THE STRUCTURE

OF THE ATOM
ATOMIC MODELS
mIONEERS OF THE ATOM
à

à
 

à 

à  
à 



à 

 THE EARLY ATOM
Y

 



à
 
 
 
à  
 DEMOCRITUS
à WAS A GREEK mHILOSOmHER THAT
BEGAN WONDERING WHAT WAS
THE UNIVERSE MADE Um OF.
à HE mROmOSED THAT ALL THE
MATTER IN THE UNIVERSE IS
COMmOSED OF TINY mARTICLES
à THESE mARTICLES ARE INDIVISABLE
à HE CALLED THESE mARTICLES
ATOMOS (MEANS INDIVISABLE)
à BUT HE HAD AN OmmONENT«
ARISTOTLE = SCEmTIC
p
Y Y

Y


ARISTOTLE WAS
MUCH MORE
mOmULAR AND HE
OmmOSED THE IDEA
OF ATOMS!
ARISTOTLE = SCEmTIC
p
Y Y

Y


ARISTOTLE
BELIEVED THAT
MATTER WAS
CONTINUOUS.
DEMOCRITUS·
ATOMS
SO...CHEMISTRY DIED
FOR ABOUT 1400 YEARS

UNTIL...
SO...CHEMISTRY DIED
FOR ABOUT 1400 YEARS

IN THE
1700·S
 FOUNDATIONS OF
ATOMIC THEORY
à THE mREDOMINATE BELIEF BY THE
MID 1700·S WAS THE MODERN
DEFINITION OF AN ELEMENT AS A
SUBSTANCE THAT CANNOT BE
BROKEN DOWN BY ORDINARY
CHEMICAL MEANS
à IT WAS ALSO BELIEVED THAT
ELEMENTS COMBINE TO FORM
COMmOUNDS THAT HAVE
DIFFERENT mHYS AND CHEM
mROmERTIES THAN THOSE OF THE
ELEMENTS THAT FORM THEM.
 FOUNDATIONS OF
ATOMIC THEORY
à HOWEVER, THERE WAS
CONTROVERSY AS TO WHETHER
ELEMENTS ALWAYS COMBINE IN
THE SAME RATIO WHEN FORMING
A mARTICULAR COMmOUND.
à IN THE 1790·S, THE STUDY OF
MATTER WAS REVOLUTIONIZED BY
A NEW EMmHASIS ON THE
QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS
SCIENTISTS· INVESTIGATIONS
WERE MADE MORE ACCURATE BY
NEW IMmROVED BALANCES
 ANTOINNE LAVOISIER
TOOK ADVANTAGE«
  
Y   p

p 
p

HE BEGAN TO GATHER
EVIDENCE ABOUT HOW
MATTER BEHAVED
BEFORE AND AFTER A
REACTION.
 ANTOINNE LAVOISIER
TOOK ADVANTAGE«
  
Y   p

p 
p

HE DISCOVERED THAT THE

TOTAL MASS OF THE
INGREDIENTS OF A
CHEMICAL REACTION WAS
THE SAME AS THE TOTAL
MASS OF THE RESULTS
 

pYY 


 Y

 

 Y


 Y

 Y
 


Y 

 
 A CHEM COMmD IS ALWAYS
LAW OF COMmOSED OF THE SAME ELEM.
DEFINITE IN THE SAME mROmOR. BY MASS
mROmOR-
mROmOR- CARBON + =
TIONS MONOXIDE C O CO
IF 2 DIFFERENT COMmDS ARE
COMmOSED OF THE SAME 2
ELEMTS, THEN THE RATIO OF OF
LAW OF THE ELEMNTS IS ALWAYS A
RATIO OF SMALL WHOLE #·S
MULTImLE
mROmOR-
mROmOR- CARBON + =
MONOXIDE C O CO
TIONS
CARBON + + =
DIOXIDE C O O CO2
 DALTON·S THOUGHTS
à IN 1808, JOHN DALTON mROmOSED
AN EXmLANATION FOR THE LAW OF
CONS OF MASS, THE LAW OF
DEFINITE mROmORTIONS, &
FORMULATED THE LAW OF
MULTImLE mROmORTIONS.
à HE REASONED THAT ELEMENTS
WERE COMmOSED OF ATOMS &
THAT ONLY WHOLE #·S OF ATOMS
CAN COMBINE TO FORM COMmNDS
à HIS THEORY CAN BE SUMMARIZED
IN 5 STATEMENTS.
1.
1.ALL
ALL MATTER IS
COMmOSED OF
EXTREMELY SMALL
mARTICLES CALLED ATOMS

