Notes for Contributors a ee ee ee SECON Volume 11 Number 2 May 1982 Contents Tine Brulana Industrial conflict a a source of technical innovation ‘three cases a Gilbert Facearelio ‘Sraffa versus Ricardo: the historical irrelevance ofthe 12 ‘The ideological conditions for Khomeini's doctrine of ‘government 138 Paul Veyne ‘The inventory of ciferences 173 Review article Mike Gane Textual theory 199 Correspondence 2a Notes on contributors 232 ube quarry fr the Edict by Rowedg & Kepan Pl Lindon, Boston an HesThe ideological conditions for Khomeini’s doctrine of government* 5 Sami Zubside Abstract ‘he blanie movements and ieologies beled ‘Fundamentals? Share ay oppononl tance otek respecte governs ‘athe than common docral postion. The sansa of Society andthe sate spanned onthe mode ofthe “orig?” {amie community of Mabammad and hisimmedite steno, bbut the interpretation of their principles in telation to modern” sociopolitical context gis to politealdeologes which Src mat dere ron enna ars dcsoes eps Khomeini dosent ovement an pete txampleinthattisentzely bated on radtional Shite premises sn es of easing an er eches novel once logical potions of "henson an the aowsace: The term fdas aha recent yee acd wi currency. It amumed to huve 1 cat tlocnee eee ity wich, "ouhodor, suspen wean ait £e pelt local appar mete comps "Sole or weer Scion a Hea’ rie" aes eof ste fe FD nan aes abusing an tam Repeats oe Pena ‘de abn ical venensin soe es oe he inh ferhot In eyed Sn hc De in Irag, also called ‘fundamentalist. In ¢ general sonst, the ere, doc ve dar and ndewanttic wine intact io Smoller fo tow neni ese eh acconay pute he boeee eee een rca heme dan ws tan ee BES EN “An tune a mat apy tne are and boreal hfe hey of Hani oto Sty Vin ht ecto! contin fr Kori devin pent 9 economic if. This poses an explicit opposiion to most sates in Muslim counties, which for the mos part operate as secular States witha nominal commitment eo Islam. This poston is so ‘Fandamenalst a distinc from both concrvatve lama Who have in effec accepted the seclar state, and from refornes like Muhammad. Abdu (1889-1905) who sought to revtase Illa in forms compatible with the modern sate and economy {ensure ‘prope’ forthe Iamic nations in tenn of the umge outed here, the term Yandameatalis? has a moe ot ess clear meaning, although should be emphasised fit fundamen inthis sense does not secessuly ental ological aformites beyond the common grounds mentioned Shove Bet the tm fundamentalist poses problems i sof 35 it fas connotations of a return to some kind of orginal or esentil Islam As we shal see all the movements called fundamentalist dave themscves_on 2 paruculsr constuction of early Iamic Riscorys the period of che Prophet and his immediate stecesors But in this ropect they do noe dite eom ll recent advoetes of 2 ed gn he he aeady mend former Ab nd those who followed in hi tradition, who ao emphasised the ‘eamplcs and tenets ofthis cil period of samichistory although ‘hey feac fferentconchsions regarding the organisation of tate land socey in ove ova day ‘and; of couse, an important par of any fundamentalism i the insistence on the centalny of the Quan and the waitions of the Prophet agun point shared by all ecent samie thinkers and feformers wo also draw concusions diferent ffm the funds mentale’ Seprares alvays allow a vary of inerprecations. ‘Bor there is another whole are. of Isc region whichis a0 ‘fundamentals the Islamic religion as it has been known and practised ove the centuries Gre on the Quran and the caiton End enample ofthe Propher (the summa) and of his immediate Srccewors to Dull up an elaborate body (or bodes) of law and Gheology, Some ofthese fundamental of Iam are acknowledged Sha rebpecel by modern fundamental, bu feature hardy a Sit'in the consuction of their Heslogies and discourses, | shall {turn to this point “There is scase in which all stm is fundamentalist (perhaps swith the cxcepion of certain exeme heres) in ha is utimate Source and vdity ate the acknowleiged canonical sources of the {Guran and the Sunna ofthe Prophet (and in he cae ofthe Shi'a Ske wadtions of the owelve Imams)* But the doctrinal and pol- {eal eifice they build from dose ndareatal ean fer widely. Pludowaly, the imstence. on the unity of state and religion Ihc characeiaes modem fondamentast i atone (theoretic): — igs caeaotsahn ono pe of certain Sufttenencics snd some, modern vevsonses 3 ieee ara koto imate Aes Sietae SSeS icuec cae Pe ore canes te aerenens See Etec aur eae saris law is explicitiy confined to ates of personal and family se ciclo oe Dene Series Sore tanec ore les Siete roe Smee Se eet re cenarens a Seen! Seana ieee eee SoS oa tolltherlers ofthe counmes, PP Be Be PE sen nncy orem (and i shold be emphsel that ie 8 neve cet what is i al eel Gere cue ee aenandarsceeon cates a eeo enone Se hint egies aat are: Sis Seca See Saas acienlaed teeta tient Tee's eau de terent Soc donna ore [earns once eeecneeee rice Erber as eral nee ceudeentirte rasan sey tee eee pearance! meee tama ort i ergo i ac crane enh ‘khomeinism and the Muslim Brothers of reformist ke that of NNubarnmad Abdo, or even ough evsionists ike Ai Abdalrazig toe m3, ae aged that this the rel, orginal Iam, and that ‘be way forward for slam now ito ree the panaples of fghtcousness and justice which ie arid. But here tere isa base UEference berween Suns and Shri, in that the later Would dendly. wis orginal purity with Mohammad and bs fourth Rector, Al, wile rjecting the ter fase caphs preceding ‘Miva usurper Concomitant with this difeence & another ‘epuing the doctrine of leaderhip (Imam) abd elation to {Be communiy, a we shal presently se ‘et us now tn tothe ueston of islamic religion and society unr the dynastic states such as the