Physical World

What is physics?
The word physics is derived from Greek word fusis, meaning nature or natural
things. As such, physics is defined as that branch of science, which studies
natural phenomena in terms of basic laws and physical quantities. The study is
generally structured to satisfy queries, arising from the observed events
occurring around our world. In this sense, Physics answers questions about
universe and the way elements of universe interact to compose natural
phenomena.

The underlying principles in physics are simple and general, but defining (basic)
in nature. Elements and quantities used to describe natural phenomena are also
general and basic. The whole of universe, as a matter of fact, can be considered
to be comprising of two basic quantities : (i) matter and (ii) energy. For this
reason, some physicists rightly define physics as the study of matter and energy.

Universe

Domain of physics:
The domain of physics extends from the infinitesimal to the infinite and is
largely undefined. At one end of the scale, there are quarks composing nucleons
(neutrons and protons) and on the other end, there are galaxies, with sun-like
stars as its constituents and a universe that we do not know much about.

In physics, domains are also defined in terms of various important attributes like
speed, temperature and other physical quantities. In the domain defined by
speed, we study both stationary objects and objects moving at very high speed,
perhaps three – fourths of the speed of light. It is thanks to the extraordinary
efforts of scientists in the last two centuries that we now know some of the
important bounds of nature. For example, the upper limit of speed is the speed
of light in a vacuum. Similarly, the lower limit of temperature is 0 K. These are
some of the highlights of the development of our basic understanding of nature
and its extent.

The uncertainty about the domain of physics stems from the fact that new
experiments and discoveries continuously break the bounds (limits) set before.
An example: for many years, the charge on the electron was considered the
smallest amount of charge, but today after the discovery of quarks, we know that
these carry lesser amounts of charge than that carried by electrons. Thus, the
extent of physics is actually changing as we learn more and more about nature.
Careers in physics
Generality:
Theories of physics are extremely general, being the underlying governing
principles of natural events extending to the whole universe. This aspect
contrasts physics from other streams of science, which are often specific and
sometimes localized. Generality of physics and its theories render physical laws
to form the basic scientific framework upon which other branches of science are
developed. Take the example of charged molecules called "ions" - a subject of
investigation in Chemistry. Oppositely charged ions are glued together under
the influence of an electrostatic force irrespective of the nature and type of ions
and the atoms or molecules involved. The magnitude of this electrostatic force is
secular in that its magnitude is determined by an inverse square law – whatever
be the context and location.

Simplification and unification:

Simplification and unification have emerged as the basic trait of physics. There
are only a few laws to define a wide variety of natural phenomena – a fact that
underlines the simplification of governing laws in physics. On the other hand,
unification of physical quantities and concepts is also prevalent. Take the
example of matter and energy. They are now considered equivalent Further, this
dual nature of matter highlights the wave (E energy) nature of particles (m
mass), which underlies the concept of mass-energy equivalence. Similarly, the
treatment of magnetism in terms of electrical charge is an example of unification
of physical concepts.

Simplification can also be seen in the laws governing gravitation and

electrostatics. Gravitational and electrical forces are conservative forces,
determined by inverse square laws. The similarity of the forms of mathematical
expressions is no coincidence, but a sure indication of the underlying nature of
the universe, which emphasizes simplification :

Simplification and unification of physical quantities, concepts and laws are

remarkable, suggesting more such cases – which are yet to be discovered.
Consider the physical quantities: “mass” and “charge”. There is as yet no
relationship connecting these two fundamental quantities of physics. Similarly,
the two major categories of forces known as nuclear and weak forces are not yet
fully understood. Scientists are working to examine these unknown territories.
Scientific validation and experimental verification:
The fundamental laws of physics are set against either too big or too small
quantities, presenting a peculiar problem in establishing direct validation of
basic theories in physics. Even today, there is not a single experimental set up
which could directly verify Einstein’s theory of relativity. For example, mass of
an electron moving at two – third of the speed of light can not be measured
directly. As we do not see the atom and its constituents, theories based on them
are also not directly verifiable. We can not even verify Newton’s first law of
motion, which states that an object in the absence of net external force shall
keep moving! We have seen all objects come to rest in the earth's frame of
reference, when left unaided. This peculiarity, however, does not mean that
these laws have not been validated as required for scientific studies.

It should be amply clear that scientific method for validation also includes
inferences based on indirect measurements. In that sense, Einstein’s special
theory of relativity has been tested and verified by results obtained from the
experiments involving motions of charged particles at great speed. Surprising is
the exactness and accuracy of the results obtained. In the same context,
accuracy of predications involving solar systems, satellites etc. have validated
laws of gravitation.
 Laboratory

Recasting and revalidating laws in the light of new

revelations:
Studies and experiments continue to bring new details and dimensions to our
understanding of natural phenomena. New revelations recast old facts,
hypotheses and theories. The relativity theory propounded by Albert Einstein,
for example, revealed that Newton’s laws of motions are basically a subset of
more general theory. Similarly, Newton’s hypothesis regarding velocity of sound
was recast by Laplace, arguing that propagation of sound is adiabatic and not
isothermal process as considered by Newton. His assertion was based on the
experimental result and was correct. There are many such occasions when an
incomplete or erroneous understanding of natural event is recast or validated
when new facts are analyzed.

Domains of physical laws:

There is an irresistible perception that physical phenomena are governed by a
universal law - a fundamental law, which is valid at all dimensions and at all
speeds. As against this historically evasive natural conjecture, our
understanding and formulation are limited to domains of applicability. Newton’s
law works fine in our world, where dimensions are bigger than atomic size and
speed is not exceeding 0.17c (speed of light, “c”). If the speed of an object
exceeds this limit, the relativistic effects can not be ignored.

Consequently, we are currently left with a set of laws, which are domain
specific. One law resigns in favor of other as we switch from one domain to
another. The plot below approximately defines the domains of four major
physical laws in terms of dimension and speed. Though, there are further
subdivisions proposed, but this broader classification of applicability of natural
laws is a good approximation of our current understanding about natural
phenomena.
 Units of Measurement

Introduction:
The International System of Units, universally abbreviated SI (from the French
Le Systeme International d’Unites), is the modern metric system of
measurement. Long the dominant measurement system used in science, the SI is
also becoming the dominant measurement system used in international
commerce.

Neither scheme of the two variants of foot-pound-second (FPS) system, known

as the American version and the Imperial version is often used by scientists
nowadays; the SI System of Units is preferred. However, FPS units are used to
some extent by the general public, especially in the United States.

The International System was established by the 11th General Conference on

Weights and Measures (CGPM, Conference Generale des Poids et Mesures) in
1960, and it is the responsibility of the CGPM to ensure that the SI is widely
disseminated and that it reflects the latest advances in science and technology
[1].

The definition of Measurement:

1. Measuring is to compare a physical quantity of an object with similar
quantity used as a unit
2. There are two measurement:

 Standard Measurement is an agreed unit of measurement with fixed value.

