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Cap S Trans TomasMiguel
Cap S Trans TomasMiguel
bank with a normal average current of a few hundred amps unchanged during the transient period, justifying our
might develop a transient inrush current of thousands or tens assumption that led to the simplification of the circuit of
of thousands of amps for a brief period. We will analyze the Figure 1. The resulting high inrush currents can produce high
problem of switching one capacitor bank into another using mechanical stresses in the electrical components and induce
simple circuit theory. If we neglect the resistance of the circuit transients in neighboring circuits that may affect connected
between the two capacitor banks we can analyze the problem electronic equipments.
as the LC circuit shown in Fig. 1. When analyzing back-to-back capacitor switching
transients it will be possible to observe that the transient itself
contains more than one frequency component, typically two
noticeable frequencies. This arises from the physical
phenomena present during the energization. As stated above,
during the first moments of the transient, the source voltage
remains practically unchanged while the energized capacitor
discharges into the de-energized bank. Our resulting circuit
(neglecting resistance) would be composed of a series LC
circuit in which the total capacitance would be reduced by
series combination, as in Fig. 1. If we observe the equation for
transient frequency we will see that this circuit produces a
Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit for analyzing the transient generated by a back-to- high frequency of oscillation. It is typical of these transients to
back capacitor switching operation.
be in the kilohertz range. As the transient progresses, the
voltage of the two capacitor banks will settle to a common
In this circuit C1 and C2 are the capacitances of the first value lower than the system voltage (due to losses in the
and second banks, L1 and L2 are the inductances of each circuit). Meanwhile, the source voltage and the capacitor
capacitor bank, Lline is the equivalent inductance of the voltages will now be different, leading to another transient
feeder segment between the banks, and Sw1 is the switch that component while the capacitors are being brought up to
closes in the controlled bank. For the moment we will neglect system voltage. The circuit representing this condition is
introducing the source voltage into the equivalent circuit. shown in Fig. 2.
Justification for this is provided below.
Assuming the first capacitor bank is charged to peak
system voltage, the magnitude of the current that flows when
the second capacitor bank is energized is given by the
equation:
|V |
| I |= (1)
Z0
L
where Z 0 = is referred to as the surge impedance and
C Fig. 2. Equivalent circuit for analyzing the lower-frequency component of the
|V| is the magnitude of the voltage waveform driving the transient caused by back-to-back capacitor switching.
current during energizing[2]. Here L stands for the inductance
between the banks and the inductance found in the capacitor This transient has a lower frequency of oscillation since
bank structure. If the second bank has an initial charge, then now the capacitors will be in parallel with the driving voltage
the magnitude of the voltage will be given by the voltage (source) and the resulting higher capacitance and lower
difference between banks. The transient arising from the inductance will produce a lower frequency. The resulting total
energization of a capacitor bank will oscillate about the transient will be a combination of the two frequency
fundamental frequency waveform at a frequency typically in components oscillating around the fundamental waveforms.
the hundreds of hertz. This frequency is given by the
following relationship: III. REDUCTION OF CAPACITOR SWITCHING TRANSIENTS
1 There are several technologies available that help to
f = , (2)
2π Ls C mitigate capacitor inrush transients. These include the use of
pre-insertion resistors, inrush limiting reactors or zero-
where f is the frequency of the oscillation, Ls is the system crossing (also called synchronous) switches. Each technology
inductance, and C is the capacitance of the capacitor bank(s) works in a distinct way to reduce the switching transient:
under evaluation.
Note that since in back-to-back switching the capacitor 1. Pre-insertion resistors - The use of Pre-insertion
banks are connected in parallel with the source supply, and the resistors is an old but effective remedy. In a switch
initial transient frequency is high compared to nominal system with pre-insertion resistors, the switch first contacts
frequency, the source voltage can be assumed to remain the resistors before making contact with the
3
2. Inrush current limiting reactors - This method Fig. 3. System representation of the Base Case in ATPDraw.
employs reactors in series with the capacitor bank.
