isto J q ies A Preh Th doe si >~ Paul S: Martin & Richard G. Klein, Editors ‘The Record of Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinetion at Taima-taima, Northern Venezuela ric Revolu Mew RUTH GRUHN AND ALAN L. BRYAN ‘DHE COASTAL ZONE of north-central Venezuela today is a hot. dry expanse of plains and lowlands covered with open scrub and cacti, the most notable fauna being herds of varicolored goats introduced with the Spanish conquest. In late Pleistocene times. however, the zone was populated by mastodonts, giant ground sloth, glyptodonts horses, and early man, ‘Archaeological and paleontological research on the coastal plain of northern Ver ezuels has been conducted by ). M. Cruxent since the early 1950s (Cruxent and Rowse 1956). Abundant megafaunal remains of late Pleistocene age have been recovered from clayey sand deposits at two waterhole sites, Muaco (Royo y Gomez 1960. Cry 1961) and Taima-taima (Cruxent 1967, Bryan et al. 1978. Ochseruus and Grukn n and from the gravels in an arroyo at Cucuruché (Cruxent 1970). All three of these are located close fo the present coastline and within several kilometers of each other a hilly region about 10 to 15 km east of the city of Coro (ig. 5.1). The most detail stratigraphic work was carried out at Taima-taima in 1976 (Bryan et al. 1978, Ochse' and Gruhn n.d.) The site of Taima-taima is now 2 waterhole in a smal! basin at an elevatio zpproximately 23 meters above sea level. The waterhole drains by means a! shallow stream which crosses several low bedrock shelves on its way' to the sea, oni about half a kilometer to the north. The waterhole is formed by an outcropping of 2 so! aguiferous Miocene marine sandstone, through which the artesian water, derived fror the base of the San Luis Mountains about 10 km to the south. seeps. The archaeol and paleontological evidence indicates that the waterhole was i ce mn lak tocene times and served as an attraction for megafauna and man ay: Stratigraphy and Paleoenvironments Excavations for four seasons by Cruxent over an area of 150) sau before 1976 exposed many bones, but unfortunately most were destroy before identification and analysis. Although more limited in area (| 1976 excavations provided detailed evidence which made possible @ refinement of the stratigraphic distribution of the megafaunal remains, Three separate faunal assemblages were determined and correlated with maior strazigrephic horizons (fig cs © meters by vandal: square meters), the 128oa The Record of Pleistocene Megafaunal Extinction at Faima-taima, Northern We ezuela RUTH GRUHN AND ALAN L. BRYAN \ THE COASTAL ZONE of north-central Venezuela today is a hot, dry expanse of plains and lowlands covered with open scrub and cacti, the most notable fauna being herds of Varicolored goats introduced with the Spanish conquest. In late Pleistocene tines, however, the zone was populated by mastodonts, giant ground sloth, glyptodor horses, and early man. ‘Archaeological and paleontological research on the coastal plain of northern Ven- ezuela has been conducted by J. M. Cruxent since the early 1950s (Cruxent and Rouse 1956). Abundant megafaunal remains of late Pleistocene age have been recovered from clayey sand deposits at two waterhole sites, Muaco (Royo y Gomez 1960, Cruxent 1961) and Taima-taima (Cruxent 1967, Bryan et al. 1978, Ochsenius and Gruhn n.d.) and from the gravels in én arroyo at Cucurucha (Cruxent 1970). All three of these sites are located close to the present coastline and within several kilometers of each other. in 2 hilly region about 10 to 15 km east of the city of Coro (fig. 5.1). The most detail ‘stratigraphic work as carried out at Taima-taima in 1976 (Bryan et al. 1978, Ochsenius and Gruhn n.d.). The site of Taima-taima is now a waterhole in a small basin at an elevation of approximately; 23 meters above sea level. The waterhole drains by means of a small Shallow stream which crosses several low bedrock shelves on its way to the sea. 0 about half a kilometer to the north. The ‘waterhole is formed by an outcropping of a st 2quiferous Miocene marine sandstone, through