FOOD SPOILAGE

MICROORGANISMS
Chapter 16
• What are spoilage bacteria?
Spoilage bacteria are microorganisms too small to
be seen without a microscope that cause food to
deteriorate and develop unpleasant odours, tastes,
and textures. These one-celled microorganisms can
cause fruits and vegetables to get mushy or slimy,
or meat to develop a bad odour.
• normal life processes, (responsible for respiration,
Do spoilage bacteria make people sick?
Most people would not choose to eat spoiled food.
However, if they did, they probably would not get
sick.
Pathogenic bacteria cause illness. They grow
rapidly in the "Danger Zone" – the temperatures
between 40 and 140 °F – and do not generally
affect the taste, smell, or appearance of food. Food
that is left too long at unsafe temperatures could be
dangerous to eat, but smell and look just fine. E.
coli O157:H7, Campylobacter, and Salmonella are
examples of pathogenic bacteria.
• How do bacteria spoil food?
There are different spoilage bacteria and each
reproduces at specific temperatures. Some can
grow at the low temperatures in the refrigerator or
freezer. Others grow well at room temperature and
in the "Danger Zone." Bacteria will grow anywhere
they have access to nutrients and water. Under the
correct conditions, spoilage bacteria reproduce
rapidly and the populations can grow very large. In
some cases, they can double their numbers in as
little as 20 minutes. The large number of
microorganisms and their waste products cause the
objectionable changes in odour, taste, and texture.
• Food can deteriorate as a result of two main
factors:
• 1) growth of micro-organisms - usually from surface
contamination - especially important in processed
food - see below
2) action of enzymes - from within cells - part of
for instance). It is important to note that many
plants - fresh vegetables and fruit - are still alive
when bought and even when eaten raw, and meat
from animals undergoes gradual chemical changes
after slaughter.
• Micro-organisms involved are normally bacteria and
fungi (including yeasts)
Various members of these groups may cause
changes in the character of food, which may be
classed as "positive" or "negative".
Products of "positive" microbial transformations
include cheese, yoghurt, and wine, which can be
seen as increasing the nutritional value or keeping
quality of products with a short shelf life.
• "Negative" aspects of microbial growth include food
deterioration and spoilage by decay, and food
poisoning, mainly caused by different and less
widespread bacteria. As they grow, micro-
organisms release their own enzymes into the liquid
surrounding them, and absorb the products of
external digestion. This is the main basis of
microbial food spoilage, which lowers its nutritional
value. Bacteria and moulds may also produce
waste products which act as poisons or toxins, thus
causing the renowned ill-effects.
• Conditions for microbial growth (and also for
enzyme action)
•
1) organic food (proteins, carbohydrates, fats) -
same as humans!
2) suitable temperature
3) moisture (water)
4) [in some cases] air
5) suitable pH
• For numbers 2-5, this (scientific) knowledge can be
applied to (technological) processes in order to
control food spoilage.
1.Temperature treatments
• For each 10 °C rise in temperature, the activity of
micro-organisms and enzymes increases by at least
2x, in the range 0-60 °C. Above this, heat quickly
destroys enzymes and stops living cells from
working.
• Decreased temperatures therefore work by slowing
down these changes. The technology involved may
be fairly expensive, and is needed continuously, but
it does not change the flavour of food.
• In a refrigerator (about 4 °C) food keeps longer
because it decays more slowly. Bacteria are not
killed, but merely less active.
• In a freezer (about -15 °C) bacteria are completely
inactive, but internal enzymes are still active. For
this reason, frozen vegetables such as peas are
blanched by treatment with boiling water before
freezing.
• The cooling process may also have the effect of
removing water from food, so it is necessary to
wrap it to prevent dehydration.
• Increased temperatures can have a more
permanent preservative effect, and only require a
fairly brief treatment. They may also alter the
flavour of food.
• Gentle heating (about 60-70 °C, up to boiling, 100
°C) kills most bacterial cells in a few minutes, but
does not affect some species which form spores.
• It also denatures proteins, so it deactivates
enzymes. Most cooking does this, and
pasteurisation of milk is carefully controlled (63-66
°C for 30 minutes) to prevent flavour changes,
although it does not quite kill all contaminating
bacteria.
• Pressure cooking raises the temperature (usually to
120 °C or more), which kills bacterial cells in
seconds, although spores need about 15-20
minutes. This is called sterilization.
• Apparatus called an autoclave is used
commercially, and for preparing sterile media for
growth of micro-organisms in the laboratory.
Ultra-high temperatures (UHT) - 132+ °C for at least
1 second) are at the basis of treatment of liquids
like milk, and fruit juices, so that these have a "long
life".
• After heat treatment, it is essential to ensure that
foods cannot become contaminated by contact with
raw food, because they are now more easily
colonised by bacteria.
2.Removal of water
Many foods can be preserved by being
simply dried (dehydrated, desiccated),
perhaps in the sun . Water may be added to
rehydrate it before consumption, or if eaten
dry, digestive juices moisten it and make it
available to our bodies.
• Salted foods, and foods with added sugar
are also effectively using the same
technique, since the water they contain is
unavailable for microbial growth. Indeed,
cells of micro-organisms become
plasmolysed when they come into contact
with the surfaces of these foods.
• Combined treatments - provide extremely
long keeping qualities.
• Freeze drying is a relatively recent method
of preservation involving the removal of
water (as vapour) from frozen food under
reduced pressure.
advantages of the product of the process.
> lighter, and does not need refrigeration -
lower transport & storage costs
• Canning is heat-treatment in an autoclave,
together with sealing of the food in an air-
tight container.

