Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

The objectives
of Additional Mathematics is to increase student’s capabilities in Mathematics. With this
purpose, which provide an opportunity for students to apply the knowledge and skills learnt
in the classroom into real-life and challenging situations.
Every Form 5 student who wishes to take Additional Mathematics as an elective subject
is required to carry out a project work. The theme is based on the Science and Technology
Package and Social Science Package. Project work can only be carried out in the second
semester, after students have mastered a few topics in the Additional Mathematics. Project
work can be done in groups or individually but each student is encouraged to prepare an
individual report. Submission of report is expected within a three weeks. It is includes the
exploration of mathematical problems in the context of human activities that will in turn
activate my minds, making the learning of mathematics meaningful and beautiful. The aims
of carrying out this project work are to:
• Develop mathematical knowledge in a way which increases student’s interest and
confidence
• Apply mathematics to everyday situations and begin to understand the part that
mathematics play in the world we live
• Improve thinking skills and promote effective mathematical communication
• Assist students to develop positive attitude and personalities, intrinsic mathematical
values such as accuracy, confidence, and systematic reasoning
• Stimulate learning and enhance effective learning
• Encourage the usage of the computer and graphing calculator.

Problem-solving skills and Strategies such as:

• Trial and improvement
• Drawing diagrams
• Tabulating data
• Identifying polars
• Experimenting
• Simulation

Sek. Men. Keb. Teluk Gadong

 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

This project work could not have been completed

without Pn. Rusilah, who encouraged and challenged me
throughout my academic program. She never accepted less
than my best efforts. Thank you!

What was collected in this project work are materials

that I found in articles, in books and definitely through
internet.

I would like to acknowledge and extend my heartfelt

gratitude to the following persons who have made the
completion of this Project Work possible:
Azlin and Azwin, for their vital encouragement and support.
Khairul Izwan, for his understanding and assistance.
My mom, Ropenah Samuri, for the constant reminders and
much needed motivation.
Ahmad Nor Ariff for the help and inspiration he extended.
To all my seniors, for assisting in the collection of the topics
for the chapters.

Most especially to my family, and friends: Words

alone cannot express what I owe you for your
encouragement and patient love, which enabled me to
complete this Project work.

And finally to God, who makes all things possible.

Sek. Men. Keb. Teluk Gadong

 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

In non-mathematical terms, pi is simply the greek letter "p", and is written like this:

Pi is commonly seen in mathematical formulae. The most well known formula that involves pi is:

c= d,

where c is the circumference of a given circle, and d is the diameter of a given circle.

In basic terms, this is the definition of pi, as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its
diameter. It is also the first equation in which pi was ever used.
Another extremely common formula that relies on pi is also to do with a circle, specifically
the relationship between a circle's area and radius:

A= r2 ,

where A is a given circle's area, and r is a given circle's radius.

Aside from these two, there are many other formulae in the study of solid geometry which
involve pi, and a few of these are detailed below with brief explanations:

S = 4 r2
The formula for finding the surface area of a sphere
V= r2h
The formula for finding the volume of a cylinder
S=4 2rR
The formula for finding the surface area of a torus.

Aside from formulae, pi is uncommonly useful in lots of ways. One such way would be in
measuring angles in radians, where 360 degrees are equal to 2 radians.
Also, it is thought that the value of pi is in some way mysteriously linked to many natural
situations. For example, pi is related to the double helix of DNA and even to rainbows. This is very
much a similar phenomenon to the natural number e = 2.718..., which is related to nearly all living
things in some way.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

PART 1

There are a lot of things around us related to circles or parts of a circle.

(a) Collect pictures of 5 such objects. You may use camera to take pictures around your
school compound or get pictures from magazines, newspapers, the internet or any other
resources.

(b) Pi or π is a mathematical constant related to circles. Define π and write a brief history of
π.

PART 2

(a) Diagram 1 shows a semicircle PQR of diameter 10 cm. Semicircles PAB and BCR of
diameter d1 and d2 respectively are inscribed in the semicircle PQR such that the sum of d1
and d2 is equal to 10 cm.

