Control Systems

Somasundaran.p
M.E.(I.I.Sc)

c
Module 1

R
Introduction

i
Examples
ƥ Man
ƥ Space
Space--vehicle systems
ƥ Missile
Missile--guidance systems
ƥ Robotic systems
ƥ Autopilot systems
ƥ Machine tools
ƥ Design of cars and trucks
ƥ Control of pressure,temperature,humidity,
viscocity and flow in process industries.

Classification

ƥ 1. Closed
Closed--loop control systems
ƥ 2. Open
Open--loop control systems

þ
Closed--loop control systems
Closed
ƥ Use of feedback control
ƥ Measures the output & compares with the
referance input (Required
(Required Output)
Output)
ƥ Uses the difference as a means of control
ƥ Reduces the system error

Ä
Examples

1.The human body

Body temperature & blood pressure are
kept constant by physiological feedback
2. Room-
Room-temperature control system
Measures the actual room temperature &
compares with the desired room
temperature (Referance temperature )

v
Open--loop control systems
Open

ƥ No feed back of output

ƥ Output has no effect on control action
ƥ Output is not compared with the referance
input.
Accuracy of the system depends on
calibration.

V
Examples

ƥ 1. A washing machine.
It operates on a time basis.
No measurement of output signal
(Cleanliness of clothes)
2. Traffic control by means of signals
operated on a time basis

'
Advantages of closed-
closed-loop control

ƥ 1. Accuracy
ƥ 2. No effect due to external disturbances
&
internal variations in system
parameters.

c
Disadvantages of closed-
closed-loop
control
ƥ 1. Stability problem
ƥ 2. More number of components increases
(a) cost
(b) weight
(c) size
(d) power of the system

cc
Advantages of open-
open-loop control
ƥ 1. Simple construction
ƥ 2. Ease of maintenance
ƥ 3. Less expensive
ƥ 4. No stability problem
ƥ 5. Convenient when output is hard to measure
or
economically not feasible

cR
Disadvantages of open-
open-loop control

ƥ 1. Disturbances causes errors

&
output may be different from what is desired
2. To maintain the required quality in the
output, recalibration is necessary from time
to time.

ci
Mathematical Modeling of
Dynamic Systems

Transfer Function
ƥ Definition:
The ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input
under the assumption that all initial
conditions
are zero.

cþ
Transfer function G(s)=Y(s)/X(s)

X(s) Y(s)
G(s)

cÄ
Block Diagram

ƥ A pictorial representation of the functions

performed by each component and flow of
signals.

cv
ƥ The transfer functions of the components
are entered in the corresponding blocks.
ƥ Arrows indicate the direction of flow of
signals.

cV
c'
R
Rc
Open loop transfer function

ƥ It is the Ratio of feed back signal B(s) to

the actuating error signal E(s).
ƥ Open loop transfer function = B(s)/E(s)
= G(s)*H(s)

RR
Feed forward transfer function

ƥ It is the ratio of the output C(s) to the

actuating error signal E(s).
ƥ Feed forward transfer function = C(s)/E(s)
= G(s)

Ri
Closed loop transfer function
ƥ Closed loop transfer function = C(s)/R(s)
C(s) = G(s)xE(s)
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
= R(s) ƛ H(s)xC(s)
Hence C(s) = G(s)x[R(s) ƛ H(s)xC(s)]

Therefore
C(s)/R(s) = G(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)]

Some Important Block-

Block-Diagram
Transformations
ƥ 1. Combining two
blocks in cascade, I.G1.G2=I(G1.G2)

Original Diagram Equivalent

Diagram
I(s) O(s) I(S)
G1(s) G2(s) O(S)
G1.G2

Rþ
 2.Moving a summing point behind
a block, (I-
(I-B)G=(I.G)-
B)G=(I.G)-(B.G)

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

I(s) O(s)
I(s) O(s)
G
G(S)

G
B(s)
B(s)
RÄ
3.Moving a summing point ahead
of a block, (I.G) - B=[I-
B=[I-(1/G).B]G
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

I(s) O(s)
I(s) O(s)
G(S) G
B(s)
B(s)
1/G

Rv
4.Moving a pick off point behind a
block.
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

I(s)
I(s) O(s) O(s)
G(S) G

I(s)
I(s)
1/G

RV
5.Moving a pick off point ahead of
a block.
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

I(s)
I(s) O(s) O(s)
G(S) G

O(s)
O(s)
G

R'
 Äa.Eliminating a feedback loop

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

I(s)
O(s) O(s)
I(s)
G/(1+GH)
G(S)

H(S)

i
Äb.Eliminating a feedback loop
Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

O(s)
I(s) O(s)
G(s) I(s)
G/(1-GH)

H(s)

ic
 v.Special case for Rule Ä above
(H=1)

Original Diagram Equivalent Diagram

I(s)
O(s) O(s)
I(s)
G/(1+G)
G(S)