which the artesian water, derived fron the base’of the San Luis Mquntains about 10 km to the south, seeps. The archaeological and paleontological evidence indicates that the waterhgle was in existence in late Pleis- tocené times and served as an attraction for megafauna apd man. f x ut Stratigraphy and parce Excavations for four seasons by Cruxent over an ‘of 150 square before 1976 exposed many bones, but unfortunately most were destroyed by before identification and analysis. ‘Although more limited in area (B0 square meters) the 3676 excavations provided detailed evidence which made possible a Tehnement of the stratigraphic distribution of the megafaunal remains. Three ‘separate faunal assemblages were determined and correlated with atigraphic horizons (fg. 5.2)VENEZUELA SOUTH AMERICA = Pacilic oce®™ S 2 ¥ Locator Map Taima-taima t EN EZ UELA Figure 5.1. Map of novth-ceritral Venezuela. showing location of Tama-taima ano El Jobo type site130 GRUHN AND BRYAN Nonth-South Profile Square 211 West-East Prolile Squares 215, 216 ll cr North: South Profile (East Wail) Squares 21. 217 Figure 5.2. Description of stratigraphic features Unit |. Fine sand. often convoluted, reduced where saturated oxidized near top la, Convolutad dark grey clayey sand, Unit i. Laminated sand ib. Light grey sand, lia. Yellowish red sang with reduction lc. Brownish grey sand streaks, occasional pendies Id, White sano. lic. Brick red san¢ (latente) le. Yellowish to reddish brown sand, lid. Yeliowish white sand with Ml Red sand. ‘oxidation streaks Ig. Dark red sand B_ Bone Unit Il. Black organic clay CP Cobble pavement and Miocane sand MV Masticated vegetation Unit IV. Brown colluvial sane The floor of the waterhole in the excavated area consisted of waterwom, lune- stone cobbles and pebbles tightly impacted in a pavement over the compact Miocene sand. The cobbles and pebbles were all derived from the same local formation. a fossiliferous Miocene limestone which outcrops on the sides of the basin: apparently blocks and fragments of this limestone were let down by erosion onto the Boor of the basin and became impacted and rounded in the water hole. Numerous broken and worn bones of megafauna were exposed embedded in this cobble pavement, forming the first faunal horizon.EXTINCTIONS AT TAIMA-TAIMA 131 Overlying the cobble pavement was a deposit of grey clayey sand approximately 0.75-1.0 m in thickness. This zone, designated Unit 1, displayed local convoluting and particle-sorting due to the upward seepage of water. Its upper surface, above the present water table, was oxddized, but the lower third of the deposit was still saturated at the time of excavation. Organic material as well as bone was preserved by the continuously waterlogged condition of the lower part of Unit I. A stratigraphic series of fifteen radiocarbon dates on Unit I range between 12,580 + 150 yr B.P. and 13,390 = 130 \7 B.P. (Bryan and Gruhn nd.). In 1976 the butchered remains of a juvenile mastodont in association with an El Jobo projectile point and a utilized jasper flake were ‘exposed near the base of Unit I, and four radiocarbon dates on a mass of sheared twigs believed to be the stomach contents of the mastodont indicate a date of 13,000 years ago for the kill (Bryan et al. 1978, Ochsenius and Gruhn n.d.). Bones and teeth of other megafauna forming the second faunal horizon were also recovered from the grey clavey sand of Unit I, ‘The top of Unit I is marked by a prominent disconformity indicating an erosional interval. On the surface of the disconformity appeared remnants of a paleosol, with a thin line of pebbles and many weathered bone fragments. The faunal assemblage on the Unit 1/1 disconformity, forming the third faunal horizon, is the last evidence of megafauna at Taima-taima. This horizon is not directly dated, although Bryan and Gruhn {n.d.) speculate that an anomalous date of 11,860 = 130 yr B.P. (IVIC-655) obtained from wood recovered in previous excavations may actually be derived from a water- logged root originating from a tree which grew on the Unit IM land surface. The red sands of