The reactor increases the magnitude of the surge The source was represented by its Thevenin equivalent
impedance, effectively reducing the peak value of the with a short circuit value of 44.92 pu at a 100 MVA and
inrush current. Also, since the current through the 115 kV base. The 115/13.2 kV distribution substation
reactor cannot change instantly, the higher frequency transformer at Sabana Llana was included in our evaluation
components of the transient are limited and the with an impedance of 11 percent at a 24 MVA base. The load
severity of the current inrush transient is reduced. power demand at the substation, excluding the feeder under
Sometimes reactors are built intentionally with higher study, was also simulated with 6.40 MVA at a 0.91 lagging
resistances to increase damping of the transient. power factor. These values were included in our ATP model
as inductances, capacitances, and resistances.
3. Zero-crossing switches - Also called synchronous The feeder under study included underground and
switches or breakers, these switches represent a overhead conductor sections. The two blocks named CABLE
relatively new technology used to reduce capacitor in the ATP circuit model of Fig. 3 represent the underground
switching transients. Zero-crossing switches time the sections. These 750 kcmil underground conductor cable
closing of each phase to correspond with the zero sections were 192 m and 274 m long, respectively. On the
crossing of the phase voltage. The electronic controls other hand, the two blocks named AIR COND in the ATP
monitor such parameters as stored energy, ambient circuit model represent the overhead conductor sections.
temperature, time since the last operation, and the These 556.5 ACSR conductors had a distance of 192 m and
actual performance of the switch to adjust the firing 30.4 m, respectively. The impedances were calculated using
algorithm. Uncharged capacitors energized at zero the Line and Cable Constants (LCC) option in ATP.
volts will produce virtually no transients. These The most important components connected to our feeder
switches will lower peak transient voltages to about were the fixed and the controlled capacitor banks. These
1.1 pu [3]. As a result, these switches help to increase components experienced an exchange of energy when the
equipment life, reduce ground transients and controlled bank was switched into the feeder. This switching
minimize capacitor inrush. Due to their higher operation also created the overvoltages and high frequency
complexity, these switches are more expensive than inrush currents that were analyzed as part of our study. The
normal automatic switches. Nevertheless, they may fixed capacitor bank had a 1,200 kVAR capacity, while the
provide a cost-effective alternative when capacitor controlled capacitor bank had 1,800 kVAR of reactive power.
switching transients frequently disrupt customer These components were represented by the FIXED and CONT
equipment. CAP blocks in Fig.3.
Finally, the load demand of the feeder was simulated with
We will now proceed to simulate our study case, 5.30 MVA at a 0.88 lagging power factor. It represented the
a 13.2 kV feeder supplying a shopping center, using the Shopping Center loads connected to the feeder.
Alternative Transients Program (ATP). This feeder has a
fixed capacitor bank already installed, and we wish to V. SIMULATIONS
determine the effects of installing a switched bank near the
load to improve the feeder’s power factor. We will simulate A. Base Case
the use of the three different methods to reduce the The base case diagram was illustrated in Fig. 3. The
capacitor transients and to compare the results. controlled capacitor bank was switched into the feeder at the
peak phase A system voltage to evaluate its effect on the
IV. SYSTEM REPRESENTATION feeder. Specifically, we concentrated on the peak transient
A. Circuit Data voltages and the high frequency inrush currents that originated
as a result of this switching operation.
The system under study included a feeder with overhead
The controlled capacitor bank switch was closed at
conductors, underground cables, two capacitor banks, and
18.055 ms (peak phase A voltage). Fig. 4 shows the three
loads. It also included the power source, which was
phase voltages at this capacitor bank before and after the
represented by its Thevenin equivalent at Sabana Llana
switching operation. The peak phase A voltage reached almost
Transmission Center. The schematic in Fig. 3 is the ATPDraw
4
16.5
-2000
11.0
-3000
5.5
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 [s] 0.10
(file BANCOCAPACSOTERRADO.pl4; x-var t) c:X0080A-X0082A
0.0
Fig. 5. Current between banks when energizing at the peak phase A system
-5.5
voltage. Ipeak (phase A) = 2.691 kA; f = 3.185 kHz
( )
1000
where, -1000
L 234.62 µH
Zo = = = 4.626Ω (4) -2000
C 10.962 µF
-3000
and 0.00 0.02
(file BANCOCAPACSOTERRADO.pl4; x-var t) c:X0072A-X0029A
0.04 0.06 0.08 [s] 0.10
1 (5) Fig. 6. Current through the controlled capacitor bank when energizing at the
f = = 3.139kHz peak phase A system voltage. Ipeak (phase A) = 2.473 kA
2π LC
The energization of the controlled capacitor bank did not
The 1.10 value in the peak inrush current calculation was
affect considerably the currents at the Shopping Center’s
included to compensate for the +10 percent regulation at the
service entrance. In fact, Table I shows that the peak inrush
secondary winding of the substation transformer. The surge
current reached only 386 A, whereas the steady state value
impedance includes the inductances of the conductors
was 341 A. For this reason, we concentrated our study on the
between the capacitor banks and the capacitances of the banks
high frequency inrush currents between the capacitor banks.