• Smoking foods, as well as drying, covers the

outside (most exposed to microbial
contamination) with a thin film of
antimicrobial chemicals.

3.Removal of air
This technique is not usually used on its own
- in fact some of the worst food poisoning
bacteria thrive in its absence.
Vacuum packing is, however, often used in
conjunction with other techniques.

4.Alteration of pH
Pickling, usually in vinegar or other acids,
lowers the pH so that bacterial enzymes
cannot operate.
• What is food spoilage?
• Food spoilage means the original nutritional value,
texture, flavour of the food are damaged, the food
become harmful to people and unsuitable to eat.

• Causes of the spoilage of food

1.Microbial spoilage
2.Autolysis
3.Other factors

1.Microbial spoilage
• There are three types of microorganisms that cause
food spoilage -- yeasts, moulds and bacteria.
• Yeasts growth causes fermentation which is the
result of yeast metabolism. There are two types of
yeasts true yeast and false yeast. True yeast
metabolizes sugar producing alcohol and carbon
dioxide gas. This is known as fermentation. False
yeast grows as a dry film on a food surface, such
as on pickle brine. False yeast occurs in foods that
have a high sugar or high acid environment.
• Moulds grow in filaments forming a tough mass
which is visible as `mould growth'. Moulds form
spores which, when dry, float through the air to find
suitable conditions where they can start the growth
cycle again.
• Mould can cause illness, especially if the person is
allergic to molds. Usually though, the main
symptoms from eating mouldy food will be nausea
or vomiting from the bad taste and smell of the
mouldy food.
• Both yeasts and moulds can thrive in high acid
foods like fruit, tomatoes, jams, jellies and pickles.
Both are easily destroyed by heat. Processing high
acid foods at a temperature of 100°C (212°F) in a
boiling water canner for the appropriate length of Rhizopus stolonifer
time destroys yeasts and moulds. Chrysonilia sitophila
• Common mould on bread
• Rhizopus stolonifer
• Penicillin expansum
• Aspergillus niger
• Chrysonilia sitophila

Penicillin expansum

Aspergillus niger
 Fungal Spoilage
Canned food spoilage
Severe swell due to entensive gas
production. Note the great deformation of
the can. This can is potentially
dangerous, and could explode if dropped
or hit!
Storage rot in grapes
caused by Botrytis cinerea.

The can shown here was

dropped and the gas
pressure resulted in a
violent explosion. Note that
the lid has been torn apart.
Storage rot in strawberry
caused by Botrytis cinerea.

Blue mould rot in tomato

caused by Penicilliumi spp.
(also by Fusarium spp.

