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Biology Notes 1
Biology Notes 1
Biology Notes 1
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Contents
The Variety of Life
. Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. The Binomial Naming System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Kingdoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Animal Kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protoista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Charaeristics of Lⅳing Things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Branching Keys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Couplets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Enzymes
. Properties of Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. How Enzymes Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Uses for Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Immobilisng Enzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Protein (Biuret test) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nutrition in Plants
. Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. The Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chloroplasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stomata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transport in Animals
. The Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Arteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Veins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Composition of the Blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Blood Cloing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tissue Fluid Formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. The Lymphatic System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Immune System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transplants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Transport in Plants
. Osmosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Faors Affeing Transpiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Xerophytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Movement of Photosynthetic Produs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Systemic Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Respiration & Gaseous Exchange
. Aerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Anaerobic Respiration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yeast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. Calorimeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. The Lungs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Increase in Breathing Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cigaree Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Reproduction
. Asexual Reproduion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Baeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Funghi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
List of Figures
A baerium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A pical plant cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A pical animal cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The process of osmosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A plant cell reaing to different pes of turgor pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The aion of an enzyme. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The alimentary canal (digestⅳe system). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A cross-seion of a human tooth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A single human ⅵllus om the small intestine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A pical leaf. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A chloroplast. On each membrane are many molecules of chlorophyll. . . . . . .
A single stoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diagram of a human heart. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Human blood vessels. The lumen in the artery is much smaller than the lumen in
the vein, as the blood is at a much higher pressure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Red blood cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Antigens on a cell. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A lymphocyte. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A lymphocyte indentiing a baerium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A root hair cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water vapour build-up around a stoma. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A simple calorimeter – used to measure the energy value of a respiratory substrate.
The lungs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Some alveoli. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The aion of breathing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Part of the lining of the respiratory passages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The excretory system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Urea produion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Suure of an amino acid. R can stand for anything. The NH part of
the molecule (ammonia) is toⅺc, and is converted into urea. Deamination is the
removal of the niogen-containing part of the amino acid. . . . . . . . . . . . .
How urine is produced – there are two processes: ula-filation, and seleⅳe
reabsorption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
An indⅳidual glomerulus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kidney failure – if one or both kidneys fail then dialysis is used or a ansplant
performed to keep urea and solute concenation in the blood constant. . . . . . .
Kidney ansplant may be necessary as Rhenal dialysis is inconvenient for the patient
and costly. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A summary of how body and blood temperature are maintained. . . . . . . . . .
The Variety of Life
. Taxonomy
This is the scientific name for puing things into groups – classification and naming.
This largest group is called a ‘kingdom’.
The system was deⅵsed in the th Century by Carl Linnaeus.
— Kingdom
.increa
— Phylum . sing sim
ilari
— Class
— Order
— Family
— Genus
— Species
. Kingdoms
• Animalia
• Plantae
• Fungi
• Protoista
Animal Kingdom
– Fish
– Amphibians
– Reptiles
– Birds
– Mammals
• Arthropods
– Inses
* Grasshoppers, buerflies, beetles, ants etc.
* , described world species
* Three body regions: head, thorax, abdomen
* Sⅸ legs aached to the thorax (which has segments)
* Adults with one or two pairs of wings aached to the thorax (some have none)
* Tow antennae
* Lateral compound eyes
– Arachnids
* Spiders, scorpions, ticks, moites, etc.
* , described world species
* Two body regions: cephalothorax, abdomen
* Eight legs
* No antennae
* Mouth parts are chelicerae (modified appendages) which in spiders are fangs
– Crustaceans
* Technically a subphylum
* Classes include crabs, shrimps, lobsters, barnacles, isopods etc.
* , described world speies
* Two body regions
* Two pairs of antennae
* or more pairs of legs
* Primarily aquatic, few terrestrial
– Myriapods
* Chilopods
· Centipedes
· , described world species
· well-defined head
· first pair of legs modified for envenomation
· flaened top to boom
· one pair of legs persegment
· one pair of antennae
* Diplopods
· Millipedes
· , described world species
· Two pairs of legs per segments, first four segments have pair of legs
· one pair of antennae
· well-defined head
· usually cylindrical
• Nematodes
– Roundworms
– Can be microscopic, or up to m in length
– Can be ee lⅳing or parasitic
– No circulatory or respiratory system
– Suure is a “tube within a tube”
– No chaetae
– Use sexual reporoduion
• Molluscs
– So bodied
– No segmentation
– Single muscular foot
– Hard external shell (calcium carbonate) or internal shell
– Most have rasping tongue (radula)
– Filter feeders – mussels
– Carnⅳorous – oopi
– Marine organisms with shells (except barnacles and crustaceans)
– Terrestrial – snails & slugs
• Annelids
Protoctista
• Multicelled
– Seaweed
* Kelp
* Algae
– Slime molds
– Amoeba
– Ciliates
– Diatoms
– Paramecia
– Forams
– etc.
R espiration
S ensitⅳi
G rowth
R eproduion
E xcretion
N uition
Couplets
Key
. .
. .
. .
Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Plasmid
Pili
Bacterial Flagellum
Nucleoid (circular DNA)
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Average_prokaryote_cell-_en.svg
Figure : A baerium.
Filamentous
Plasmodesmata cytoskeleton
Small membranous
Plasma membrane vesicles
Cell wall
Chloroplast
thylakoid membrane
Starch grain
Smooth
endoplasmic
Vacuole
reticulum
Vacuole
Tonoplast Ribosomes
Mitochondrion
(mitochondria)
Peroxisome
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Nuclear pore
Golgi vesicles Nuclear envelope
Nucleolus
Golgi body Rough
(Golgi apparatus) endoplasmic
reticulum
Organelle Function
Nucleus Conols the cell’s aⅳities, contains DNA
Cytoplasm Where metabolic reaions take place
Cell membrane Partially permeable, conols the eny/eⅺt of substances
Mitochondria Where aerobic respiration takes place
Cell wall (plants only) Fully permeable, prevents cell om bursting
Permanent vacuole Storage area, contains cell sap
Chloroplast (plants only) Where photosynthesis takes place
Figure : A pical plant cell.
Nucleus
Nucleal pore
Nucleal envelope Golgi vesicles
C hromatin (golgi apparatus) Lysosome
Nucleolus
C entrioles
Ribosomes
Secretory vesicle
Organelle Function
Nucleus Conols cell aⅳities, contains DNA
Cytoplasm Where metabolic reaions take place
Cell membrane Partially permeable, conols eny/eⅺt of substances
Mitochondia Site of aerobic respiration
Figure : A pical animal cell.
A palisade cell is tall with a large surface area. It’s found on the top side of a leaf – ideal for good
absorpion of carbon dioⅺde and light – both are needed for photosyntheses.
They’re packed with chloroplasts, which contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is needed
for photosynthesis.
Tissues A tissue is a group of similar cells, working to perform the same funion, e.g. muscle
tissue is made om muscle cells.
Organs Different tissues are arranged to form an organ. They work together to perform a particular
funion, e.g. the heart.
Organ Systems A group of organs working together form an organ system, e.g. the circulatory
system.
Diffusion is the ee movement of particles of a substance (atoms, ions or molecules) om regions
of high concenation to regions of lower concenaion. The process continues until the particles
are evenly distributed. This is movement down a concenation gradient.
Diffusion is the usual way in which molecules move into or out of cells.
Concentration gradient refers to the difference in concenation between one region and another.
The greater the difference in concenaion, the steeper the concenation gradient, and the faster
the rate of diffusion. Surfaces qhere gas exchange occurs oen maintain a steep diffusion gradient
so that idffusion occuras rapidly. For example:
• across the linging of the air sacs (alveoli) in the lungs of humans
• across the surface of cells bordering air spaces in the leaves of plants
Osmosis is a specific pe of diffusion. It is the diffusion of water om a dilute solution to a
more concenated soution throuh a partially permeable membrane. Cell membranes are partially
permeable membranes, and it is by osmosis that water moves into and out of cells.
In osmosis, water diffuses om a high water concenation to a low water concenation (see
Figure ).
• Cells placed in distilled water will gain water by osmosis. This is because there is a lower
concenation of water inside than outside. The cells are said to be turgid.
• Cells placed in a concenated solution will lose water by osmosis. This is because there is
a greater concenation of water inside the cell. The cells are said to be flaccid. In severe
cases the cell membrane is pulled away om the cell wall. The cells are then said to be
plasmolysed. Eventually the process may stop because the concenations on both sides of
the cell membrane have equalised (see Figure ).
Active transport is a chemical process that results in a movement of particles in an opposite dir-
eion to that expeed by diffusion. Substances are taken scross a membrane om a region of
low concenation to a region of higher concenation, i.e. against a concenation gradient. As
its name implies, it is an aⅳe process and requires energy supplied by respiration.
Wat er
S olut e,
e.g. s ugar
Enzymes
Enzymes are biological catalysts. They speed up the chemical reaions which go on inside lⅳing
things, and are exemely efficient.
Va cuole
Enzymes are made inside cells. Once formed, the enzymes may leave the cell and do its job outside.
Such enzymes are called extracellular enzymes. They include the digestⅳe enzymes which break
down food substances in the gut.
Other enzymes work inside the cell. They are called intracellular enzymes. Their job is to speed
up he chemical reaions occurring in cells, and also conol them.
An example of a reaion conolled by an enzyme:
maltase(enzyme)
maltose(substrate) −−−−−−−−−−→ glucose(product)
The substance which the enzyme as on it called the substrate – in this case maltose. The new
substance or substances formed as a result of the reaion are the products. In this case there is just
one produ, glucose. The enzyme catalysing this particular reaion is maltase. This reaion can
go in either direion – it is reversible. If there is a lot of maltose present compared with glucose,
the reaion will go om le to right. If there is a lot of glucose compared to maltose, it will go
om right to le. Most metabolic reaions are reversible.
. They are destroyed by heating
In common with all proteins, they are denatured by proteins. Normally this happens at ◦C.