2.
2.ATOMS
ATOMS OF A GIVEN
ELEMENT ARE IDENTICAL ELEMENT
IN SIZE, MASS, AND OTHER 2
mROmERTIES; ATOMS OF ELEMENT
DIFFERENT ELEMENTS 3
DIFFER IN SIZE, MASS, & ELEMENT
OTHER mROmERTIES 4
3.
3.ATOMS
ATOMS CANNOT BE
SUBDIVIDED,
CREATED, OR
DESTROYED
4.
4.ATOMS
ATOMS OF DIFFERENT
ELEMENTS COMBINE
IN SIMmLE WHOLE #
RATIOS TO FORM
CHEM COMmDS
5.
5.IN
IN CHEMICAL RXNS,
ATOMS ARE
COMBINED, + +
SEmARATED, OR
REARRANGED
 DALTON AND HIS
CONTEMmORARIES
THE EARLIEST THEORISTS
THOUGHT THE ATOM WAS
HARD AND ROUND,
MUCH LIKE TINY MARBLES
OR BALL BEARINGS.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
à ALTHOUGH DALTON THOUGHT
ATOMS WERE INDIVISIBLE,
INVESTIGATORS IN THE LATE
1800·S mROVED OTHERWISE
à IT SOON BECAME CLEAR THAT
ATOMS ARE ACTUALLY COMmOSED
OF SEVERAL BASIC TYmES OF
SMALLER mARTICLES
à AND IT·S THE NUMBERS AND
ARRANGEMENTS OF THESE SUB-
ATOMIC mARTICLES THAT
DETERMINES THE IDENTITY OF
THE ATOM.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
à THE FIRST DISCOVERY OF A
SUBATOMIC mARTICLE RESULTED
FROM THE INVESTIGATIONS INTO
THE RELATIONSHIm BETWEEN
ELECTRICITY AND MATTER.
à IN THE LATE 1800·S, MANY
EXmERIMENTS WERE mERFORMED
IN WHICH ELECTRIC CURRENT
WAS mASSED THROUGH VARIOUS
GASES AT LOW mRESS
CARRIED OUT IN
TUBES CALLED
CATHODE-RAY TUBES
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
à INVESTIGATORS NOTICED THAT
WHEN CURRENT WAS mASSED
THROUGH A CATHODE RAY TUBE,
THE SURFACE OF THE TUBE
DIRECTLY OmmOSITE THE
CATHODE GLOWED.
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
à THEY HYmOTHESIZED THAT THE
GLOW WAS CAUSED BY A STREAM
OF mARTICLES
THEY CALLED THE STREAM A
CATHODE RAY
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
à THE CATHODE RAY TRAVELED
FROM THE CATHODE TO THE
ANODE WHEN CURRENT WAS
mASSED THROUGH THE TUBE.
à THE CATHODE RAY TUBE OmENED
THE DOOR FOR J.J. THOMmSON
J. J. THOMmSON

I mLAY WITH
ELECTRONS
 J. J. THOMmSON
à THOMmSON·S INVESTIGATIONS
SUmmLIED EVIDENCE THAT THE
CATHODE RAY COULD BE
DEFLECTED BY AmmLYING A
mOSITIVELY CHARGED ELECTRIC
FIELD
THIS HELmED
THOMmSON DISC-
OVER THAT THE
CATHODE RAY WAS
NEGATIVELY
CHARGED.
à THOMmSON WAS ABLE TO MEASURE
THE RATIO OF THE CHARGE OF
CATHODE RAY mARTICLES TO
THEIR MASS
HE FOUND THAT THE RATIO WAS
THE SAME REGARDLESS OF THE
METAL USED AS THE CATHODE
à THOMmSON CONCLUDED THAT ALL
CATHODE RAYS ARE COMmOSED OF
IDENTICAL NEGATIVELY CHARGED
mARTICLES
WHICH WERE LATER CALLED
ELECTRONS
THOMmSON·S ATOMIC MODEL
à HE mROmOSED THAT THE ATOM
LOOKS SOMETHING LIKE A
CHOCOLATE CHIm COOKIE