Blue mould on oranges

caused by Penicillium
digitatum.
• Bacteria are round, rod or spiral shaped •
microorganisms. Bacteria may grow under a wide Soft rot in tomato caused by Erwinia carotovora.
variety of conditions.
• There are many types of bacteria that cause
spoilage. They can be divided into: spore-forming
and nonspore-forming.
• Bacteria generally prefer low acid foods like
vegetables and meat. In order to destroy bacteria
spores in a relatively short period of time, low acid
foods must be processed for the appropriate length
of time at 116°C (240°F) in a pressure canner.
(Temperatures higher than 100°C [212°F] can be
obtained only by pressure canning.)
• Eatting spoiled food caused by bacteria can cause
food poisoning.

2.Autolysis
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins found in all plants and animals.
Chilling injury in cucumber
If uncooked foods are not used while fresh,
caused by low temperature.
enzymes cause undesirable changes in colour,
Note the watery surface.
texture and flavour. Enzymes are destroyed
easily by heat processing.

b) Oxidation by air

Atmospheric oxygen can react with some food

components which may cause rancidity or color
changes.

3.Other factors
Infestations (invasions) by insects and rodents, which
account for huge losses in food stocks.
Low temperature injury - the internal structures of the
food are damaged by very low temperature. Internal mahogany browning of potato
caused by low temperature injury.
Types of food decay b. Putrefaction
• There are three types of food decay: • Biological decomposition of organic matter,
• Putrefaction with the production of ill-smelling and tasting
• Fermentation products, associated with anaerobic (no oxygen
• Rancidity present) conditions.
• Formula of putrefaction:
• Example of food spoilage
• Microorganisms involved in food spoilage
• Common mould on bread •
• Canned food spoilage

A, Fermentation , chemical changes in organic

substances produced by the action of enzymes.
This general definition includes virtually all
chemical reactions of physiological importance,
and scientists today often restrict the term to
the action of specific enzymes, called ferments,
produced by minute organisms such as molds,
bacteria, and yeasts. For example, lactase, a
ferment produced by bacteria usually found in
milk, causes the milk to sour by changing
lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid.
• Formula of fermentation:
• (1)Microbial rancidity
• Like all food components, fats undergo
deteriorative changes with time, which result in
undesirable flavors and odorus. These changes
in fats are given the term "rancidity".
• Formula of microbial rancidity:
(2)Hydrolytic rancidity
• Fatty acids formed through
hydrolysis of the lipid(fat) by the
water which it contains. Some of
the liberated fatty acids are
volatile, and some have very
unpleasant odours and flavours.
• Formula of hydrolytic rancidity
(3)Oxidative rancidity
• The oxidation of acylglycerols
which occurs in air, without the
presence of enzymes, is called
autoxidation.
• Among the products of
autoxidation are hydroperoxides,
ROOH.
• These have no taste, but they
decompose easily to form
aldehydes, ketones and acids,
which give oxidised fats and oils
their rancid flavours.
• It can be slow down by addition
of antioxidants.
The need to preserve food
• Food Preservation , processes involved in
protecting food against microbes and other spoilage
agents to permit its future consumption.
• The preserved food should retain a palatable
appearance, flavor, and texture, as well as its
original nutritional value.
• The following points are the main reasons of food
presevation:
a) To protect food against microbes and other
spoilage agents
b) To ensure that food is safe for future consumption
c) To prolong food storage time
d) To allow many foods to be available year-round, in
great quantity and the best-quality
Principles of preservations
• Micro-organisms, enzyme, chemical reaction of
food components are the main causes of food
spoilage.
• So the principles of preservations are:
• Killing of micro-organisms
• Inhibition of microbial growth
• Removing micro-organisms
• Destroying enzyme
• Retardation of chemical changes
Conditions for the growth of micro-organisms
a) Suitable Temperature : Some micro-organisms can
grow at 50 - 60oC ; others have optimum growth
temperatures of 25 - 40oC , and others grow well at
10 - 20oC, and survive at 0oC ;
b) pH value : Most micro-organisms grow best at a pH
of 6.6 to 7.5. Some micro-organisms grow at lower
pH values. The spoilage of fruits is usually caused
by yeasts and moulds, which can tolerate low pH.
The spoilage of meat and fish is usually caused by
bacteria ;
c) Moisture ( water activity of the food ) : The water
activity of a food describes the amount of available
water in a food. It is given by:
water activity = (water vapour pressure above the
food at a certain temperature) / (water vapour
pressure above pure water at the same
temperature)
• The micro-organisms cannot grow with the water
activity less than 0.6 ;
d) Nutrients : to supply energy, to supply nitrogen for
protein synthesis and minerals ;
e) Time : Some bacteria divide every 20 minutes. If
the food supply were adequate, a single bacterium
could produce 2 million offspring in 7 hours. The
growth rate declines as the food supply is
exhausted ;
f) A suitable atmosphere : Some micro-organisms
such as mould and some bacteria cannot thrive in
absence of oxygen. Yeast and and few bacteria
can thrive in either the presence or the absence of
oxygen.
Ways of the prevention and their side effects ii. Pasteurization The process is named after the
1. Heat treatment French chemist Louis Pasteur, who devised it in
1865 to inhibit fermentation of wine and milk.
2. Irradiation
• a. Destroys pathogenic microorganisms and
3. Smoking extends the shelf life of a food
4. Drying and dehydration • b. Pasteurized products still contain many viable
5. Refrigeration organisms capable of growing and causing spoilage
6. Freezing defects
7. Canning  
8. Sugaring and Salting • c. Usually pasteurization is combined with another
9. Meat curing means of preservation like refrigeration
10. Pickling in vinegar 　
11. Use of food additives • d. Levels of pasteurization used to thermally
process milk:
12. Filtration
– (1) Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT): 63°
C (145° F) for 30 min
1. Heat treatment 　
– (2) High Temperature Short Time (HTST): 72°
Principle C(161° F) for 15 s (LTLT and HTST are
• Food is heated up or cooked. equivalent thermal processes)
• Heat kills micro-organisms and their spores, 　
alters protein structure, destroys enzyme activity – (3) Ultra High Temperature(UHT): 138° C
of micro-organisms in food . (280 ° F) (or higher) for 2 s