Some tools for measuring are vernier caliper, metertape etc.
 Not a standard Measurement isn’t an agreed unit of measurement with
fixed value. Some tools for measure are feet, hands etc.

Quantities and Units:

 1. Quantity has two components are value and units. For example : “ length
of a table are 125 meters. Length is quantity, 125 are values' centimeters
are units
2. Quantity can be divided into :

 Fundamental Quantities are conventionally established by the

International conference on weight and measurement. For example:
length in meter, mass in kilogram' time in second.

Unit of fundamental quantities can be look at table below

Table 1. The SI fundamental quantities and units

No. Fundamental quantities SI Unit Symbol

1. Length meter M

2. Mass kilogram Kg

3. Time second S

4. Electric Current ampere A

5. Temperature kelvin K

6. Amount of Substance mole Mol

7. Luminous Intensity candela Cd

 The derived Quantities are made of the fundamental quantities. For

example: -volume unit is cubic meter ( m3 ), arranged from fundamental
quantity length. - velocity unit is meter per second ( m/s ), arranged from
fundamental quantity length and quantity time

 Scalar Quantities are quantities have values and units. For example : -
length of table are 1.75 m - mass of rice are 4 kg - volume of oil are 3 dm3

 Vector Quantities are quantities have values, units and directions. For
example : - Andy moved 2 meter turn right – velocity of car 80 km/hours
turn west - a cow pulled a cart by force 200 N turn east
The International System::
The International System is units system can be used in the World , it have two
system are
MKS and CGS

 System MKS is System SI. System SI has conditions are: fixed value , can
be imitated , can be used in the World .

Some tools for measuring Standard Measurement:

1- Length : Length shows the distance between two point. Length uses SI unit in
meter.
One standard meter is the same as the distance travelled by light in a vacuum in
1/299792458 second. For our life , measuring tools have referred to a standard
meter as shown in Figure.1 and 2

→Vernier caliper
The smallest measurement unit for a vernier caliper is 0.1 mm
 Vernier caliper

→ Micrometer scoop
The smallest measurement unit for a Micrometer scoop is 0.01 mm

Micrometer scoop

2- Mass : The mass of substance shows the materials contained in it. In SI, mass
uses basic unit
kilogram. One kilogram is the same as the same as the mass of a cylinder made
of
platinum- iridium alloy. It kept in Sevres, Paris, France. Look at figure below!

→Double beam balance

The smallest measurement unit for a Double beam balance is 0.1 gram

Double beam balance

→Balance

balance for flour or sugar

3-Time : Time shows the duration between two occurrences or events. The SI
unit for time is
second ( s ) . One standard second is the time needed by Cesium atom to vibrate
9.192.631.770 times.Some tools to measure time are the wall watch ,analog
watch and
digital watch.The smallest measurement unit for the wall watch, analog watch
and
digital watch gram are 1 second

→Analog watch and digital watch

analog watch and digital watch

→Clock

Clock

Some tools for measuring Not a Standard Measurement:

1. Span : the distance between the spread of little finger and tumb
2. Palm width : the width of fingers of a hand
3. Arm length : the between elbow and tip of middle finger
4. Feet step : the distance between left foot and right foot

Definitions of the SI Base Units and Supplementary Units:

The definitions of the SI supplementary units, the radian and steradian, are
those generally accepted.

1. Meter

The meter is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.

2. Kilogram

The kilogram is the unit of mass; it is equal to the mass of the

international prototype of the kilogram.
3. Second

The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation

corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the
ground state of the cesium-133 atom.

It is also 1/86,400 of a mean solar day. (There are 60 seconds in a minute,

60 minutes in an hour, and 24 hours in a day; 60 x 60 x 24 = 86,400.)

4. Ampere

The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight

parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section,
and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-27 newton per meter of length.

5. Kelvin

The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction 1/273.16 of

the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water.

6. Mole

i. The mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains as many

elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon 12.

ii. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may
be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups
of such particles.

In the definition of the mole, it is understood that unbound atoms of carbon

12, at rest and in their ground state, are referred to. Note that this definition
specifies at the same time the nature of the quantity whose unit is the mole.

7. Candela
 The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that
emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has
a radiant intensity in that direction of ( 1/ 683) watt per steradian.

8. Radian

The radian is the plane angle between two radii of a circle that cut off on
the circumference an arc equal in length to the radius.

9. Steradian

The steradian is the solid angle that, having its vertex in the center of a
sphere, cuts off an area of the surface of the sphere equal to that of a
square with sides of length equal to the radius of the sphere.

Accuracy and precision:

In the fields of science, engineering, industry and statistics, the accuracy[1] of a
measurement system is the degree of closeness of measurements of a quantity to
its actual (true) value. The precision[1] of a measurement system, also called
reproducibility or repeatability, is the degree to which repeated measurements
under unchanged conditions show the same results.[2] Although the two words
can be synonymous in colloquial use, they are deliberately contrasted in the
context of the scientific method.
Accuracy indicates proximity of measurement results to the true value, precision
to the repeatability or reproducibility of the measurement

A measurement system can be accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate,
neither, or both. For example, if an experiment contains a systematic error, then
increasing the sample size generally increases precision but does not improve
accuracy. Eliminating the systematic error improves accuracy but does not
change precision.

A measurement system is called valid if it is both accurate and precise. Related

terms are bias (non-random or directed effects caused by a factor or factors
unrelated by the independent variable) and error (random variability),
respectively.

The terminology is also applied to indirect measurements, that is, values

obtained by a computational procedure from observed data.

In addition to accuracy and precision, measurements may have also a

measurement resolution, which is the smallest change in the underlying physical
quantity that produces a response in the measurement.

In the case of full reproducibility, such as in the case of rounding a number to a

representable floating point number, the word precision has a meaning not
related to reproducibility.
Accuracy versus precision:

High accuracy, but low precision High precision, but low accuracy

Accuracy is the degree of veracity while in some contexts precision may mean
the degree of reproducibility.

The analogy used here to explain the difference between accuracy and precision
is the target comparison. In this analogy, repeated measurements are compared
to arrows that are shot at a target. Accuracy describes the closeness of arrows
to the bullseye at the target center. Arrows that strike closer to the bullseye are
considered more accurate. The closer a system's measurements to the accepted
value, the more accurate the system is considered to be.

To continue the analogy, if a large number of arrows are shot, precision would
be the size of the arrow cluster. (When only one arrow is shot, precision is the
size of the cluster one would expect if this were repeated many times under the
same conditions.) When all arrows are grouped tightly together, the cluster is
considered precise since they all struck close to the same spot, even if not
necessarily near the bullseye. The measurements are precise, though not
necessarily accurate.