Figure shows in a simplified way how enzymes are believed to work. When a substrate molecule
happenes to impa on the aⅳe site of an enzyme, the reaion takes place and the produs leave,
eeing up the enzyme for another reaion.
Each enzyme’s aⅳe site has a specific shape, into which only one pe of substrate will fit. This is
why the enzyme is specific in its aion.
When an enzyme is denatured by heat, the shape of its aⅳe site changes, so substrates no longer
fit in it, and it is not effeⅳe.
Anything which helps substrates to come into conta with the enzyme at a faster rate will increase
the rate at which the enzyme can catalyse reaions. Higher temperatures mean that molecules
move around mroe quickly – a rise in temperature of ◦Ccan double the rate of reaion.
Some minerals and ⅵtamins also increase the rate of reaion.
Some poisons, such as cyanide and arsenic, inhibit enzymes by blocking the aⅳe site. Some
poisons block aⅳe sites permanently, others temporarily. This is also how some pesticides work.
Biological washing powders are advantageous because they work at relatⅳely low temperatures. This
means they are usefulfor washing delicate fabrics, and can save elerici. However, some people
are allergic to them.
Enzymes are normally exaed om microbes, which are grown on a large scale in fermenters.
Some examples of enzyme use:
Proteases are used for tenderising meat, skinning fish, remoⅵng hair om hides, and breaking
down proteins in baby foods.
Amylases convert starch to sugar in making syrups, uit juices, chocolates and other food produs.
Cellulase breaks down cellulose and is used for soening vegetables, remoⅵng the seed coat om
cereal grain, and exaing agar jelly om seaweed.
Isomerase converts glucose into uose. Fruose is muchsweeter than glucose; this makes it
useful in sweets, syrups and slimming foods, as only small amounts are needed to sweeten the
produ.
Catalase releases oxygen om hydrogen peroⅺde, and is used in making foam rubber om latex.
• Energy for body processes (usually obtained om carbohydrates and fats – sometimes om protein
when in a state of starvation).
• Building materials, to build the cells of the body (proteins, fats, ⅵtamins, minerals).
Sugar Different kinds of food contain different pes of sugar: glucose or uose in uit, laose
in milk, or sucrose in ordinary table sugar. The formula for glucose, the simplest possible
sugar, is C H O . It is a monosaccharide – it is made into chains of polysaccharides. Two
glucose molecules bonded together form one maltose molecule.
Starch is found in bread, potatoes and cereals. Starch is a polysaccharide made of a spiral chain
of glucose molecules, and is used as the food reserves of plants.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide made of a straight chain of glucose molecules, and is used to build
plant cell walls.
Glycogen is a polysaccharide, and is used as the food reserves of animals, stored in the lⅳer and
muscles.
Animal fats are obtained om lⅳestock, such as cale or pigs. They are eaten in the form of
buer, dripping or lard. They contain saturated fatty acids, which are unhealthy in large
amounts. Fat contains twice as much energy per gram as carbohydrates and proteins do,
and they are solid at room temperature.
Plant fats, or oils, for example olⅳe oil or corn oil, are liquid at room temperature. They contain
polyunsaturated fatty acids, which are more healthy than satureated fatty acids.
Proteins To build muscle, make enzymes and hormones, and constru parts of cells. It is nor-
mally obtained om the muscles of animals. The disease caused by protein deficiency is called
kwashiorkor. Some plants, such as soya beans and maize, contain relatⅳely large amounts of
protein compared to other plants, so it is possible to obtain most of the necessary amino acids
om plant-based foods. Proteins are made om amino acids. of which there are different
pes. An organism’s DNA proⅵdes the template for linking amino acids in different orders to
produce proteins (there are a large number of possible combinations). Protein contains Niogen
and Sulphur.
Minerals are ions of certain elements (i.e. inorganic), which are needed for particular purposes
within the body. For example:
Calcium is needed for bone formation. Without calcium, bones are so. Calcium deficiency is
called rickets.
Iron is required for haemoglobin, in blood. Oxygen is ansported around the body by binding
to haemoglobin. Iron is plentiful in lⅳer and kidneys. Iron deficiency results in anaemia.
Vitamin A is neede by the eyes. Vitamin A deficiency is called xerophthalmia and leads to
blindness.
Vitamin C keeps the lining of the mouth and gums healthy. It is found in green vegetables, but
is destroyed by heating. Lack of it causes scurvy.
Vitamin D is needed to enable calcium to harden bones. Lack of it causes rickets.
Water Makes of -% of the body. The body’s chemical reaions take place in it. Humans
need about lie of water every day.
Fibre Stimulates the smooth passage of food through the gut. Mainly made of cellulose, it aids
faeces formation.
Too much energy-rich food will cause the indⅳidual to become overweight, while too lile will
cause them to become underweight.
Malnuition is the result of not haⅵng a properly balanced diet. If the body does not receⅳe the
corre chemical components in the right proportions, it cannot funion efficiently.
In humans, as in other animals, complex organic food can enter body cells only if it is first broken
down into smalll soluble molecules. In humans, the stages int his process are:
Digestion The breakdown of complex organic foods into small, soluble molecules.