Methods of heating • e. Concept of temperature-time processing

• Variation in temperature and treatment time conditions that give equal destruction of
microorganisms
i) Blanching
• a. Mild heat treatment, usually applied to fruits
and vegetables to denature enzymes
• b. Often used before freezing of fruits and
vegetables
iii. Commercial sterilization
• a. All pathogenic and toxin-forming organisms
are destroyed, as well as other types of
organisms, which if present could grow in the
food and cause spoilage under normal handling
and storage conditions
• b. These foods may contain a small number of
heat resistant bacterial spores, but they will not
multiply under normal handling and storage
conditions
　
• c.Types of commercially sterile processes:
canning, bottling, and aseptic processing
– 　 •
• d. Most commercially sterile food products have
a shelf life of 2 years or longer
Sterilization
• a. Complete destruction of all microorganisms,
including both vegetative cells and spores
Side effect
• High temperatures can diminish product
appearance, texture, and nutrient quality.
• •
Examples: All forms of cooked food, milk
sterilized by UHT (ultra high temperature),beer,
wine
•   Milk is pasteurized by heating at a temperature
of 63° C (145° F) for 30 minutes, rapidly cooling
it, and then storing it at a temperature below 10°
C (50° F). Beer and wine are pasteurized by
being heated at about 60° C (about 140° F) for
about 20 minutes; a newer method involves
heating at 70° C (158° F) for about 30 seconds
and filling the container under sterile conditions.
2. Irradiation
• Principle
• Exposing food to ionizing radiation
• Ionizing radiation or irradiation is used as a method
to destroy enzymes and micro-organisms in food;
kill mould; delay ripening of fruits and vegetables;
inhibit sprouting in bulbs and tubers; remove
insects from grain, cereal products, fresh and dried
fruits, and vegetables; and destroy bacteria in fresh
meats, all with minimal effect on the nutritive value
of food.
• Irradiated foods are not radioactive
a. Radiant energy disappears from the food once it
is removed from the source of ionizing radiation
because the food itself never comes into direct
contact with the radiation source.
• b. There is no radiation hazard from consuming
irradiated foods
• Type of radiation used for food preservation is
ionizing radiation
• a. Wavelengths of 2000 Angstroms (Å) (10-10) or
less
b. Includes gamma rays, x-rays, and electrons
• Gamma rays: radiation emitted from the excited
nucleus of radioactive elements, such as cobalt-60
and cesium-137
• X-rays: produced by bombardment of heavy-metal
targets with high-velocity electrons
•
Electrons: produced by linear accelerators
The three basic techniques for radiation processing; interactions of electrons, X
rays, and gamma rays in the medium
Effect on nutritional quality • There are three components of the radura symbol
• Nutritional losses resulting from irradiation are • The solid circle represents the energy source
considerably less than with other food processing • The clam shell figure represents the food
techniques • The five openings in the outer circle represent rays
• The chemical reactions associated with food from the energy source
irradiation do, in fact, produce very small amounts
of new compounds called radiolytic products
• Examples: Some fruit (peaches, strawberries,
tomatoes ), mushrooms, vegetables and potatoes
Disadvantage (prevents sprouting)
• If irradiated food becomes contaminated, new
pathogens have little competition and can multiply
more rapidly. Therefore, strict sanitation and
cooking standards, and limits on the amount of
bacteria allowed in food, remain essential to ensure
safe irradiated food.