However, it is not possible to reliably achieve accuracy in individual

measurements without precision—if the arrows are not grouped close to one
another, they cannot all be close to the bullseye. (Their average position might
be an accurate estimation of the bullseye, but the individual arrows are
inaccurate.) See also circular error probable for application of precision to the
science of ballistics.
Significant figures:
The significant figures (also called significant digits) of a number are those
digits that carry meaning contributing to its precision. This includes all digits
except:

 leading zeros where they serve merely as placeholders to indicate the

scale of the number.
 spurious digits introduced, for example, by calculations carried out to
greater accuracy than that of the original data, or measurements reported
to a greater precision than the equipment supports.

The concept of significant digits is often used in connection with rounding.

Rounding to n significant digits is a more general-purpose technique than
rounding to n decimal places, since it handles numbers of different scales in a
uniform way. For example, the population of a city might only be known to the
nearest thousand and be stated as 52,000, while the population of a country
might only be known to the nearest million and be stated as 52,000,000. The
former might be in error by hundreds, and the latter might be in error by
hundreds of thousands, but both have two significant digits (5 and 2). This
reflects the fact that the significance of the error (its likely size relative to the
size of the quantity being measured) is the same in both cases.

Computer representations of floating point numbers typically use a form of

rounding to significant digits, but with binary numbers.

The term "significant digits" can also refer to a crude form of error
representation based around significant-digit rounding; for this use, see
Significance arithmetic.

Identifying significant digits:

The rules for identifying significant digits when writing or interpreting numbers
are as follows:
 All non-zero digits are considered significant. For example, 91 has two
significant digits (9 and 1), while 123.45 has five significant digits (1, 2, 3,
4 and 5).
 Zeros appearing anywhere between two non-zero digits are significant.
Example: 101.12 has five significant digits: 1, 0, 1, 1 and 2.
 Leading zeros are not significant. For example, 0.00052 has two
significant digits: 5 and 2.
 Trailing zeros in a number containing a decimal point are significant. For
example, 12.2300 has six significant digits: 1, 2, 2, 3, 0 and 0. The number
0.000122300 still has only six significant digits (the zeros before the 1 are
not significant). In addition, 120.00 has five significant digits. This
convention clarifies the precision of such numbers; for example, if a result
accurate to four decimal places is given as 12.23 then it might be
understood that only two decimal places of accuracy are available.
Stating the result as 12.2300 makes clear that it is accurate to four
decimal places.
 The significance of trailing zeros in a number not containing a decimal
point can be ambiguous. For example, it may not always be clear if a
number like 1300 is accurate to the nearest unit (and just happens
coincidentally to be an exact multiple of a hundred) or if it is only shown
to the nearest hundred due to rounding or uncertainty. Various
conventions exist to address this issue:

 A bar may be placed over the last significant digit; any trailing
zeros following this are insignificant. For example, has three
significant digits (and hence indicates that the number is accurate to
the nearest ten).

 The last significant digit of a number may be underlined; for

example, "20000" has two significant digits.

 A decimal point may be placed after the number; for example "100."
indicates specifically that three significant digits are meant.
However, these conventions are not universally used, and it is often necessary to
determine from context whether such trailing zeros are intended to be
significant. If all else fails, the level of rounding can be specified explicitly. The
abbreviation s.f. is sometimes used, for example "20 000 to 2 s.f." or "20 000 (2
sf)". Alternatively, the uncertainty can be stated separately and explicitly, as in
20 000 ± 1%, so that significant-figures rules do not apply.

Scientific notation:
Generally, the same rules apply to numbers expressed in scientific notation.
However, in the normalized form of that notation, placeholder leading and
trailing digits do not occur, so all digits are significant. For example, 0.00012
(two significant digits) becomes 1.2×10−4, and 0.000122300 (six significant
digits) becomes 1.22300×10−4. In particular, the potential ambiguity about the
significance of trailing zeros is eliminated. For example, 1300 to four significant
digits is written as 1.300×103, while 1300 to two significant digits is written as
1.3×103.

Rounding:
To round to n significant digits:

 Start with the leftmost non-zero digit (e.g. the "1" in 1200, or the "2" in
0.0256).
 Keep n digits. Replace the rest with zeros.
 Round up by one if appropriate. For example, if rounding 0.039 to 1
significant digit, the result would be 0.04.
 There are several different rules for handling borderline cases — see
Rounding for more details.
o If the first non-significant digit is a 5 followed by other non-zero
digits, round up the last significant digit (away from zero). For
example, 1.2459 as the result of a calculation or measurement that
only allows for 3 significant digits should be written 1.25.
o If the first non-significant digit is a 5 not followed by any other
digits or followed only by zeros, rounding requires a tie-breaking
rule. For example, to round 1.25 to 2 significant digits, Round half
up rounds up to 1.3, while Round half to even rounds to the nearest
even number 1.2.

Motion In A Straight Line

Definitions:
Two branches in physics examine the motion of objects:

1. Kinematics: describes the motion of objects, without looking at the cause

of the motion (this is what we will be focusing on now)
2. Dynamics: relates the motion of objects to the forces which cause them
(dynamics pops up later on in Physics 20).

"Quantity" is the root word for "quantitative" measurements. This means you're
supposed to get a number answer. A qualitative measurement describes
qualities of the data.

In kinematics and dynamics we will discuss two kinds of measurements

(quantities):

1. scalar: scalars have magnitude (a number value), but no direction

e.g. time, mass, distance. Mass is a great example, since it has a number
value (like 58 kg), but we don't give it a direction (like "down").
2. vector: have magnitude and direction
e.g. velocity, force, displacement. Force has a number value (like 37 N)
and a direction (like "pushed to the left").

Position & Time:

In kinematics we need to be able to have a way to describe the motion of the
objects we will be studying, whether it's a car or an atom.

The most basic information you must have to describe the motion of an object is
its position and the time it was at that position.

 The position of an object is always taken from some reference point

(which is usually "zero" on the scale).
o Although we use the words "distance" and "displacement"
interchangeably in everyday language, they mean very different
things in physics.
 o The distance between two objects is scalar, since it doesn't matter
which direction you measure it from. e.g. "We are standing 2.3m
apart."
o The displacement of an object is a vector, since you have to state the
direction the object has traveled. e.g. "The car moved 2.56km east."

The most simple formula for calculating the change in an object's position is…

Δd = df - di

 The Δ symbol is the greek letter "delta" and means "a change in…"
 The subscript "f" and "i" stand for final and initial.
 So, in this formula, we calculate the change in position of an object by
taking the final position minus the initial position.

Notice that the word "determine" has been bolded in the question. This is a
"directing word" telling you what to do in the question. Get used to seeing these,
since they are used on the Physics 30 diploma.

Average Velocity:
This leads to the first major formula for the calculation of "average velocity".

v = velocity (m/s)
Δd = displacement (m)
Δt = time (s)

 It is called "average velocity" because it does not take into consideration

all the slowing down or speeding up during the object's movement.
 Instead, all you consider is the total displacement divided by the total
time.
 When you write the formula, you can skip putting in the delta symbols, and
the arrows (they're just there to remind you that those are vectors).