Absorption The uptake of soluble food substances into the body across cell membranes.
Egestion The removal of undigested food om the body (not to be confused with excretion or
secretion).
In humans, the alimentary canal (gut) is responsible for the ingestion, digestion, absorption and
egestion of food.
. Add cm3 of Benedi’s solution to the test tube.
. Place the test tube in a waterbath for approⅺmately minutes. If a precipitate develops, sugar is
present. The colour of the mⅸture gⅳes a rough indication of how much sugar is present: green
is the lowest concenation, yellow higher, brown still higher, and red the highest concenation.
Starch
Fat
. Add a small amount of dilute sodium hydroⅺde solution until the mⅸure clears.
. Drugs
A drug is something which changes the way the body works. Useful drugs include painkillers and
antibiotics. Harmful drugs can be addiⅳe, and harm the body in some way.
Addiion can be chemical – when the body becomes adjusted in such a way that it needs the drug,
or psychological – when the addied person feels a constant need for the drug.
Withdrawal symptoms om a drug include fever, and nausea.
Alcohol
. The carries the chewed-up food to the stomach, using muscular walls which push
food with a wave of conaion (peristalsis). (– seconds)
. Acid digestⅳe juices, ideal for pepsin (an enzyme that breaks down proteins), are added in the
. The food and the digestⅳe juices are mⅸed. (– hours)
pepsin
Proteins −−−−→ Amino acids
. More alkaline juices om the pancreas (to neualise the stomach acid) are added in the
. There is more mⅸing, then the fully digested food is absorbed into the blood. (–
hours)
pancreatic
Starch −−−−−−→ Sugars
amylase
bile
Fats −−→ Fat droplets
lipase
Fat droplets −−−→ Fatty acids and Glycerol
Salivary Glands
Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
Pharynx
Tongue
Oral cavity R sophagus
Liver Pancreas
Stomach
Gallbladder
Pancreatic duct
Duodenum
Common
bile duct
Colon
Transverse colon
Ascending colon
Descending colon
Ileum
(small intestine)
Cecum
Appendix
Rectum
Anus
. Only undigested waste material reaches the . The water is taken back into the
body, leaⅵng solid waste. (– hours)
. Undigested food is stored in the reum, and then the solid waste is egested through the anus as
faeces.
. Teeth
C
Enamel
r
o Dentine
w
n Pulp
Gum
Cementum
R
o
o Bone
t
Blood vessel
Nerve
An adult teeth has, at most, teeth. Thre are four main pes: , , -
and . Incisors are for cuing pieces off food, while canines are for griping it. Pre-molars and
molars are for grinding the food down until it can be swallowed easily.
The outside of a tooth is formed by hard enamel. Beneath this is a layer of hard dentine. In the
cene is a so area called the pulp caⅵ, which contains small blood vessels and a nerve (see Figure
). Tiny channels containing extensions of lⅳing cells tun outom the pulp caⅵ into the dentine.
These make the dentine sensitⅳe. The enamel and dentine are made hard by the presence of calcium
phosphate, the same substance that makes bones hard.
The outside of the root is covered by a material called cement. Aached to the cement are tough
fibres which run into the jaw bone. These fibres hold the tooth in its socket; they allow the tooth
to move slightly, and cushion it om being jarred when it hits something hard.
Tooth Decay
Tooth decay is caused by baeria in the mouth. These baeria form an inⅵsible layer called plaque
on the surface of the teeth.
Aer a meal, the baeria feed on any sugar present and turn it into acid. The acid eats into the
teeth. Within approⅺmately one hour the acid is neualised by the salⅳa. However, the decay has
oen already started by this time.
Decay usually starts between the teeth and in the creⅵces on the crowns. The acid eats through the
enamel into the dentine, allowing baeria to get into the pulp caⅵ. In severe cases the baeria
may spread to the base of the tooth, causing an abscess.
Baeria may also get between the tooth and the gum, causing the gum to bleed. Sometimes the
fibres aaching the tooth to the jaw are aacked, in which case the tooth gets loose and eventually
falls out.
There is strong eⅵdence that fluoride helps to prevent tooth decay. It strengthens teeth when they
are forming, and makes the enamel more resistant to acid.
Where there is not enough fluoride naturally occuring in public drinking water supplies, it is added
artificially. This has led to a large improvement in the general dental health of the population.
. Duodenum
Food leaⅵng the stomach enters the . Secretions om the lⅳer and pancreas are added
(pancreatic juice contains all three pes of digestⅳe enzymes). Bile is stored in the gall bladder,
and emulsifies fats. Sodium hydrogen carbonate neualises the stomach acid.
. Liver
Many cells perform a wide range of funions in the lⅳer, in processing the absorbed foods.
on
g
=. =n⇒
gluca= Glycogen stores
.⇐=insuli
Thin surface layer
C apillaries
Lacteal
Blood vessel
Fat stores
.→
− .
Fatty acids −→ Fats for cell membranes
.−→.