• Commercially available irradiated foods must be

clearly labeled
• The international symbol used to label irradiated
foods is called the radura
3. Smoking
• Principle
• The smoke is obtained by burning hickory or a
similar wood under low breeze/wind at about
93oC to 104oC.
• Preservative action is provided by such
bactericidal chemicals in the smoke as
formaldehyde(HCHO) and creosote(antiseptic
obtained from wood tar) , and by the
dehydration that occurs in the smokehouse.

Side effects
• When foods are smoked they absorb various
chemicals from the smoke including aldehydes
Smoked salmon
and acids.
• The aldehydes causes many microbes to death
and the acids, lowers the pH of the meat.
• Aldehydes are carcinogenic and people who eat
a heavy diet of smoked foods suffer
disproportionately from cancer of the mouth,
stomach and esophagus.
• Examples: Fish (Smoked salmon), ham, and
sausage

Smoked sausage
4. Drying and Dehydration Advantage of drying
• Principle • Drying food loss only a little nutrition in the food.
• Drying removes the moisture from the food so that • Nutritional Losses by Selected Preservation
bacteria, yeasts and moulds cannot grow and spoil Processes
the food. It also slows down the action of enzymes, Preservation Normal loss Processing process
but does not inactivate them. Dried food items can of nutrition method
be kept almost indefinitely, as long as they are not
rehydrated.
• Canning     60-80%     high temperatures
• The process of drying foods removes roughly 80 to Freezing    40-60%         water-logging and
90 percent of the water content of fruits and rupturing of cells
vegetables. Drying food is a combination of
continuous mild heat with air circulation that will • Dehydrating 5-15%     moderate heat and
carry the moisture off. moderate air flowIn-home
• Because drying removes moisture, the food • Drying 3-5% low heat and gentle air
becomes smaller and lighter in weight. When the flow
food is ready for use, the water is added back and
the food returns to its original shape. Side effects
• The disadvantages of this preservation method
Drying methods include the time and labour involved in rehydrating
• Air the food before eating. Moreover, rehydrated food
typically absorbs only about two-thirds of its original
• Oven
water content, making the texture tough and chewy.
• Microwave oven
Dried fruits
• Dried fruits are unique, tasty and nutritious.
• It might be argued that dried fruits are even
tastier than fresh fruits.
• They have been called nature's candy.
• Dried fruit tastes sweeter because the water has
been removed thus concentrating the fruit's
flavor.
• Dried fruit can be eaten as a snack or added to
cereals, muffins or ice cream.

Drying tomatos

Dried tomatos
5. Refrigeration
• Principle
• Refrigeration , process of lowering the temperature
and maintaining it in a given space for the purpose
of chilling foods, preserving certain substances, or
providing an atmosphere conducive to bodily
comfort.
• Storing perishable foods, furs, pharmaceuticals, or
other items under refrigeration is commonly known
as cold storage.
• Chilling slows down microbial activities and
chemical changes resulting in spoilage .
• In chilling, food is kept at 0oC - 4oC.
Disadvantage
• Some spoilage microorganisms (psychrophiles)
may still alive, so the food cannot be stored for long
time.
Differences between refrigeration and freezing
• A. Refrigeration
– Provides cool storage of foods at
temperatures ranging from 0 oC to
4oC.
– Water in the food is not frozen
• a. Consequently, the shelf life of perishable
products is extended only for days or a few weeks
– Growth of nearly all pathogenic
microorganisms is prevented
• b. However, some spoilage microorganisms
(psychrophiles) may thrive
– 　
• B. Freezing
– Provides cold storage of foods at
temperatures lower than -20 oC 
– Most of the water in the food
(about 95%) is frozen
• a. Consequently, the shelf life of perishable
products is extended for months and, in some
cases, years
• b. The rate of freezing is affected by several factors
that may be controlled by the food manufacturer
• Examples: Chilled meat, fruit, vegetables, etc. in a
refrigerator.
6. Freezing • Freezer