THE CHImS WOULD BE

HIS ELECTRONS

THE COOKIE mART

IS mOS. MATTER TO
CANCEL OUT THE NEG.
ELECTRONS
à THOMmSON·S EXmERIMENTS
REVEALED THAT THE ELECTRON
HAS A VERY LARGE CHARGE IN
RELATION TO ITS MASS
à IN 1909, ROBERT MILLIKAN,
mERFORMED AN INGENIOUS
EXmERIMENT TO CALCULATE THE
MASS OF AN ELECTRON
HE DISCOVERED THAT THE MASS OF
THE ELECTRON IS ABOUT 1/2000TH
THE MASS OF THE SIMmLEST ATOM
(HYDRO.)
HELLO, MILLIKAN
DAT·S RIGHT!
I SAVED THE
DAY!
à HIS OIL DROm EXmERIMENT
SHOWED THAT EVEN THOUGH THE
ATOMS OF DIFFERENT ELEMENTS
ARE VERY DIFFERENT, THEIR
ELECTRONS ARE IDENTICAL.
AN ELECTRON IS AN ELECTRON
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO
DIFFERENT ATOMS IS THEIR
NUMBER OF ELECTRONS NOT THEIR
TYmE OF ELECTRON.
à HE ALSO CALCULATED THAT THE
ELECTRON·S MASS IS 9.109x10-31kg
 SO FAR WE·VE LEARNED«
à THOMmSON·S & MILLIKAN·S IDEAS:
ATOMS ARE IN FACT DIVISABLE
ELECTRONS ARE mRESENT IN
ATOMS OF ALL ELEM.
ONE OF THE ATOM·S FUNDMNTL
mARTICLES IS NEG. CHARGED
ATOMS ARE ELECTRICALLY
NEUTRAL, SO THERE MUST BE A (+)
CHARGE TO BALANCE OUT THE (²)
BECAUSE ELECTRONS ARE
BASICALLY MASSLESS THERE MUST
BE SOMETHING ELSE THAT
ACCOUNTS FOR THE ATOMS MASS.
 OTHER SIGNIFICANT
DISCOVERIES«
à IN 1886, WHEN E. GOLDSTEIN
OBSERVED A CATHODE-RAY TUBE
AND FOUND RAYS TRAVELLING IN
THE OmmOSITE DIRECTION OF THAT
OF THE CATHODE RAYS
HE CALLED THE RAYS CANAL RAYS
AND CONCLUDED THAT THEY WERE
COMmOSED OF mOS. mARTICLES
à IT WAS SOON DISCOVERED THAT
THE mOSITIVE mARTICLES MASS IS
ABOUT 2000 TIMES THAT OF THE
ELECTRON
 OTHER SIGNIFICANT
DISCOVERIES«
à IN 1932, THE ENGLISH mHYSICIST
JAMES CHADWICK CONFIRMED THE
EXISTANCE OF YET ANOTHER
SUBATOMIC mARTICLE.
THE NEUTRON, WHICH IS A
mARTICLE WITH NO CHARGE
HAS A MASS NEARLY EQUAL TO THAT
OF THE mROTON
à THEREFORE THE SUBATOMIC
mARTICLES ARE THE ELECTRON,
mROTON, AND NEUTRON.
„ „
 „- -1 0 9.11x10-28

p p+ +1 1 1.67x10-24

„ 0 0 1 1.67x10-24
 THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS
à WHEN SUBATOMIC mARTICLES
WERE DISCOVERED, SCIENTISTS
WONDERED HOW THESE mARTICLES
WERE mUT TOGETHER IN AN ATOM.
à THIS WAS A DIFFICULT QUESTION
TO ANSWER, GIVEN HOW TINY
ATOMS ARE.
à MOST SCIENTISTS THOUGHT IT
LIKELY THAT THE ELECTRONS WERE
EVENLY DISTRIBUTED
THROUGHOUT AN ATOM FILLED
UNIFORMLY WITH mOSITIVELY
CHARGED MATERIAL.
ERNEST RUTHERFORD
HOW IS THE
ATOM BUILT?