O(s)

iR
 H2

R C
G1 G2 G3

H1

ii
 H2/G1

R C
G1 G2 G3

H1

 H2/G1

R C
G1G2/(1-G1G2H1) G3

iþ
R C
G1G2G3/(1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2)

iÄ
R C
G1G2G3/(1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G1G2G3)

iv
 I2(s)

i(s) I1(s) 1(s)  (s)

1/R1 1/C1s 1/R2 1/C2s

 (s)
1(s)

Home work
Simplify the block diagram and find  (s) /i (s)

iV
Signal flow Graph

ƥ A diagram consisting of nodes which are

connected by directed branches .
ƥ Each node j has associated with it a
system variable (Node signal) Xj
ƥ Each directed branch jk from node j to
node k has an associated branch
transmittance Tjk

i'
ƥ The nodes sum up all the signals that
enter them.
ƥ They transmit the sum signals to all out
going branches.
ƥ The branch transmittance Tjk
Tjk is essentially
the transfer function.
ƥ It specifies the manner in which the signal
at node k depends upon that at node j.

ƥ The contribution of the signal at node j,

Xj, to the signal at node k = the product
of Xj and branch transmittance Tjk.
ƥ Thus at the kth node, we have
Xk =
Tjk Xj
j

where the summation is taken over all the

branches entering the kth node.

c
Signal flow graph ƛAn example

T42

X1 T12 X2 X3 T34 T44

T23 X4

T13

R
The equations relating the system
variables at the four nodes.
ƥ X1=X1,
ƥ X2=T12X1+T42X4
ƥ X3=T13X1+T23X2
ƥ X4=T34X3+T44X4

i
 I2(s)

i(s) I1(s) 1(s)  (s)

1/R1 1/C1s 1/R2 1/C2s

 (s)
1(s)

Draw the signal flow graph for the block

diagram shown .

we can choose the five transformed

variables i,I1,1,I2,and o, and draw a five-
five-
node flow graph
ƥ Equations are first written as follows:
I1(s)=i(s)[1/R1]- 1(s)[1/R1]

1(s)=I1(s)[1/sC1]-I2(s)[1/sC1]

I2(s)= 1(s)[1/R2]- o(s)[1/R2]

o(s)=I2(s)[1/sC2]

þ
ƥ In constructing the flow graph ,
simply follow the cause-
cause-and-
and-effect
procedure given by above
equations , from the input
variable i(s) to the output
variable o(s).

Ä
Signal flow graph

i 1/C1 1 I2 1/C2s

1/R1 I1 1/R2
-1/R2
-1/R1

v
ƥ An input variable is represented by a source
node which has only outgoing branches.
ƥ An output variable is represented by a sink
node.
ƥ A feedback loop is a closed path.
ƥ The loop transmittance of a feedback loop
is defined as the product of transmittances
of the branches forming the loop.

V
ƥ A path leading from a source node to a
sink node without passing through any
node more than once is called an open
path.

ƥ There may be more than one open path

between a source node and a sink node.

'
Masonƞs Gain formula.
ƥ The general formula for graph transmittance
between source node and a sink node in a signal
flow graph is as follows:
ƥ T= 1
Tk k
 k
where  = 1- (sum of all individual loop transmittance)
+ (sum of the products of loop transmittances of all possible
non touching feedback loops taken two at a time)
- (sum of the products of loop transmittances of all possible
non touching feedback loops taken three at a time)
+Ʀ,

þ
where  = 1-
1- (sum of all individual loop transmittance)
+ (sum of the products of loop transmittances
of all possible non touching feedback loops
taken two at a time)
- (sum of the products of loop transmittances
of all possible non touching feedback loops
taken three at a time)
+Ʀ,
k = value of  for that part of the graph not
touching
the kth open path, and
Tk = path transmittance of the kth open path

þc
Using Masonƞs Gain formula
determine the graph transmittance
between node X1 and node X4
T42 T44

X1 T12
T23 X3 T34

X2 X4

T13

þR
ƥ Two open paths:
(a) X1-X3-X4 Ta = T13T34
(b) X1-X2-X3-X4 Tb = T12T23T34
Two feedback loops :
(A) X4-X4 TA = T44
(B) X4-X2-X4 TB = T42T23T34
No nontouching feedback loops.
Both feedback loops touch open paths (a) and (b).
 = 1-
1- (TA+TB) = 1-
1- T44 ƛ T42T23T34

þi
ƥ a = b = 1
Hence
T= (Ta a + Tb b )1/ 

=( T13T34+T12T23T34)/(1
)/(1--T44-T42T23T34)