the overlying Unit Il are sterile of organic remains and undated, but an overlying organic black clay deposit (Unit IT) has yielded six stratigraphically consis- tent radiocarbon dates ranging from 10,290 + 90 yr B.P. to 9650 + 80 yr B.P. The final stratigraphic unit at Taima-taima, a deposit of colluvial brown sand (Unit IV), is ‘sterile of organic remains and is undatable. Direct evidence for the palecenvironment at different horizons in the Taimna-taima stratigraphic sequence is sparse. Plant remains recovered from the lower part of the grey clayey sand of Unit I include seeds of Portulacaceae (Portuleca oleracea and P. venezwelensis) and Coccoloba uvifera (“uva de playa"), all known from the vicinity of Taima-taima at present. The sheared twizs recovered from the vicinity of the butchered juvenile mastodont unfortunately could not be identified, but thoms were notable on the twigs; and it is likely that genera now in the area, such as Prosopis, Cercidium, and Caesalpinia, are represented. The sparse evidence from the plant remains in Unit 1. then, suggests a vegetation pattern like that of the present (Ochsenius n.d.). Plant remains from the organic black clay deposit of Unit III could not be identified due to an inadequate sample of the deposit still exposed in 1976, but the black clay is believed to represent an interval of ponding after colluvial deposition and weathering of the red sand of Unit Il. The old land surface of the Unit I/II disconformity may indicate a drier climatic interval, but it is also possible that the spring flow migrated temporarily to another part of the basin. The Faunal Sequence The bones recovered from Taima-taima in 1976 were identified by Rodolfo M Casamiquela after the remains had been removed from the site at the close of excava- tions. Due to inadequate control of the water level during excavation, most of the bones were in poor condition by the time he examined the collection. Casamiquela had only a few weeks at his disposal to analyze the collection in Coro, and no cc tion at hand, In view of these restrictions, he regards the classification (detailed in Casamiquela n.d.) as only tentative, with certain taxonomic assignations requiring reanaly'sis and refinement.132 GRUHN AND BRYAN The Cobble Pavement Bones recovered from the cobble pavement in the 1976 excavations were water- wom and often broken. The remains which could be definitely assigned to this horizo Here exclusively mastodont, representing individuals of all ages. Casamiquela tents tively classified the molars as pertaining to the genera Stegomasiodon and Haplomasto don. Elements present include tusk fragments, molars, mandibular fragments, verte- brae. ribs, fragments of scapulae and pelves, femora, tibiae, humeri, and podials. It is notable that three femora showed clear evidence (in the form of multiple, crisscrossing, linear abrasion scars on the upper surface) of human use as anvils: tw, of chece were embedded in the cobble pavement in the vicinity of the butchered juvenile mastodont situated at the base of Unit I and must have been used by the successful hunters expediently as chopping blocks. Fugue S.2. Three project points trom the E! Jobo type site inthe Rio Pecregal alley, The midsectan is similar to the specimen found within the body cavity o! he fuvenile mastodont al Taima-taima. The edge ol the point shown athe fat Poh wos produced! by using the flake arises on one surface as platforms lor he delacr ment Pressure lakes on the opposing surface (Scale is 13: ilustration by A. Wil Unit | Numerous bones were recovered in the 1976 excavations of the grey clayey sand of Unit 1. Mastodont remains were in highest frequency. A partially articulated ckeleecn of a juvenile mastodont, with clear evidence of butchering and an El Jobo projectile point (Bg. 3.3) in the pubic cavity, was the major find, situated at the base of Unit | (figs. 5.4 ©.) The head and right forelimb had been completely removed by the surceseha hunters, Other mastodon: remains from Unit 1 included ad ut or juvenile mandibles.EXTINCTIONS AT TAIMA-TAIMA 133, Figure 