 Positive and negative tell you which direction you are going with respect
to the reference point. (Remember, these are vectors.)
  A positive velocity means you are moving forward , to the right, or up,
while negative means you are going backwards, to the left, or down.
 This is why it is so important not to confuse df and di

Uniform Motion:
If the velocity of an object is the same throughout the entire time, it has a
constant (AKA uniform) velocity.

 You still use the same formula as for average velocity.

 Uniform motion is the easiest kind of motion to describe and measure,
since it is always the same.
 In the examples you've done so far, and in most questions you'll do for
now, you assume that it is uniform motion.

Instantaneous Velocity
Average velocity cannot tell you what the changes in velocity of an object were
at particular instants of time. For that, you need instantaneous velocity.
Instantaneous velocity, as the name itself suggests, is the velocity of a moving
object at a particular instant of time. It is the velocity attained by the object in a
very short period of time, compared to the time interval for calculation of
average velocity. To put it mathematically,

Instantaneous Velocity = LimΔT → 0 ΔS / ΔT = dS / dT

This is the instantaneous velocity formula. I assume that you have elementary
knowledge of calculus and are familiar with math terms like limit and
derivatives. Instantaneous velocity is the velocity of the object calculated in the
limit that the time interval ΔT tends to zero. dS / dT is the derivative of
displacement vector S with respect to 'T'. The instantaneous velocity at a
particular moment of motion is calculated by substituting for the time variable
in the derivative of displacement.

Our elementary mathematics cannot give us instantaneous velocity as it does not

have the machinery to calculate small changes that happen over time. Calculus,
developed by Sir Isaac Newton and Leibniz, can calculate small changes over
time by incorporating the concept of limit and derivatives. The instantaneous
velocity equation above requires you to know how to calculate a derivative.

 This is what would be the situation if you ask your friend how fast she is
driving when you're in a car.
 She'll glance down at the speedometer and tell you how fast she is going,
but that is only how fast she was going at that instant of time!
 A split second later, she might be going a bit faster or a bit slower. Most
people don't drive their cars at a totally constant velocity.
 That's why we call the measurement she gave you an instantaneous
velocity.

Velocity vs Speed:
.Avoid using the word "speed" when describing any velocity.

 Speed is a scalar quantity (it doesn't have direction).

 We usually want the velocity of an object.
Acceleration:
When an object's velocity changes, it accelerates. Acceleration shows the
change in velocity in a unit time. Velocity is measured in meters per second, m/s,
so acceleration is measured in (m/s)/s, or m/s2, which can be both positive and
negative.
Average Acceleration and Instantaneous
Acceleration :
The average acceleration is the ratio between the change in
velocity and the time interval.

For example, if a car moves from the rest to 5 m/s in 5 seconds, its
average acceleration is

An instantaneous acceleration is the change in velocity at one

moment.

 
Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated
motion:
For objects in uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion, the five quantities,
displacement
x, time taken t, initial velocity v0, final velocity v and acceleration a are related
by a set
of simple equations called kinematic equations of motion :

v = v 0 + at
x = v0t + 1/2at 2
v2 = v02 + 2ax

if the position of the object at time t = 0 is 0. If the particle starts at x = x0 , x in

above

equations is replaced by (x . x 0).

Motion in a Plane
Introduction:
Two dimensional motions is example for motion in a plane. The vectors
      
provide a powerful method to describe motion of objects in two dimensions.
Displacement, velocity, equation path and acceleration is used in motion in
plane. The velocity and acceleration is in uniform. Uniform circular motion is
based on plane.

Motion in a plane:
We use vectors to generalize our description of motion to more than one spatial
dimension. It is very straight forward to do this. The position vector, , of the
particle in conjunction with a chosen origin determines its time dependent
position. As for the one dimensional case knowing you have in hand the full
information there is to be had about the motion of the particle.

We often resolve into its time dependent components along N mutually

orthogonal directions. N is the number of dimensions we are trying to keep track
of. For motion in a plane we need just keep track of N=2 dimensions.

That is our equation for really contain two functions specifying position
versus time along two orthogonal directions.

Trajectory:
The trajectory of a particle is something we did not discuss for one-dimensional
motion. The trajectory is the line in space along which the particle moves. You
can imagine measuring this using a camera with very long exposure time. The
picture taken shows the positions in space visited by the particle as it moved.
What does the trajectory look like for motion in one dimensions? Just a line
segment, and that is why we did not cover it for one dimensional motion.

In two dimensions the trajectory can be more interesting than that. For example
if I throw this ball It follows a curved trajectory that looks something like this.
(draw parabola on board). The trajectory is a diagnostic of motion which can be
very important and useful but nonetheless does not contain the full information
about the motion. This is because I have lost the information about when the
particle was where along the trajectory.

Knowing mathematical expressions for x(t) and y(t) we can derive the trajectory.
I will illustrate that with an example.

Problem 3 The position versus time for a tennis ball is given by

 
where

Will the ball get over the net which stands 1.1 m tall at m?
One way to go about this problem is graphically. I simply put in a range of
values for t and calculate the corresponding values for x(t) and y(t). I get the
following table

Now I can proceed to plot the data to the trajectory followed by the ball to
ascertain that the ball does clear the net. Note that information about when the
ball passes the net is not available in the trajectory.

A more elegant way to proceed is to derive a mathematical expression for the

trajectory by eliminating t from the expressions and deriving how y depends on
x.

For our example we get from the x-component of Eq. 13

We insert this expression for t in the y-component of Eq. 13 to get

This is the expression for the trajectory followed by the particle. Inserting the
position of the net

m I can calculate the height of the ball above ground to be

The conclusion again is that the ball does clear the net.

Velocities in a plane:
As in the one-dimensional case we derive various diagnostics about motion in a
plane. The average velocity is

points in the direction of the displacement vector from the location of the
particle at the beginning of the time interval to the location of the particle at the
end of the time interval. Its magnitude however has dimensions of a velocity so
in some sense velocity vectors do not belong on a plot of the trajectory. It is ok
to put it there if we remember that strictly only the direction of the velocity
vector has meaning in such a representation.

We also define the instantaneous velocity much as in one dimension:

Because we can think of as the average velocity in a very small time interval
close to time t it follows from the previous discussion that is parallel to the
tangent of the trajectory at time t. Here it is very easy to get mixed up with a
graphical construction we used when discussing velocity in one dimension.
There we said that the velocity equaled the slope of the tangent to the x(t) curve
when plotted in the x-t plane. Please be aware that these two constructions are
completely different and must not be confused!

The mathematical expression for the limit of Eq. 22 can be written

Thus the components of velocity along the and directions are related to the
corresponding projections of the position vector, x(t) and y(t), as is velocity to
position in one dimensional motion.