= T34(T13+T12T23)/(1
(T13+T12T23)/(1--T44-T42T23T34)
þ

 Using Masonƞs Gain formula

determine the graph transmittance
between nodes  and i
T5

i I1 T2 1 I2 TÄ O

T1 T4

T3
Tv

þþ
ƥ One open path: (a) i-I1-1-I2-o
Ta = T1T2T4TÄ
Three feedback loops:
(A) I1-1-I1 TA=T2T3
(B) 1-I2-1 TB=T4T5
(C) I2-O-I2 TC=TÄTv
Nontouching feedback loops:
(A) and (C)
þÄ
ƥ All three feedback loops touch the open
path.
=1
=1-- (TA+TB+TC)+TATC
=1--(T2T3+T4T5+TÄTv)+T2T3TÄTv
=1
a=1
Hence
T=(Ta a)(1/
)(1/)
= (T1T2T4TÄ)/(1
)/(1--T2T3-T4T5-TÄTv+T2T3TÄTv)
þv
For the Signal flow graph shown find
the Transfer Function O(s)/i(s)

-1/C1s
i 1/C1s 1 I2 1/C2s

1/R1 I1 1/R2
-1/R2
-1/R1

þV


 


 
   
 



 

vi vo

þ
Ans: Here we will have four blocks
corresponding to the four elements.
In order to write the transformed voltage-
current relationship for each element, we
introduce three intermediate variables v1, i1, & i2
as shown.

 v1

 
vi
i1 i2 vo

Ä
ƥ The 4 transformed equations are :
ƥ for R1 :
ƥ I1(s) = [i(s) - 1(s)]
(s)]1/R
1/R1
ƥ for C1 :
ƥ 1(s) = [I1(s) ƛ I2(s)]
(s)]1/
1/((sC1)
ƥ for R2 :
ƥ I2(s) = [1(s) - o(s)]
(s)]1/R
1/R2
ƥ for C2 :
ƥ 2(s) =[ I2(s)] 1/
1/((sC2)

Äc
ƥ First three equations indicate the need for
summing points before the blocks
representing R1 , C1 , and R2 .
ƥ The flow of the transformed variables
proceeds from the input variable i(s)
through the intermediate variables I1(s) ,
1(s) , and I2(s) to the output variable
o(s
(s).
).
ƥ It is important to note that the block
diagram of a two section R-R-C circuit


be obtained by putting the block
@

be
diagrams of two singe-
singe-section R-
R-C circuits
in cascade.
ÄR
 I2(s)

i(s) I1(s) 1(s)  (s)

1/R1 1/C1s 1/R2 1/C2s

 (s)
1(s)

Determination of the closed loop transfer

function for the block diagram shown can be
done easily .
(This is the Assignment Problem No:1)
Äi
 Problem : The switch across the
constant current source in the circuit
shown is opened at t= . Find the
transfer function I2(s)/Ig(s) by the block
diagram method. 


i2

 

ig
Switch S
Opened at
t=

Ä

´ 

 
´ 
   
  
 ! ! "#


Äþ
 v1  v2


 

ig i1
i2
Switch S
Opened at
t=

ÄÄ
´ 
$

´ ! 
´ %!&'() &'
&'*
* !&'+ !
´ ,

´ !&'()%!&'
&'*
* %#&'+
&'+!-
!-&&,
,''
´ 

´ %#&'()!&'
&'*
* #&'+
&'+!-
!-&&
''
´ # 

´ #&'()%#&'+
&'+!-
!-
´
Ä
 2(s)

2(s)
Ig(s) I2(s)
1(s) I1(s)
R1 1/sL 1/sC 1/R2

I2(s)
I1(s)

Determination of the closed loop transfer

function for the block diagram shown can be
done easily .
(This is the Assignment Problem No:4)
Ä
 .#

/00

Ä
General stability requirements for
closed loop control systems.
ƥ An unstable feedback system can not
perform any useful control function.
ƥ It is therefore of utmost importance to be
able to determine , from the
characteristics of its forward and feedback
paths, whether a system with feedback is
stable..
stable

v
Here we shall examine the fundamental
requirements for system stability
ƥ For the system shown, the ratio of the
transformed output C(s) to the transformed
input R(s) is given by the well known equation,
C(s)/R(s)= G(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)]
C(s)
R(s)
G(s)

H(s)

vc
In general, both G(s) and H(s) will be
ratios of polynomials in s.
ƥ Hence C(s)/R(s) will have the following
general form
C(s)/R(s)=amsm+am-1sm-1+Ʀ.+a1s+a

































bnsn+bn-1sn-1+Ʀ.+b1s+b
where the polynomials in both the numerator and the denominator
have been written.

vR
ƥ Let the input function r(t) is a unit step
function U(t), although the subsequent
discussion will apply to a general input
function.
ƥ we have R(s) =£ [U(t)]=1/s and
ƥ amsm+am-1sm-1+Ʀ.+a1s+a

































C(s) = s(bnsn+bn-1sn-1+Ʀ.+b1s+b )

= 1 K K1 K2 Kn




+

+


+Ʀ +
bn s s-s-s1 s-s2 s-sn

vi
ƥ where the constants K ,K1,K2Ʀ Kn can be found
by Heavisideƞs expansion theorem.
ƥ The output or response function is then
ƥ c(t) = £-
£-1 [C(s)]
ƥ = 1 K +K1s1t+K2es2t+Ʀ +K+Knesnt] U (t)
bn

ƥ In the last equation the first term is step

function and represents the steady state
response.

