radiation pattern of stack of five loops spaced 2/3 d (240°) one above the other, all currents equal in phase and amplitude. . Solution: From Table IV, using vertical angle because of vertical stacking, sin [5(120°) sin 8] Fip =A SS BY = AS 120° sin A From Table Ill, we find A for a horizontal loop in the vertical plane A = Fis) = K cos 8 Total radiation pattern sin [5(120°) sin B] sin (120° sin 6) Problem 5: Find radiation pattern (vertical directivity) of the five loops in problem 4, if they are used in binomial array. Find also current intensities in the various loops. Solution: From Table V F(B) = K cos B [cost!120° sin B)] {all terms not functions of vertical angle 8 combined in constant K) Current distribution (1+ 14=14+4-+6+4-+ 1, which represent the current intensities of successive loops in the array. Fg) = K cos B Problem 6: find horizontal radiation pattern from two vertical dipoles spaced one-quarter wavelength apart when their currents differ in phase by 90°. Solution: From Table VI » = 7 = 90° = spacing @ = 90° = phase difference F(6) = 2A cos (45 sin 6 + 45°)ANTENNAS 269 Antenna arrays continued Table VI—Supplementary problems configuration of array | expression for intensity A—two radiators any phase & ° $ F(6) = 2A cos Fsno+ 9) B—radiator above ground (horizontal polarization) F(B) = 2A sin (hy° sin 8) C—radiator parallel to screen Fig) or F(6) = 2A sin (d° cos 6 2A sin (d° cos B) eight of radiator in electrical degrees = spacing of radiator from screen in electrical degrees270 Antenna arrays continued —< Problem 7: Find the vertical radiation pattern and the number of nulls in the vertical pattern [0 S 8 < 90) from a horizontal loop vlaced three wavelengths above ground. Solution: f° = 31360) = 1080° From Table VI F(8) = 2A sin (1080 sin 8) From Table Ill for toop antennas A = Keos 8 Total vertical radiation pattern Fi8) = Keos B sin (1080 sin 8) A null occurs wherever Fig} = 0. The first term, cos 8, becomes 0 when 8 — 90°, The second term, sin (1080 sin 8), becomes 0 whenever the value inside the parenthesis becomes a multiple of 180°. Therefore, number of nulls equal hy? 1 tel to 1+ 96 +4 Problem 8: Find the vertical and horizontal patterns from a horizontal d half-wave dipole spaced a in front of a vertical screen. Solution: o § @ 450 alt= 45 one From Table VI F(B) = 2A sin (45° cos 6) F(6) = 2A sin (45° cos 6) From Table fil for horizontal half-wave dipole Vertical pattern A = K(I) cos (2 sing eS Horizontal pattern A = K cos 6 Total radiation patterns are Vertical: F (8) = K sin (45° cos‘) co} ( sin 0) Horizontal: Fl@) = K ——“_—~ sin (45° cos @). cos 8aureus ZI] Antenna arrays continued a 3 3 a 3 & nt a & wer f wT 0 ye | ot rook 4 a 2 \ooP® i ! | Vloop 89 180 270 360 420 spacing s° {electrical degrees) sin (sin 8) 7S Figh= 2S cos 8 s° s sin ¢ sin 8) L n = number of loops c= | _ 1 Gain (db) = 10 logio i 3a new _ 2cosks® ax at” ks? tks*1? Fig. 9—Gain of linear array of loops vertically stacked.2 CHAPTER FOURTEEN M Non-sinusoidal and modulated wave forms Relaxation oscillators Gas tube oscillator A = pulse output B = sawtooth output Typical circuit Vi = 884 0.05 pf 0.05 pf 100,000 ohms Re = 500 ohms Rs = 100,000 ohms Frequency controlling elements Cy, Rs ~bios Typical circuit Vi = 6FS T, = 3:1 audio transformer 0.3 henry primary Ry = 100,000 ohms Re = 5000 ohms G= 1p CG = 0.1 pf Frequency controlling elements Ca, Re Blocking oscillator Typical circuit Vy = 655 C. = 0.01 pf Ce = 0.25 uf R, = 1 megohm Ry = 1 megohm Rs = 1000 ohms Frequency controlling elements Ry, Ca, ReNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS Relaxation oscillators continued —_ Squegging oscillator Typical circuit Vy = 65 i } tightly coupled Ry = 500,000 ohms C, = 0.0) pf Frequency controlling elements Ry Gr output > B+ Mutltivibrator Typical circuit Vi = 6F8 R, = 100,000 ohms Re = 1000 ohms Rs = 25,000 ohms 250,000 ohms 25,000 ohms Cy = 0.01 uf Co = 250 ppt Frequency controlling elements Ri, Re, Ry Ce Typical circuit V1 = 687 Ri = 100,000 ohms Re = 500 ohms Rs = 100 ohms Rg = 3,000 ohms Rs = 10,000 ohms Re = 25,000 ohms Ry = 25,000 ohms Frequency controlling elements Ri, Re, C1, {also B+)274 Electronic integration methods original wave Integrated wave type basic meth: Self- induct- ance constant voltage,source “ u E Mutual Induct- ance constant voltage source methodNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 2h Electronic integration methods continued type basic method oer | typical circuit v eat Capaci- =e fance constant eutrent source Methods J and I a. Voltage .V must be obtained from a low-impedance source. L M bgt or pool ¢. The output E should not react back on the input voltage V. d. The impedance into which the integrator circuit works should be large compared with R. If this impedance is resistive, it should be included as part of R (this also applies to the input source impedance). Method Il a. Voltage V must be obtained from a low-impedance source. b. RO > >T ©. The output E should not react back on the input voltage V. d. The impedance into which the integrator circuit works should be as large as possible. If this impedance is resistive r then rc > >RC | The source impedance should be included in R. Method IV a. Current J should be a replica of the input voltage wave-form V. b. The discharge device allows for integration between limits, If discharge device is not used, the circuit will integrate until E equals the B+ voltage. ¢. The impedance into which the integrator circuit works should be as Sarge as possible. If this impedance is resistive r then rC > > T.a6 Electronic differentiation methods jinal wave differentiated wave > Pie Tor V is the change of current or voltage in time T - design sreui fype basie method 1 et | typical cireuit ‘Self- ance I> M Wt Mutual v ‘ induct ance constant current source c method) V RNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 2] Electronic differentiation methods continued Methods I and II a. Current J should be a replica of the input voltage wave-form V. b. The voltage V must be substantially independent of the back emf de- veloped by “the inductance L. ¢. The output shunt impedance placed across E should be high compared fo the network impedance. d. The resonant period associated with the inductance caused by shunting circuit capacitances should be at least one-third the build-up time T. Method Iil a. Voltage V must be obtained from a low-impedance source. b. The RC product should be one-fiftieth of the build-up time T or smaller. c. The output voltage E should not react back on the input voltage V. d. The impedance into which the differentiator circuit works should be large compared with R. If this impedance is resistive, it should be included as part of R. (This also applies to fhe input source impedance.) Fourier analysis of recurrent wave forms FO General formulas FO = BP AL sin OF Aa sin 9+ oa, +A, sinn 8 + B, cos 8 + B; cos 20+ .... By cosn@ am Formula (1) may be written Fi@) = B+ Cxcos (0 — $i) + C2 cos (28 — gal +... + Cnr cos (nd — dab a where Cy = VA? + Bn? @ dn = arc tan = @ a218 Fourier analysis of recurrent wave forms continued The coefficients A, and B, are determined by the following formulas: . An.