• Principle
• Freezing turns water in food to ice. Water is
unavailable for reactions to occur, and for
micro-organisms to grow .
• Freezing preserves food by preventing
microorganisms from multiplying.
• Because the process does not kill all types of
bacteria, however, those that survive
reanimate in thawing food and often grow
more rapidly than before freezing.
• In freezing, food temperature is reduced to
about -17oC .However, the freezing
compartments of some home refrigerators
are not designed to give a temperature of
-17°C, the temperature needed for prolonged
storage of frozen foods. Hold frozen foods in
these compartments only a few days.

Chemical changes during freezing

• Enzymes are proteins present in plants and
animals. While the plant or animal lives,
enzymes help speed up the ripening and
maturing processes.
• Even after we harvest plants or slaughter
animals, enzyme reactions can continue and
result in undesirable color, flavor and texture
changes in the food.
• Freezing slows down, but does not destroy,
enzymes in fruits and vegetables. That is why A bag of frozen vegetables will last many
it is important to stop enzyme activity before
freezing. The two methods you can use are months without spoiling.
blanching and adding chemical compounds
such as ascorbic acid.
Changes in food texture during freezing • Chilling injury in cucumber caused by low
temperature. Note the watery surface.
• Freezing involves the change of water
contained in the food from a liquid to a solid
(ice). When water freezes it expands, and the ice
crystals formed cause cell walls of food to
rupture. As a result, the texture of the product
will be much softer when it thaws.
• These textural changes are most noticeable in
fruits and vegetables that have a high water
content. For example, when frozen lettuce
thaws, it turns limp and wilted. This is the
reason vegetables with a high water content,
such as celery and salad greens, are not usually
frozen . It is also the reason why many frozen
fruits are best served while they still contain a
few ice crystals. The effect of freezing on fruit
tissue is less noticeable when fruit is still
partially frozen.
• Textural changes due to freezing are not as
apparent in products that are cooked before
eating because cooking also softens cell walls.
Textural changes are also less noticeable in
high-starch vegetables, such as peas, corn and
lima beans.

Side effect
• Freezing would cause low temperature injury.

Examples: Frozen meat, peas, vegetables, ice-cream

7. Canning • The steel can recycling process
Principle
• Canning, process of preserving food by heating and
sealing it in airtight containers. The process was
invented (1809) by Nicolas Appert, a French
confectioner.

• Heating destroys enzymes and micro-organisms.

The sealing of cans ensures no micro-organism
and oxygen can get in. Airtight containers make
sure that no oxygen in the containers for bacteria to
live and chemical changes.

Vacuum Sealing
• Vacuum seal prevents air from getting back into the
product carrying with it naturally occurring
microorganisms to recontaminate the food.

Advantage
• Steel can can be recycled to protect the
environment.

Disadvantage
• Food are not thoroughly heated or the containers
are not properly canned may result in botulism or
spoilage of canned food.
Examples: All kinds of tinned foods, such as soup, meat, beans
8. Sugaring and Salting • soy sauce
Principle
• Food is treated with salt, strong salt solution or
strong sugar solution
• After adding salt or sugar, the water potential
outside the micro-organisms is higher than that
inside the micro-organisms. As a result water
essential for enzyme action and microbial
growth is removed by osmosis, the microbial
can't continue to live. 

Disadvantage
• High concentration of salt and sugar makes the
food very salty and sweety respectively.