5.4. Excavations in progress at Taima-lasms in 1976 in the foreground is the skeleton of the guvenile masiodont near the base of Unit | in the background s an inverted glyptedont carapace on the Unit Ul descontormity. molars, tusk fragments, and fragmentary humeri, ulnae, vertebrae, and scapulee. On the basis of the molar morphology Casamiquela identified Haplomastodon and perhaps Stegomastodon. In addition to the mastodont remains, the Unit 1 sand yielded three fragmentary giyptodont scutes (Glyptodon and ?Sclerocalyptonae incertae sedis) anc three molars of Equus. A fragmentary tooth of Glossotherium and a molar tooth of an ursid, probably Pararctotherium, were also recovered from Unit |, in addition to a smal! scapula and rib which may pertain to a feli. Unit /!1 Disconformity On the old land suriace represented by the Unit UII disconformity were numerous eroded bone fragments—molars, vertebrae, ribs, fragmentary limbs, scutes— Tepresenting a vanety of animals. Notably absent, however, is mastodont. Tne absence can hardly be a sampling error, as mastodonts have bigger bones to leave more identifi able fragments than the taxa which are represented. The most numerous remains identifiable are those of horse (Equus and Hippidion), glyptodont (Ghyptodon and ?Sclerocalyptonae incertae sedis), and Macrauchenia. A major find, requiring very careful excavation and removal en bloc, was an inverted glyptodont carapace, with fragmentary remains of the ilium and the vertebral column in the interior (see fig. 5.4) In addition, scant remains of a mylodontid and an artiodacty! were found, plus five fragments of tortoise carapace (Geochelone). Discussion The 1976 excavations at Taima-taima indicated three faunal assemblages co: lated with major stratigraphic horizons: bones impacted into the cobble pavement bones enclosed within the grey clayey sand of Unit I, and eroded bone fragments exposed on the Unit I/II disconformity. Mastodont remains are the predominant element in the two earlier faunal assemblages; in the assemblage from the Unit 1/1] disconform mastodont is conspicuously absent, To ve considered as factors involved in an explana tion of the faunal sequence are environmental changes and human activityeo ony ae | \ me. | SST PI CS > + Dy @ “Ge \V 6%oe eae 2) ec a has SS) : ~ 8 SA ¥Figure 5.5. Bones mapped at Taimna-taima in 1976. Dashed tine indicates proties depicted on Figure 5.2 ‘Alibones are of mastodont unless otherwise noted. Bones with heavy oulline onmap ‘elate 10 the juvenile mastodont skeleton or occur al the same level in Unit f; other ‘bones were embedded in the underlying cabbie pavement; the El Jobo point is he ‘smail tnangle in the pubic cavity. ‘Map No, \dentification 134 Lnidentited pelvic or scapular fragment patalia basal tregment of cranium, well-wom terminal fragment of tusk, juvanvie alias Bih right thoracic ri Tih night thoracic nD Lnidentiied fragment fragment of rib phalange Unidentiies fragment Unidentiied no Unidentited nb ‘9th Jett thoracic rib 15th lef thoracse nb-—one cut mark 14th ie thoracic nib ‘1m let thoracic nb lett humerus—six cut marks eft scapula Jat femur fragment of ischium of small mammal ‘fragment of rid: Jef ving 191" nght thoracic nb 16th nght horace nb 18th let thoracic nd midsection of leh humerus teh fibula lef tibia night femur—used as anvit fragment of vertebra, fef mandibie ‘adult molar flaked pebble fragment of vertebra 01h left thoracic nib juvenile molar flaked pebble eft mandible, juvenile (part of no. 84) rough stone Mlaked pedodie adult molar rough ston juvenile molar fake pebbie faked pepble flaked pepdie fragment of tusk, juvenile ‘midsection of left femu'—used as anv! ‘molar of ursio fragment of vertebra ett mandible, juveniie 42th night thoracic nib phaiange, teh mandibie, juvenite fight mandible, juvenile (p= of no 67) midsection of infantile nght dia fragment of verebra unidenttien unidentihes Map No. 89, 90. 1 92 93, 94 95, 96. 97. 98 99 100, 101 102 103. 104, 108, 106, 107. 108, 108, 110, m 12. 13, 114, 115, 16 47. ne 19, 120. 421, 122, 123 124. 125, 128, 127, 128 129. 130. 131 132, 133, 194, 135. 