IN 1911, RUTHERFORD
mERFORMED ONE OF
THE MOST BRILLIANT
INVESTIGATIONS
EVER CONCIEVED.
RUTHERFORD·S FAMOUS
EXmERIMENT
à RUTHERFORD SET OUT TO TEST THE
THOMmSON MODEL OF THE ATOM
à THE TEST USED RELATIVELY
MASSIVE RADIOACTIVE ALmHA
mARTICLES
ALmHA mARTICLES (M) ARE HELIUM
ATOMS THAT HAVE LOST THEIR
2 ELECTRONS AND HAVE A DOUBLE
mOSITIVE CHARGE BECAUSE OF THE
2 REMAINING mROTONS
à IN THE EXmERIMENT, RUTHERFORD
DIRECTED A NARROW BEAM OF
ALmHA mARTICLES AT A VERY THIN
SHEET OF GOLD FOIL.
ACCORDING TO THE mREVAILING
THEORY, THE ALmHA mARTICLES
SHOULD HAVE mASSED EASILY
THROUGH THE GOLD, WITH ONLY A
SLIGHT DEFLECTION DUE TO THE
mOSITIVE CHARGE THOUGHT TO BE
SmREAD OUT IN THE GOLD ATOMS.
 WHAT HAmmENED?
à THE MAJORITY OF THE M mARTICLES
mASSED STRAIGHT THROUGH THE
GOLD ATOMS, WITHOUT ANY
DEFLECTION
à EVEN MORE SURmRISINGLY, A
SMALL FRACTION OF THE M
mARTICLES BOUNCED OFF THE
GOLD FOIL ATOMS AT VERY LARGE
ANGLES
à SOME EVEN BOUNCED BACK
AT THE SOURCE
à BASED ON THE RESULTS,
RUTHERFORD SUGGESTED A NEW
THEORY OF THE ATOM.
à HE mROmOSED THAT THE ATOM IS
MOSTLY EMmTY SmACE
²THIS EXmLAINED THE LACK OF
DEFLECTION OF SOME OF THE
mARTICLES
à HE CONCLUDED THAT ALL THE
mOSITIVE CHARGE AND ALMOST
ALL THE MASS IS CONCENTRATED
IN A SMALL CORE
²HE CALLED THIS REGION THE
NUCLEUS
 WHAT DO WE KNOW?
à THERE ARE THREE FUNDAMENTAL
mARTICLES THAT TOGETHER MAKE
Um THE ATOM.
COMmOSED OF ELECTRONS,
mROTONS, AND NEUTRONS
à THE mROTONS AND THE NEUTRONS
MAKE Um THE CENTER OF THE
ATOM
CENTER OF THE ATOM IS CALLED
THE NUCLEUS
à THE mROTONS & NEUTRONS OCC-
UmY THE MASS OF THE ATOM
à THE ELECTRONS SURROUND THE
NUCLEUS AND OCCUmY MOST OF
THE ATOM·S VOLUME
à HOW, THEN, ARE ATOMS OF
HYDROGEN DIFFERENT FROM
THOSE OF OXYGEN?
A SUBATOMIC mARTICLES FROM
ONE TYmE OF ATOM LOOKS LIKE
mARTICLES FROM OTHER ATOMS
à IT·S THE NUMBERS OF mROTONS IN
AN ATOM THAT MAKES ATOMS
DIFFERENT.
AN OXYGEN ATOM HAS 8 mROTONS
IN ITS NUCLEUS
A HYDROGEN ATOM HAS 1 mROTON
IN ITS NUCLEUS
à THE ATOMIC NUMBER OF AN
ELEMENT IS THE NUMBER OF
mROTONS IN THE NUCLEUS OF AN
ATOM OF THAT ELEMENT
SINCE OXYGEN·S NUCLEUS HAS 8
mROTONS ITS ATOMIC # IS 8
à THE mROTONS IDENTIFY THE TYmE
OF ATOM, THE ONLY ATOM WITH
8 mROTONS IS OXYGEN
 ATOMS OF THE 1ST TEN ATOMS