Complete Table 1 by using various values of d1 and the corresponding values of d2. Hence,
determine the relation between the lengths of arcs PQR, PAB and BCR.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

(b) Diagram 2 shows a semicircle PQR of diameter 10 cm. Semicircles PAB, BCD and DER
of diameter d1, d2 and d3 respectively are inscribed in the semicircle PQR such that the sum of
d1, d2 and d3 is equal to 10 cm.

(i) Using various values of d1 and d2 and the corresponding values of d3, determine
the relation between the lengths of arcs PQR, PAB, BCD and DER. Tabulate your
findings.

(ii) Based on your findings in (a) and (b), make generalisations about the length of the
arc of the outer semicircle and the lengths of arcs of the inner semicircles for n inner
semicircles where n = 2, 3, 4....

(c) For different values of diameters of the outer semicircle, show that the generalisations
stated in b (ii) is still true.

PART 3

The Mathematics Society is given a task to design a garden to beautify the school by using
the design as shown in Diagram 3. The shaded region will be planted with flowers and the
two inner semicircles are fish ponds.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

(a) The area of the flower plot is y m2 and the diameter of one of the fish ponds is x m.
Express y in terms of it and x.

(b) Find the diameters of the two fish ponds if the area of the flower plot is 16.5 m2. (Use
π=22/7)

(c) Reduce the non-linear equation obtained in (a) to simple linear form and hence, plot a
straight line graph. Using the straight line graph, determine the area of the flower plot if the
diameter of one of the fish ponds is 4.5 m.

(d) The cost of constructing the fish ponds is higher than that of the flower plot. Use two
methods to determine the area of the flower plot such that the cost of constructing the garden
is minimum.

(e) The principal suggested an additional of 12 semicircular flower beds to the design
submitted by the Mathematics Society as shown in Diagram 4. The sum of the diameters of
the semicircular flower beds is 10 m.

The diameter of the smallest flower bed is 30 cm and the diameter of the flower beds are
increased by a constant value successively. Determine the diameter of the remaining flower
beds.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

a. There are a lot of things around us related to circles or parts of a circle.

Sek. Men. Keb. Teluk Gadong

Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Round
shape
watch
hand
measurin

A round
method
ancient
sundial
g time

for

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Earth.
lovely
round
Our

specta
stylish
Round
cles.

My Little
Balloon

Round
Pony
Foil

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

b. i) The definition of pi, π

10
Pi or π is defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter :

Circumference = π x diameter

Alternatively π can be also defined as the ratio of a circle's area to the area of a
square whose side is equal to the radius :

Area of the circle = π × area of the

shaded square

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

ii) The wonderful history of pi, π

11
The history of pi parallels the development of mathematics as a whole. Some
authors divide progress into three periods: the ancient period during which p was
studied geometrically, the classical era following the development of calculus in
Europe around the 17th century, and the age of digital computers.

Geometrical period
That the ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is the same for
all circles, and that it is slightly more than 3, was known to ancient Egyptian,
Babylonian, Indian and Greek geometers. The earliest known approximations date
from around 1900 BC; they are 25/8 (Babylonia) and 256/81 (Egypt), both within 1%
of the true value. The Indian text Shatapatha Brahmana gives π as 339/108 ≈ 3.139.
The Hebrew Bible appears to suggest, in the Book of Kings, that π = 3, which is
notably worse than other estimates available at the time of writing (600 BC). The
interpretation of the passage is disputed, as some believe the ratio of 3:1 is of an
interior circumference to an exterior diameter of a thinly walled basin, which could
indeed be an accurate ratio, depending on the thickness of the walls.
Archimedes (287-212 BC) was the first to estimate π rigorously. He realized
that its magnitude can be bounded from below and above by inscribing circles in
regular polygons and calculating the outer and inner polygons' respective perimeters:

By using the equivalent of 96-sided polygons, he proved that 223/71 < π <
22/7. Taking the average of these values yields 3.1419.
In the following centuries further development took place in India and China.
Around AD 265, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui provided a simple and
rigorous iterative algorithm to calculate π to any degree of accuracy. He himself
carried through the calculation to a 3072-gon and
obtained an approximate value for π of 3.1416.

Liu Hui's π algorithm

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

12

Later, Liu Hui invented a quick method of calculating π and obtained an approximate
value of 3.1416 with only a 96-gon, by taking advantage of the fact that the difference
in area of successive polygons forms a geometric series with a factor of 4.