Finally remember that we also can talk about the speed of a particle. That is
simply the magnitude of the velocity. When we ask for the average speed we
mean the average magnitude of the instantaneous velocity. This means that if I
drive to Disney World and back again my average speed might be 55 mph while
my average velocity would in fact be zero because there was no net
displacement over the time interval of the return trip.

Acceleration in a plane:
Most important is the instantaneous acceleration:

The direction of the acceleration is that of the change in velocity over a small
time interval around the time t. There is a completely new type of motion which
can occur in two dimensions but not in one dimension. In one dimension
acceleration is always associated with a changing magnitude of the velocity. In
two dimensions it is possible to change the orientation of the velocity vector
without changing its magnitude. This type of motion is also motion with a finite
acceleration. Uniform circular motion is a particularly simple example of this
which we shall learn more about tomorrow.

Again the limits in Eq. 26 can be written as derivatives:

Projectile Motion:

As an example of motion in a plane we shall consider projectile motion: How

balls, stones, bullets, and the like move after they are fired. Because we have yet
to learn Newtons laws we start off with two assumptions which probably seem
quite obvious and acceptable to you but which also follow naturally from
Newtons laws. For projectile motion we have

1. motion with constant acceleration in the vertical direction:

2. Motion with constant velocity in the horizontal direction:
From these assumptions and what we know about kinematics we can write down
expressions for the position vector in projectile motion:

where

Note that I have chosen the origin of my coordinate system to be at the point
where the particle is at time t=0. This choice makes the formulae as simple as
possible.

Shoot the Monkey:

We use our superior intelligence and specifically our knowledge of kinematics to

shoot this monkey. The setup works as follows. At t=0 we fire a projectile and
the monkey is released from the top of this stick. The question is how should we
aim the air-gun in order for the projectile to hit the monkey?
It is clear that everything goes on in a plane. All we need to figure out is the
angle, , of elevation of the air-gun. We follow the same strategy as in the
previous problem. We write the position vector of the projectile and the
position vector of the monkey, and look for a time where the location of the
poor monkey coincides with that of the projectile. In writing the position vectors
we choose the origin to be the location of the projectile in the air-gun at t=0.

Our coordinate system is naturally that with the axis horizontal and the axis
pointing straight up. We have

For the monkey we have

Here we denote the location of the monkey at time t=0. Impact occurs
when

This vector equation is satisfied when both the corresponding coordinate

equations are simultaneously satisfied ie.

The quadratic term cancels out to leave us with much simpler equations

dividing the second equation with the first we obtain

Notice that this equation relates the launch angle, with the angle, between the
line from gun to monkey at t=0 and the horizontal direction. Specifically

which means that we shall hit the monkey if we point our gun directly at it
before firing. We try it and hopefully we actually do hit the monkey. In words
what happens here is that the vertical free fall of the monkey exactly equals the
free fall of the projectile as it propagates toward the monkey.
Laws of motion

Newton's law in latin

Newton's laws of motion:
Newton's First and Second laws, in Latin, from the original 1687 Principia
Mathematica.

Isaac Newton

Newton's laws of motion consist of three physical laws that form the basis for
classical mechanics. They describe the relationship between the forces acting on
a body and its motion due to those forces. They have been expressed in several
different ways over nearly three centuries, and can be summarized as follows:

1. First law: Every body remains in a state of rest or uniform motion

(constant velocity) unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force.
This means that in the absence of a non-zero net force, the center of mass
of a body either remains at rest, or moves at a constant speed in a straight
line.
2. Second law: A body of mass m subject to a net force F undergoes an
acceleration a that has the same direction as the force and a magnitude
that is directly proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the
mass, i.e., F = ma. Alternatively, the total force applied on a body is
equal to the time derivative of linear momentum of the body.
3. Third law: The mutual forces of action and reaction between two bodies
are equal, opposite and collinear. This means that whenever a first body
exerts a force F on a second body, the second body exerts a force −F on
the first body. F and −F are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
 This law is sometimes referred to as the action-reaction law, with F called
the "action" and −F the "reaction". The action and the reaction are
simultaneous.

The three laws of motion were first compiled by Sir Isaac Newton in his work
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687.
Newton used them to explain and investigate the motion of many physical
objects and systems. For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton
showed that these laws of motion, combined with his law of universal
gravitation, explained Kepler's laws of planetary motion.

Newton's laws are applied to bodies (objects) which are considered or idealized
as a particle, in the sense that the extent of the body is neglected in the
evaluation of its motion, i.e., the object is small compared to the distances
involved in the analysis, or the deformation and rotation of the body is of no
importance in the analysis. Therefore, a planet can be idealized as a particle for
analysis of its orbital motion around a star.

In their original form, Newton's laws of motion are not adequate to characterize
the motion of rigid bodies and deformable bodies. Leonard Euler in 1750
introduced a generalization of Newton's laws of motion for rigid bodies called
the Euler's laws of motion, later applied as well for deformable bodies assumed
as a continuum. If a body is represented as an assemblage of discrete particles,
each governed by Newton’s laws of motion, then Euler’s laws can be derived
from Newton’s laws. Euler’s laws can, however, be taken as axioms describing
the laws of motion for extended bodies, independently of any particle structure.

Newton's Laws hold only with respect to a certain set of frames of reference
called Newtonian or inertial reference frames. Some authors interpret the first
law as defining what an inertial reference frame is; from this point of view, the
second law only holds when the observation is made from an inertial reference
frame, and therefore the first law cannot be proved as a special case of the
second. Other authors do treat the first law as a corollary of the second. The
explicit concept of an inertial frame of reference was not developed until long
after Newton's death.

In the given interpretation mass, acceleration, momentum, and (most

importantly) force are assumed to be externally defined quantities. This is the
most common, but not the only interpretation: one can consider the laws to be a
definition of these quantities.
At speeds approaching the speed of light the effects of special relativity must be
taken into account.

Newton's first law:

Law I: Every body persists in its state of being at rest or of moving
uniformly straight forward, except insofar as it is compelled to change
its state by force impressed.

This law states that if the resultant force (the vector sum of all forces acting on
an object) is zero, then the velocity of the object is constant. Consequently:

 An object that is at rest will stay at rest unless an unbalanced force acts
upon it.
 An object that is in motion will not change its velocity unless an
unbalanced force acts upon it.
Newton placed the first law of motion to establish frames of reference for which
the other laws are applicable. The first law of motion postulates the existence of
at least one frame of reference called a Newtonian or inertial reference frame,
relative to which the motion of a particle not subject to forces is a straight line
at a constant speed. Newton's first law is often referred to as the law of inertia.
Thus, a condition necessary for the uniform motion of a particle relative to an
inertial reference frame is that the total net force acting on it is zero. In this
sense, the first law can be restated as:

Newton's first law is a restatement of the law of inertia which Galileo had
already described and Newton gave credit to Galileo. Aristotle had the view that
all objects have a natural place in the universe: that heavy objects like rocks
wanted to be at rest on the Earth and that light objects like smoke wanted to be
at rest in the sky and the stars wanted to remain in the heavens. He thought that
a body was in its natural state when it was at rest, and for the body to move in a
straight line at a constant speed an external agent was needed to continually
propel it, otherwise it would stop moving. Galileo, however, realized that a force
is necessary to change the velocity of a body, i.e., acceleration, but no force is
needed to maintain its velocity. This insight leads to Newton's First Law —no
force means no acceleration, and hence the body will maintain its velocity.