= frm sinn 6d © x B, = ‘fr {6) cos n 6 dé T or By a change of limits equations (5) and {6) may also be written 2n An = fr sin n 6 dO wT oO Qn B, = 2 fr cos n 6 dé 3 If the function F(6) is an odd function, that is Fi} = — Fi- #) (6) (8) (9) the coefficients of all the cosine terms (By) of equation (6) become equal to zero, Similarly if the function F(6) is an even function, that is F@) = Fi- 6) (10) the coefficients of all the sine terms (A,) of equation (5) become equal to zero. If the function to be analyzed is thus a symmetrical function defined by either equation (9) or (10) the function should be disposed about the zero axis and an analysis obtained by means of equations (5) or (6) for the simplest solution,NON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 219 Fourier analysis of recurrent wave forms continued Graphical solution If the function to be analyzed is not known analytically, a solution of the Fourier integral may be approximated by graphical means. The period of the function is divided into a number of ordinates as indicated by the graph. The values of these ordinates are recorded and the following computations made: Yo YY: Ye Ys Ys Ys Ye tay Yu Yu = Yo Ye Yr Sum So Si So Ss Ss Ss Ss Difference dt da ds ds ds The sum terms are arranged as follows: So St Se Ss (12) So Ss (13 Ss Ss St Sz Ss Sum %S S & Ss S&F Difference Do Di Da The difference terms are as follows: oh de ds (4) ao d: di - - 2S Ss Do Sum Se Ss Se Ss De Difference Ds Dy Ds Ds780 Fourier analysis of recurrent wave forms The coefficients of the Fourier series are now obtained as follows, where Ap equals the average value, the By .... efficients of the cosine terms, and the Ai .... coefficients of the sine terms: by = SEES 12 g, = Dot 0866 Di + 05 Ds * 6 So +.0.5 Si — 05'S: — Ss B, = OT eT eee é = Ds Bat So — 055, — 055 +5 By, = 2 ee 6 p = Dom 0866 Di + 0.5 De ° 6 _S- Ss B= also Ay = 0:5 5s + 0.866 5 +S * é Ay = 0866.03 + Bd 6 De Aa? Ay = 0866 Da— Dal é 0.5 Si — 0.866 5; + Se Ay = ST -S 6 n expressions represent the co- n expressions represent the (16) a7) (18) ti9) (20) (21) (23) (24) (26) (27)NNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS al Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms The following analyses include the coefficients of the Fourier series for all harmonics ({n™ order). By the use of the graph for the (@ function, where x f (x) is even, the amplitude coefficients may be evaluated in a simple manner. x 10) ft) = Og} -04! = * 3 Qe oe ES 7 an oF 2 2 z 2 2 x in radians The symbols used are defined as follows: A = pulse amplitude r = pulse decay time T = periodicity n = order of harmonic d = pulse width Cn = amplitude of n™ harmonic f = pulse build-up time @,, = phase angle of n harmonic ‘Aav = average value of function = =| F (t) dt 1 i oe, Arms = root-mean square value of function = T 1 =| [Fu }dt “| }282 Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms continued See ADS 1. Rectangular wave a T [ n T 2. Symmetrical trapezoid wave t i hes) ar sin oA T T f nx (f+d) T TNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 283 Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms continued 3. Unsymmetrical trapezoid wave Fa a lr 3d Ara = A oT sin 2B] | gin SPR TS a +a) [yom enh | Cu = 2Ase | ae nr f+a nar T T T2H Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms continued ee 5. Clipped sawtooth wave Ad rr Ae = 55 bmw =a & AT 2mnd\ , 4and/and 2mnd\ V4 Ca =} 21 — cos 2228 wae sit " x oral cos + T (3 nt | If d is small sin 720 ZA | T Ca = Sp ™ and nd \ T T 6. Sawtooth waveNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 285 Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms — continved 7. Sawtooth wave Arms ol A ze fxd 1 Od rd rd , 2nd, 2d\]8 (a Care T 7 feos sine +E cos =)| d d d Aes = sno WE sin tn VEL,286 Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms continued 9. Half sine-waveNON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 28] Analyses of commonly encountered wave forms continued ————— 11. Critically damped exponential wave , : i = a to 7 where € = 2718 for T > 10F = ae Jt Ae Ag = Af T 1 ——_-—. On Ca = Aas : + = = ay cos? 2 T 4, 12, Full-wave rectifled sine-wave Tv wv int in 7 ’ phn) sin to phe ot [jum putal sud288 Modulated wave forms ———————————<————— Starting from a carrier i = A sin® modulated waveforms are obtained when either or both A and @ are functions of time. 1. Amplitude modulation @ = wt + ow where and ¢ are constants A = All + maf lt] = Adil + mafit!] sin lat + 9) where fli} is a continuous function of time representing the signal and |Fl)| S 1. Then mg is the degree of amplitude modulation; 0 < mq <= 1 Generally the frequency spectrum of fit} will be limited up to a value a << w and the total frequency spectrum will comprise: the carrier w the lower side band from w to w — a the upper side band from w tow +a@ For correct transmission of intelligence it is sufficient to transmit one of the side bands only. For a sinusoidal signal f(t) = cos pt where p = angular frequency of the signal; i = alsin ot + “ [sin (wo + pit + sin lw — pil 2. Frequency modulation wherein A is constant dé ora of] + mit] @ = 27 X mean carrier frequency (a constant), w = 2 X instantaneous frequency, m = degree of frequency modulation, Aw = mw = 29 X frequency swing, fit) is the signal to be transmitted; |fl}| < 1. Even when the frequency spectrum of f(t) extends only up to a< a and the spectrum is composed of groups of upper and lower side bands even when fit) is a sinusoidal function of time. For a sinusoidal signal fit) = cos pt @, = of] + m cos pt] A 0 = at += sin pt A my = . = frequency modulation index (radians)NON-SINUSOIDAL AND MODULATED WAVE FORMS 289 Modulated wave forms continued —_ In this case the carrier and side bands include a number of components at frequencies (w + np) /2m where n = 0 or a positive integer. i A sin (wt -+ my sin pth 0 dJotm,) sin ct + Jitmp {sin lw + pit — sin (o ~ pil + Jelmp) [sin (wo + 2p) + sin (eo — 2pli} +... + Un ling [sin (eo ++ nplt + {—1)* sin (w — nplel = Jotmsl sin wt + 2h (mp) sin pt cos wt + 2le(m” cos 2 pt sin wt +... (= 2, tn) coor + “sn (w + 3) Where Jn Im) is the Bessel function of the first kind and n™ order. An ex- pansion of Jy (m/ in a series is given on page 299 and tables of Bessel functions on pages 319 to 322, Amplitude of carrier and side bands for mr = 10. The carrier amplitude Is 0.246 Ao and is represented by the heavy line in the center. The separation between each two adjacent components = signal frequency f. a. For small values of my up to about 0.2 i= sal n oot + o [sinlo + plt — sinto — aul = Ao (sin wt + my sin pt cos wt) Compare with amplitude modulation above. b. The carrier amplitude varies with my as does also that of each pair of side bands, Carrier vanishes for my = 2.40 5.52 8.65 11.79 14.93 etc. First side band vanishes for my = 3.83 7.02 10.17 13,32 etc. This property of vanishing components is used frequently in the measurement of my.240 Modulated wave forms continued —— ¢. The approximate number of important side bands and the corresponding band width necessary for transmission are as follows [where f = p/2m and AF = Aw/2n): my 1 5 10 t 20 signol frequency f O2AF O.1AF .05AF number of pairs of side bands 7 13 23 band width vat 26f 46f 2.8AF 2.6AF 2.3AF This table is based on neglecting side bands in the outer regions where all amplitudes are less than 0.02 Ao. The amplitude below which the side bonds are neglected, and the resultant band width, will depend on the particular application and the quality of transmission desired. 