Around 480, the Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi demonstrated that π ≈ 355/113,

and showed that 3.1415926 < π < 3.1415927 using Liu Hui's algorithm applied to a
12288-gon. This value was the most accurate approximation of π available for the
next 900 years.

Classical period

Until the second millennium, π was known to fewer than 10 decimal digits. The next
major advance in π studies came with the development of calculus, and in particular
the discovery of infinite series which in principle permit calculating π to any desired
accuracy by adding sufficiently many terms. Around 1400, Madhava of
Sangamagrama found the first known such series:

This is now known as the Madhava-Leibniz series or Gregory-Leibniz series since it

was rediscovered by James Gregory and Gottfried Leibniz in the 17th century.
Unfortunately, the rate of convergence is too slow to calculate many digits in practice;
about 4,000 terms must be summed to improve upon Archimedes' estimate. However,
by transforming the series into

Madhava was able to calculate π as 3.14159265359, correct to 11 decimal places. The

record was beaten in 1424 by the Persian mathematician, Jamshīd al-Kāshī, who
determined 16 decimals of π.

The first major European contribution since Archimedes was made by the German
mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen (1540–1610), who used a geometric method to
compute 35 decimals of π. He was so proud of the calculation, which required the
greater part of his life, that he had the digits engraved into his tombstone.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Around the same time, the methods of calculus and determination of infinite series
13
and products for geometrical quantities began to emerge in Europe. The first such
representation was the Viète's formula,

found by François Viète in 1593. Another famous result is Wallis' product,

by John Wallis in 1655. Isaac Newton himself derived a series for π and calculated 15
digits, although he later confessed: "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I
carried these computations, having no other business at the time."

In 1706 John Machin was the first to compute 100 decimals of π, using the formula

with

Formulas of this type, now known as Machin-like formulas, were used to set several
successive records and remained the best known method for calculating π well into
the age of computers. A remarkable record was set by the calculating prodigy
Zacharias Dase, who in 1844 employed a Machin-like formula to calculate 200
decimals of π in his head at the behest of Gauss. The best value at the end of the 19th
century was due to William Shanks, who took 15 years to calculate π with 707 digits,
although due to a mistake only the first 527 were correct. (To avoid such errors,
modern record calculations of any kind are often performed twice, with two different
formulas. If the results are the same, they are likely to be correct.)

Theoretical advances in the 18th century led to insights about π's nature that could not
be achieved through numerical calculation alone. Johann Heinrich Lambert proved
the irrationality of π in 1761, and Adrien-Marie Legendre also proved in 1794 π2 to be
irrational. When Leonhard Euler in 1735 solved the famous Basel problem – finding
the exact value of

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

which is π2/6, he established a deep connection between π and the prime numbers.
14
Both Legendre and Leonhard Euler speculated that π might be transcendental, which
was finally proved in 1882 by Ferdinand von Lindemann

William Jones' book A New Introduction to Mathematics from 1706 is said to be the
first use of the Greek letter π for this constant, but the notation became particularly
popular after Leonhard Euler adopted it in 1737. He wrote:

● ● ●

“There are various other ways of finding the Lengths or Areas of

particular Curve Lines, or Planes, which may very much facilitate
the Practice; as for instance, in the Circle, the Diameter is to the
Circumference as 1 to (16/5 - 4/239) - 1/3(16/5^3 - 4/239^3)
+ ... = 3.14159... = π”

● ● ●

Computation in the computer age

The advent of digital computers in the 20th century led to an increased rate of
new π calculation records. John von Neumann used ENIAC to compute 2037 digits of
π in 1949, a calculation that took 70 hours. Additional thousands of decimal places
were obtained in the following decades, with the million-digit milestone passed in
1973. Progress was not only due to faster hardware, but also new algorithms. One of
the most significant developments was the discovery of the fast Fourier transform
(FFT) in the 1960s, which allows computers to perform arithmetic on extremely large
numbers quickly.