ƥ The exponential terms are transient

responses for which the constants K1,
K2,Ʀ, Kn depend upon the amplitude and
the form of the input function.

vþ
ƥ The co-
co-efficient of t in the exponents, s1, s2, Ʀ, sn
are the roots of the polynomial in the denominator of
the closed loop transfer function G(s)
ƥ 1+G(s)H(s)
ƥ Now consider the typical root, Sk in general it can be
a complex number:
ƥ Sk = k + j jk
The term in the output function corresponding to
the root sk is
Kke (k + j
jk)t = K ekt e jkt
k
bn bn

vÄ
ƥ The amplitude of above term will increase
indefinitely with time when k (the real
part of sk) is positive
positive..

ƥ On the other hand, when k is negative

the amplitude will decrease exponentially
with time and the transient will subside
subside..

ƥ we therefore cannot tolerate a positive k

which will result in a runaway or
an unstable situation

vv
ƥ If k = , we have a transitional case
which will give rise to sustained
oscillations of constant amplitude.

This situation will also be considered

unstable..
unstable

The roots of a polynomial are called the

zeros of the polynomial for obvious
reasons.

vV
ƥ s1,s2,Ʀ,sk,Ʀ, sn are zeros of the denominator
of the closed loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).

Hence they are also the zeros of the

polynomial 1+G(s)H(s) ,
since C(s)/R(s) =G(s)/[1+G(s)H(s)]

Thus we conclude that the necessary &

sufficient condition that a feedback system
be stable is that all the zeros of 1+G(s)H(s)
have negative real parts.
parts.
v'
ƥ The zeros of the polynomial in the
denominator of a rational function make that
function go to infinity
infinity;; they are called the
poles of the function.

ƥ S1, S2, Ʀ, Sk, Ʀ, Sn are poles of the closed

loop transfer function C(s)/R(s).

V
ƥ Hence the stability condition stated above
can be restated as follows:

The necessary & sufficient condition

that a feed back system be stable is that
all the poles of its closed loop transfer
function have negative real parts
parts..

Vc
ƥ The task of solving for all the roots of
equation 1+G(s)H(s)= is frequently a
tedious one, especially when it is an equation
of high degree in s.

ƥ Hence the method of determining the stability

without actually finding all the roots of the
equation 1+G(s)H(s)= will be studied next.
VR
ƥ ã
  
   
 

Consider the following equation of the nth
degree in s
ansn+an-1sn-1+Ʀ+a1s+a = , (1)
where the coefficients an, an-1, Ʀ, a1, a are
all of the same sign and none is zero.
zero.
Some roots will have +ve real parts and the
system will be unstable if all the coefficients
of its characteristic equation do not have the
same sign or if all the terms are not present.

Vi
 ansn+an-1sn-1+Ʀ+a1s+a = , (1)
ƥ Step 1.
1. Arrange the coefficients of the given
equation in two rows in the following fashion:
Row 1: an an-2 an-4 Ʀ

Row 2: an-1 an-3 an-5 Ʀ

where the arrow direction indicate the order
of arrangement.

Step 2.
2. Form a third row from the first and
second rows as follows :
Row 1: an an-2 an-4 Ʀ
Row 2: an-1 an-3 an-5 Ʀ
Row 3:
3: bn-1 bn-3 bn-5 Ʀ where
bn-1= -1 an an-2
an-1 an-1 an-3 ,

bn-3= -1 an an-4
an-1 an-1 an-5 ,
Vþ
Step 3.
3. Form a fourth row from the second and
third rows:

Row 2: an-1 an-3 an-5 Ʀ

Row 3: bn-1 bn-3 bn-5 Ʀ
Row 4:4: cn-1 c n- 3 c n- 5 Ʀ
where , cn-1 = -1 an-1 an-3
bn-1 bn-1 bn-3

Cn-3 = -1 an-1 an-5

bn-1 bn-1 bn-5 Ʀ
VÄ
Step 4.
4. continue this procedure of forming a
new row from the two preceding rows until
only zeros are obtained.

In general an array of n+1 rows will result

with the last two rows each containing a
single element.

Vv
Statement : Routh
Routh--Hurwitz criterion states
that the system whose characteristic
equation is eqn (1), is stable if and only if all
the elements in the first column of the array
formed by the coefficients in the above
manner have the same algebraic sign.sign.

If the elements in the first column are not all

of the same sign, the number of sign
changes in the first column = the number of
roots with +ve real parts.

VV
ƥ Problem 1
ƥ Apply Routh-
Routh-Hurwitz criterion to the following
equation and find the stability of the system.
S4+2s3+3s2+4s+5=
Solution:
Routh array
1st row: 1 3 5
2nd row: 2 4
3rd row: 1 5
4th row: -Ä
5th row: 5
Since the number of sign changes in the first column
are two, the given eqn has two roots with +ve real
parts. Hence the system is unstable
unstable..