3. Pulse modulation Pulse modulation is obtained when A or 2 are keyed periodically. Then fit) is generally a pulsing waveform of the type previously described. See 4, page 283 (with F< nnd22 Mensuration formulas continued Areas of plane figures figure Circle mw = 3.141593 Segment of circle Area = 4[br — clr — ] b = length of arc ¢ = length of chord z = V4(2hr—F7) . a Sector of circle ° | Area = = = mr ar Parabola h Area = 3bh a Ellipse Area = mabMATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 233 Mensuration formulas continued Area of irregular plane surface Trapezoidal rule: Area = a(S tn tnt sees treat yet!) Simpson's rule: n must be odd Area = Siva + Aye + Be + Aye + Ove tose + Oynr ttn + yl Yu Y2, Ys. ++ Yn are measured lengths of a series of equidistant parallel chords Volumes and surface areas Sphere: Surface = dar? Volume = 42 3 1 = radius of sphere Cylinder: Cylindrical portion of surface = 2mrh Volume = arh r = radius of cylinder h = height of cylinder Pyramid or cone: Volume = Area of base X } of height24 Formulas for complex quantities ST (A + 58) (C +30) = (AC — BD) +5 (BC + AD) A+j8 AC+BD | BC AD cC+o C+D UCHR A + jB =plcos 0 + j sin 6) VA+ 2B = = Vo (conf + sain$) where p = VA? + B?; cosa = 4 Pp sing = 28 p e” = cos@ + jsin@ eo = cos 0 — jsin 0 Algebraic and trigonometric formulas ———— 1 = sin? A + cos? A = sin A cosec A = tan A cot A = cos A sec A sna = SSA | x cosa tnd = VI— cost A cot A cosec A cosA= AL 1 Lin A cotA = Vi- aA tanA secA sin A 1 = = —-— =sinAsecA tan A cos A SrA @ sin A sec 1 tA = —— A=— °° tan A see cos A cosec A = sinA sin (A + B) = sin A cos B * cos A sin B tan A = tan B t +p =--merm fan (A = B= on A tan BMATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 25 Algebraic and trigonometric formulas continued cos {A + B) = cos A cos B & sin A sin B cot A cot B = 1 pp) = eee cor lA = B) cot B + cotA sin A + sin B = 2 sin} (A + B) cos $ (A — B) sin? A — sin? B = sin (A + B) sin (A — B) sin (A = B) tan A + tan B = ———— cos A cos B sin A — sin B = 2 cos $ (A + B) sin 3 (A — B) cos A + cos B = 2 cos } (A + B) cos 3 (A — BI sin (B = A) 1A cotB= “0 <0 sin A sin B cos B — cos A = 2 sin } (A + B) sin } (A — B) sin2 A = 2sinAcosA cos 2A = cos? A — sin? A cos* A — sin? B = cos (A + B) cos (A — B) tan 2A = jm cn ee Oe ee ton FA = SOA sint A = 1608 7A cos? A = Locos 7A ‘ent A= I= cos2a eT base SoA St Fw cot} tA = Bl cos B— cosA sin A cos B = 3 [sin (A+) + sin (A — B)] cos A cos B = 3 [cos (A + B) + cos (A — BI] sin A sin B = } [cos (A — Bl — cos (A + Bl]246 Algebraic and trigonometric formulas continued ——_———_————— sinx + sin 2x + sin3x+... sin my = 1A messin 3 Im + Wx sin 3 x cos x + cos 2x + cos 3x- «2. + cos mx = SEM cos Hint Ix sin $x in? sin x + sin 3x + sin 5x-+ ... +sin (2m — 1) x = 2 sin x cos x + cos 3x + cos 5x-+ 0. t.c0s (2m — W) x = S22 2 sin x in i Et cosx bcos 2x +... + cos me = ln FH x 2sin 5x o | 30° | 45° | 60° | 90° 10° | 270° | 360° sin 0 ” nVv2 | AVv3 1 ° 1 0 cos 1 | “v3 | %v2] % 0 -1 0 1 tan o | %v3 1 v3 | £0 0 +o | 0 versine 8 = 1 — cos @ sin 148° = } approximately sin 20° = 44 approximately Approximations for small angles sin @ = (0 — 63/6. ) 6 in radians tan 6 = (6 + 6/3. ) 6 in radians cos 6 = (1 — 6°/2...... ) @ in radians Quadratic equation _ 2 Wot + be + 6 = 0, then x = =e VEE = Hee co] Arithmetical progression S=nlat) /2=n[2a+ in—1) d] /2 where S = sum, a = first term, J = last term, n = number of terms, d = common difference = the value of any term minus the value of the pre- ceding term.MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 2] Geometrical progression n_ot=") 1 where $ = sum, a = first term, n = number of terms, r = common ratio = the value of any term divided by the preceding term. Combinations and permutations The number of combinations of n things, all different, faken r at a time is nl n= all The number of permutations of n things rata time = »Py aPp =n ln — 1) (In—2...... {in ~r +1) = —— oP = ol Binomial theorem a + BI" =o" + no™b + no) orto * me D NA ott + a If n is a positive integer, the series is finite and contains n + 1 terms; other- wise it is infinite, converging for : <1 and diverging for b >i a a Maclaurin's theorem 2 xt PO+....F— PO +... 2 nl Fix) = £10) + xf? (0) + i Taylor's theorem # (xo) 2! fix = tid + fodh + OM | FP 5 Fx) = Flxol + f/(xo) (x ~ xo) ++ ix = xo)? +... Le248. Trigonometric solution of triangles SN Right-angled triangles (right angle at C) “ Qa sin A = cos B = ~ 9 ton A = 2 fan / b versA =1—cosA= c= Va? + bt baVe—a=Viet+ai —a) acotA _ btanA _ c? sin AcosA 2 2 2 Area = 2 = SVERG Oblique-angled triangles s— bl b—d ¢ ing A = 4{ —————— sintA=4 i . ls — a) cosbA= i —8 A z B A+B+4+C= 180° atbt+e 2 tondA = 4 ee, similar values for angles B and C s — a tn Be; Area =Vst—a G— bo =fabsnc = TB sin€ 2sinA wheres = eH one asin A+B) _ Vay hr—dab coc sin A sin A asin C —b tan A = Feo G’ tan 3 (A — cit cot zc a? = b? + c® — 2bc cos A, similar expressions for other sides.MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 299 Complex hyperbolic and other functions . Properties of “e’” e=1titigit4.... = 2718 Zo 3h _ 0.3679 e += vie e tet atte logio ¢ = 0.43429; log, 10 = 2.30259 Joge N = loge 10 X logo N; logio N = login e X loge N. . ee xl sinx = x 31 + a7 + 1 x xt xf cosx=1——4+——— aoa 4 x is in radians. The series are con- x yh yt vergent for all finite values of x. inh x = 24 t at sinh x xtatatat I + 1% + + + cosh x = For n = 0 ora positive integer, the expansion of the Bessel function of the first kind, n order, is given by the convergent series Jnl -AL -~—*_ ao . Zl 2(2n+2) © 2-4 (Qn + 2) (2n + 4) 6 _ x + 2-4-6 (2n + 2l2n +4 (2n+ 6)” and Jinix! = (—1)" Jd Note: 0! = 1 e* = cosx +jsinx e* = cos x — jsinx j= sinh (— x} = — sinh x; cosh (— x) = cosh x sinh jx = j sin x; cosh jx = cos x cosh? x — sinh? x = 1 sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x tte cosh 2x = cosh? x + sinh®x coshx = © te sinh (x = jy) = sinh x cos y + j cosh x sin y 2 cosh {x = jy) = cosh x cos y + j sinh x sin y300 Table of integrals Indefinite integrals \n the following formulas, a, b, and m are constants. The constant of integra- tion is not shown, but is added to each result. dx = x f atta dx = of dx wtv—sldx= [od fron — Joos dx = #-1 y ix m+1 m fox -- = loge x x m+ [tox + BI” de - ee me 1 [dx 1 = hogs lax + bi Jor loge lax + b) wed J fox + b — blog. fax + bl] xdx Jtox +b? ot ‘lacs (xtdx 1 [este ] + loge lax + o] aT 2blax + b) + b loge (ax + bt Joe+bTable of integrals continued xe” dx = e” x — 1) x" et dx = etm fa e* dx [sexe = — con sin? x dx = } (x — sin x cos x) cos x dx = sin x e cos? x dx = } & + sin x cos x} tan x dx = — loge cos x cot x dx = loge sin x sec x dx = log. (sec x + tan x) ° sec? x dx = tan x cosec? x dx = — cotx cosec x dx = loge (cosec x — cot x) sin“ x dx = x sin x + VI — cost xdx = xcostx—Vi=# = log. VI Fx tan“! x dx = x tan7 MATHEMATICAL FORMULAS 30a2 Table of integrals continued Definite integrals x dx = I (nl* ou Dil Pinl* xt att gy = Pinel w= Tinta) ow : r (“ety [sin x dx = [? cot xd = avr a>! 9 r(§+1) 3 © SOMO Tim > 0; ifm =0; —Fitm 5, sinh x = Yolo) ond log,, sinh x = (0.4343)x + 0.6990 — I, correct to four significant figures.50 3762 alas 4568 5037 5557 4.192 6789 TATB 8.253 915 1007 112 1229 1357 1500 16.57 1831 2024 2236 2471 m3 3018 33.35 3686 073 4501 975 5498 60.76 O15 7421 1017 11.23, 1241 wB71 1515 1674 1545 17.08 2085 28.14 31.10 37.98 a97 51.26 5665 6261 8.9 3910 4309 4750 5780 6379 72042 7716 2587 9.484 1048 Ws? 1279 1413 1531 17.25 1.901 1011 1.103 4797 5837 6.443 72 7383 8.673 9.579 10.58 ne 1291 “37 1877 17.42 1925 227 2351 2598 2871 3172 38.75 4282 MATHEMATICAL TABLES 3] , 3.987 4.393 $343 5895 6.507 7.2183 8759 9.675 10.69 181 13,04 vai 1892 17.60 19.44 2.49 10.79 11.92 1317 1458 16.08 wa 1964 21.70 26.50 9.809 10.90 12.04 13.31 1470 16.28 1795 “7 49.25 543 WIS 6.48 7347 Ite > 5,cochx = Yo leAl, ond logis cosh x = (0.43431x + 0.6990 — 1, correct to four significant figures, ones EeBRB BSsse SER 22888Hyperbolic tangents [tanh x= (e?