136. 137 138, 139, 140, 141 142. 143 144 145, 146 147 148 148 \oentitication ‘small tong bone left temur—used as anvil unigenifies aiyptodont scute unidentified fool bone unidentified foo! tones phalange, lett Unidentified 17th right thoracic nb fragment of pelvis scapula of carnwore vertebra, juvenile 6th lett thoracic nb rough stone 1th night thoracic nb fragment of lett vine—used as anvil lef radius 10th right thoracic rit ‘4th night thoracic nb 33th right thoracic nb fight tibia right fibula ‘ight femur fet pubis and ischum fight pubis and ischium, smal rb ‘epiphysis of left ium rough stone small fragment of bone left ium ‘Small scapula ‘small tong bore unidentified ‘ight thium si caudal vertebra 1st sacral vertedra 4m lumbar vertebra 31d lumbar vertebra 2nd and 3rd sacral vertebrae fragment of vertebra 2nd lumbar vertedca 19th thoracic vertebra 18th thoracic vertebra 17th thoracic vertebra 16th left thoracic rib Y4th and 15th thoracic vertebrae 16th and 20th thoracc venedrae fragment of vertebra fragment of vertebra fregment of vanebra 12th thoracic vertebra 13th thoracic vertebra midsection of nght femur 18th right thoracic fib 1st lumbar vertebra 4th sacral venteora 7th left thoracic b—one cut mark 191 lett thoracre nd fragment of nib 131h lett thoracic nid fragment of tem136 GRUHN AND BRYAN Consideration of absolute chronology is also a factor in the discussion. Mastodont bones collected from the cobble pavement in 1976 for radiocarbon analysis have been undatable due to lack of collagen; nevertheless Bryan and Gruhn (n.d.) ‘speculate that an anomalous organic carbon date of 14,400 = 435 yr B.P. (TVIC-191-2) on bone collected iy may be dated at about 11,800 vr B.P.; itis certainly older than 10,200 yr B.P.. the date for the black clay of Unit II. which is separated from it by the red sand deposit of Un 1] and a weathering horizon at the top of Unit IL. ‘The admittedly sparse paleoenvironmental data from Taima-taima give no evi- dence of significant differences in the local environment of late Pleistocene tines rong that of the present. Indeed, Ochsenius (n.d) argues for a semiarid chmate and thon, forest cover in the coastal zone of north-central Venezuela in the late Pleictoeen notwithstanding plausible counter-evidence in the form of the presence of megafauna until 10,000 years ago. All axa including the proboscideans might have been adaptable to semiarid conditions, much as similar taxa are to the present semiarid environments of ast and south Africa. dsier climatic conditions may have prevailed at this time, but al present there is ma adequate data base for postulating local environmental change as the cause of extinction. The hand of man is certainly evident at Taima-taima, with a definite mastodont kil at the edge of the water hole about 13,000 years ago documented in the 1976 exceva Uons, as well as evidence of other kills at the site found in Previous excavations. Projectile points of the El Jobo complex were also recorded with mastodont rem: including deliberately grooved mastodont bones (cf, Rouse and Cruxent 1963b:pl. 4) at the nearby water hole of Muaco, which has two radiocarbon dates on burned bone of 16,375 = 400 yr B.P. (M-1068) and 14,300 + 500 yr B.P. (0-999) (Cruxent 1961), The animals may have been ambushed at these water holes, or the hunters may have struck elsewhere and tracked the wounded animals to water. A third probable kill site with El Jobo points in association with mastodont remains is Cucuruchi, in a side canyon in a ‘Borge near the sea a few kilometers east of Taima-taima Artifacts of the El Jobo complex are also known from. surficial sites on the middle terraces of the Rio Pedregal, about 80 km south-southwest of Taima-taima. This is an area with abundant fine quartzite, a flakeable material commonly used by El Jobo hu: ters; many of the archaeological sites from this type area are clearly quarry workshops. It is notable that assemblages of stone artifacts on the higher benches of the Riv Pedregal valley include no projectile points—only flakes, cores, choppers, uniface Scrapers, and