V'
ƥ Problem 2
ƥ Apply Routh-
Routh-Hurwitz criterion to the following
equation and find the stability of the system.
S4+vs3+1vs2+1vs+Ä=
Solution:
Routh array
1st row: 1 1v Ä
2nd row: v 1v
3rd row: 14.58
14.58ÄÄ
4th row: 14.12
5th row: Ä
Since all the coefficients in the first column are of
the same sign (+ve) the given eqn has no roots with
+ve real parts. Hence the system is stable
'
ƥ Problem 3
ƥ Apply the Routh
Routh--Hurwitz criterion to the following
equation and find the stability of the system:
S5+2s4+2s3+4s2+11s+1 =
ƥ Solution
Here all the coefficients are +ve and none is zero.
Hence we proceed to write the Routh array as
follows:
1st row: 1 2 11
2nd row: 2 4 1
3rd row: Ä
ƥ we cannot proceed further because the first
element in the 3rd row is zero.
'c
ƥ The situation can be remedied by multiplying
the original eqn by a factor (s+a), where
a> , and then applying the same procedure.
ƥ The reasoning is that multiplication by (s+a)
will change the vanishing element without
changing the number of roots with +ve real
parts.
ƥ Any +ve real number can be used for a; the
simplest choice is a=1
a=1..
ƥ Multiplying the given eqn by (s+1), we have
the new eqn
ƥ SÄ+3s5+4s4+Äs3+15s2+21s+1 =
'R
ƥ SÄ+3s5+4s4+Äs3+15s2+21s+1 =
The Routh array now becomes :
ƥ1 4 15 1
ƥ1 2 v (after dividing by 3)
ƥ1 4 5 (after dividing by 2)
ƥ -1 1 (after dividing by 2)
ƥ1 1 (after dividing by 5)
ƥ2
ƥ1

'i
ƥ There are two changes of sign in the first
column of the Routh array, which indicates
that there are two roots having +ve real
parts in the given eqn.
ƥ Hence the system is unstable.

'

ƥ Problem
ƥ Apply the Routh
Routh--Hurwitz criterion to the following
equation and find the stability of the system:
S5+s4+4s3+24s2+3s+Ä3=
ƥ Solution
Here all the coefficients are +ve and none is zero.
Hence we proceed to write the Routh array as
follows:
1st row: 1 4 3
2nd row: 1 24 Ä3
3rd row: -1 -3 (after dividing by 2 )
4th row: 1 3 (after dividing by 21)
5th row:

.
'þ
we cannot proceed further because of the
zero in the fifth row.

The earlier technique of multiplying the

original eqn by a factor (s+1) fails here
because the whole fifth row (which
(which
happens to have only one element)
vanishes.

'Ä
ƥ Examination reveals that this situation will
occur whenever the array has two consecutive
rows in which the ratio of the corresponding
elements is constant.

ƥ when this happens, all the elements in the

following row will vanish.

ƥ This is an indication that the given eqn has at

least one pair of roots which lie radially
opposite to each other and equidistant from
the origin.
'v
ƥ The row can be completed by forming an
auxiliary polynomial in s2, using the elements
in the last non vanishing row as its
coefficients;; the coefficients of the derivative
coefficients
of this aux.ploynomial has to be taken for the
elements in the following row.

ƥ In the problem, the elements in the last non

vanishing row are 1 and 3; hence the aux.
polynomial in s2 is
ƥ s2 +3
'V
ƥ The derivative of this polynomial is
2s, whose coefficient 2 is to be taken as the element
2s,
in the row following the last non vanishing row.
ƥ The Routh array now becomes
ƥ 1 4 3
ƥ 1 24 Ä3
ƥ -1 -3
ƥ 1 3
ƥ 2
ƥ 3

''
ƥ There are two changes of sign in the first
column and hence there two roots with
+ve real parts. Hence the system is
unstable.
ƥ The roots of the eqn formed by the aux
polynomial
S2+3= are also the roots of the original
eqn.
ƥ In this problem they are s= +jƹ3
which have zero real parts

c
ROOT--LOCUS ANALYSIS
ROOT

ƥ The locus of roots of characteristic

equation of the closed loop system as the
gain is varied from zero to infinity is the
root--locus.
root locus.

c c
 R(s) C(s)
G(s)

H(s)

For the system shown , the closed loop

transfer function is C(s) = G(s)
R(s) 1+ G(s)H(s)
The characteristic equation of the closed loop
system is
1+G(s)H(s)=
c R
ƥ i.e., G(s)H(s) = -1 (1)
ƥ Here we assume that G(s)H(s) is a ratio of
ƥ polynomials in s.
ƥ Since s is a complex quantity, G(s)H(s) is also
ƥ a complex quantity.
ƥ Since G(s)H(s) is a complex quantity,
Equation (1) can be split in to two equations
by equating the angles and magnitudes of
both sides to obtain the following:
Angle condition : G(s)H(s)= + 18 (2k+1)
ƥ Magnitude condition : G(s)H(s) = 1 c i
ƥ The values of s that fulfill both the angle and
magnitude conditions are the roots of the
characteristic equation.
ƥ A plot of the points in the complex plane
satisfying the angle condition alone is the
root locus.