Ummayads (61-750) and the Ablside (7501258), Tis included pends of expansion and CSrvoldaton ofthe Isami empiesandglden ages of Oourshing Salinion, ce arts, the scence and philosophy. They aboinclude {he periods ofthe construction and elaboration of amie theology idaw, ‘Thee ze compley seu of fundamentals’ ates to {his puter of reigion uid society. On the nga se, repre stave dffecentaton ofthe ate fom the Hime commune), Su the increasing celiance ofthe sate on methods and procedures of government desved from she prefsimic Pesan Empire. The Gatfis became forthe mos part worldly kins, and were only Traine and soccestors tothe Frophe by same and de, and in hoe they maintained the dominance of the blame religion and formally’ enforced and protected te obsenanes. eis precisely thir aiffeceneaton of cgion from the sate which i bemoaned by Khomein. andthe ocher moder radicals when they proclaim Tam to be dinun aa deel, relipon and state Butte theologians nd juste of those dynastic peods forthe most par accepted ‘he dae of thee tine ay an dine mate representing the unity nd powers of the lami community, and the “mainstream! of Suna usm tothe presen day think inlay. And was nded Snder the Abbas that te authoritative formalin of lame Theology occurred and the four main schools of law" were estab ihed Tat sy substantially, Islam as we know i, and must con Sotute part of the fundamentals of any fandamestalism. Yet for Sur comemporaty radia fundamen this san area of ambi uty, For the sha ii celately easy, fr they can eject mos his alin Sunnism, thet own Imams and egilaors, notably Jular (4765) the seth Imam, were inthis period, Dut Pot of they developed. separate theology and law (although profoundly Jnuenced by theitelleccul ferment of the time). But the Shs bo have their dynastic states, noably the Safad (1500-1722) timore’on ths fe), which nurtured some of their prominenteget ta eterna Saba eros meets nae an A ee ee a rin ue cure en os Sesh se) hs Foe toon aoa fees ae Pal rece cece ore averas t cinta e Paisetee ae Si ef tice aoe a ee lis oe sical chee raga a ta Ge Ara OH ya ye oe sey ls Sr pd ne He eee cee ees smears cc ect opeint i toy fee BY seers iatgce i tei fer sire cee mi, ge ce me Sofactcouwaian Dab neciay eat A co fae a Storage nen one as sisters meet ome in rgd ance Sephari etn eg par aera beets on i Fe arcana see he fo Srey ue geese ae pes icy fie aon a Fe een eee es ey Saag pat heats ae ome ers celta ee hee Si a a adsense Sia Pasay se eee oo eric an, ed arreis i So ieee pice moat Sia Ann Set ore ee gee crea ange pec a eine of tala Spear este my roti ce Pease Sak aires ee eae see ari il oa SPeMES on amen sen shane SESS eee yo ees aN at Tee eee RES es eno onto fr Koonin tine of grain 1 ical objective was che maintenance ofthe unity andinerity Fats aan communiy. Lene cabot ie rte, ‘The picture of onic pots cought which emerges from the historia cord is one in which tne unity ofthe Islamic community i tcored supe vale, To cae en ay saben of tis sy by heresy or rebulion is considered a ea vk. The dynastic ing (Wether alps cr Suits), her af and funedonaris, 4i%aoe generally adhere to Islamic tees in pesonl conduct of ion fn Bu ey fe te me pl the supremacy of the Iie rligon and encouraged ts bse ances as well s enforcing, through religious functionaries and Jdpen he vale of stor Li ine and family mates and to Jeftos exten in the punishment of erie, but not avays in Tnaters of ste such athe speciation of taxes. That bas Bw was in some of its aspect binding onthe subjects, but seldom Gn che rulers The uma, in so fas they acknowledged hs Stace of afar and had suficent standing ad power to dsappove se heverteles confined themselves to preatng virtue and jsie 16 ther princes, sometiner so eloquenty ap to de tem (0 teats ofteetand penitence! Butchi dsappeotl seldom extended fo public denunektion, let lone s al 9 rebelion. For i was {ecined tats long ara princes Musi and upholds and defends the unity ofthe community, then be & owed aljance Anotet pect ofthe plea! aides of pious Mosina that some of {Bem vied to sword a much as pose any dealing or sociation twit the state and authority fo fear of being dan or forced ro impious sx 7 Whar atcdes do we find among our contemporary Sunni radicals to these aspect of the history of Islamic thought? In Dractie, lence Te reat urns and theologansareacknowledged ipa of the Mame herage (arts), The lel systems they onstrcted ae forthe mos part accrptedasIsaicla although, ‘och reformers ike Abdu and adie like che Mesim Brothers, fave sougn to reopen the ate of dad in order to reform nd develop the lw). But iceolopealy, both the reformers and Be sical drew very ttle on this erage The main ideo {ogicl springs within Idan on which they dra are the Quran and {BE Sunna’ of the Prophet and the examples of the ea com Imuniy under ARashidun References othe Medival theologians nd legis whee they do ocer in the moder writings are usually { amlicauons ofthe themes of ely lam in het writings. the examples ae cited of the defiance of authority in favour of Feligious Hgteouines by some of these Medieval figures, che those prominent being those. of Ibn Hanbal andthe Hanbal Tradidon, nobly Tout Taymiyyah (1263-1328), which wil beconsidered pesendy. Tt woul sem, then, tht the Sunni funda ‘rentals af highly sleeve inthe element of Islam wich ‘use a5 their fundamentals, with the result thatthe theologed and legal foundations of Islam, constricted in. the Medea Period, wile not tjected, are nevertheless st aside. The reason for this silence is that the moder radial Mamie struggle one ‘guns their respective states aimed atthe insctutons ot lm nt, and che works of che Medieval period can offer ein thi struggle. For ther poles doctrine, o far ast was lly