—e7*)/(e*++e~*) =sinh x/cosh x] x| 0 1 2 3 a |s 6 7 8 9 | aw 00 9100 | 0200 | 0300 | 0400 | 0500 | 0599 | 0699 | o7ee | .o698 | 100 a “rove ] ‘94 | ‘ta93 | ctae1 | cide | ss7 | tees | cizei | is78 | 98 2 ‘goro | ‘2165 | ‘2250 | 2355 | ‘2049 | (2543 | ‘oss6 | 2729 | ‘nani | 9 3 “3004 | ‘3095 | ‘3185 | ‘3275 | ‘sass | ‘aeso } ‘3500 | ‘sear | ‘ara | 4 ‘aes | ‘are | “soso | ‘aias | “azie | caso | case2 | 4462 | asa | 02 os 4700 | 777 | 4954 | 4930 | 5005 | 5000 | sis | .sza7 | .s299 | 75 6 ‘saat | ‘ssi | ‘Ssp1 | ‘Seao | Sor7 | ‘5ve4 | ‘sa50 | “3015 | ‘S560 | 67 7 ‘ior | ‘sie | ‘ezat | ‘eos | “saso | “ent | “etao | “asar | “ase | 60 3 ‘ove | ‘erst | ‘805 | ‘ease | ‘oot | ‘e943 | ora | 064 | June | 2 9 Fa | [7289 | 7306 | 7362 | 7398 | 7443 | 487 | 3531 | 7574 | 45 10 rsa | 799 | 239 | 279 | za | zasr | 7095 | 032 | 7969 | 30 i ‘soat | ‘a076 | ‘sro | ‘aise | 3178 | ‘g210 | ‘a3 | lays 33 2 ‘ser | ‘sowr | ‘sens | axss | exes | sti | san | 5565 2 3 ‘seas ] ‘s0g8 | ‘se93 | ‘arv7 | ‘avai | ‘704 | ‘707 | 'si0 2m 4 ‘8875 | ‘356 | ‘917 | ‘e537 | a9s7 | ‘8977 | 8998 | ‘S015 2 us] sose | sos | 087 | sio¢ | 11 | 9138 | 1s | 9170 | ores v 6 | gir | ‘9232 | ‘9248 | 9261 | 275 | ‘yon | pace | sate | sax7 4 7| ‘sas | ‘9367 | 9379 | (9351 | ‘sea | oars ‘s4ae | 9447 0 Bl 3468 | a7 | ‘sae | ‘ga50 | 9508 | 518 ‘9536 | 954s 2 9 | 3562 | ‘ss | 9579 | ‘s5a7 | 9595 | ‘9603, ‘9619 | 3626 8 20] 9640 | 9647 | 9654 | 9661 | 9668 | 9674 3687 | 9693 ‘ 1} ‘370s | ‘sro | ‘orig | ‘9722 | ‘srzr | 70 ‘sas | ‘3748 8 ‘2| S757 | 72 | 67 | 7 | 3776 | 9780 ‘379 | 9793 4 3{ ‘se01 | ‘9808 | ‘9809 | ‘9812 | ‘9816 | 9820 ‘sea7 | 9890 4 4 | 9037 | ‘9860 | ‘9043 | 904s | ‘9809 | 9052 ‘9858 | 9861 3 25} sees | sas | sen | 9974 | 9676 | 9979 9884 | 9086 2 6 | 9800 | ‘9892 | ‘9695 | ‘9057 | (9099 | 901 ‘9905 | 9906 2 7] sto | ‘s912 | ‘ge | oois | ‘oi7 | ‘so19 sm | 9923 2 B| ‘9925 | ‘9928 | ‘9929 | ‘s931 | ‘S92 | 9933 seas | 9937 1 9 | (9940 | ‘sei | ‘9942 | 9943 | ‘sae | 9945: ‘soar | (9949 1 30 | 9951 | 959 | 967 | 9973 | 9978 | 99m 9388 | 9990 4 40 | 33 | 995 | se56 | sss | 7 | 998 ‘5998 | 9999 1 If x > 5, tanh x == 1.0000 to four decimal places, Multiples of 0.4343 [0.43429448 = logi e] —_—_—_———— x_t 1 | 1 { | i 0.1303 | 0.1737 o2i7 | 0.2606 2 4 5 0.0 | 0.0000 | 0.0434 } 0.0889 03040 | 0.3474 | 0.3909 .0 | 0.4343 | 0.4777 | O5212 | 0.5645 | 0.6080 | ossi4 | 0.46949 | 07383 | O7BI7 | 0.8252 1.0 | 0.8686 | 09120 | 09554 | O9989 | 10423 | 1.0857 | 1.1292 | 1.1726 | 1.2160 | 1.2595 1.3463 17372 | 17806 1.3897 118240 1.4332 | 1.4766 118675 | 19109 1.5200 | 1.5635 19543 | 19978 1.6069 | 1.6503 | 1.6937 Zosi2 | 2.0846 | 2.1280 sepe Bo bbSdO 5.0 | 21715 | 22149 | 22583 | 23018 | 23452 | 23886 | 24320 | 24755 | 2.5189 | 2.5623 60 | 24058 | 24492 | 20926 | 27361 | 27795 | 28229 | 2.8663 | 290% | 2.9532 | 2.9966 7.0 | 30401 | 30835 | 31269 | 31703 | 3.2198 | 32572 | 33006 | 33441 | 3.3875 | 3.4309 g.0 | 34744 | 35178 | 35612 | 3404s | 36481 | 346915 | 37349 | 37764 | 3.8218 | 3.8652 90 | 39067 | 39521 | 39955 | 403e9 | 4oeze | 41258 | 4te92 | aziz7 | 4.2561 | 4.2995 Multiples of 2.3026 [2.3025851 = 1/0.4343 = log. 10] 1 i 1 J 1 0.0 | 00000} 02303 | 04605 | 0.4908} o9210) 1.1513 1.8421 | 2.0723 1.0 | 23026 | 25328 | 27631 | 2.9934 | 32236 | 3.4839 4487 | 43749 20 | 44052 | 4.8354 | S0657 | 52959 | S526 | 57565 64472 | 66775 3.0 | 69073 | 7.1360 | 7.3683 | 7.5965 | 7.8288 | 8.0590 8.7496 | 8.9801 4.0 | 9.2103 | 94406 | 9.6709 | 9.9011 | 10.131 | 10.362 11.082 | 11-283 5.0 | 11.513 | 11743 | 11.973 | 12.204 | 12.434 | 12.664 13355 | 13.585 60 | 13816 | 14046 | 14276 | 14.506 | 14737 | 14967 15.658 | 15.888 7.0 | 16118 | 16348 | 16.579 | 16809 | 17.099 | 17.269 17.960 | 18.190 0 | 18421 | 18651 | tsar | 39.111 | 19342 | 19.572 20.263 | 20.493 9.0 | 20723 | 20954 | ais | aieis | arose | 21.875 | 22105 | 22.935 | 22.565 | 22796Table [—Jo(z) 0.0697 0.2129 0.1870 0.0346 0.0908 0.2167 0.1414 0.0544 0.1121 0.1108. 0.2183, 0.1245 0.0736 0.2177 0.1085 —0.0919 Bessel functions +0.0020 0.1887 0.1943 0.0271 —0,1533 0.0250 0.1988. 0.1836 0.1650 61g SI19VL TVOLLVWaHLVWTable II—J,(z) continued Bessel functions o | . o7 | I 2 0.3290 0.3688 0.4059 0.578 0.5815 0.5812 0.4416 0.4097 0.3754 0.0538 0.0128 | —0.0272 0.2791 | 0.2985 | —0.3147 03241 | —03110 0.0983 | —0.0652 0.1813 0.2014 0.2697 0.2641 0.1166 0.0928 0.1224 | —0.1422 0.2333 | —0.2323 0.1307 | —0.1114 0.0791 0.0984 0.2043 0.2066 0.1402, 0,1247 3Table Ill—J.(z) continved Bessel functions o7 | o8 0 . 0.0112 . 1 0.1149 0.1366 0.1593, 0.1830 0.2074 0.2321 0.2570 0.2817 0.3061 0.3299 2 0.3528 0.3746 0.3951 0.4139 0.4310 0.4461 0.4590 0.4696 04777, 0.4832, 3 0.4861 0.4862 0.4835, 0.4780 0.4697 0.4586, 0.4448 0.4283 0.4093, 0.3879 4 0.3641 0.3383, 0.3105 0.2811 0.2501 0.2178 0.1846 0.1506 0.1161 0.0813 z o OT 0.2 0.3 0 . . x 0.0026 0.0044 0.0069 x 1 0.0196 0.0257 0.0329 0.0411 0.0505 0.0610 0.0725 0.0851 0.0988 0.1134 2 0.1289 0.1453 0.1623 0.1800 * 0.1981 0.2166 0.2353 0.2540 0.2727 0.2911 3 0.3091 0.3264 0.3431 0.3588 0.3734 0.3868 0.3988 0.4092 0.4180 0.4250 4 0.4302 0.4333 0.4344 0.4333, 0.4301 0.4247 04171 0.4072 0.3952 0.3811 le Sa1€@V1 TVOLLVWaHLVW x o oO. 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 i 0.7 o8 09 0 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 ‘0.0000 0.0001 0.0002 0.0003 0.0006 0.0010 0.0016 1 0.0025 0.0036 0.0050 0.0068 0.0091 0.0118 0.0150 0.0188 0.0232 0.0283 2 0.0340 0.0405 0.0476 0.0556 0.0643 0.0738 0.0840 0.0950 0.1067 0.1190 3 0.1320 0.1456 0.1597, 0.1743, 0.1891 0.2044 0.2198 (9.2353 0.2507 0.2661 4 0.2811 0.2958 0.3100 0.3236 0.3365, 0.3484 0.3594, 0.3693, 0.3780 0.3853,| Table VI continued - Bessel functions 4p(13)_}_Jetvay / 139 41506 | +3001 | +1717 | 09033 a2 | +0476 | 42069 | eam Hes | Hsr30 | +i =lostoe | Fiver | +2791 | Hiv Si2a0e | hase | Hovare | ane 10 | taser | +5767 | +3301 | —ose0 —a7 | — 04083 | +2346 | +2483 | +007 | — 1768 | —2034 | —oros2 | 41334 15 | F2403 | +4913, | Harz | $1883 =3a7 | Sass” | Horses | +2548 | Eisao | ozs | zou | — i937 | S‘otaor I 20 | +149 | 4.3528 | +4961 | +3641 tase | +2546 | +1990 | — e493 i 25 | Floss | +2259 | taiar | +4409 co2e77 | $967 | Homa | to722 30 | -tor9ss | +1289 | +301 | +4902 | +60 | tana | —1576 | 2911 | — 1809 | +0588 | +2273 | +951 | 35 | tories | +.os8s2 | F101 | +:3668 | too - | +H2671 | —oraoa | —236 | 2083 | —Lov96s | tiara | 238 j 40 .0%2477 | +.03400 | -.1320 | +2811 | +3912 | +3576 | +.1578 | —.1054 —orsos | +1825 \ 45 | Foseo7 | +0188 | Horzeo | +1993 | +3337 | +386 | +2800 | Howie =asis | Posts | $2138 | F1890 50 | +.0r2498 | +.087040 ) 04303 } 4.1321 | 4.2611 | +3621 | +3479 | +1858 | —osso4 7347 | +.1316 | 4.2204 i 85 | Hove | Fotas73 | Fo2266 | +0826 | +1908 | Hooa | +3034 | 2856 | Hota" i186 | Horess | E1801 t . 60 | +or2004| tora | +0139 | +0409 | +310 | +2488 | +392 | +3076 | +203 | —o14ss | —2016 | — 2037 4.08117 : 65 | f0% | Loar’ | Horsass ) Pozar | Toasss | Thess) F211 | Haass | 12070 | 4.123 ) —to18 | — 2354 = 04181 j 79 | ebortsoz | tones | +0547 | torsis | +.08338 | +125 | +2336 | +3206 | +3075 | +2167 | +0188 | 1703 | -2106 | —.1508 75 = - = = = | Hoeray | Fizz. | H2rs9 | #3002 | +2861 | 1534 | —oeses | — 2145 | — 2187 ! 