In the beginning of the 20th century, the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan
found many new formulas for π, some remarkable for their elegance and
mathematical depth. One of his formulas is the series,

and the related one found by the Chudnovsky brothers in 1987,

which deliver 14 digits per term. The Chudnovskys used this formula to set several π
computing records in the end of the 1980s, including the first calculation of over one
billion (1,011,196,691) decimals in 1989. It remains the formula of choice for π
calculating software that runs on personal computers, as opposed to the
supercomputers used to set modern records.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Whereas series typically increase the accuracy with a fixed amount for each added
15
term, there exist iterative algorithms that multiply the number of correct digits at each
step, with the downside that each step generally requires an expensive calculation. A
breakthrough was made in 1975, when Richard Brent and Eugene Salamin
independently discovered the Brent–Salamin algorithm, which uses only arithmetic to
double the number of correct digits at each step. The algorithm consists of setting

and iterating

until an and bn are close enough. Then the estimate for π is given by

Using this scheme, 25 iterations suffice to reach 45 million correct decimals. A

similar algorithm that quadruples the accuracy in each step has been found by
Jonathan and Peter Borwein. The methods have been used by Yasumasa Kanada and
team to set most of the π calculation records since 1980, up to a calculation of
206,158,430,000 decimals of π in 1999. The current record is 1,241,100,000,000
decimals, set by Kanada and team in 2002. Although most of Kanada's previous
records were set using the Brent-Salamin algorithm, the 2002 calculation made use of
two Machin-like formulas that were slower but crucially reduced memory
consumption. The calculation was performed on a 64-node Hitachi supercomputer
with 1 terabyte of main memory, capable of carrying out 2 trillion operations per
second.

An important recent development was the Bailey–Borwein–Plouffe formula (BBP

formula), discovered by Simon Plouffe and named after the authors of the paper in
which the formula was first published, David H. Bailey, Peter Borwein, and Plouffe.
The formula,

is remarkable because it allows extracting any individual hexadecimal or binary digit

of π without calculating all the preceding ones. Between 1998 and 2000, the
distributed computing project PiHex used a modification of the BBP formula due to

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Fabrice Bellard to compute the quadrillionth (1,000,000,000,000,000:th) bit of π,

16
which turned out to be 0.

In 2006, Simon Plouffe found a series of beautiful formulas. Let q = eπ, then

and others of form,

where q = eπ, k is an odd number, and a,b,c are rational numbers. If k is of the form
4m+3, then the formula has the particularly simple form,

for some rational number p where the denominator is a highly factorable number,
though no rigorous proof has yet been given.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

17

a. The length of arc (s) of a circle can be found by using the formula

where r is the radius.

The result is as below:

From the table, we can conclude that

● ● ●

Length of arc PQR = Length of arc PAB + Length of arc

BCR
● ● ●

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

b. i) I use the same formula to find the length of arc of PQR, PAB, BCD and DER.
18

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Hence,
19
● ● ●

Length of arc PQR = Length of arc PAB + Length of arc

BCD + Length of arc CDR
● ● ●

ii) Base on the findings in the table in(a) and (b) above, I conclude that:

The length of the arc of the outer semicircle is equal to the sum of the length
of arcs of any number of the inner semicircles.

c.

Diagram above shows a big semicircle with n number of small inner circle.
From the diagram,

The length of arc of the outer semicircle

The sum of the length of arcs of the inner semicircles

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

Factorise π
20
2

Substitute

I get,

where d is any positive real number.

I can see that

As a result, I can conclude that

The length of the arc of the outer semicircle is equal to the sum of the length
of arcs of any number of the inner semicircles. This is true for any value of the
diameter of the semicircle.

In other words, for different values of diameters of the outer semicircle, show
that the generalisations stated in b (ii) is still true.

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

21

A. Area of flower plot = y m2

y = 25 π -1 x 2 π + 1 (10-x )2 π
2 2 2 2 2
= 25 π - 1 x 2
π + 1 100-20x+x2 π
2 2 2 2 4
= 25 π - x π + 100 - 20x + x π
2 2

2 8 4
= 25 π - x π + 100π – 20x π + x2π
2

2 8
= 25 π - 2x – 20x + 100 π
2

2 8
= 25 π - x2 – 10x + 50 π
2 4
= 50 - x - 10x + 50 π
2

4
y = 10x – x2 π
4

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 Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

22
B. y = 10x – x2 π

y= 10 - x π

x 4 4

8.0
Y/x

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
X

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Project Work for Additional Mathematics 2009

23

Sek. Men. Keb. Teluk Gadong