sued wat in eect glscen The queston ofthe ofthe state was not posed beyond the simple requement formally Isanie sate. The quertoas which execsed thee finds were those of faith and dogma, and ic was onthe occasion ‘when the sate atempted to dicave om these matters tha te Pious uma and tha flowers reisted and confontd. the Seat, but never in ebelion. In this and many othe respect the examples of Ib Hanbal, nd che Hanballqadison ae atue ‘Both tba Hanbal himself and the Hanbal theologian thn “aymiyyah were ivolved in confrontations with the reppectve suthones of their Umes over maters of fic and dope, Bodh Suffered prion, torture and ele in seadast defence of thet Postion, which they eleved to be the sre amie fat agaist, ‘ia they considered tobe innovations snd bret nthe co of ‘Ahmad Ibn Hasba, the Caliph Al Marmun had procimed the doctrine ofthe ‘reaiednes" of the Quran asthe offical orodony {che view that the Quran i an bjece ceed by God a gait ‘the view, which ter prevaled, thatthe Quran was Co's breath and digec speech. These postions have docrnal consequence, for it folows from the fine position tat the Quran ppen ts inerprettion and’ construcions, while the late view woul force a literalist acceptance of the sprue, « literalism covey associated withthe Hanbali school tothe present day), Al Maun and his two sucesorsattempeed to enforce this orthodoxy and required all men of velgion to subscribe toe ibn Hanbal emeged Gt least in Inter stores) ae the mos prominent reser upon Which he was imprisoned and examined" amin) by the Calph nd his doctrinal supporters * In thi historically famous iaquee fon, tbo Hanbal defended hi postion with great couge and fenaciy. As a result, he slfered continued fmpesonment and ibeeatment antl the Caliph AlMutawakidl ‘cinvated Sung in 647 wich pois tn Haba ns rls an nour! fr res of his yal or Ibn Taymiyyah, che baile was aginst poplar rl ss ompnised by he SuB Shaykh) who’ enjoyed’ pea favour with the Mameluke esblishment. His stacks on Sufism and Jp theologial supporters soon brought him into cont with the religous suthonties who enlisted the help of thei princely puont in aesting Ibn Taymiyyah and sbjecting him’ to pro Eiced ingustions His srendtas defence of bershst septal Gribodoxy resulted. in penods of imprisonment, ibteatnent idexe “The Hanbal lepal/theologicl school hasbeen st various pints cf ts story known for fierce adherence to scxptral orthony, nd of the four Suam legal schools asthe leat likly co com With Sufi or Shit doctrines and practices (ohough Tfould be emphasised, cat no branchof Iam has entirely esped some degree of involvement with Sufism, which became so impor {ant form of religious organiansion from ate Medieval times tothe {arn of our present cetary), In recent times Hanbalsm bas ben socated wrth movements to revitalize and puny Iam fom popular and ‘decadent sceretions es influence i vent in the Ghicreave SélaG tend among establishment eile in some ‘rab counties inthe earlier decsdes ofthis century. Butts most Frominene fecent manifertation was the Wabhabi movement in ‘rabla, and the milane pustanical movement asocata th the ‘ac of the house of Sud to foyal power Because of se bintorcal record and recent manifestation of niltancy, Hanbalism has been claimed a4 rac tends Sua lam; 4 Sunn! counterpart the Sh asian which ealminted inthe Lranuan Revolution. Ie the objec of this paper to argue at modern ondsmentaist Islam, and especially Khomeini, ‘epreent radical departores from the mainstream of Islamic pola thought. To shat ng, Ihave to show thatthe Hanbl adton dots nor constzae an ancesuy fo modern cal Iam in ele lenging the legitimacy of the de facto separation of government fiom religion, and. certainly docs not constitute parle 19 Khomeints liayat “Al Fagib. Hanbalsm does not make 2x) {his forthe spt qualifications ofthe Fagih or orto assume fvernmental ole ‘Ahmad Ibn Henbal features inthe histori record as pos sad courageour ‘lin known for hs atte olecson and validation Gt the Propher's gaditions (hacth). His confrontation with the ‘ccesive Calis andthe phlosophers oftheir nurs came about through his esl to endows thew docwin repaaing the cweated- nest ofthe Quen. The pliticalsmplication of ts refusals cleat the commander of the Faithful (the tie of the Clip) dees not Sve the authority to pronounce on matters offi and dogma. Every belever and especialy scolar is duty bound to adhere to the tanonieal source of the Quran and the Sunna, to exer hsown ittad, effort and reason in judging the compattily of ay Soctrne or dogma with these sores. By these ter, he judged, the doceinc of the ereatsines of the Quran was en inbeefon nd s heresy and ad toe rested by all pious men, But should ‘enoted shar challenge tothe Caliph in matters of faith dé not txtend t9 ther authority ar rulers or fo the legitimacy of ther fale, Quite the contrary, fon Hanbal maincsined the general Sunn {Emphasis on preserving the unity ofthe Community and aveiding materancts or desis which mighe lad to intrigue (itn) oF Febelion.Alleance is owed, he muiocained to ana ropes ‘of bis morl qualities if he sas Musi and protected the mite {Gone and conditions of Musi observance, In his ital Sua he ad this to say on allegiance toa prince “The bad shouldbe pursed alongside all Imam, whether good ren or ensdoey the injustice of the tyrant or the juice ofthe jus matters lie. The Friday prayer the Plgmage, the two Feast should be made with those who postess authority, even i they are no good, just or pious The legals the tithe, he land tne, che fay are dv tothe ans, whether they put ‘hem coright we or not [Quoted in Encylopedi of km, p28) ‘The only ondition under which a Musin must rss his prince {sif che lcer commands him to commit smasiyy, a