89 | 07422} +.0r218 | +.0%934 | -+0%4029 | +.01841 | -+.05653 0 | +225 | +3051 | +3179 +.04si0 | -.1410 | —.2000 35 — - = = — | #03820 4 | tame | 203 | +3169 $1496 | =lo4008 | = "928 9.0 | -tosszee | -+.0r2492 | -+oreado | -torsaes | +.085500 | +0217 | +0582 | +1263 | +2149 | +219 | +3087 | +2304 | +068 | 1149 95 = - = = | Hoi282 | Hoses | Hose | +1672 | +2526 | +3051 | +2806 | +621 | — 01581 too | -f.092631 | 4.082815 | -+.081293 | -+.01980 | +.08468 | +.086964 | +.02384 | -+.06077 | +.1247 | +2075 | +.2804 | +.3005 | +.2398 | -+.08501 Note: .097186 = .007186 0807 = .000607 utA Absorption coefficients Absorption units Accelerating electrode, cathode ray Acoustics ‘absorption coefficients absorption units amplifier power capacity attenuation constant coefficients equal-loudness contours music levels music ranges mustc, requirements noise noise reduction coefficients open-window units optimum reverberation Pressure public-address requirements reverberation computation room sizes sound level sound pressure speech frequency ‘speech intensity speech requirements standing waves Admittance Admittance equations Advance wire Aerial—see Antenna cooling, tube Air-cored coils Algebraic formulas Alloys melting point physical constants resistonce specific gravity temperature coefficient Absorption coefficients—Amplification, Amplifiers 170 169 137 165-178 170 169 172, 173, 169 170 178 174 174 172 7 170 169 166-169 176 W173 185 169-171 165, 166 176 176 175 175 172, 173 165 64-70 8 44 131 58, 59 294-296 44 44 44 4 a4 @ Index Alternating current ‘average 9 effective 99 ‘supplies 25 Altitude, atmospheric pressure 2 American noise units 190, 191 war standards, capacitors 55 war standards, resistors 52 wire gauge 35, 36 Ampere turns, cathode-ray focusing 138 Amplification, Amplifiers audio 143 beam power tube 161, 162, 163 cothode follower 156, 187, 158 circuits 155 class A 143, 153, 154 class AB 143, 153, 154 class B 143, 154, 155 class B r-f 152, 153 class C 143 classes 155, 156, 157 constant-current characteristics 45 design 143- class A and AB 153 class AB ond B 154 class B 152 class C 147 distortion 164 efficiency 143 factor 127, 129 feedback 159 general design 143-146 graphical design 146-155 grid current 143 grounded cathode 156 grounded grid 156 grounded plate 186 harmonic distortion 153, 164 negative feedback 159, 164 operating data 143Amplification, Amplifiers—Cable, radio frequency Amplification, Amplifiers continued plate modulation 149 push-pull 143 radio-frequency 143 resistance coupled 158, 159 sizes, public address 71 transfer characteristics 148 tube 143-164 Amplitude modulation 86, 87, 88, 288 Angles, approximations for 296 Angle of radiation 261 Anode current—see Current, plate Antennas—see also Rediators 250-271 angle, field intensity 255 array, radiation 265 arrays 263-271 binomial array 267 broadside directivity 265 dipole 258, 259, 265 field intensity 250-253, 258, 259 radiated power 258, 259 electric, magnetic components 250 end-fed conductor radiation 260 field near dipole 251 height field intensity 256 impedance 257 reactance 257 resistance 257 horn 217 Land T 224 loop 265, 270 vertically stacked, gain 270 maximum radiation 261 minimum radiation 261 noise 244, 246, 248 parallel to screen, radiation 269 radiation angle 261 dipole 264 horizontal 269 loop 264 pattern 263, 264 turnstile 264 two wires 269 resistance, reactance components 257 thombic 261-263 single-lobe directivity 266 tangental magnetic field 250, 251 top-loaded 224 vertical 224, 254-258 field strength 255-258 polarized 253, 254 Areas of plane figures 291-293 Arithmetical progression 296 Army-Novy, preferred tubes 142 Army-Navy radio-frequency cables 201-203 Arrays, antenna 263-271 Atmospheric noise 24d, 245 pressure 22 Atomic number 9 Atomic weights Attenuation, Attenuator bolanced O bolanced H bridged H bridged T circular wave guides H ladder load impedance minimum loss mismatch open-wire pairs symmetrical H symmetrical O symmetrical symmetrical T T telephone cable telephone lines u-h-f lines unbalanced unbalanced T wave guide Audible spectrum Audio reactors Audio transformer Auto transformer Balanced H attenuator line, impedance shielded, impedance © attenuator . Band-elimination filters Band-pass filters Bandwidth noise Barometer, atmospheric pressure Bauds Beaded line, impedance Bell System carrier frequencies Bessel functions Binomial array theorem Birmingham wire gauge Blocking oscillator Bridged H attenuator T attenuator hiness, cathode ray British wire gouge Broadside directivity B & S wire gauge ¢ Cable, radio frequency ‘attenuation 19 100-114 106 106 106, 110 106, 110, 213-217 4 Jor, 102 104 106, 112 198 181 106, 108 no 10 106, 108 4 183, 184 180, 181, 182, 186 206 106 106 216, 217 175, 176 122 122 122 106 196 196 106 116 6 32 247 2 192 196 185 318-321 267 297 36 272 106, 110 100, 106, 110 139 36 265 35, 36Calculus, integrals—Cut-off voltage, cathode ray Calculus, integrals 300-302 Capacitance, Capacitor 52, 55-57 ceramic 57 charge 92 color code 52 discharge 92 frequency 61, 62, 63 mica 55, 56 parallel plate 75 reactance 61,75 telephone line 179, 180, 182, 183 transmission line 194 Capacity—see Capacitance Carbon, thermocouples 46, 47 Carrier systems 185-187 telegraph, frequency 187 telephone, frequency 186 Cathode—see also Filament follower 156, 157, 158 Cathode-ray tub ray see Tubes, cathode Cavities, resonant 219, 220 CCIF noise units 191 Ceramic beads 196 capacitors 7 Characteristic impedance—see Imped- ance Chemical symbols 19 Chokes, iron cored, design of 122-126 Chromel, thermocouples 46, 47 Circle, area 292 Circuits coupled tuned, phase shift a4 overcaupied 84, 85 selective 80-86 single tuned; phase shift 81 uhf 134 Circular wave guides 213-217 Clearance hole, screws 39 Climate 23 Clipped sawtooth wave 284 Coating, tropical, marine protection 50 Coo) line ° cable 188 characteristic impedance 196 copper 206 resonator 222 surge impedance 195 Code, color 52 Code, telegraph 193 Coefficient of coupling . 79 Coil—see Inductance, Inductor Color code 52 capacitor 52 Color temperature, metals 43 Combinations, permutations 297 Common logarithms 304, 305 Communication spectrum 28 Complex hyperbolic functions 09 Complex quantities, formulas 294, Composition resistors, color code 52 Condenser—see Capacitor Conductance, Conductor 68 ground 224 mutual 129 solid, skin effect 73 telephone line 182, 183 tubular, skin effect 73 Cone-sphere resonator (222 Cone, volume 292 Constantan, thermocuples 46, 47 Continuous waves 33. Control characteristic, cathode ray 138. electrode, cathode ray 136 grid 128 Conversion factors u Cooling water 131 temperature rise BI Copper resistance 45 stranded, AWG 38 stranded conductors 38 stranded, resistance 38 stranded, weight 38 46, 47 thermocouples 6, wire 37, 60, 126 American gauge (AWG) 36, 123 attenuation per mile 37 Birmingham gauge (BWG) 36 British standard 36 Brown and Sharpe 36, 123 characteristic impedance 7 current capacity 126 ‘enameled : 126 English-metric units 36 Imperial standard (SW) 36 resistance 35, 36, 37, 126 size AWG a7 strength 7 tables 35, 36, 38, 60, 126 weight 35, 36, 37 Core, reactor 123, Core, transformer 123 Cosh, table of 317 Cosmic noise 244-246 Cosmic rays 28 Coupled section, impedance matching 200 Coupling coefficient 79 ‘optimum, 79 phase shift 84 two circuits 79 Crystal detectors 142 Current ‘average 9 characteristic ‘ 129 effective 9 ratio, decibels 34 fwo-mesh network ai) Cut-off frequency, telephone cable 183, 184 Cut-off voltage, cathode ray 138Cylinder, erea—Filters Cylinder, area 293 volume 2% Cylindrical wave guides 213-217 D Damped waves 33, 287 Decibels wu nepers Hw Decimals, inch 4 Deftection, cathode-ray electrode 137, 139 factor 138 sensitivity 139, 140 Deltc e transformation 86 Deviation, frequency 30 mond antennas 261-263 lectric constant 40 ground 224 Dielectric strength 40 Diffraction 238 Dimensions, conversion u Diode lines 129 perveance 129 plate current 129 power supply 8, 119 Dipote electric 250 field intensity 250-252 