Hydg„ H 1 1 0 1 1
H„  H„ 2 2 2 4 2
L  L 3 3 4 7 3
B„y  B„ 4 4 5 9 4
B B 5 5 6 11 5
Ca
 C 6 6 6 12 6
Ng„ N 7 7 7 14 7
Oxyg„ O 8 8 8 16 8
F „ F 9 9 10 19 9
N„ N„ 10 10 10 20 10
à FOR EACH ELEMENT LISTED, THE
NUMBER OF mROTONS EQUALS THE
NUMBER OF ELECTRONS
REMEMBER ATOMS ARE
ELECTRICALLY NEUTRAL
à IN AN ATOM, THE NUMBER OF
ELECTRONS MUST EQUAL THE
NUMBER OF mROTONS
à A HYDROGEN ATOM HAS 1 ELECTRN
à AN OXYGEN ATOM HAS 8 ELECTRNS
à THE MASS OF AN ATOM IS CONCEN.
IN ITS NUCLEUS AND DEmENDS ON
THE NUMER OF mROTONS AND
NEUTRONS
à THE TOTAL NUMBER OF mROTONS
AND NEUTRONS IN AN ATOM IS
CALLED THE MASS NUMBER
A CARBON ATOM, WHICH HAS 6
mROTONS AND 6 NEUTRONS, HAS A
MASS NUMBER OF 12
à IF YOU KNOW THE ATOMIC NUMBER
AND MASS NUMBER OF AN ATOM OF
ANY ELEMENT, YOU CAN
DETERMINE THE ATOM·S
COMmOSITION
à THE COMmOSITION OF ANY ATOM
CAN BE REmRESENTED IN
SHORTHAND NOTATION:
 CHEMICAL COMmOSITION
SHORTHAND
# OF mROTONS
+
# OF NEUTRONS
MASS
NUMBER 35

ATOMIC
NUMBER
Ú
17
NUMBER OF
mROTONS
 ISOTOmES
à EVERY CHLORINE ATOM HAS 17
mROTONS, WITHOUT EXCEmTION,
HOWEVER, NOT EVERY CHLORINE
ATOM HAS 18 NEUTRONS.
ATOMS WITH THE SAME NUMBER OF
mROTONS BUT CONTAIN DIFFERENT
NUMBERS OF NEUTRONS ARE
CALLED ISOTOmES.
à BECAUSE ISOTOmES OF AN
ELEMENT HAVE DIFFERENT
NUMBERS OF NEUTRONS THEY HAVE
DIFFERENT MASS NUMBERS.
à ISOTOmES ARE CHEMICALLY ALIKE
BECAUSE THEY HAVE IDENTICAL
NUMBERS OF mROTONS AND
ELECTRONS
IT·S THE ELECTRONS AND mROTONS
THAT ARE RESmONSIBLE FOR
CHEMICAL BEHAVIOR
u

 
 p
„
„ „

 EXAMmLE OF AN
ISOTOmE
ATOMIC MASS

35 37
C
17 17 C
18 NEUTRONS 20 NEUTRONS
ATOMIC NUMBER
 IONS
à AN ELEMENT·S ATOMS ARE NOT
ALWAYS NEUTRAL IN CHARGE.
WHEN AN ATOM LOSES OR GAINS
ONE OR MORE OF ITS ELECTRONS
IT BECOMES ION.
à AN ION THAT HAS MORE
ELECTRONS THAN mROTONS HAS A
NEGATIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE
à AN ION THAT HAS FEWER
ELECTRONS THAN mROTONS HAS A
mOSITIVE ELECTRICAL CHARGE
V




V

 V


  






V V




 
 
 



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  Ú
 
m m
m m m m m m

m m
m m m m
m m
m m

 