Which person in this ring will be harder to move? The sumo wrestler or the
little boy?
The law of inertia apparently occurred to several different natural philosophers
and scientists independently. The 17th century philosopher René Descartes also
formulated the law, although he did not perform any experiments to confirm it.

Newton's second law:

The second law states that the net force on a particle is equal to the time rate of
change of its linear momentum p in an inertial reference frame:

where, since the law is valid only for constant-mass systems, the mass can be
taken outside the differentiation operator by the constant factor rule in
differentiation. Thus,

where F is the net force applied, m is the mass of the body, and a is the body's
acceleration. Thus, the net force applied to a body produces a proportional
acceleration.

Any mass that is gained or lost by the system will cause a change in momentum
that is not the result of an external force. A different equation is necessary for
variable-mass systems

Consistent with the first law, the time derivative of the momentum is non-zero
when the momentum changes direction, even if there is no change in its
magnitude; such is the case with uniform circular motion. The relationship also
implies the conservation of momentum: when the net force on the body is zero,
the momentum of the body is constant. Any net force is equal to the rate of
change of the momentum.
 If you want to calculate the acceleration, first you need to modify the force
equation to get a = F/m. When you plug in the numbers for force (100 N) and
mass (50 kg), you find that the acceleration is 2 m/s2

Notice that doubling the force by adding another dog doubles the acceleration.
Oppositely, doubling the mass to 100 kg would halve the acceleration to 2 m/s2
 If two dogs are on each side, then the total force pulling to the left (200 N)
balances the total force pulling to the right (200 N). That means the net force
on the sled is zero, so the sled doesn’t move.

Newton's second law requires modification if the effects of special relativity are
to be taken into account, because at high speeds the approximation that
momentum is the product of rest mass and velocity is not accurate.

Impulse:
An impulse J occurs when a force F acts over an interval of time Δt, and it is
given by

Since force is the time derivative of momentum, it follows that

This relation between impulse and momentum is closer to Newton's wording of

the second law.

Impulse is a concept frequently used in the analysis of collisions and impacts.

Variable-mass systems:
Variable-mass systems, like a rocket burning fuel and ejecting spent gases, are
not closed and cannot be directly treated by making mass a function of time in
the second law. The reasoning, given in An Introduction to Mechanics by
Kleppner and Kolenkow and other modern texts, is that Newton's second law
applies fundamentally to particles. In classical mechanics, particles by
definition have constant mass. In case of a well-defined system of particles,
Newton's law can be extended by summing over all the particles in the system:

where Fnet is the total external force on the system, M is the total mass of the
system, and acm is the acceleration of the center of mass of the system.

Variable-mass systems like a rocket or a leaking bucket cannot usually be

treated as a system of particles, and thus Newton's second law cannot be applied
directly. Instead, the general equation of motion for a body whose mass m varies
with time by either ejecting or accreting mass is obtained by rearranging the
second law and adding a term to account for the momentum carried by mass
entering or leaving the system:[

where u is the relative velocity of the escaping or incoming mass with respect to
the center of mass of the body. Under some conventions, the quantity (u dm/dt)
on the left-hand side, known as the thrust, is defined as a force (the force exerted
on the body by the changing mass, such as rocket exhaust) and is included in the
quantity F. Then, by substituting the definition of acceleration, the equation
becomes

Newton's third law:

 The skaters' forces on each other are
equal in magnitude, but act in opposite directions.

To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction: or the

forces of two bodies on each other are always equal and are directed in
opposite directions.

The Third Law means that all forces are interactions between different bodies
and thus that there is no such thing as a unidirectional force or a force that acts
on only one body. If body A exerts a force on body B, body B simultaneously
exerts a force of the same magnitude on body A— both forces acting along the
same line. As shown in the diagram opposite, the skaters' forces on each other
are equal in magnitude, but act in opposite directions. Although the forces are
equal, the accelerations are not: the less massive skater will have a greater
acceleration due to Newton's second law. The two forces in Newton's third law
are of the same type (e.g., if the road exerts a forward frictional force on an
accelerating car's tires, then it is also a frictional force that Newton's third law
predicts for the tires pushing backward on the road).

Put very simply: a force acts between a pair of objects, and not on a single
object. So each and every force has two ends. Each of the two ends is the same
except for being opposite in direction. The ends of a force are mirror images of
each other, one might say.

Newton used the third law to derive the law of conservation of momentum;
however from a deeper perspective, conservation of momentum is the more
fundamental idea (derived via Noether's theorem from Galilean invariance), and
holds in cases where Newton's third law appears to fail, for instance when force
fields as well as particles carry momentum, and in quantum mechanics.
 Work, Energy and Power

Introduction:
The common meaning of the word work refers to the accomplishment of a task.
When work is done, energy will be expanded. Hence work and energy are very
closely related.

A student performs a certain amount of work during the day, and he or she will
become tired. He or she must obtain rest and food in order to continue to be
able to work. We know that rest along is not sufficient to keep a person going;
thus the food must work as fuel to supply the necessary energy.

The technical meaning of the word work is actually quite different from the
common meaning. A student standing at rest and holding the several book is
doing no work, although he ot she might fell tired after a while. Technically
speaking, work is accomplished only when the force is acting through a
distance.

Energy is sometimes called stored work, and our mastery of energy has
produced today's high tech civilization. From the control of fire to the control of
nuclear energy, we have improved our standard of living through our ability to
use and control the flow of energy. Energy takes many forms, such a
mechanical, heat and many many more. These forms, as we shall learn, are
classified in the more general categories like kinetic and potential energy.

Our main source of energy is the Sun, which radiates into the space each day an
enormous amount of radiant energy, and only a small portion is received by the
Earth. Radiant energy supports kinds of life on our planet and provides us with
the means for making nature work for the Earth's inhabitants.
Work:
A man pushing a car along a level road is said to be doing work. The amount of
work done depends on the force exerted and the distance through which the
force acts.

Unit of wok : Since W = F x s, Unit of work = (unit of F) x (unit of s) =  newton

x metre (N m) = Joule

This unit is called the joule in honour of James Joule (1818—89) who did much
early research in the area of work and the related of energy.

One Joule is the work done when a force of 1 Newton acts over a distance of 1
metre in the direction of the force:  1J = 1Nxm

Work done by a constant force:

When the point at which a force acts moves, the force is said to have done work.