half wave, field intensity 258 magnetic 250 radiation pattern 264 Direct-current supplies 25 Directive antenna arrays 263 Dissipation, tube 129 Distance ranges 240 hf 238 reflected signal 244 Distortion factor 164 Distributed constants, telephone cable 182, 184 D layer 226, 227 Driver transformer 122 Dry-butb thermometer 20 Dynamic resistance, parallel tuned circuit 76 178 Earth—see also Ground * distances (240 magnetic field 141 Echo, radio, time 244 EEI-NEMA-RMA noise meter 245 E layer 207 sporadic 27 Electric circuit formulas 74-100 Electric dipole 250 Electrode characteristic 129 Electromagnetic frequency spectrum 2B Electromagnetic units 16, 17, 251 Electromotive force, psophometric 189 Electromotive force, series of elements 18 Electron, Electronics—see also Tubes differentiation 276, 7 inertia 135 integrotion 274, 278 velocity, cathode ray 140 Elementary dipole 250 Elements atomic aumber 9 atomic weight 19 emf series 18 symbols 19 e, area 292 Emission 3 frequency bands 32 tube 128, 133 EMU units 16,17 End-fed conductor radiation 260 Equations, admittance 86 Equations, impedance 86 Equivalents n ESU units 16, 17 European noise units 190 E woves 207 Exponentials 317 Exponential wove 287 F Factors, conversion n Feedback 159, 164 Feedback, relaxation oscillator» 272 Feeder—seo Transmission line Feeling, acoustic threshold 178 Field Intensity—see also Radi contenna angle 255 ontenna height 255 dipole 250 ‘end-fed conductor 260 meter 245 surface-wave 224, 225 vertical antenna (253 Field strength—see Field intensity, Radiation Filaments oxide coated 132 reactivation 134 thoriated tungsten 132 transformer 122 tungsten 132 Filters bond elimination 16 bond pass 16 constant K 116, 117 high poss 88-91, 117 low poss 88-91, 117 networks 115, 116, 117 power supply 88, 118-121 RC, RL, LC 8-91Filters continued reactors rectifier series M shunt M S-element series element shunt Finishes, tropical, marine Flow of water Focusing, cathode ray ‘ampere turns current electrode voltage Forced-cir cooling, tube Forecasts, propagation Foreign countries, power supplies Form factor Formulas electric circuit impedance mathematical mensuration Fourier onalysis graphical solution Fractional sine wave Fractions, inch-metric equivalents Frequency abbreviations allocation cartier telegraph carrier telephone J carrier K carrier Ltype program telephony, high frequency bands capacitance, inductance classifications, radio cut-off, telephone cable designations modulation power supplies printer telegraph range, music range, speech reactance spectrum, electromagnetic tolerances wavelength Frying noise Fi layer Fy layer G Galvanic series, metals Gamma rays Gaps, protective Gas tube oscillator Gaussian unit 123 120 7 7 6 6 49 187 186 185 185 188 187 187 30, 32 61, 62, 63 28 183, 184 28 288 25 192 174 174 41 28 30 29 189 27 227, 28 18 28 123 272 16 aT Giorgi unit 16 Great-circle calculations 240-243 Greek alphabet 15 Grid voltage, critical 129 Ground conductivity 224 dielectric constant 224 reflection 240 types 224 wove 224 field intensity, frequency 239 Guides, wave 207 H Harmonics—see also Distortion intensity 2 Hearing, equal loudness v8 High frequency—see also Radio frequency maximum usable 229 propagation 226 resistance 7 High-poss filters 17, Horns, wave guide 217 Horsepower vs torque 51 H pad 14 Humidity effect on reactor 123 effect on transformer 123 relative 20 temperature 20 H waves 207 Hyperbolic cosines 317 functions 299 sines 316 tangents 318 l Impedance antenna height 2957 balanced line 196 beaded line 196 coaxial line 196 formula 64-70, 86 matching, coupled section 200 matching, shorted, open stub 199 ‘open 2-wire line 196 parallel % wires 197 power transfer 78 shielded balanced line 196 telephone cable 183, 184 telephone line 180, 182 transmission line 194, wire and ground 197 wire and shield 197 2-mesh network 76,77 2 paralled wire and ground WF 2 wires and ground 97 A-wire line 197Imperial wire gauge—Metal Imperial wire gauge 36 Inductance, Inductor charge 95-98 discharge 95 formulas 58, 74 frequency 61, 62, 63 reactance 61,75 74 1gle-layer solenoids 58, 59 telephone 179, 180, 182, 183 transmission line 194 Inertia, electron 135 Input transformer 122 Insulation, Insulating materials 40 oir 48 dielectric constant 40 dielectric strength 40 electrical properties 40 physical properties 40 plastics, trade names a power factor 40 40 softening point 40 thermal expansion 40 Integrals 300-302 Integration, electronic 774 latensifier electrode, cathode ray 137 Interference—see Noise International regulations 30 Interstage transformer 122 Inverse-distance fields 24 Inverse feedback 159, 164 lon, emf s 18 lonization, lonosphere—see also Propa- gation density 228, 229 D layer 226 E layer 27 sporadic 27 F; loyer 27 Fz layer 208 Iron, thermocouples 46, 47 Isolation transformer 122 Isosceles-triangle wave 283 IT. & T. System carrier frequencies 185 Iterative impedance—see Transmission line impedance J J type carrier systems 185 K Kelvin, operating temperature 132 Kennely-Heoviside Layer—see lonosphere Klystrons 135, 142 K type carrier systems 185 L ladder attenuator JoI-104 Lantennas 224 latitude, distances 240 L carrier system 188 IC filters 88-91 lead, solder melting point 47 Leakance, telephone line 179, 180 letter symbols, elements 19 letter symbols, Greek 15 life, tube 133 Light spectrum 28 Light, velocity 28 Line-of-sight distance 237-240 lines, transmission—see Transmission fines Loading, telephone cable 182, 184 loading constants, telephone cable 182 Logarithms, common 304-305 Logarithms, natural 314, 315 longitude and time 7 longitude, distances 240 ‘long waves, propagation 224-226 Loop antennas, stacked 270 Loop mile constants 184 Loop, radiation pattern 264 Loudness contours 178 loudspeaker impedance 7 Loudspeaker, wire sizes 71 low frequencies, propagation 224-226 low-pass filters 7 L type, carrier modulation 188 M Machine screws head styles 38 hole sizes v length 38 special 38 standard 38 Maclaurin's theorem 297 Magnet wire data—see also Copper wire 60 Magnetic dipole 250 Magnetic focusing, cathode roy 41 Magnetic shielding, cathode ray 139 Magnetrons 134, 142 Mains, voltage and frequency 25 Man-made noise 244-246 Marine, finishes and matertals 50 Mathematical formulas 288-299, 291-302 Mathematical tables 304-322 Maximum usable frequency 229, 230 Medium frequencies, propagation 224 Medium waves, propagation 224-226 Melting point, metals 43, 44, 47 Mensuration formulas 291-293 Mercury, inches 2 Metal color heated 43 omf series 18 43, 44, 47 physical constants 44 position in galvanic series 18Metal continued resistance 44 specific gravity 4 temperature a temperature coefficient 44 Metric equivalents 4 Mica capacitors, identification 55 Minimum-loss pads 106, 112, 113 Mismatch, attenuation 198 MKS system 16 Modulation, Modulator ‘amplitude 86, 87, 88, 288 characteristic, cathode ray 138 classes 32 frequency 288 L type carrier 188 percentage 87 pulse 290 transformer 122 waveforms 283, Moisture, humidity 29 Multi-element array 263-271 Multipie-hop transmission 228-230 Multiples of 2.3026 318 Multiples of 0.4343 318 Moltivibrator 273 Music, frequency ranges 174 Music, intensity levels 174 Mutual conductance—see Tudes N Novy-Army preferred tubes 142 Navy-Army radio-frequency cables 201-203 Negative feedback 159-164 Nepers—decibels 34 Networks , 10-114 filter ns theorems 74 2-mesh, current 78 2-mesh, impedance 76,77 New York, magnetic field ct ut Noise acoustic W77 atmospheric 244, 245 cosmic 244-246 frying 189 levels 177, 190 fine 189 man-made 244-246 measurement 189-191, 249 meter 245 