• Examples: Bacon, salted fish, soy sauce Jam

• Examples: Jam, fruits in heavy sugar syrup

fruits in heavy sugar syrup

 • Examples: Salted fish, pork shoulder, ham,
9. Meat curing corned beef, bacon, sausages, luncheon meat,
Principle Chinese-style preserved meats (sausage, duck
• and pork)
Meat is treated with salt or strong salt solution
containing NaNO3, KNO3 and which may contain
sugar and spices . 10. Pickling in vinegar
• Salt and sugar both cure meat by osmosis. In Principle
addition to drawing the water from the food, • Food is kept in vinegar since micro-organisms
they dehydrate and kill the bacteria that make can not grow well in low pH value solutions.
food spoil.
• Vinegar
• Nitrite or nitrate are used for retarding rancidity,
curing-pink color, killing bacterial • Ordinary vinegar containing 5 percent acetic
acid. Vinegar also contains small quantities of
ash, sugars, phosphoric acid, alcohol, and
Two curing methods glycerol.
• Wet (or brine) curing and dry curing. In the wet • Acetic acid is a clear, colorless liquid with a
curing, the curing ingredients were mixed with pugnent vinegary odor.
boiling water to form a "pickling" brine. But in Disadvantage
dry curing, the ingredients were simply rubbed • Vinegar slows the growth of spoilage bacteria,
into the meat several times over the period of gives flavor and softens bones. Vinegar,
the cure. however, is only a temporary preservative,
because enzymes continue to act, softening and
Side effects spoiling the product.
• The excessive intake of nitrites causes a fall in • Some kind of vinegar such as apple cider
the level of haemoglobin in the blood. In long vinegar will darken most vegetables and fruits.
term this leads to malnutrition and reduced • Examples: Sauces, pickled onions and
lifespan. Nitrates are harmless, but when cucumbers
nitrates are ingested in the diet they are
reduced to nitrites in the body. Then nitrites
may react to form nitrosoamines.
• In the stomach, nitrites are converted into
nitrous acid:
• NaNO2(aq) + HCl(aq) --> HNO2 (aq) + NaCl(aq)
• Amines are formed during the digestion of
proteins. Under certain conditions, nitrousacid
reacts with secondary amines to form
nitrosoamine:
• HNO2 + R2NH --> R2N-N=O + H2O
• Many nitrosoamines have been shown to cause
cancer in animals. Sauces
11. Use of food additives
Principle
• Food Additives , natural and synthetic compounds
added to food to supply nutrients, to enhance color,
flavor, or texture, and to prevent or delay spoilage.
Some additives can inactivates or kill micro-
organisms, retard chemical spoilage.
Types of additives
a) Natural additives
• Some additives are manufactured from natural
sources such as soybeans and corn, which provide
lecithin to maintain product consistency, or beets,
which provide beet powder used as food coloring.
b) Artificial additives
• Additives are not found in nature and must be man-
made. Artificial additives can be produced more
economically, with greater purity and more
consistent quality than some of their natural
counterparts.
Functions of food additives
• Preserve food
• Do not preserve food
E-number
• It is the reference number of food additives
• Side effect of food additives
• Additives can cause allergic reactions in some
people. Colourings, in particular are thought to
cause hyperactivity or asthmatic symptoms
especially in children and young people.
12. Filtration
Principle
• Filtration can remove microorganisms from the
liquid.
• Drinks such as beer can be sterilized by filtration to
avoid quality changes which may impose from
treatments such as heat sterilization.
• The fluid is filtered through millipore membrane
which has pore diameter (e.g. 2 um) smaller then
that of bacteria. Microorganisms can be effectively
eliminated with this preservation procedure.
Food additives

•
It is sometimes wrongly thought that food additives
are a recent development, but there has certainly
been an increase in public interest in the topic. Not
all of this has been well-informed, and there are
signs that commercial interests have been • Preservatives
influenced by consumer pressure, as well as food (E nos in range 200- )
producers manipulating the situation by marketing
techniques. • Colourings
(E nos in range 100- )
• Various labelling regulations have been put into
effect to ensure that contents of (processed) foods • n.b. some are "natural", e.g.>
are known to consumers, and to ensure that food is
fresh - important in unprocessed foods and • Many are synthetic dyes derived originally from coal
probably important even if preservatives are used. tar - "azo dyes" (originally recommended because
they are so stable)
• E numbers are a short method of declaring some e.g.>
common food additives (not actual ingredients of
food as such), which have been cleared as Emulsifiers and anti-oxidants
probably harmless to most people by EEC (E 300- )
bureaucrats. However, some authorities disagree
about their methods, and say that some iniduals
may be susceptible to ill effects. Others distrust the
system, and believe it is used to mislead. It is not
universal, and other names can be substituted.
Terms like natural are certainly used in a cynical
way by some manufacturers. The same system
covers both artificial (synthetic) and natural
substances, which are not by definition without risk!
Flavourings are not covered by the system, either.
Microorganisms involved in food spoilage(Other than Canned Foods) with some examples of causative organisms