When the force is constant, the work done is defined as the product of the force
and distance moved.

Consider the example in Figure 3.1, a force F acting at the angle  moves a
body from point A to point B.

Figure 3.1: Notation for work done by a force

The distance moved in the direction of the force is given by

So the work done by the force F is

Equation 3.1
If the body moves in the same direction as the force the angle is 0.0 so

Work done = Fs

When the angle is 90 then the work done is zero.

The SI units for work are Joules J (with force, F, in Newton's N and distance, s,
in metres m).

Work done by a variable force:

Forces in practice will often vary. In these cases Equation 3.1 cannot be used.
Consider the case where the force varies as in Figure 3.2

For the thin strip with width ds - shown shaded in Figure 3.2 - the force can be
considered constant at F. The work done over the distance ds is then

This is the area of the shaded strip.

The total work done for distance s is the sum of the areas of all such strips. This
is the same as the area under the Force-distance curve.
 Figure 3.2: Work done by a variable force

So for a variable force

Equation 3.2
Clearly this also works for a constant force - the curve is then a horizontal line.

In general you must uses some special integration technique to obtain the area
under a curve. Three common techniques are the trapezoidal, mid-ordinate and
Simpson's rule. They are not detailed here but may be found in many
mathematical text book.
 
 

Energy:
A body which has the capacity to do work is said to possess energy.

For example , water in a reservoir is said to possesses energy as it could be

used to drive a turbine lower down the valley. There are many forms of energy
e.g. electrical, chemical heat, nuclear, mechanical etc.

The SI units are the same as those for work, Joules J.

In this module only purely mechanical energy will be considered. This may be of
two kinds, potential and kinetic.

Potential Energy:
There are different forms of potential energy two examples are: i) a pile driver
raised ready to fall on to its target possesses gravitational potential energy
while (ii) a coiled spring which is compressed possesses an internal potential
energy.

Only gravitational potential energy will be considered here. It may be described

as energy due to position relative to a standard position (normally chosen to be
he earth's surface.)

The potential energy of a body may be defined as the amount of work it would
do if it were to move from the its current position to the standard position.

Formulae for gravitational potential energy:

A body is at rest on the earth's surface. It is then raised a vertical distance h
above the surface. The work required to do this is the force required times the
distance h.

Since the force required is it's weight, and weight, W = mg, then the work
required is mgh.

The body now possesses this amount of energy - stored as potential energy - it
has the capacity to do this amount of work, and would do so if allowed to fall to
earth.

Potential energy is thus given by:

 Equation 3.3
where h is the height above the earth's surface.

Kinetic energy:
Kinetic energy may be described as energy due to motion.

The kinetic energy of a body may be defined as the amount of work it can do
before being brought to rest.

For example when a hammer is used to knock in a nail, work is done on the nail
by the hammer and hence the hammer must have possessed energy.

Only linear motion will be considered here.

 
 

Formulae for kinetic energy:

Let a body of mass m moving with speed v be brought to rest with uniform
deceleration by a constant force F over a distance s.

Using Equation 1.4

And work done is given by

The force is F = ma so

Thus the kinetic energy is given by

Equation 3.4

Kinetic energy and work done:

When a body with mass m has its speed increased from u to v in a distance s by
a constant force F which produces an acceleration a, then from Equation 1.3 we
know

multiplying this by m give an expression of the increase in kinetic energy (the

difference in kinetic energy at the end and the start)

Thus since F = ma

but also we know

So the relationship between kinetic energy can be summed up as

Work done by forces acting on a body = change of kinetic energy in the body

Equation 3.5
This is sometimes known as the work-energy theorem.
 

Conservation of energy:
The principle of conservation of energy state that the total energy of a system
remains constant. Energy cannot be created or destroyed but may be converted
from one form to another.

Take the case of a crate on a slope. Initially it is at rest, all its energy is
potential energy. As it accelerates, some of it potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy and some used to overcome friction. This energy used to
overcome friction is not lost but converted into heat. At the bottom of the slope
the energy will be purely kinetic (assuming the datum for potential energy is the
bottom of the slope.)

If we consider a body falling freely in air, neglecting air resistance, then

mechanical energy is conserved, as potential energy is lost and equal amount of
kinetic energy is gained as speed increases.

If the motion involves friction or collisions then the principle of conservation of

energy is true, but conservation of mechanical energy is not applicable as some
energy is converted to heat and perhaps sound.

Power:
Power is the rate at which work is done, or the rate at which energy is used
transferred.
 Equation 3.6
The SI unit for power is the watt W.

A power of 1W means that work is being done at the rate of 1J/s.

Larger units for power are the kilowatt kW (1kW = 1000 W = 103 W) and

the megawatt MW (1 MW = 1000000 W = 106 W).

If work is being done by a machine moving at speed v against a constant force,

or resistance, F, then since work doe is force times distance, work done per
second is Fv, which is the same as power.

Equation 3.7

Moment, couple and torque

The moment of a force F about a point is its turning effect about the point.

It is quantified as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from
the point to the line of action of the force.

Figure 3.4: Moment of a force

In Figure 3.5 the moment of F about point O is

 Equation 3.8
A couple is a pair of equal and parallel but opposite forces as shown in Figure
3.6:

Figure 3.6: A couple

The moment of a couple about any point in its plane is the product of one force
and the perpendicular distance between them:

Equation 3.9
Example of a couple include turning on/off a tap, or winding a clock.

The SI units for a moment or a couple are Newton metres, Nm.

In engineering the moment of a force or couple is know as torque. A spanner

tightening a nut is said to exert a torque on the nut, similarly a belt turning a
pulley exerts a torque on the pulley.

Work done by a constant torque:

Let a force F turn a light rod OA with length r through an angle of  to position
OB, as shown in Figure 3.7.
 Figure: Work done by a constant torque

The torque TQ exerted about O is force times perpendicular distance from O.

Equation 3.10

  Now work done by F is

s is the arc of the circle, when is measure in radians

Equation 3.11

The work done by a constant torque TQ is thus the product of the torque and the
angle through which it turns (where the angle is measured in radians.)

As the SI units for work is Joules, TQ must be in Nm

 
 

Power transmitted by a constant torque :

Power is rate of doing work. It the rod in Figure 3.7 rotates at n revolutions per
second, then in one second the angle turned through is

radians, and the work done per second will be, by Equation 3.11

as angular speed is

then

Equation 3.12
The units of power are Watts, W, with n in rev/s,  in rad/s and TQ in Nm.
 
 

Work done by a variable torque:

In practice the torque is often variable. In this case the work done cannot be
calculated by Equation 3.11, but must be found in a similar way to that used for
a variable force (see earlier.)
 Figure 3.8: Work done by a variable torque

The work done when angular displacement is dis TQd. This is the area of the
shaded strip in Figure 3.8. the total work done for the angular displacement 
is thus the area under the torque/displacement graph.