psophometric 189 radio 244-249 receiver, antenna 244, 246, 248 reduction coefficients 170 room 189 thermal agitation 244, 248, 248 to-signal ratio 248, 249 units 190 Nonsinusoidal waves 272-287 Metal—Power Nuts, screws 39 Nyquist diagram 161 ° ‘Oblique-angled triangle, solution 298 Open stub, impedance matching 199 Open-window units 169 Open-wire pairs 179-181 Optical ho 238 Optical line-of-sight distance 238 Optimum coupling 79 Oscillation, Oscillator 47 blocking 272 feedbotk, relaxation 72 gas tube 2 multivibrator m3 relaxation 272, 273 squegging 273 van der Pol 273 Oscillogram, modulation percentage a7 Output transformer 122 Overcoupled circuits 84 Oxide-coated cathode 132 P Pads, minimum loss n2, 13 Pads, T and H 4 Paint, tropical, marine 50 Parabola, area 292 Parallel circuit, impedance 68, 69, 70 Parallel impedance 7 Paralielogram, area 291 Parallel wires, impedance 198, 197 Penetration of current 71 Percentage modulation 87 Permutations, combinations 297 Perveance, diode, triode 129 Phase angle 64-70 Phase shift, coupled tuned ci a4 Phase shift, single-tuned circuits 81 Phase shift, telephone lines 182 Phototubes 142 Pi section attenuators 100 Pi-tee transformation 86 Plane figures, creas 291-293 Plastics, composition 41 Plastics, trade names 4l Plate current, diode, triode 129 Plate resistance 128 Plate transformer 122 protective gops 123 Platinum, thermocouples 46, 47 Polygon, area 291 Positive-grid tubes 135 Post-accelerating electrode, cathode ray 137 Potential, element series 18 Power dipole radiation 258 factor 40Power—Reactance, Reactor Power continued tatio to decibels 4 supplies foreign countries 25 filters, rectifiers 88, 118-121 transformer 122 design 124 transfer between impedances 78 transfer between two meshes 78,79 Preaccelerating electrode, cathode ray 137 Precipitation extremes . zB Precipitation, world 24 Pressure acoustic 17% atmospheric . 2 reactor 123 transformer 123 wind 42 Primary constants 180 Primary emission 128 Principle of superposition 74 Printer telegroph frequency 192 Printer telegraph, speed 192 Prism resonator 222 Program carrier, frequency 187 Progression, arithmetical 296 Progression, geometrical 297 Propagation—see also Attenuation antenna height 238 constant 180 toll cable 182 diffraction 238 distances 238, 240 calculation 240 echo 244 D layer, 226 echo time 244 E layer 27 sporadic 27 forecosts 231-236 frequency vs ground wave 239 Fi layer 27 Fy layer 228 good earth 225 height of ontenna 238 high frequencies 226 line of sight 238 long waves 224 low frequencies 224 ‘maximum usable frequencies 209 medium frequencies 224 medium waves 204-226 optical horizon 238 ‘over ground 25 poor earth 25 radio 224-249 radio horizon 238 radiotelephone fields required 235 range 238 seo water 226 short waves 26-230 signal strength required 235 Propagation continued sky wave sporadic surface waves telephone cable telephone lines waves in guides Protective gaps reactors transformers Psophometric electromotive force Public-address requirements Pulse-frequency modulation Pulse modulation Pulse modulators Pyramide, volume Q Q, resonators Quadratic equation 225 182, 184 180 207 123 123 123 189-191 7 142 293 222 296 Radiation, Radiator—see also Antenna cngle array antenna binomial array cooling, tube dipole end-fed conductor horizontal wire loop pattern power, dipole spectrum turnstile antenna vertical wire parallel to screen 2 wires Radio frequency cable attenuation classifications resistance Radio horizon Radio path horizon Radio path length Radiotelephone, fields required Rainfall RC filters Reactance, Reactor antenna height audio capacitor charts cores filter frequency humidity Inductor 261 265 267 131 264 260 269 264 263-264 28 224, 269 269 201 28 7 244-249 238 235 23, 24 257 122 75 61, 62, 63 123 123 61, 62, 63 123 7Reactance, Reactor—Spacing, telephone tines Reactance, Reactor continued RL filters 88-91 iron-core 122-126 } RMA standards, capacitors 55 major types 122, 123 | RMA standards, resistors 52 pressure 123 | Room acoustics 165-178 protective gaps 123 | Room noise 189 saturable 123 temperature 23g wove-filter 123 Receiver noise 244, 246, 248 | Saturable reactors 123 + Reciprocity theorem 74 | Saturation, percent 20 Rectangular wave 282 | Sowtooth wave 284, 285 | Rectangular wave guides 208 f Scott transformer 122 | Rectification, Rectifier Screen grid 128 circutts 118,119 | cathode ray 137 full-wave 118, 119 J Screws, machine | half-wave 118,119 | head styles 38 i power supply ~ 118-121 hole sizes 39 | wave analysis 287 length 38 | Recurrent wave forms, fourier analysis special 38 277-280 | standard 38 Reflected signal, time interval 244 | Sea water, propagation 226 Reflection coefficient 240 | Secondary emission 128 Reflector, antenna 269 || Sector circle area 202 Refractive index 240 | Segment circle area 292 Relative humidity 20 | Selective circuits 80-86 Relaxation oscillators 272, 273 | Seif inductance—see Inductance Resistance, Resistor 52. | Series circuit antenna height 257 | charge 95 copper wire 35, 36 | discharge 95 coupled amplifier 158 | impedance formulas 68, 69, 70 high frequency 71 | sinusoidal voltage 8 insulating materials 40 | Series M filter v7 parallel circuit 7% ies 3-element filter v6 radio frequency 71 | Shielded balanced line impedance 196 skin effect 71 | Shorted stub, impedance matching 19 standard color code 53 | Short waves, maximum usable fre- telephone line 179, 180, 182, 183 J quencies 229 Resonance, Resonator Short waves, propagation 226 cavities 219} Shunt M filter 117 circular 222 | Shunt 3-element filter 16 coaxial 222 | Signal strength—see Attenuation, Field cylinder 222 intensity, Propagation frequency, filters 389 al-to-noise ratio 248, 249 frequency, series circuit 75 on carbide, thermocouples 46, 47 prism 222 | Simpson's rule 293 rectangular 221, 222 Ff Sines, hyperbolic 318 selectivity 80 wave, fractional 235 sphere-cone 222 wave, full 285 spherical 221, 222 wave, half 288 square prism 222 le-hop transmission 228, 229 waves in 207 1, table of 1316 Reverberation time 165 | Sinusoidal voltage 98 R-F cables, Army-Navy 201-203 | Skin effect 71, 72, 73 ottenuation 204 | Sky reflection 228, 229 R-F transmission lines—see also Sky-wave—see Attenuation, Field in- Transmission lines 194-206 | tensity, Propagation RG-/U cable 201-204 | Solder, melting point 47 Rhodium, thermocouples 46, 47} Solenoids, inductance 58, 59 Rhombic antennas 261-263 | Sound level, acoustic 76 Right-angle triangle, solution 298 | Sound, noise levels 77 Ripple frequency 118-121] Spoce-charge grid 128 Ripple voltage 118-121 || Spacing, telephone lines 180Spark-gap breakdown veltages—Torque vs horsepower + Spark-gop breakdown voltages 43 Speech, frequency ranges 75 Speech, intensity levels 175 Speed, printer telegraph 192 Speed, telegraph 192 Sphere, area 293 cone resonator 222 volume 293 Spherical trigonometry 240 Spiral-4 cable 183 Sporadic E layer 27 Square-prism resonator 222 Squegging oscillator 273 Stacked loops 270 Standard noise meter 245 Standard time 27 Standing weves, acoustic 165 Static—see Atmospheric noise Stub, open, shorted, impedance match- ing 199 Studio acoustics 165 Sunspot cycle 229, 230 Superposition, principle 74 Suppressor grid 128 Surface waves—see Attenuation, Field intensity, Propagation Surge impedance—see Transmission-line impedance Susceptance 68 ‘Symbols chemical wv elements 19 "Greek 1S tubes ZW Symmetrical attenuator 106 H attenuator 108 © attenuator 108, 110 Pi attenuator 106, 110 T attenuator 108 trapezoid wave 282 T Tables, mathematical 304-323 Tangents, hyperbolic 318 T antennas 224 Tapping