Energy ⅵa respiration
Nutrition in Plants
. Photosynthesis
P is the process by which green plants make glucose and other organic molecles om
inorganice molecules, using light energy. The light energy is apped by chlorophyll. The overall
process for photosynthesis can be summarised as:
chlorophyll
Carbon Dioxode + Water −−−−−−−→ Glucose + Oxygen
light energy
Glucose is not the only organic substance made by photosynthesis. Other carbohydrates are also
formed, which can then be converted to fats, or, by combining with minerals, form amino acids and
ⅵtamins. Photosynthesis is the source of all organic substances in the plant.
chlorophyll
.Carbon dioxide + Water −−−−−−−→. Glucose and other sugars + Oxygen
light energy
respired or used to
make:
• starch
• sucrose excreted
or
.
• cellulose respired
.
• proteins
• fats
• ⅵtamins
• chlorophyll
• Much of the glucose is converted to for temporary storage in the leaf. At night, the starch
may be broken down to the sugar and ansported through th phloem to other parts of
the plant.
• In the leaf, and throughout the plant, glucose is broken down in to release energy.
• In the leaf, some glucose is combined with niate to form . These are later incorpor-
ated in to to make enzymes and to make struural parts of cells, such as membranes.
If there is a shortage of niate, the plant is unable to grown properly, and is weak and unhealthy.
• In the leaf and elsewhere, glucose and other sugars are used to make for struures such as
cell membranes and to make which have essential uses for the plant.
• Some glucose is combined with minerals, especially magnesium, to form , the green
pigment used to ap light in photosynthesis.
Oxygen:
Cuticle
Upper
epidermis
Palisade
mesophyll Xylem Vascular
bundle
Phloem
Spongy
mesophyll
Lower
epidermis
Each leaf is aached to the stem or branch by a , This leads to the in the leaf. Leaves
are covered by a layer of waxy meial called the , which is normally thick and waterproof.
It prevents the leaf om losing too much water in hot weather.
Immediately under the cuticle is a layer of cells called the . which forms the ‘skin’ of
the leaf. The epidermis may be pierced by lots of tiny holes called (singular ). The
stomata are mainly on the lower side of the leaf. They allow gases to diffuse in and out of the leaf,
and water vapour to escape. Each stoma is flanekd bvy a pair of which can open and
close. They close in hot, dry weather to prevent too much water evaporating om the leaves.
Leaves are generally flat, sometimes large, and oen numerous. The result is that they have a large
surface area for aborbing Carbon dioⅺde and ligt. The veins help to support the leaf, and hold it
out flat, so that it can catch the maⅺmum amount of light. In many plants the leaves are positioned
in such a way that they don’t shade each other.
Between the upper and lower epidermis are ltos of cells which together makes up the .
These cells contain , and this is where photosynthesis takes place. The mesophyll
towads the upper side of the leaf consists of cells shaped like bricks, and arranged neatly side by
side. They are called . The other mesophyll cells are rounded and more irregular in
their arrangement. They are called .
Between the mesophyll cells are into which he stomata open. When photosynthesis is
taking place, carbon dioⅺde diffuses through the open stomata into the air spaces. It then diffuses
into the cells.
Phototsynthessis takes place mainly in the palisade cells. They contain most of the chloroplasts,
and they are near the surface of he leaf that gets most light. the chloroplasts are oen clustered
towards the tops of the cells, in the best position for catching light.
The vein is made up of two parts: the towards the top, and the below. The xylem
brings water and mineral salts to the elaf. The phloem takes soluble sugar and other produs of
photosynthesis away om the leaf. Together thexylem and phloem are calld .
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts are filled with rows of thin interconneed . Millions of
molecules are laid out on these membranes.
Chlorophyll is a complex organic green which contains , and it plays a ⅵtal role
in photosynthesis, by absorbing blue and red light, but refleing green light.
Stomata
Stomata allow carbon dioⅺde and oxygen to diffuse in and out of leaves. They are also the main
route by which water vapour excapes om the plant. In hot, dry weather there is a risk that the
plant may run short of water. For this reason it is important that the stomata should be able to
open or close according to the weather conditions.
When th estoma opens, the guard cells take up water om the neighbouring epidermal cells; as a
result the guard cells swell up and become more turgid. As they swell up they bend, so the gap
between them widens (see Figure ). They swell up because the inner wall of the guard cells is
thicker, and less elastic, than the outer wall.
The stoma closes by the reverse rocess. Water passes out of the guard cells, so they become less
turgid. As a result the guard cells straighten, and the gap between them narrows.
Around the stoma are sausage-shaped .
granum
outer membrane (stack of thylakoids)
intermembrane space
thylakoid
(lamella)
inner membrane
starch
stroma ribosome
(aqueous fluid)
plastidial DNA
thylakoid lumen
(inside of thylakoid)
plastoglobule
thylakoid membrane (drop of lipids)
Transport in Animals
All organisms which are large require a ansport system, to move substances around the body.
Single-celled organisms with low levels of aⅳi do not require ansport systems.