General Rules for constructing

ROOT LOCI
ƥ 1. Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)H(s)
ƥ on the s plane.
ƥ The root locus branches start from
open-loop poles and terminate at zeros
open-
ƥ (finite zeros or zeros at infinity)
ƥ The open-
open-loop zeros are the zeros of
G(s)H(s)

c þ
ƥ Number of branches of root-
root-locus equals
the number of open-
open-loop poles (n) since it
is , generally, greater than the number of
open--loop zeros (m
open (m).
ƥ The number of individual root-root-locus
branches terminating at finite open
open--loop
zeros is equal to the number (m (m) of the
ƥ open
open--loop zeros.
ƥ The remaining n-m branches terminate at
ƥ infinity along asymptotes.
c Ä
ƥ If we include poles and zeros at infinity
infinity,, the
number of open-
open-loop poles equals that of
open--loop zeros.
open

ƥ Hence it is always true that , the root loci

start at the poles of G(s)H(s) and end at the
zeros of G(s)H(s), as K varies from zero to
infinity , where the poles & zeros include
both those at finite s plane and those at
infinity..
infinity

c v
ƥ 2. Determine the root loci on the real axis.
axis.
ƥ Root loci on the real axis are determined
by poles and zeros lying on it.
it.
ƥ The complex-
complex-conjugate poles & zeros of
G(s)H(s) have no effect on the root loci on
the real axis.
ƥ For constructing root loci on the real axis,
choose a test point on it.
ƥ If the total number of real poles & real
zeros to the right of this test point is odd ,
ƥ then this point lies on a root locus.
c V
ƥ 3. Determine the asymptotes of root loci
ƥ If the test point s is located far from the
origin, then the angle of each complex
quantity may be considered the same.
ƥ Therefore, the root loci for very large values
of s must be asymptotic to straight lines
whose angles are given by:
ƥ Angles of asymptotes = +18 (2k+1)
ƥ n-m
ƥ where k= ,1,2,Ʀ
ƥ n = number of finite poles of G(s)H(s)
ƥ m= number of finite zeros of G(s)H(s)
c '
ƥ The number of distinct asymptotes = n-m.

ƥ k= corresponds to the asymptotes with

the smallest angle with the real axis.
ƥ Although k assumes an infinite number of
values, as k is increased the angle repeats
itself.
ƥ All the asymptotes intersect on the real axis.
ƥ The point at which they do so is obtained as
follows.
ƥ s= (sum of poles)-
poles)-(sum of zeros)
ƥ n-m
cc
4.Find the breakaway and break-
break-in points.
Because of the conjugate symmetry of root
loci, the breakaway and break-
break-in points
either lie on the real axis or occur in complex-
complex-conjugate
pairs.

If root locus lies between two open-

open-loop poles
then there exists at least one breakaway point
between two poles.

Similarly if root locus lies between two open-

open-loop zeros
then there exists at least one break-
break-in point
between two zeros.

ccc
 If root locus lies between an open-
open-loop pole
(finite or infinite)
and a zero (finite infinite) on the real axis,
then there may exist no breakaway or break- break-in
points or there may exist both breakaway or
break--in points.
break

ccR
 Suppose that the characteristic equation is
given by
B(s) + K A(s) =
ƥ Breakaway and break-
break-in points correspond
ƥ to multiple roots of the characteristic
ƥ equation.
ƥ Hence they can be determined from the
roots of
ƥ dK = (1)
ƥ ds
cci
ƥ It is important to note that Breakaway and
break-in points must be roots of
break-
Equation(1), but not all roots of Equation(1)
are breakaway and break-
break-in points .
ƥ If a real root of Equation(1) lies on the root
locus portion of the real axis,
axis, then it is an
actual breakaway and break
break--in point.
ƥ If a real root of Equation(1) is not on the
root locus portion of the real axis, then this
root is neither a breakaway nor a break-
break-in
point.
cc

ƥ If two roots of Equation (1) are a complex-

complex-
conjugate pair and if it is not certain whether
they are on root loci, then it is necessary to
check the corresponding K value.
value.
ƥ If the value of K is positive
positive,, then that point is
an actual a breakaway or a break-
break-in point.
ƥ If the value of K is negative
negative,, then that point is
neither a breakaway nor a break-
break-in point.

ccþ
ƥ 5. Determine the angle of departure (angle of
arrival) of the root locus from a complex pole
(at a complex zero).
ƥ To sketch the root loci with accuracy, we
must find the direction of root loci near the
complex poles & zeros.
ƥ Angle of departure from a complex pole =
18 - (sum of the angles of vectors to the
complex pole in question from other poles)+
(sum of the angles of vectors to the complex
pole in question from zeros)

ccÄ
ƥ Angle of arrival at a complex zero = 18 -
(sum of the angles of vectors to the complex
zero in question from other zeros)+ (sum of
the angles of vectors to the complex zero in
question from poles).