Food Type of Spoilage Microorganisms involved

Rhizopus nigricans
Mouldy Penicillium
Bread Aspergillus niger
Ropy Bacillus subtilis
Ropy Enterobacter aerogenes
Saccharomyces
Yeasty
Zygosaccharomyces
Maple sap and syrup
Pink Micrococcus roseus
Aspergillus
Mouldy
Penicillium
Rhizopus
Soft rot
Erwinia
Fresh fruits and
vegetables Gray mold rot Botrytis
Black mold rot A. niger
Pickles, sauerkraut Film yeasts, pink yeasts Rhodotorula
Alcaligenes
Clostridium
Fresh meat Putrefaction
Proteus vulgaris
Pseudomonas fluorescens
 Aspergillus
Mouldy Rhizopus
Penicillium
Cured meat Pseudomonas
Souring
Micrococcus
Lactobacillus
Greening, slime
Leuconostoc
Discoloration Pseudomonas
Fish Alcaligenes
Putrefaction
Flavobacterium
Green rot P. fluorescens
Pseudomonas
Eggs Colorless rots
Alcaligenes
Black rots Proteus
Lactobacillus
Concentrated orange
"Off" flavor Leuconostoc
juice
Acetobacter
Pseudomonas
Poultry Slime, odor
Alcaligenes
What is food poisoning?
• Food poisoning (or food borne illness) is an illness
that you may get after eating food contaminated by
certain bacteria, parasites, viruses, or chemicals.
Common causes of food poisoning
• Food poisoning is commonly caused by certain
bacteria or their toxins, which are poisonous
proteins produced by these bacteria.
• Example of food poisoning caused by bacteria
• Botulism
• Botulism is an often fatal disease that results from
eating improperly canned foods(
spoiled canned food) , improperly processed, low-
acid foods such as green beans, mush-rooms,
spinach, olives and beef or fish contaminated with
toxins released by the bacteria Clostridium
botulinum.
• •
Staphylococcus
• Staphylococcus is a bacterium which causes
pimples, boils and septic wounds. It also causes
food poisoning. Staphylococcus produces a toxin in
infected food. It does not form spores, and it is
quickly killed by boiling. The toxin is more
persistent, and food must be kept at 100°C for 30
minutes to destroy all the toxin. Many foods cannot
be heated to such a high temperature, such as
cream-filled pastries, and these may be a source of
food-poisoning by Staphylococcus.
• Clostridium botulinum causes Botulism
• Clostridium botulinum is the spore-forming bacteria
that is the cause of concern when home canning
low acid foods. While the bacteria is destroyed at
100°C, it has the ability to form hardy spores that
can survive boiling water processing. These spores
can germinate and grow in a low acid environment
in the absence of air. As they grow they give off a
deadly toxin. Clostridium botulinum spores can be
destroyed by heat processing at a temperature of
116°C. Foods that are low in acid such as meat,
poultry, seafood or vegetables must be processed
in a pressure canner in order to obtain
temperatures of 116°C.
• Clostridium botulinum is not a spoilage concern in
high acid foods. The spores cannot grow or
produce the deadly toxin in high acid foods. High
acid foods can be safely heat processed in a boiling
water canner.
The symptoms of botulism
Generally, victims experience symptoms 12-36
hours after eating, although symptoms have started
as long as 96 hours after an exposure. The effects
of botulism include blurred or double vision, dilated
pupils, droopy eyelids that are difficult to open, dry,
sore mouth and throat, a weak grip, and muscle
weakness. Other symptoms can include difficulty
swallowing and speaking, difficult breathing, major
muscle weakness and paralysis.