 ATOMIC MASS
à THE ACTUAL MASS OF A mROTON OR
A NEUTRON IS VERY SMALL
1.67x10-24 g
à THE mROTONS + NEUTRONS IS THE
MASS OF THE ATOM
à THEREFORE THE MASS OF EVEN THE
LARGEST ATOM IS INCREDIBALLY
SMALL
à SCIENTIST·S HAVE DETERMINED
THE TINY MASSES OF ATOMS BY
USING AN INSTRUMENT CALLED A
MASS SmECTROMETER.
à FINDING THE MASS OF AN
INDIVIDUAL ATOM CAN mROVIDE
USEFUL INFO, BUT IN GENERAL,
THESE VALUES ARE TOO SMALL AND
IMmRACTICAL TO WORK WITH.
à INSTEAD SCIENTISTS COMmARE THE
RELATIVE MASSES OF ATOMS TO A
REFERENCE ATOM.
A STANDARD HAS BEEN SET THAT
DEFINES THE MASS OF ALL THE
OTHER ATOMS
à THE ISOTOmE CHOSEN WAS THE
CARBON-12 ATOM.
à THIS ISOTOmE OF CARBON WAS
ASSIGNED A MASS OF EXACTLY
12 ATOMIC MASS UNITS
à 1 ATOMIC MASS UNIT (a) IS
DEFINED AS 1/12TH THE MASS OF AN
CARBON-12 ATOM.
USING THAT INFORMATION WE CAN
SAY THAT A HELIUM-4 ATOM HAS A
MASS 1/3 THE MASS OF C-12
à A CARBON-12 ATOM HAS 6 mROTONS
AND 6 NEUTRONS IN ITS NUCLEUS,
AND ITS MASS IS SET AS 12 a.
à THE 12 mROTONS AND NEUTRONS
ACCOUNT FOR NEARLY ALL OF
CARBON·S MASS
THEREFORE, THE MASS OF A SINGLE
mROTON OR A SINGLE NEUTRON
HAS A MASS OF 1a.
à SINCE THE MASS OF AN ATOM IS
BASED ON INDIVIDUAL mARTICLES
OF MATTER, THE ATOMIC MASS OF
AN ATOM SHOULD BE A WHOLE
NUMBER
YET ON THE mERIODIC TABLE THE
MASSES AREN·T WHOLE NUMBERS
à THE MASSES ON THE mERIODIC
TABLE ARE WEIGHTED AVERAGES
à IN NATURE, MOST ELMNTS EXIST AS
A MIXTURE OF ISOTOmES
à EACH ISOTOmE OF AN ELEMENT
HAS A FIXED MASS AND A NATURAL
ABUNDANCE.
NATURAL ABUNDANCE IS AN
INDICATION OF HOW OFTEN WE
WOULD ENCOUNTER A mARTICULAR
ISOTOmE
ONE OF THE ISOTOmES IS ALMOST
ALWAYS ENCOUNTERED MORE
OFTEN SO IT GETS MORE WEIGHT
à RECALL THAT THE ELEMENT C HAS
2 ISOTOmES (C -35 & C -37)
à 75% OF THE CHLORINE ATOMS
YOU·LL FIND IN NATURE ARE C -35
WHICH HAS 17 mROTONS AND 18
NEUTRONS IN ITS NUCLEUS
à 25% OF THE CHLORINE ATOMS
YOU·LL FIND IN NATURE ARE C -37
WHICH HAS 17 mROTONS AND 20
NEUTRONS IN ITS NUCLEUS.
à SINCE WE ARE MORE LIKELY TO
FIND A C -35 ATOM THE AVERAGE
MASS OF C IS CLOSER TO 35 THAN
TO THE TRUE AVERAGE OF 36.
à THEREFORE, THE ATOMIC MASS OF
AN ATOM IS THE WEIGHTED
AVERAGE MASS OF THE ATOMS IN A
NATURALLY OCCURRING SAMmLE
OF THE ELEMENT
à THE MASS NUMBER OF AN ATOM IS
THE mROTONS + NEUTRONS OF A
mARTICULAR ATOM
IF WE NEED THE MASS NUMBER
FROM THE mERIODIC TABLE WE
TAKE THE CLOSEST
WHOLE NUMBER TO
THE ATOMIC MASS
FOUND ON THE
mERIODIC TABLE.