ccv
ƥ Ä. Find the points where the root loci may
cross the imaginary axis
ƥ The points where the root loci may cross the
j axis can be found by
(a) Use of Routhƞs stability criterion or
j in characteristic equation,
(b) Letting s= j
equating both the real part and imaginary part to
zero, and solving for  & K.
ƥ The values of  thus found give the
frequencies at which root loci cross the
imaginary axis.
ƥ The K value gives the gain at the crossing
point.
ccV
ƥ v. Taking a series of test points in the
broad neighborhood of the origin of the s
plane, sketch the root loci.
ƥ Determine root loci in the broad
neighborhood of the jj axis & the origin.
ƥ The most important part of the root loci is
on neither the real axis nor the
asymptotes but the part in the broad
neighborhood of the jj axis & the origin.
ƥ The shape of the root loci in this important
region in the s plane must be obtained
with sufficient accuracy.
cc'
R(s) C(s)
K
S(s+1)(s+2)

1.Consider the system shown in fig.

Draw the root locus & determine
the range of K for stability.

cR
ƥ For the given system, G(s)= S(s+1)(s+2)
K

ƥ H(s)=1
ƥ The angle condition becomes
ƥ G(s)H(s) = S(s+1)(s+2)
K

= - s- s+1 - s+2 = +
18 (2k+1), (k= ,1,2Ʀ.)

ƥ The magnitude condition is

K
ƥ G(s) = S(s+1)(s+2) = 1

cRc
ƥ Step 1.
1. Locate the poles & zeros of G(s)H(s)
plane.
on the s plane.
ƥ The poles are s= , -1, -2.
ƥ There are no zeros.
j

j3

j2

j1

x x x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-j1

-j2
-j3 cRR
ƥ The location of poles are indicated by
crosses.
crosses.
ƥ (The location of zeros,if any, are indicated by
small circles)
circles)
ƥ The number of branches of root loci = n- n-m
ƥ =3--
=3
ƥ =3
ƥ where,
ƥ n = number of finite poles of G(s)H(s) =3=3
ƥ m= number of finite zeros of G(s)H(s) =
cRi
ƥ Step2. Determine the root loci on the real
axis.
axis.
ƥ To determine the root loci on the real axis,
we select test point s on the ƛve real axis
between and -1.
ƥ The number of poles & zeros to the right of
the test point is 1(odd number).
ƥ Hence this test point lies on the root loci.
ƥ Thus, root loci exists on the ƛve real axis
between & -1

cR

ƥ If we select a test point between -1 & -2,

the number of poles to the right of the
test point is an even number (2).
ƥ Hence this test point is not on the root
loci.
ƥ Thus, root loci does not exists on the ƛve
real axis between & -1.
ƥ If we select a test point to the right of -2,
the number of poles to the right of the
test point is an odd number (3).

cRþ
ƥ Hence this test point is on the root loci.
ƥ Thus, root loci does exists on the ƛve real
axis between -2 & -ƺ.
ƥ Step 3.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the
root loci.
ƥ Angles of asymptotes =
18 (2k+1)
+

ƥ n-m
ƥ where k= ,1,2,Ʀ
ƥ n=3
ƥ m=

cRÄ
ƥ Angles of asymptotes = +
18 (2k+1)
ƥ 3
ƥ Number of asymptotes = n- n-m = 3
ƥ when k= , Angles of asymptotes=+Ä
asymptotes=+Ä , -Ä .

ƥ when k=1, Angles of asymptotes=+18

asymptotes=+18 , -18
ƥ Point of intersection of asymptotes =
ƥ (sum of poles)-
poles)-(sum of zeros)
ƥ n-m
ƥ = ( +-
+-1+-
1+-2) ƛ = -1
ƥ 3
cRv
ƥ The asymptotes are drawn as shown
ƥ Step 44:: Determine the break away point
ƥ The break away points can be determined from
the roots of dK =
ƥ ds
ƥ The characteristic equation is
ƥ 1+G(s)H(s)=
ƥ i.e., 1+ K =
S(s+1)(s+2)
ƥ or, K=-(s3+3s2+2s)
K=-
ƥ By setting dK = , we obtain
ƥ ds
ƥ dK = -(3s2+Äs+2)=
ƥ ds

ƥ or s= - .422Ä, s= -1.5vv4
cRV
ƥ Since the break away point must lie on a
root locus between & -1, it is clear that
s= - .422Ä corresponds to the actual
break away point.
ƥ Point s= -1.5vv4 is not on the root locus.
ƥ Hence it is not an actual break away point.
ƥ In fact evaluation of values of K
corresponding to s= - .422Ä, s= -1.5vv4
yields
ƥ K= .3849 (+ve) for s= - .422Ä
ƥ K=
K=-- .3849 (-ve) for s= -1.5vv4
cR'
ƥ Step : 5. Determine the points where the
root loci cross the imaginary axis
ƥ Method 1
ƥ By use of Routhƞs stability criterion
ƥ The characteristic eqn is
1+ K =
s(s+1)(s+2)