Humans have two main ansport systems:
• Circulatory system
• Lymphatic system
.Tissues .Gills
Blood passes once through the heart on its way around the body.
s t oma almos t clos ed
guar d cell
vacuole
chlor oplas t
Arteries
Pulmonary artery takes deoxygenated blood om the heart to the lungs. The only artery which
carries deoxygenated blood.
Veins
Superior Vena Cava brings deoxygenated blood om the head and arms back to the heart
Inferior Vena Cava brings deoxygenated blood om the body back to the heart
Pulmonary Vein brings oxygenated blood om the lungs back to the heart. The only vein which
carries oxygenated blood.
Aorta
Semilunar
valve Pulmonary artery
Anterior
vena cava
Right and left
Atrium
Pulmonary veins
Antrioventricular
valve
Posterior
vena cava
• When the heart is relaxed (), both sides fill up with blood om the veins.
• The aia then cona ( ). So blood is forced into the venicles through the
valves.
• A aion of a second later, the venicles cona ( ). The valves between
the aia and venicles close, so blood is squeezed in to the arteries.
• The heart relaxes again and fills up with blood.
Artery Vein
Lumen
Collagen ¯br es
Capillary
Nucleus of
endot helial cell
S ingle layer of
endot helial cells
Figure : Human blood vessels. The lumen in the artery is much smaller than the lumen in the
vein, as the blood is at a much higher pressure.
Plasma is % water. Plasma ansports carbon dioⅺde om the organs to the lungs, soluble
produs om the small intestine to the organs, and urea om the lⅳer to the kidneys. The
following cells are suspended in it:
Red Blood Cells – Erythrocytes Red blood celsl are disc-shaped and biconcave. These cells have
no nucleus, so they can carry more oxygen. Red blood cells contain a chemical called .
This combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin.
A red blood cell’s lifespan is about four months. Aer this time it goes to the spleen, which removes
worn out red blood cells om circulation.
White Blood Cells – Phagocytes & Lymphocytes There are several different pes of white blood
cells. They are all larger than red blood cells, and have a nucleus. Lymphocytes have a nucleus which
occupies most of the cell.
White blood cells prote the body om baeria.
Phagocytes can squeeze through capillary walls, move towards baeria, and ingest them.
Lymphocytes produce chemicals which destroy baeria, by makign them stick together.
Platelets These are agments of blood cells budded off in the red blood marrow. These cells have
a sticky surface, and help to clot the blood at wounds, to stop bleeding.
Blood Clotting
. The protein within the blood vessel wall is exposed. This causes platelets to release an enzyme
(thrombin).
. Enzymes secreted by platelets cause soluble fibrinogen to turn into insoluble .
. Fibrin forms long threads which precipitate out of the blood.
. The fibrin threads tangle together and ap red and white blood vessels in the clot.
. Fluid leaks out of the capillaries, especially at the beginning of the capillary bed, and bathes the
body cells.
. The fluid is called . It carries glucose and oxygen om the blood to the cells.
. Tissue fluid containing CO and urea leaks back into the cappillaries at the venous end of the
capillary bed.
All cells have protein molecules on their surface membranes called (See Figure ).
Lymphocytes (see Figure ) produce . These
are chemicals which rea to foreign antigens and destroy
the foreign cells. Lymphocytes ‘recognise’ antigens on the
surface of body cells and do not produce antibodies against
them. Figure : Antigens on a cell.
If foreign cells, e.g. baeria, enter the body, lymphocytes recog-
nise these as foreign due to their different antigens. The lymph-
ocytes will then release antibodies to destroy the baeria.
There are thousands of lymphocytes which each produce a dif-
ferent antibody. Thus, thousands of different pathogens can be Figure : A lymphocyte.
destroyed. Lymphocytes also produce ‘memory cells’, which re-
main in the lymph nodes. These memory cells can produce antobodie very quickly if the same
foreign antigen enters the body again. These antibodies destroy the baeria before they cause a
large infeion – the body is immune to that species of baerium.
Transplants
If a patient needs to have an organ ansplanted into their body, dors must ensure that the antigens
on the donor organ are very similar to the patient’s antigens. Otherwise, there is a chance that the
patients lymph nodes will produce antibodies against the organ, rejeing it.
Brothers and sisters have similar DNA and are oen used as donors. Patients are kept in sterile
conditions aer the operation, and are on drugs to suppress their immune system for the rest of
their life immunosuppressⅳe drugs).
Transport in Plants
Plants need ansport systems to:
• Move water om the soil to the leaves for use in photosynthesis.
• Move photosynthetic produs om the leaves to other parts of the plant e.g. uit amd growing
parts of the plant.
Xylem vessels ansport water om the roots to the leaves. Xylem vessels are long, continuous tubes
– it is dead tissue containing . Lignin makes the xylem vessels strong, and is deposited
unevenly, which leads to pits in the walls through which water can enter and leave the tubes.
Phloem tubes (sieve tubes) are lⅳing tissue. At the end of each cell making up the tube, the cell
wall is perforated to allow easy movement of sucrose. The movement of sucrose om the leaves
to where it is needed is called anslocation. Phloem cells contain few organelles. The majori
of aⅳities are performed by a companion cell which proⅵdes energy to the phloem cell.