disobedience 10 God. But this resistance most stp shor of rebelion. Tb ‘Taymays was equal to his inelecsal ancestor in courage sand sesdlasiness in the defence of the faith aginst what be ot ‘Edered tobe innovations snd hereer, and consequently suffered persecution and banishment at the hands ofthe princely patons Df his theological adversaries. But his docene rgerdng allepance to Musim Ami is almost dentcl to that of Ibn Hanbal in his book A Spuie AlShariyys amie Sateen) he dete ¢ Chapter tothe rigts and dies of the lnm (the ball ofthe book bing devoted w punishment and taxation) st dvived fom the (Quran and the conduct ofthe Prophet and his Rasbsun scene He tempered relipous principles with s considerston of the realities of power (eg. m appointing + military commandes, a4 imam faced" with the choice between pious Sut mes man and cone who is capable but lax in religious observance must choote ‘he later) Bot these prindples and examples of the duces and Assiable condict of the Imam were almost wholly theoretical in felon to Mameluke military princes of his tine, and.quite reality Ibm Taymiyya did'ndt sake any acempt to relorm or oppose chem as Such, His concern was the purty of the faith, ‘or Of government. Inflation to government he enjoined abel: ience and allegiance of al believers shor of commiting ame sy, Einos in sential serms to those of lim Hanbal. Tr would scem that both Ibn Hanbal and Ibn Taymiyya con: formed tothe general Sunni patern of exipasting the unity and invepity of the community, andthe abhorrence of rebelion and fragmentation. Inthe light of ther record of steafariness in dslence of the faith, they cleanly’ dd not hold these views oppor. Tunisically or t cary favour withthe authorten, but oUt Of mine consiction Let us now turn co 4 more recent manifestation of Hanbali sctvsm, thatof Wahhabism in Arabi Mshammad. AbGuWaihab {G7034792) was an lim of Nj who called forthe pacification of Islam from what he considered to be heretical and magical Scares. In this he was fighting a sma bare to that of is Hanbalpeedecesor Ibm Taymiyys, only now in + context of ffagmenttion and weakness ofthe cent power. A tan and fmbious chiefsin could wield exclusive power ovr a tertory ie was prepared to defend Ie was under the patronage of such + ‘Siefisia, Muhammad Tm Soud, that b. Abdalla spread his snesaige And it wara potentaliance which lied the Sbakndoms ind tibes of Nsjé guint the polticovelgious establishment of ‘Mocca as well asthe agents and cients of the Omioman Expie ‘Tae Wabhabs message and ts carers were for atime defeated by (Otoman power (fr tox of the ninseenth century), But is Infuence persisted, nor ony in Arabia, but in many parts of the ‘Musi woeld a far as West Aftea and Malaya where seas Caried by learned pigims, concerned over the sate of Imm in ther couneis where i had developed in highly heterodox and Symerestie modes quite remote from the Quran and the Sunna ‘At the sum of the present century, x capable ané ambitious prince Sf Al Saud, Abdolisia, revived the Wanbab call snd rallied the focces of the faithful under his banner Many supported Abdulais tots iba sections bur individual ven agains the alegance of the are. Thi was known as the toon (brotherhood) move ment!" The itbman were settled by Abas in villages ear), ‘where they led sn ascetic fe according tothe dicate the faith, tnd were sways prepared for Jad of holy wat sn ts defence. In them, Abdulazia had 4 formidable fore which be waed frst to Impose his exclusive power over Najd and then from ts centre in Riyadh to wage campaigns agsinat the forces and clients of the Ostomane and of che Sherif of Mecca, The Brith, in the efor to dislodge che Turks from the Arb counties were backing both ‘Abdali andthe Sherif of Mecn, the fst for his proven mlitary {nd politi capacity, he second for hs supposed religous prestige inthe Muslim world (auch overrated a8 eurned out) In Heend, Yo Sau's forces occupied Mecca and expelled the Sherif bis tetinue, much to the dismay of the British, who were paymaters and supplies of srs to both partes, (The Brishscyuerced the station, then made he Sher's son Faysal king of Sys and ten expeled by ther French ales, they ade hi hig of fag) Th Saud owed 2 considerable debe to the Brith inthe ngom ‘hich he established a Saudi Arabia apd remained after the nd UF World War Eighly dependent on Bish power nancial and silly, In all thi, tbn Saud was caching accommodation and ‘aking compromizes with his Bits avons, which was no 0 the lag of hr asceie wariors Te was bad enough tbe alld to the nid and hep the company. bt what eet hem {o the lmie oftheir tolerance was the imposition ofa marstorim Gn further iad (heron d fre of thelr existence) athe borders Sf what were now Brush protected frag and Kovac. Ulumitely Sfmed conf broke out between Ibn Saud andhishaly warts, {bade which he won, leading to the dispersal and dilocavon of the Idan movement: But che tte and society which emerged 38 ‘Studi arabia as stamped wih the suit sexiptural orthodoxy of ‘Wahtabism and remains formally soc the preset da “he kbar movement i» perhaps the fst of &he modern fandamentalins siting the unity of rlion and the sae ‘he sate established by thn Saud was seen inthis ph, but the requirements of ate and of modern international relations entailed Certain compromises which were unacceptable t0 the relgoot {Slowest be sateen dulity at extol te Seo ae, Done which mage more onceion an alowans forrelgion than any oder modern sate ina Muslin country (antl the lranian Revlucon). Shar law sformally instar, neuding the lw of punishment, Musi observances of prayer And faring 12 formally obligatory, the rule of ie, the veling and pub Seqrepition of woren, ac enforced, nd so on Bu the