hole, screws 39 Taylor's theorem 297 Telegraph carrier systems 187 codes, comparison 193 facilities 192 printer 192 frequency 192 speed 192 systems: 192 speeds 192 Telephone cable attenuation 183, 184 cut-off frequency 183, 184 distributed constants 182, 184 Telephone cable continued impedance 183, 184 loading 182, 184 constants 182 noise 190 propagation 182, 184 velocity 183, 184 wavelength 183, 184 Telephone carrier systems 185-187 Telephone line—see also Transmission line attenuation 180, 181, 182, 186 capacitance 179, 182, 183 conductance 182, 183 impedance 180, 182 inductance 179, 182, 183 leakance 179, 180 noise 190 phase shift 182 propagation 180 resistance 179, 180, 182, 183 spacing 180 velocity 180 wavelength 180 Telephone toll cable 182-184 Telephone transmission-line data 179-184 Temperature extremes 23 highest 23 humidity 20 lowest 23 measurement, thermocouple 46, 47 metals 43 reactor 123 tise, tube 131 transformer 123 world 23 TEM waves 207 Terminals, winding 123, Terminology, tube 128, 129 TE waves 207 Theorems Maciaurin's 297 network 74 reciprocity 74 superposition 74 Taylor's 27 Thevenin's 74 Thermal agitation 244, 246, 248 Thermal properties, insulating materials 40 Thermocouples 46, 47 Thevenin’s theorem 74 Thoriated-tungsten filament 132, 134 Time belts, worldwide 7 Time constant 92-98 filters 8 Time, Greenwich central a Time interval, reflected signal 244 Tin, solder meiting point a7 TM waves 207 Toll cable 182 Torque vs horsepower 51T pad 4 Transconductance 128 Transfer characteristic 129 Transformation, conversion factors "1 tee-pi 86 wye-delta 86 Transformers audio 122 auto 122 cores 123 design 124 driver 122 flament 122 humidity 123 input 122 interstage 122 iron-core 122-126 major types 122 modulation 122 output 122 plate 122 power supply 122 pressure 123, protective gops 123 Scott 122 temperature 123, Transients 92-98 Transmission, Transmitters—see also At- tenvation, Field intensity, Propaga- tion codes 193 frequency bands 32 frequency, printer 192 frequency tolerances 30 fine—see also Telephone line ‘Army-Navy standard 201 attenuation 204 attenuation, mismatch 198 balanced, impedance 196 beaded, impedance 196 coaxial, impedance 196 constants 99, 179 open-wire pairs 179 toll cable 182 toll entrance cable 182 coupled sections 200 formulas 194 ground, impedance 197 impedance 180, 194 balanced line 196 beaded line 196 coaxial 196 matching stub 199 ‘open stub 199 ‘open 2-wire 196 parallel wires 197 shorted stub 199 telephone cable 183, 184 telephone line 180, 182 wire to ground 197 wire to shield 197 2 wires to ground 197 T pad—Tubes, gaseous and vacuum Tronsmission continued 4-wire line 197" length 205 miscellaneous 197 mismatch 198 noise 189 parallel, impedance 197 Tesistance 206 shielded balanced, impedance 196 shielded, impedance 197 stub 199 surge impedance 195 u-h-f attenuation 204 2 open wire, impedance 196 modulation types 32 speed, telegraph 192 tolerances, frequency 30 wave guides 207 Transverse electromagnetic waves 207 Tropezoidal rule 293 Trapezoid, area 291 Trapezoid wave 282, 283, Triangle, area 291 Triangles, trigonometric solution 298 Trigonometry formulas 294-296 functions, logarithmic 206, 310-313, functions, natural 306-309 solution, triangles 298 spherical 240 Triode perveance 129 Triode plate current 129 Tropical, finishes and materials 50 T-section attenuators 100 Tubes, gaseous and vacuum 127-141 amplification factor 127, 129 amplifiers 143-164 cathode ray 136-141 accelerating electrode 137 ‘anode 197 ‘application 139 brightness 139 characteristics 138, 139 control 138 electrode 136 cut-off voltage 138 deflection factor 138 deflection plates 137 deflection potential 139 deflection sensitivity 139 electrodes 136, 137 arrangement 137 electron velocity 140, 141 electrostatic deflection _ 138, 139, 140 focusing 138, 139 electrode 137 formulas 139, 140, 141 voltage 139 intensifier electrode 137 magnetic defle 138, 140, 141 modulating electrode 136 modulation 138Tubes, gaseous and vacuum—Volume Tubes continued post-accelerating electrode 137 preaccelerating electrode 137 screen gti 137 shielding 139 spot size 139 types 142 clipper 142 coefficients 127, 128 composite diode lines 129 constant current characteristics 129 control grid 128 converters 142 cooling 131 critical grid voltage 129 diodes 142 plate current 129 electron inertia 135 electrode characteristic 129 electrode di 131 ‘emission 128, 133 filament characteri 132-134 life 133, reactivation 134 voltage 133, 142, forced-air cooling 131 formulas 129 gas 142 switching 142 grid control 142 indicators 142 Klystrons 135 magnetrons 134, 138, 136 mutual conductance 129 negative-grid 134, 135 nomenclature 127 oxide-coated cathode 132 pentodes 142 performance limitations 130 perveance 129 phototubes 142 plate resistance 128 positive-grid 134, 135 power 142 preferred list 142 primary emission 128 pulse modulators 142 radiation cooling 131 receiving 142 rectifiers 142 screen grid 128 secondary emission 128 space-charge grid 128 suppressor grid 128 terminology 128 tetrodes 142 thoriated tungsten filament 132, 134 total emission 128 transconductance 128 transfer characteristic 129 transmitting 142 Tubes continued triodes 142 plate current 129 tungsten filament 132 twin tetrodes 142 twin triodes 142, vhf 134 variational plate resistance 128 velocity-modulated 134, 135 voltage regulators 142 water cooling 131 Tuned circuits ‘optimum coupling 79 parallel, dynamic resistance 7% selectivity 80 series, resonant frequency 75 Tungsten filament 132 Turnstile antenna, radiation pattern 264 Two-hop transmission 228, 229 Two-wire, open, copper line 206 impedance 196 u Ultra high frequency electron inertia 135 lines, attenuation 204 transmission lines—see Transmission lines tubes 134-135 ‘Unbalanced Pi attenuator 106 Unbalanced T attenuator 106 Units, conversion 11, 16,17 ‘Unsymmetrical trapezoid 283 Vv Vocuum tubes—see Tubes yan der Pol oscillator 273 Voriational plate resistance 128 Velocity light . 28 modulated tubes 135 telephone cable 183, 184 telephone lines 180 transmission line * 194 variation—see Velocity modulation wind 42 Vertically polarized waves 240 Vertical radiators 254-258 Very-short-waves, propagation 231-234 V-H-F propagation 231-234 path length 232 Voice-frequency carrier 187 Voltage, gap breakdown 48 Voltage, ratio to decibels 34 Voltage regulators 42 Volume ‘cone 293 cylinder 293 music 174 pyramid 293Volume continued speech sphere Ww Washers, screws Water cooling, tube discharge rate head in feet resistance through pipes Wave analysis clipped sawtooth critically damped exponential Fourier full-wave rectified isosceles triangle rectangular sawtooth sine symmetrical trapezoid unsymmetrical trapezoid Wove-filter reactors Wave forms analysis Fourier analysis nonsinusoidal shaping Wave guides and resonators attenuation circular cut-off wavelength horns rectangular 174 131 49 49 49 281 284 287 27 287 283 282 284, 285 285, 286 282 283 123 281 277-287 272-287 274 207-223 216 213-217 216 217 Volume—Y-delta transformation Wave, integrated 274 Wavelength-frequency chart 2 classifications 28 conversion 2 formulas 29 spectrum 28 telephone cable 183, 184 telephone lines 180 transmission line 194 Wave propagation—see Propagation Wave shaping 274 Weather data 23, 42 Weights, atomic 19 Wet-bulb thermometer 20 Winding terminals 123 Wind velocities and pressures 42 Wire American gauge 35 copper 35, 36, 37, 38, 60 sizes, loudspeaker 171 spacing, telephone lines 180 transmission 179-193 World, 240 World time chart 7 Wye-delta transformation 86 x X-rays 28 Y Y-delta transformation 86