Root hair cells are found on young roots. They increase the surface area of the root for absorption
of water an mineral ions. They last for approⅺmately one day.
. Osmosis
Water moves by osmosis across the root.
Osmosis is the net diffusion of water molecules om a region of high water potential to a region of
low water potential through a partially permeable membrane (down a water potential gradient).
Water potential of a substance is a measure of how much water there is int it, and how easily the water
molecules can move around. Substances with a lot of water have a high water potential. Substances
with a lile water have a low water potential. Water moves om areas of high water potential to
areas of low water potential.
. Transpiration
Water does not move by osmosis in the xylem. The xylem is dead tissue, and there are no cell
membranes. Water moves up the xylem because of anspiration.
Transpiration is the loss of water vapour om a leaf through the stomata.
As water leaves the xylem vessels it reduces the water pressure at the top of the xylemm, so water
moves upwards towards a lower pressure. Transpiration produces a tension (pull).
Water molecules are sticky; they stick to each other (), and this helps water to be pulled
up the xylem. Transpiration is aided by this cohesion.
Wind speed Wind removes water vapour om around the stoma, so it increases the water potential
gradient (the water potential of the atmosphere around the toma becomes more negatⅳe) (see
Figure ).
higher wind speed, higher transpiration
Humidity The higher the humidi, the lower the water potential gradient, so less water evaporates
om the leaves.
higher humidity, lower transpiration
Light intensity During sunlight, stomata open to allow CO in for use in photosynthesis.
higher light intensity, higher transpiration
Temperature One a hot day, water evaporates more quickly om the leaf
higher temperature, higher transpiration
If the plant loses too much water, it loses turgor pressure in the cells and may wilt – the stomata
will close at this point.
Water supply If there is not enough water, the plant will clsoe its stomata to conserve water.
lower water supply, lower transiration
Leaf surface area A greater leaf surface area means more stomata for water to siffuse out of.
higher surface area, higher transpiration
Stomata Water is mainly lost through stomata – the more stomata there are, the more anspiration
there is. Most stomata are located on the underside of the leaf.
more stomata, higher transpiration
Air spaces More air spaces in the spongy mesophyll of a leaf mean there is mroe space for water to
colle.
mroe air spaces, higher transpiration
. Xerophytes
Xerophytes are plants taht are specially adapted to lⅳe in exeme conditions. Some examples of
adaptations:
Small leaf surface area less surface area for evaporation, e.g. conifer needles, caus spines
Sunken stomata maintains humid air around stomata, e.g. marram grass, cai
Stomatal hairs (trichores) maintains humid air around stomata, e.g. marram grass, couch grass
Rolled leaves maintains humid air around stomata, e.g. marram grass
. Aerobic Respiration
The break-down of glucose using oxygen to release energy used by cells ( mol Adenosine Tri-
phosphate (ATP)).
Energy (in the form of ATP) is used in muscle conaion, aⅳe ansport, reaions
(building up substances), reaions (destroying substances). Anabolic and catabolic re-
aions are together known as reaions. Some energy is released as heat.
Yeast
. Calorimeters
Different foods contain different amoutns of energy. Fats contain about twice as much energy as
carbohydrates and proteins. The amount of energy in food can be measured using a calorimeter.
Thin epithelium A Two cell layer separates the air in the alveoli om the blood in the capillaries
– only a short distance forgases to diffuse.
Moist Gases dissolve in solution before diffusion – more efficent effusion. Prevents dehydration of
cells.
Blood supply A good blood supply to and om the lungs by a capillary network keeps concenation
gradients different by remoⅵng oxygenated blood om the lungs and bringing deoxygenated
blood to the lungs.
ncreased respiration causes an increase in the produion of CO . CO dissolves in water to form
carbonic acid.
CO2 + H2 O
H2 CO3
H+ + HCO−
3
H+ ions lower the pH of the blood, and are taken up by oxyhaemoglobin, which then releases
oxygen.
Increased CO is deteed by chemoreceptors located in the carotid arteries, aorta, and medulla in
the brain.
Chemoreceptors send impulses to the medulla. The medulla then sends impulses to the intercostal
muscles and the diaphragm, causing them to cona more equently (increased ventilation).
Cigarette Smoke
Carbon monoxide binds irreversably with haemoglobin, therefore the oxygen carrying capaci of
the blood is greatly reduced. Smokers have ≈ 10% of their haemoglobin bound to CO – this
forms Carbaminohaemoglobin.
Chronic bronchitis Smoke irritates the bronchi and bronchioles, damages the mucus membranes,
and narrows the tubes. It reduces the cilia aion, so mucus cannot be removed, which leads to
baerial infeions. It is more difficult for O to diffuse into the blood.
Excretion & Homeostasis
. Excretion
Excretion is the removal om the body of waste produs of metabolism (which may be toⅺc) and
substances which are in excess of requirements, e.g. CO and urea. CO is removed ⅵa the lungs.
Urea is removed ⅵa the kidneys.