application ofrelpous aw othe state, is economic policy and adminowaton, fr to the personal conduct of the vast Royal family and ott Powerful families, but 2 thinly disguised pretence, For ths Feason the Saud sate doesnot excape the wath of the modern "Zondamenaise’. Some ofthe ‘moderate’ snd politely practi leaders of he Muslim Brotherhood may be fendly to the Se Sexe (eopeilly in ew of the occasional financial ages), Bot thar doet not tend to the milan cadres who see mich ore {ause for sympathy with Ian, and with the shadowy Baie mi ‘ants inside Sud Arabia. ~~ ‘We have shown that Wabhabism, atleast in ts manifestation in the Ikboan movement an be casfied with the moder funda ‘mental ins instence onthe unity of eligi and the sae Iaam. Bot in one crucial respect it difrene feom the radical {eologies which developed and thrived among the urban poor and ‘Gaditoal’ middle" dases of Egypt (Mim Brother) ot the ‘Suivalene group in conjunction wth sears of the lergy i an. {lim and {ange authorgy forthe Tkbwan was cal conceived {ferns of tba model nd Ibn Saud was for them chitin ‘Ga zeeliouschacana, eis a much simpler and more daeeeind ‘Stale than that of the ‘aon andthe auton sate’ whieh smiley to show ae asmed by the modem “fundamentals lrologes speclly those of Khiomwint and Shara. One may ipo tht yathoue the impact ofthe modem” world i the {Bim of colonal empires, the Ikan may have developed an {amie sare with religous charisma which # subsequently sous [Bel into another dynastic sae, much ike the one developed by ‘eiranccstors in eghtenth and carly nineteenth century Naj ‘We shall now tur tothe task of disingishng Khomeén's poe Usetne from otter fundamentalist ideas. The fist and mest Selig feature of Khomein’s doctine i dat it conducted ‘closely in terms of atonal islamic dscusions with hardy Shy reference to Wester or Westerminspred polttenidologial ‘ois, Thy is in marked contast to al recent Ilamic wits, Findamentast or reformist. For even the most fundamentalist? Gt thinners who uma reject Western’ polisal thovgkt, Seveheles fight some of ther deloge! bales on it eran they incorporate the language of moder statehood and its con Sreco, of parlaments, consttion,sdminisration, polcy and inonig and he concepts of democracy, equal Mery and social uses: Howover, thes elements of moder political thought ‘Which ae alopeed and incorporated have tobe clothed in amie qerms, For instance in some ofthe works of the Musim Brother {he blame religion held tobe unter and inclusive audook ‘thick encompass in esene all the most desirable elements in Fellal phloophis and concept 2nd atthe same time posses rc ineellecraa tools co sce through and ree al tats ave and tain Witness he proclamation by the Musim Brotherhood Incernationalism, nationalism, socialism, capitalism, bolshevsm, ‘var, che distribution of wealth, the relations between producer ind consumer, and whatever is elated to these topics which hive occupied the leaders of nations and philosophers of society il ofthese, we believe, Islam has penetrated tothe core. [nlm established for the world the sytem through which man can benefit from the good and avoid dangers and calamities [Quoted by Mitchell p. 233),Cir ines ke tras abe si neg ihr irs ie Stes ae are Pepe te tet eer Ripa ste grt Ser team cao nes telus cei onion ape ees wens "ote baer wih sige Rhone fom er solaris tom ie Scere ee coe co Sar ey SRE ane comma Se gee ia scree gk a phe eas a Sr hey EAC cnet Eee rng a a ae as, Here ee heh gece cee ses ey i, rere set Stee com opt pos efor ey tenes eae IR geben fh i Soli elhal Naum’ x"eagal nee os ce on he an ne ae ee Sot Sere cern ara ee SEG Se Rela pettet eet secs Min mony coe! esreneg ene cong ore fae Seeley send asp ae Soper ere ea cig ie a Eby betes 0 ee al SSPE es thee een elt ae es Su Gila PPE, on an ere SiverGas Os eee tices kent Se hina Rr eau areas aren: eae tac ot ae ef ppc parece pet od Seer as nec an esc Picts Fe Loom an i flowy ee atm denon porn ar hin aro det gt en Bier a ibe aa te see eee Teepe oe oe oC mane papery pce ee Soerar sa ome mal Be ca Ei Sey tease A a ec, Site Reece's ware eran Sud somite aaa SoS a Pe be peel ere Ree ae ee ie aay nents meses rant eer oe ee eee anaes Sere ag eee eeerg esis caer nace pee leet hater Pees aoe oe a oer ia eas tae a ee eta eg a maeieet ote ee er ee ae ema a as a ee sepia fren alle and pene be mes, a sie a compte ee ee a — a ee a co SE et ae ee erg rake nage sap ot neon. Bat he a tendon Belg ot Seed on ge cere, ee Se ee ee Se i er nae ae ea a aaa Se See eee ee ea aa aetna eal Sorat ekg mee ae peng oat see reps mena egy lng ae coal ova ok meen ea eae rere ‘ap Bauch ape on ps re eenite the Muslims agtnst foreign dangers. The problem thus becomes one of finding a suitable peron fom a suable national and telgious context to be aceepinbe to all the Masims. Rica's Speculation as to suitable candidates then trad tothe states and the royal houses of alam in theory a supreme Mujahid with Papa ‘thority, practice jus lami prince. ‘One might argue ato the degre of coincidence between this ideal of Kb and Khorein's doctrine Wilayat Alay, Tn my view, the two ate divergent in derivation and in purpose Dut Whos pring thew, nd een concen uml mold Sl ot affect the argument ofthis paper rpaing the Weslogia Conditions of the maderm nation state which underpin the pla Uilgy of sucha theory, ae we shall sce, For Rida was opeating Under hes seme sdeolopicl conditions, "Armed with this perspective on the diffrent rypes ofthe ideal, society and government in [lame thought, let st now torn toa asleedof Khomeini’ dctine of greeny, Wayer A gi ‘Rhomein's doctine of Wilsyat ALFagib isa radical departre jin modem slam, His 1969 lcturesin Nae, subsequently published 45 4 book ented Alukumab