large, thick bifaces, An evolution of these industries (Camare comple. Las Lagunas complex) into the E) Jobo complex has been postulated (Rouse and Cruxent 1963a: 28-33, Bryan 1972), although it is undemonstrable without a detailed Study of the geomorphology of the Rio Pedregal terraces and the geochronology of the sites. On typological grounds, however, it is possible to speculate that the local precur- sors of the El Jobo complex in north-central Venezuela innovated bifacial, lanceolate Projectile points from their existing lithic repertoire The El Jobo complex, then, would mark the local development of a proboscidean- hunting complex certainly by 13,000 years ago and quite possibly ae exrlc ne 16 ovEXTINCTIONS AT TAIMA-TAIMA 137 years ago. This development in north-central Venezuela must be entirely independent of the emergence of the Clovis or Llano complex of North America, with its markedly different lithic technology and age of only 11,500~11,000 yr B.P. Indeed, a focus on proboscidean hunting may be seen as an independent cultural development which took ‘place in Several different areas a5 responses to available economic resources in the Olé jorld as well as in the New World” ince the technology was evolved in north-central Venezuela, mastodonts may have yielded to hunting pressures. Even if the mastodonts were gone by 11,800 years ago, however, various other Pleistocene megafauna—glyptodont, horse, Mac- rauchenia, mylodont—continued to range the Taima-taima area beyond that time, ap- parently able to cope, at least for some time, with human predation. The dating and cause of final extinction of these taxa in north-central Venezuela is yet to be determined. Acknowledgments We are grateful to the Centro do Investigaciones del Paleoindio y Cuaternario ‘Sudamericano (CIPICS) for supporting the 1976 excavations at Taima-taima. References Bryan, Alan L. 1973. Paleoenvironments and ‘cultural diversity in Late Pleistocene South Amenca. Quaternary Research 3(2):237- 256. Bryan, A. L., R. M. Casamiquela, J. M. ‘Cruxent, R. Gruhn, and C. Ochsenius. n.d. ‘An El Jobo mastodon kill at Taima-taima, Venezuela, Science 200:1275~1277. Bryan, Alan L., and Ruth Gruhn. 1980. The radiocarbon dates. Jn: Ochsenius, C., and R. Gruhn (editors), Taima-taima: Final Re- port on the 1976 Excavations. Monografias Cientificas 3, Programa CIPICS, Univer- sidad Francisco de Miranda, Coro, Ven- ezuela. In press. Casamiquela, Rodolfo M. n.d. An interpreta- tion of the fossil vertebrates of the Taima- taima site, Jn: Ochsenius, C., and R. Gruhn (editors), Taima-taima: Final Report on the 1976 Excavations. Monografias Cientificas 3, Programa CIPICS, Universidad Fran- cisco de Miranda, Coro, Venezuela. In press, Cruxent, José M. 1961. Huesos quemados en el yacimiento prehistérico de Muaco. IVIC Depto, de Antropologia Boletin Informativo 2:20-21. ——. 1967. E! Paleo-Indio en Taima-taima, Estado Falcén, Venezuela. Acta Cientifica Venezolana Suppl. 3:3-17. . 1970. Projectile points with Pleis- tocene mammals in Venezuela. Antiquity 4:223-225, Cruxent, José M., and Irving Rouse. 1956. A lithic industry of Paleo-Indian type in Ven ezuela. American Antiquity 22:172-179. Ochsenius, Claudio. n.d. A brief paleoecologi al interpretation of the site of Taima-taima and its surroundings. Jn: Ochsenius, C. and R. Gruhn (editors), Taima-taima: Final Report on the 1976 Excavations. Mono: grafias Cientificas 3, Programa CIPICS, Universidad Francisco de Miranda, Coro. Venezuela. In press, ‘Ochsenius, Claudio, and Ruth Gruhn (editors). n.d. Taima-taima: Final Report on the 1976 Excavations. Monografias Cientificas 3. Programa CIPICS, Universidad Francisco de Miranda, Coro, Venezuela. In press. Rouse, Irving, and José M. Cruxent. 19632 ‘Some recent radiocarbon dates for western Venezuela. American Antiquity 28:537- ‘540. —. 19636, Venezuelan Archasology. Yale University Press, New Haven Royo y Goméz, José. 1960. El yacimiento de vertebrados Pleistocenos de Muaco, Estado Faledn, Venezuela, con industria litica humana. International Geological Con: gress, 2ist report, Part 4, pp. 154-157. Copenhagen.