For variable torque

Equation 3.13
As with variable forces, in general you must uses some special integration
technique to obtain the area under a curve. Three common techniques are the
trapezoidal, mid-ordinate and Simpson's rule. They are not detailed here but
may be found in many mathematical text book.
 GRAVITATION

Gravitation keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun.

Gravitation, or gravity, is a natural phenomenon by which physical bodies
attract with a force proportional to their mass. In everyday life, gravitation is
most familiar as the agent that gives weight to objects with mass and causes
them to fall to the ground when dropped. Gravitation causes dispersed matter to
coalesce, and coalesced matter to remain intact, thus accounting for the
existence of the Earth, the Sun, and most of the macroscopic objects in the
universe. Gravitation is responsible for keeping the Earth and the other planets
in their orbits around the Sun; for keeping the Moon in its orbit around the
Earth; for the formation of tides; for natural convection, by which fluid flow
occurs under the influence of a density gradient and gravity; for heating the
interiors of forming stars and planets to very high temperatures; and for various
other phenomena observed on Earth.

Gravitation is one of the four fundamental interactions of nature, along with the
strong force, electromagnetism and the weak force. Modern physics describes
gravitation using the general theory of relativity, in which gravitation is a
consequence of the curvature of spacetime which governs the motion of inertial
objects. The simpler Newton's law of universal gravitation provides an accurate
approximation for most calculations. 

Kepler's Laws:
Johannes Kepler, working with data painstakingly collected by Tycho Brahe
without the aid of a telescope, developed three laws which described the motion
of the planets across the sky.

1. The Law of Orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one
focus.

2. The Law of Areas: A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times.

3. The Law of Periods: The square of the period of any planet is proportional to
the cube of the semimajor axis of its orbit.

Kepler's laws were derived for orbits around the sun, but they apply to satellite
orbits as well.
The Law of Orbits:
All planets move in elliptical orbits, with the sun at one focus.

This is one of Kepler's laws. The elliptical shape of the orbit is a result of the
inverse square force of gravity. The eccentricity of the ellipse is greatly
exaggerated here. The eccentricity of an ellipse can be defined as the ratio of
the distance
between the foci to the major axis of the ellipse. The eccentricity is zero for a
circle. Of the planetary orbits, only Pluto has a large eccentricity.

The Law of Areas:

A line that connects a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal times.

This is one of Kepler's laws.This empirical law discovered by Kepler arises from
conservation of angular momentum. When the planet is closer to the sun, it
moves faster, sweeping through a longer path in a given time.

The Law of Periods:

The square of the period of any planet is proportional to the cube of the
semimajor axis of its orbit.

This is one of Kepler's laws.This law arises from the law of gravitation. Newton
first formulated the law of gravitation from Kepler's 3rd law.
Kepler's Law of Periods in the above form is an approximation that serves well
for the orbits of the planets because the Sun's mass is so dominant. But more
precisely the law should be written

In this more rigorous form it is useful for calculation of the orbital period of
moons or other binary orbits like those of binary stars.

The Universal Law of Gravitation:

Gravity is described from the point of view of a universal law.  This implies that
gravity is a force that should behave in similar ways regardless of where you
are in the universe.

Gravity:
It's a force of attraction that exists between any two objects that have mass.  The
more mass they have, the greater the force of attraction.  The closer they are,
the greater the force of attraction. 
For most objects you get near every day, the force of attraction is so incredibly
small that you would never notice the force.  Gravity is a very weak force, so
between common objects like you and your pencil, the force of attraction is very
small because your mass and the mass of your pencil are small.  We only get
noticeable amounts of gravity when at least one object is very massive... like a
planet.   The force of attraction between you and the planet Earth is a
noticeable force! We call the force of attraction between you and the Earth, your
weight.  Weight is another name for the force of gravity pulling down on you or
anything else.

G is the universal gravitational constant.  It

is basically a conversion factor to adjust the
number and units so they come out to the
correct value.  This is a universal constant
so it is true everywhere.

m1 is the mass of one of the objects.

m2 is the mass of the other object.

r is the radius of separation between the

center of masses of each object.

FG is the force of attraction between the two

 objects.

Gravitational constant:

The gravitational constant G is a key quantity in Newton's law of universal

gravitation.

The gravitational constant, denoted G, is an empirical physical constant

involved in the calculation of the gravitational attraction between objects with
mass. It appears in Newton's law of universal gravitation and in Einstein's
theory of general relativity. It is also known as the universal gravitational
constant, Newton's constant, and colloquially Big G. It should not be confused
with "little g" (g), which is the local gravitational field (equivalent to the free-
fall acceleration), especially that at the Earth's surface; see Earth's gravity and
Standard gravity.

According to the law of universal gravitation, the attractive force (F) between
two bodies is proportional to the product of their masses (m1 and m2), and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between them:

The constant of proportionality, G, is the gravitational constant.

The gravitational constant is perhaps the most difficult physical constant to

measure to high accuracy. In SI units, the 2006 CODATA-recommended value
of the gravitational constant is:
with relative standard uncertainty 1 part in 104.

Gravity of Earth:

The gravity of Earth, denoted g, refers to the acceleration that the Earth
imparts to objects on or near its surface. In SI units this acceleration is
measured in metres per second per second (in symbols, m/s2 or m·s-2) or in
newtons per kilogram (N/kg or N·kg-1). It has an approximate value of 9.81 m/s2,
which means that, ignoring air resistance, the speed of an object falling freely
near the Earth's surface increases by about 9.81 metres per second every
second. This quantity is informally known as little g (contrasted with G, the
gravitational constant, known as big G).
There is a direct relationship between gravitational acceleration and the
downwards weight force experienced by objects on Earth (see Conversion
between weight and mass). However, other factors such as the rotation of the
Earth also contribute to the net acceleration.

The precise strength of the Earth's gravity varies depending on location. The
nominal "average" value at the Earth's surface, known as standard gravity is, by
definition, 9.80665 m/s2 (32.1740 ft/s2). This quantity is denoted variously as gn,
ge (though this sometimes means the normal equatorial value on Earth, 9.78033
m/s2), g0, gee, or simply g (which is also used for the variable local value). The
symbol g should not be confused with g, the abbreviation for gram (which is not
italicized).

Variation in gravity and apparent gravity:

Earth's gravitational force is often modeled as though the Earth were an inert
sphere of uniform density. Such a body would produce a field of uniform
magnitude and direction at all points on its surface. In reality, there are slight
deviations in both the magnitude and direction of gravity across the surface of
the Earth because none of those qualities are exactly true of Earth.

Furthermore, the net force exerted on an object due to the Earth, called
apparent gravity or effective gravity varies due to the presence of other forces. A
scale or plumb bob measures only this effective gravity.

The strength of Earth's apparent gravity varies with latitude, altitude, local
topography and geology.