Alilamiya attempted to eablh {his doctrine on two rounds: rations, by demonstrating the ‘eoretial equivalence, i elaon to government functions othe Jase Fagih with the Prophet and the lama, and aaitioal i advancing relevant traditions fom the Prophet snd the Hams, Thich he interprets confimingehis governmental fonction of the Fagih. The argument arts by instng tht lan as telgon ‘must iaclade a governmental sytem. The separstion of region fom government ands tlegion to. system of worship and situa completely alien eo the spirit and the teaching of ama Pevvesion perpevated and ‘inforced by Imperalian and US gents inode to subjugate and exploit the lands of Ila. 18am ‘Sabove alla lvine law, andthe Law isnot ven merely tobe studied and analysed in religious schools but to be applied ind insitated as" form of sive. The Prophet esl imented am blamic state That is why he appointed a Khalifa (ucceson). ‘The functions which are integral to the Lami telgon reque 4 government.” For example, the collection of taxes and fil pending of the Unde for che needs of Mss and ct afar the Islamic laws spesitying duties and punshi intingements cannot be applied without directing and author. tate porerment. The People cannot be expected to punsh tis logical neessicy that there must be a government which undertakes to put the (Islamic) rues into practice and to apply il slam) measures absolutely [p. 48] What are the qualification of an amie ruler who can under take thee responiblines of government? Two qualifistons ‘Showers Khomin on which all Masts have agreed: otal know ieige ofthe law and total justice in i exertion, The Shi'a bello their Imams to have chese qualities as part ofthe ono fal arbuies of the Ima (hey area superior form of being Spc ae infalibic) But what should Mosins o dig he period ofthe Great Octlation which his lasted more than 1200 yes, Shu whore end cannot be known? The She's cannot rea ‘eyance fora this perio. Mosims cannot Live in anarcy with- ‘Su government or continue fo be subjected to allen and godess goremments The quilfications for leadership are not remiced $0 'ne Prophet andthe Iname The Just Fagih has the equal {uaiicaions for government insofar a he bas total kaowiedge Bike hw and ible to apply july. Tas ls not to by, oF ours, thatthe Fagih shares ithe pesonl speroity ofthe Trans He s mere tht equivalent for the functions of yore tent Fer example the Prophet and the Inams eallcted taxes Ind punshel oflendes and so doce the Fagh (Khomeini seems to Iietlinite view of the funcuors of govermen®). By these citer incidentally, all the Caliph, except for Ai and’ certnly all the Sultans and Prince, ate disqualified from leptimate governorship or Wiley. Khomeli argues (on orthodox Sr tne) har thie ele frm the tnupation of the succession fo the Prophet away fom All and by the ume Aldi ceed i tras to late; matters ad deteriorated too badly and the greedy Ind the corrupt tke Mu'aviyah) were already deeply enenched Romeins then proceeds to support these deductions with bodied (eadition) ofthe Prophet ait the Imam We need not go Thro the argumens tased on tadtions here, excep to note tat ‘esame traditions are open to completly diferent interpeeaions 2 Sscuetons Now nthe sinclogy of te meters nom ianic world, what kindof government wl ee islamic one be? ‘Khomeini quite explich tha it isnot comparable to ay ote. tes nor a Getsonbip the leader must le acording to the thine ln, not by hs gun wil By the same token, e camer be fn sec sytem in which the fepreentauves ofthe people can iegalae: Nor can it bea popular repli mhich makes the people {he own suse te isthe fle of Divine Law a inerpreted and ple’ by the Just Fag Once such a rogine is exabished, ‘Romeint makes ler, he dy ofthe peoples to obey in accor ance with the Quraaic veeOlicters obey God and obey the Messenger and thos in uchority among you ia) (8 63) “wo, thingssuike us about Khomein's political theory. ix simplicity and iis novelry. implicey, in tat is-ceation Seraihtforward,ffom fiw pringper and does not requ sy abstruse reasoning (this is not to say, of course, that it is the only. posible deviation from those pines) ts sapport in fem s Tradons docs not sek. ablcue'sowees of tortuous tee preations, fies so simple, why, one wonders is iso nowel. does the ea of Wier APayt na havea more secure ancy in lamie jarapradene (tha is Wiya in Khomeln's seme ot government, notin the posible lal sense ofuatianship' ever fhinors or over property, mote properly wise) Indeeh, 8 Sekig that Kham doer not ce any contemporas fe Accessor for suppor, except perhaps by example bat not ep sept Helo dow tional spot fom pay ne T should like e argue here that che explanation ofthe novel of the doctrine of Wayat AP-Fapih that ts only pose aot Sreibe under the condions of modern sate and pateey, Wat fakes Khomeini theory puube isthe es of te Prope wt polieal force which ean effec revolution and wanstormton: Ban idea which in Khomein's writing sincere aad an ‘heorsed, but nevertheless eri. 1 comes inthe tetera peg hich he makes to is audience of religous student atthe et of the th leer: ‘awaken the People’ Clyqud ash sh ‘The great eformst movements in history didnot possess power at hei inception. Each started by prosey ing among the people and spreading to them social onscousnes, The ‘movement would then row gradually in oppostion tothe revalent oppression. The cadres of the movement would daw the attention of the people to oppression and awaken them to the dangers of mbna teal of te yt then te peopl Become the active force which sweep lth ostaces in Ss way. When the people awaten from te sme they wil destroy the throne of the oppressor, and then rigntecusnos and ‘arse will preva p73] ‘This concept ofthe people a ‘the nation’ as a poll fore lstinedy modern. te sspecified by mover plea clog cay th Senn as and held ms cope can constitute plital force to space the sate Po. ‘de by the organisation ofthe modem atonstace ‘The point wil emerge more clesty i we compare an ide -eaptalst state or empire, soughly approximate in Gas Lous of hoc Tone sore wth eal piel fuaon sate. The firs type comprise 4 raiety of socal nis, tres villages ethnicandreious roups, mary eases, merchant Sh arian pu, ete. Many of these soda forms especialy ou ue the main urban ceatres are ratvelysutonomousand slated, {Sith dice own forms of poltial snd economic organisation. The Socal division of Inbour does not extend far beyond the main ‘run centres an such inks as exis are rudimentary and simple, Shah as prowbioning of towns from sumounding hitedand Gt such ‘Tear dtinion tan be made. ia some instances, whan groups Produced the own food), One reminded of Max Weber's mage EPrade networks in che ancient emptes being ike web of fine between the major urban centre, Bypasng forthe most ar the vast area of subsistence communis in beeen. In ths Tica type, politcal unity is only mainened bythe power of the ‘enol ate supported by an aminietion and micary apparazs Shove personnel may be deawn fom one or more af te consti he unl, Dot often were drawn fom outside (or example the Mamelukes and the Janisare of the Onoman Empire. The Initaive for politcal change cannot be sid fo come from ‘the people in such a politi unit, urban populations may riot if Posked too hard or may side with one miltary faction or anther, Ete these ae harlyinigative in plied! earafomation, et alone Socal ones The nly inatve which would dodge the ruling Sfique came from another potential cique: a miliary organised rp, usualy tbl with dyeasy of princes o of Roly menor at their ead, tn tis conten, the concept of the people as 2 poltcally active and effective ey is Rarlythnkable and, hough, not very plas Tour oh Helpline, An even len of this type ibs ly advanced and imeated socal division of Itbout The image of nation’ tone comttted not merely by a “zr sate, but by deeper socal and economic processes which uerpn these, perhaps as expr inthe coupe ‘talc Soaety' In ths conten, the conepe of the people asa politcal Sty, a nation with rexoures of polielinivae which can {Eansfoem the states whether by elections or by revolutions, san *PESPibe paras of the prose argument, snot neces 0 raise te question ofthe hora acaracy ofthese ideal ype. 1 Butlin to sy thatthe wadely-held concep of the nation-state isan Mcolopcal condition forthe plasty of the concept of ‘people’ as haon wth resoures and potential for wansformatie Roiteal scion, Wile Khomeini doe not expbcly adopt thissang moe i ep ay ; cs ety semen an ie ew 9 ceo it is not theorised or elaborated. In this respect, Ali Shari'at's tai acerca ra Ab Sa featacer pain stump crs fear naa eae, tothe Sykes Koma SERS heptane cae ‘ansfornutions iw the just Blame society. mao scat nT aie wi Eee cement ea Mail ‘Shari'ati represents another interesting paradox of ‘fundamentalism’ Spline nramgace eo a area fh accom nd Se fof Sena fs Wea Ss Slt sans Dt ps i un magi maanmsreew onde bora Sec Tago craton ere ae Stipes oe Soe eee es eras cnet ete cron Soe engeat ehel Toco wh does not only articulate the modern ideological assumptions rims amet pike ogc! snp Seco sae gin ome eee ion of delopment nd shage Fs, ere eto whieh from a series ofacidents. Thee include materials explanor, Heiden mame steeg Enh Een pov onal te Eien, noel colette acs fe antietspucraniae shen: oF See cota ehmek! Su icea cata meets sulogme nario w(erenirgs sda cate one and its traditions. Fe i oy as Ree area geen ae Bae magia depart oe | | if theca gent clin teeth masa cage eaee wena een spy, se es a Roc te, aa Se om eto at are Se ee array ieee Bete oem Rear Mont unm feo ut ta a anes Tuo nh fs eed mand Quai potter aterm ered ema eee ee ec a in ee ade beri Se ce oton eb SARE hcl oo We a Bema ear acre heen Se Seen, nea ted as wads Sesh hae er recat teed Md ee ae ge Gane ees el, 2 os es Bescon rl oe ee ee he mas LPL ties bat le Epa seats COU Gan ad yee gre lr Cae cle ee ee cine het ape tae ine eer Oe riya See eh ae tara aed ae eee et Senne ogi leche pon Beer nay aoe ee eee mone aa ee i Si et a lier at a ah de ies So coronaire poe Bint ies ge ei pe gren) aT aa‘or to particular people (in the sense of tribe or ethnic or tlgious group), a5 ‘And we sent Noah to his people (qawm) (7, 59) “Almas is more general, a in: ‘Say 0 People (nas), am the messenger of God to you all And ‘Said He, Moses, have chosen thee above all men’ (nat) (7, 144), “The modern usige of ‘the master (Arabic Kitlab and Takata) cor ‘the people’ (Arabic Al Sha’) hate specific political connots ‘ions typically related to the couple ‘people/government, ‘mass ‘elite’ This isthe sense in which Shaci'a is using amas. But inthe (Quran alas is not opposed to government, sate or alte, ie clther used neutally: © People, or ‘Thave chosen you ofall aking or ogee wih grand waver cll having moral/relgious arributes asin ‘the people of righteous’ for ‘people of the evildoers. They (People) are often the inter Toeutor of the Prophet (or of his predecessors, Abraham, Noah, fe) who respond to the word of God, with faith, doubt of {ynicism, and to whom the Prophet, following God's commands, presents proof and arguments aswell as threatsof the consequences Sf God's wrath: ‘Say O mankind (nas), Lam Messenger of God t0 you all (7,158). ‘And we cut them up into nations (amma) in the earth, some of them righteous and Some of them otherwise (7,168) In these contexts, the collectivity, including its elt, lesder and government, are juxcaposed to the Prophey, reiterating the ‘Word of God. They either Believe or