itself. Our transient analysis concentrates on the phenomena
occurring between these capacitor banks, as the exchange of
energy occurs between these components. Fig. 5 shows the
phase A current between the capacitor banks, with a peak
value of 2.691 kA at 3.185 kHz.
5
Location Peak Value Increasing the inductance between the fixed and the
13.2 kV Bus at Transformer 19.478 kV controlled capacitor banks reduced the peak inrush current to
the desired value. Fig. 8 shows that the simulated peak inrush
Fixed Capacitor Bank 19.793 kV
Voltage current was reduced to 1.476 kA, nearly half the base case
Controlled Capacitor Bank 20.332 kV value. It confirmed our assumption that increasing the surge
Shopping Center Service impedance of the circuit would reduce this high frequency
22.999 kV
Entrance
Feeder Output from transient. In fact, the frequency of the transient inrush current
1.446 kA
Substation was also reduced to 1.831 kHz.
Between Capacitor Banks 2.691 kA
Corriente entre bancos al energizar el banco controlado usando los reactores de 700 uH/fase
Current 3000
Imax (fase A) = 1.476 kA; f = 1.831 kHz y f = 542 Hz
Controlled Capacitor Bank 2.473 kA
[A]
Shopping Center Service
0.386 kA
Entrance 2000
Our goal in this study was to reduce the peak inrush current 1000
capacitor bank.
-2000
[kV]
results from the base case inrush current and the surge
11.0
impedance of the circuit. The equations used follow:
5.5
1
Ipeak , new = ( Ipeak , old ) = 1.281kA (6) 0.0
2
-5.5
Vpeak
Zototal , new = = 9.252Ω (7) -11.0
Ipeak , new
-16.5
Fig. 9. Voltages at the controlled capacitor bank when energizing it along Zo 4.626 Ω
with the current limiting reactors. Vpeak (phase A) = 17.440 kV. R= = = 5.44 Ω / phase (10)
λ 0.85
Table 2 shows the peak currents and voltages at different
locations in the circuit. This resistance per phase reduced the peak currents and
voltages. Fig. 11 shows how the peak inrush current was
TABLE 2 reduced to 1.477 kA, practically the same result obtained
Peak Currents and Voltages at Different Locations in the Circuit Using the
Reactors using the current limiting reactors. It is interesting to note that
the transient was damped faster with these resistors than with
Location Peak Value the reactors. Also, it can be seen that the frequency of the high
13.2 kV Bus at Transformer 17.592 kV inrush current was very similar to the one obtained in the base
case simulations. This is beacause the L’s and C’s of the
Fixed Capacitor Bank 17.915 kV
Voltage circuit were not changed.
Controlled Capacitor Bank 17.440 kV
On the other hand, an additional high frequency transient
Shopping Center Service
Entrance
17.502 kV occurred 22.222 ms after the simulation started. This is the
Feeder Output from result of closing the additional switch and disconnecting the
1.689 kA
Substation resistors. Still, its effect is not critical because the switch was
Between Capacitor Banks 1.476 kA closed near the zero-crossing of the phase A voltage curve.
Current
Controlled Capacitor Bank 1.180 kA Corriente entre bancos al energizar el banco controlado usando las resistencias de 5.44 ohmios/fase
Imax (fase A) = 1.477 kA; f = 3.22 kHz y f = 620 Hz
3000
Shopping Center Service
0.389 kA
Entrance [A]
2000
Fig. 11. Current between banks using the pre-insertion resistors. Ipeak (phase
LOADS A) = 1.477 kA; f = 3.22 kHz and f = 620 Hz
The peak phase A voltage reached 15.181 kV, and the
Z SYS.