Rhenal vein Takes deoxygenated blood which is ee om urea back towards the heart ⅵa the Vena
Cava.
Kidney Removes unwanted (and excess) substances om the blood, turns them into urine, and
passes the urine on to the bladder. It does this by filtering the blood. cm3 of blood is
filtered by the kidneys every minute.
Bladder A muscular bag which can store urine. Can store up to about cm3 before the need to
urinate (miuration) becomes compelling.
Sphincter Muscle which, when it conas, urine is prevented om leaⅵng the body, and when it
relaxes, urine can leave the body.
. Homeostasis
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal enⅵronment. Examples:
• Body temperature
• Blood pH
• Blood pressure
The mechanism by which homeostasis is maintained is by using negatⅳe feedback systems, which
maintain stabili in the body.
.Rise above Body detes change and a correⅳe .Return to
Norm . Norm
mechanism is put in place.
NORM
.
.
NORM
.
. a change)
. (i.e.
.deteed by a
.co-ordinated by a -
Sweating • water evaporates, takes heat om the surface of the skin
. The Pancreas
The pancreas is both an gland and an gland.
Exocrine gland a gland that secretes externally through a du — the pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice, produced in Acinar cells, into the pancreatic du.
Endocrine gland a gland that secretes hormones direly into the bloodstream — the pancreas
secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon, om the Islets of Langerhans, into the bloodstream.
Reproduction
. Asexual Reproduction
• One parent
• New diploid cells are produced direly by mitosis (by other diploid cells)
Bacteria
Funghi
ant ibodies can
lymphocyt e
bind t o t he
bact er ial DNA ant ibodies do
ant igens , and not bind t o body
des t r oy t he cell ant igens ,
bact er ium and body cell is
ant ibodies nucleus not des t r oyed
body cell
bact er ium
.nucleus
.c ytoplasm
.
.cell membrane .cell wall
Figure : A root hair cell
.stoma
boundary layer
.leaf underside .
(water vapour)
t her momet er
wat er
cr ucible
oxygen
s ubs t r at e
Figure : A simple calorimeter – used to measure the energy value of a respiratory substrate.
Larynx
Trachea
Primary bronchi
Secondary bronchi
Tertiary bronchi
Bronchioles
Cardiac notch
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diagrama_de_los_pulmones.svg (GNU FDL)
Capillary beds
Connective tissue
Alveolar sacs
Alveolar duct
Mucous gland
Mucosal lining
Pulmonary vein Alveoli
Atrium
Pulmonary artery
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alveolus_diagram.svg (Public Domain)
Inhalation Exhalation
cilia beating
mucus r eleased fr om
g oblet cell
g oblet
ciliated cell cell
columnar basement
epithelial membr ane
cells
Figure : Part of the lining of the respiratory passages.
r h en al r h en al
vei n ar ter y
adr enal glands
( s ecr et e adr enalin)
k i d n ey
bl ad d er u r eth r a
1. Pr ot ein is t aken
t o aliment ar y canal.
2. Pr ot ein is diges t ed
t o amino acids .
3. Amino acids ar e
abs or bed int o blood,
and t aken t o liver in
hepat ic por t al vein.
7. Ur ea is car r ied t o
kidney, wher e it is
filt er ed fr om t he blood.
4. Amino acids t hat ar e
needed ar e r eleas ed int o
cir culat ion.
R
H O
N C C
H OH
H
Figure : The Suure of an amino acid. R can stand for anything. The NH part of the
molecule (ammonia) is toⅺc, and is converted into urea. Deamination is the removal of the niogen-
containing part of the amino acid.
. Blood vessel bringing blood to the
glomerulus is wider than the one taking it
.away. This causes a pressure to build up in
the glomerulus. More water can be
absorbed under the influence of ADHa.
. . Urine eⅺts the kidney ⅵa the ureter. tubule
. Loop of
Henle
.
Figure : How urine is produced – there are two processes: ula-filation, and seleⅳe reabsorption.
aADH is a hormone.
Source: Gray’s Anatomy (Public Domain)
.Venous pressure monitor
.Clean blood
.Fresh dialysate
.Dialyser
.Patient
.Used dialysate
. Dialyser inflow
pressure monitor
.Blood pump
.
Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hemodialysis-en.svg (GNU FDL and CC-BY-SA-ALL)
Figure : Kidney failure – if one or both kidneys fail then dialysis is used or a ansplant performed
to keep urea and solute concenation in the blood constant.
Diseased
kidneys
Vein
Artery
Transplanted
kidney
Transplanted
ureter
Bladder
Figure : Kidney ansplant may be necessary as Rhenal dialysis is inconvenient for the patient and
costly.
enⅵronmental
.
.
temperature
. cerebal cortex
.inhibition
anterior hypothalamus posterior hypothalamus
. .
.inhibition
. adrenaline . thyroⅺne
sweating metabolic rate hairs on body lie
. .skin arterioles dilate. .
decreases flat skin arterioles metabolic rate
.| . shⅳering . . hair raised .
{z } constri increases
.| {z }
Figure : A summary of how body and blood temperature are maintained.