doubt, or spit into believers tnd doubters, the dors of good and the doers of evil, Quranic ‘verses referring specifically to the conduct of affairs inthe Islamic formmuny de foapose he people’ to the aden ea God commands you to deliver trusts back to their owners: and ‘when you judge between the peopl chat you judge with justice. (O believers, obey God and obey the Messenger and those in authority ahong you (Ava abamr) (4, 62-3) “This is usually interpreted (Gee thn Taymiyya) a8 defining the complementarity of fulers and their followers in tems of and duties: the rulers have the duty to rule justly but have the ght to obedience. This isin line with the mainstream Islamic tradition, ‘enjoining unity, slidariey and obedience. It certainly di not pose an opposition of ‘people to ‘government Shariati the political modernist is rediscovering the Quran in ‘he image of hit modernism, his "fundamentalism is if anything inverted. "To return to the question of ‘norm’ (unnat), Shari'a is using it in the sense of the nature and laws of development of particular societies. In this respect, ‘society is being used notin the sense of| ‘People as «collectivity, but in the sense of an ordered field of phenomena ke the “economic machine’ ot like Durkheimian Moal facts’ or Marxist “laws of history. Ie is doubtful if any such conception is present in the Quran, or for that matter in any Soeal or relgiots thought before lon Khaldun (fourteenth century), for in any elaborate form in the West before Machavell, Shar ati {oes not refer to Quranic norms exemplifying such a concept. AS has already been said, collecrvtes in the Quran are moral, not ‘systematic The only laws they ae subject to are those of God's will and their destiny following from i God changes not what is in People (qatm) until they change what is in themselves, Whensoever God desies evil fora people, there is no turning i back; apart from Him, they have no pro- tector (13,19). Shc fest hs ve te crac 0 so the ner hoc of s peoples will inte destny, Bu oly thooph = cing Gon wh hough the faith and good wor “To every nation amma) em when tee term come, hey Shal'not pit bck by singe hour nr poe foward (7,3 Here the fixed destiny of a people i formulated in terms of rege isthe Quran js the impiaton thatthe dvonsberween afferent peoples iy natural tnthe sense of being orginal tthe ‘reaton of i word (0 mankind (as), We have created you mae and female and tppointed you races be) and ees, that You may Know one shocker (89,13) “The suggestion hee i that he division Berween peoples is of 2 ‘ina oder to that beoweea the sexes, Tut none of these Ueges would justify har‘ats contention thar there i 2 soclogical concep of ciety" as an order of Bhenomena in the Quran. So why’ id he put this view forward? ‘Apart fom his often reiterated tim vo demanseat hall modern wbfom comand in super form nthe Qa these a Sr important purpose in hit politcal theory served by this ate date want sy cathe People wh te fy eonand will can change sciery. This statement requires a concept of Society” Gystmatic order of phenomena) datinct om “people ss acolectvity of actor. Tn the Quran, ‘people’ in thet vatious dvsions are seen ss supporto svete of che ath and the bet to wi fm over ¢o the faith. What they aze changing by embract the fu chet nord sans and hee deeay Heke acme Of changing their soe for they and thei Soccryar one Shartati‘on the other handy operating wihin the paradigm of modern social and. politcal ‘thought, dacs want fo") that peopl, ‘the maser, wil change society, pardy through chy themselves, But changing themselves (Chat is beng enlightened by thee religous onion i ni «Sat ep cova cangg sociery a6 system of institutions and process, through the nami Revolution . veh Now, given the central status of the concept of ‘the People for Shasta how dhe ace thls relation © overnent a authority ina aly blame government? Ths fa cuca queston in the light of debacescondicred inthe carly days ofthe Iranan Revolution with each contender claiming the support of Sat ats watings. Hamid Algr, for instance, put rogetyer in Engsh 2 ‘umber of Shar‘ats esas which he (alge) ented Merion nd other Western Fallces (Sharia, 1980). In bs lneoduction, ‘Algr dons that hs purpose st show tht leftist cain th Shana was on their side are false. Those who have interpreted Shane's thought af ant-clerical and therefore opposed othe present regime are nov only wrong, but ae hypoctcal and wre wrecker tying to stbotage the Revolution, How shoul! thee ‘azgnecre lad “The mos. cursory reaing of Shas eats in comparion ‘with Khomein willahow him to bea profoundly different thinker ‘Against Khomein's authoritative legalism Shatfat's cays a onsist in the narration of histories acording to temporal order? >The anower, to give i immediately, will be formally, no, and nately, jes. Ves, because historical evens exist no, because 20 Fisorical explanation exists. Like many other sciences, history informs ite materials through recourse to another scence, sociology In the sime way, there do exist astronomical phenomena Dut, tunless Iam mistaken, there exists no astronomical explanation > The explanation of astronomical facts is physics. But a course in astronomy is not course in piysics, ‘When you entrusted this Chair of Roman History to a stranger whose birthplace was the school of historical sociology, I imagine, fy dear coleaguce, that you wanted to respect one of your tad" tions, For thi Char as eracitionally had an interest inthe human > SGences. Keen to present himself in his best light, your servant will therefore refer to what mighe be called the second moment of the ‘Aronian philosophy of history. The fst moment of cha philosophy Economy and Society Volume 11 Number 2 ay 1982 er