SUB-1647
CABLE AIR COND AIR COND CABLE LOADS
oscillations disappeared after just 55 ms. This magnitude is
less than the one obtained in the simulations using the
S. LLANA
reactors. This confirms the importance of closing the
FIXED additional switch near the zero-crossing of the voltage curve.
Fig. 12 shows the voltage curves at the controlled capacitor
RESIST
bank. Also, Table 3 presents the voltages and currents at
different locations in the circuit.
Voltajes en el banco controlado al energizarlo con las resistencias de 5.44 ohmios/fase
CONT CAP Vmax (fase A) = 15.181 kV (1.408 pu)
22.0
[kV]
16.5
The sizes for these resistors were calculated using the base 5.5
case data and Fig. 4.4 from [2]. Since our purpose was to
0.0
reduce the peak inrush current to half the base case value, we
first found the operational solution for the RLC series circuit -5.5
16.5
TABLE 3
Peak Currents and Voltages at Different Locations in the Circuit Using the
11.0
Pre-Insertion Resistors
5.5
Location Peak Value
0.0
13.2 kV Bus at Transformer 14.750 kV
Fixed Capacitor Bank 14.883 kV -5.5
Voltage
Controlled Capacitor Bank 15.181 kV
-11.0
Shopping Center Service
15.226 kV
Entrance -16.5
Feeder Output from
1.201 kA
Substation -22.0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 [s] 0.10
Between Capacitor Banks 1.477 kA (file BANCOCAPACSOTERRADO_ZEROCROSS.pl4; x-var t) v:X0072A v:X0072B v:X0072C
Current
Controlled Capacitor Bank 1.230 kA Fig. 14. Voltages at the controlled capacitor bank using the synchronous
Shopping Center Service circuit breaker. Vpeak (phase A) = 11.570 kV
0.363 kA
Entrance
Table 4 shows the peak voltages and currents at different
D. Simulations using the synchronous circuit breaker for the locations in the circuit.
controlled capacitor bank TABLE 4
Peak Currents and Voltages at Different Locations in the Circuit Using the
Synchronous Circuit Breaker
The circuit model is the same as Fig. 3. The synchronous
circuit breaker demonstrated to be the best choice for the Location Peak Value
mitigation of the high frequency transients. This breaker
13.2 kV Bus at Transformer 11.493 kV
reduced considerably the magnitudes and the period of
oscillation of the transient voltages and currents in the circuit. Fixed Capacitor Bank 11.528 kV
Voltage
The breaker operated each of its poles independently. The Controlled Capacitor Bank 11.570 kV
advantage of this operation is that it was possible to close each Shopping Center Service
11.565 kV
Entrance
pole at the zero-crossing of the voltage curves. Theoretically, Feeder Output from
this meant that the transients would be reduced to a minimum. 0.387 kA
Substation
As Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 show, the current and voltage Between Capacitor Banks 0.370 kA
Current
transients lasted only two cycles, and their peak values were Controlled Capacitor Bank 0.202 kA
close to the steady state results. Shopping Center Service
0.343 kA
Corriente entre bancos usando los interruptores de cierre sincrónico para el banco controlado
Entrance
Imax (fase A) = 0.370 kA; f = 2.702 kHz y f = 588 Hz
3000
[A]
VII. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of L.
Orama and L. W. Marini in the development of this proyect.
VIII. REFERENCES
[1] T.A. Short, Electric Power Distribution Handbook, New York: CRC
Press, pp 543-551.
[2] A. Greenwood, Electrical Transients in Power Systems, New York: John
Wiley and Sons, pp 37-46
[3] R.C. Dugan, Electrical Power Systems Quality, New York: McGraw-
Hill, pp 140-144.
IX. BIOGRAPHIES
Miguel Irizarry was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, on October 1, 1978. He
graduated Magna Cum Laude from the University of Puerto Rico – Mayagüez
Campus.
His employment experience includes the NAIC Arecibo Observatory and
the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority (PREPA). He currently works at the
Distribution Planning and Research Department at PREPA.
Tomás Vélez was born in San Juan, Puerto Rico, on May 5 1978. He
graduated Magna Cum Laude from the University of Puerto Rico – Mayagüez
Campus.
His employment experience includes the NASA Goddard Space Flight
Center at Maryland and the Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority. He
currently works at the Distribution Planning and Research Department at
PREPA.
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