ƥ i.e. s3+3s2+2s+K=
ƥ The Routhƞs array becomes

ci
 S3 1 2

S2 3 K

S1 Ä-K
3

S K

ƥ The value of K that makes the s1 term in

the first column = is K=Ä
ƥ The crossing points can be found by
solving the aux. eqn obtained from the s2
row; i.e.
ƥ 3s2+K=3s2+Ä= which yields
cic
ƥ S= +
j ƹ2
ƥ The frequencies at the crossing points on
the imaginary axis are thus = +
ƹ2
ƥ The gain value corresponding to the
crossing points is K=Ä
ƥ Method 2
ƥ Let s= j
j in the characteristic eqn, equate
both the real and imaginary part to zero,
and solve for  & K.
ƥ Now, the characteristic eqn is
ƥ s3+3s2+2s+K=
ciR
ƥ Let s= j
j,
ƥ (j
(j)3+3(j
+3(j)2+2(j
+2(j)+K=
ƥ Or (K-(K-32) +j(2
+j(2- 3)=
ƥ equating both the real and imaginary part
to zero, we obtain
ƥ K-32 = , 22- 3 =
ƥ From which = +
ƹ2
ƥ K=Ä

cii
ƥ The frequencies at the crossing points on the
imaginary axis are thus = ƹ2 +

ƥ The gain value corresponding to the crossing

points is K=Ä
ƥ Step No Ä: Choose a test point in the broad
neighborhood of the j j axis and the origin and
apply the angle condition.
ƥ If a test point is on the root loci, then the
ƥ sum of three angles, 1+ 2+ 3, must be 18
ƥ If the test point does not satisfy the angle
condition, select another test point until it satisfy
the angle condition.

ci

ƥ Continue this process and locate sufficient

number of points satisfying the angle
condition.

j

S+2 S+1
S
j1
1
3 2
-2 -1 

ciþ
 asymptotes

K ƺ
j

j3

j2
K=Ä
j1

ƺ K Ä
x x x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2
-j1
K=Ä
-j2
-j3 K ƺ ciÄ
ƥ Problem 2: Sketch the root locus plot of
system having G(s)=K(s+2) , H(s)=1
ƥ s2+2s+3

civ
ƥ Step 1.
1. Locate the poles & zeros of G(s)H(s)
plane.
on the s plane.
ƥ The poles are s=-
s=-1+jƹ2, -1-jƹ2
ƥ The zero is s= -2.
j j2

x jƹ2

j1


o
-2 -1 1

-j1

x -jƹ2 ciV
ƥ Step2. Determine the root loci on the real
axis.
axis.
ƥ To determine the root loci on the real axis,
we select test point s on the ƛve real axis
between and -2.
ƥ The number of poles & zeros to the right of
the test point is nil.
ƥ Hence this test point does not lies on the
root loci.
ƥ Thus, root loci does not exist on the ƛve real
axis between & -2
ci'
ƥ Taking a test point to the left of s= -2, we
find that the number of real poles & zeros
to the right of test point is odd (=1).
ƥ Hence the root loci exist on the ƛve real
axis from s=-
s=-2 to -ƺ as shown

 j j2

x jƹ2

j1


o
-2 -1 1

-j1

x -jƹ2 c
c
ƥ Step 3.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the
root loci.
ƥ Angles of asymptotes = +
18 (2k+1)
ƥ n-m
ƥ where k= ,1,2,Ʀ
ƥ n = number of poles= 2
ƥ m= number of zeros=1
zeros=1
ƥ Angles of asymptotes = +
18 (2k+1)
ƥ 1
ƥ Number of asymptotes = n- n-m = 1
ƥ when k= , Angles of asymptotes=18
asymptotes=18 c
R
ƥ Step 4:
4: Determine the angle of departure
from the complex conjugate poles.
ƥ The presence of a pair of complex
conjugate poles demands determination of
the angle of departure from these poles.
ƥ Knowledge of this angle is important since
the root locus near a complex pole yields
information as to whether the locus
originating from the complex poles
migrates towards real axis or extends
toward the asymptotes.
c
i
ƥ Determination of angle of departure.

j j2

x jƹ2

j1

55 
o
-2 -1 1

-j1
9
x -jƹ2 c

ƥ Angle of departure from a complex pole =

18 - (sum of the angles of vectors to the
complex pole in question from other
poles)+ (sum of the angles of vectors to
the complex pole in question from zeros)
ƥ Angle of departure from the complex pole
at s=
s=--1+jƹ2 = 18 ƛ(9 )+55 =145
ƥ (Since the root locus is symmetric about
the real axis),
Angle of departure from the complex pole
at s=
s=--1-jƹ2 = -145
c
þ
ƥ Step:4. Determine the break-
break-in point
ƥ The break-
break-in point can be found from
ƥ the roots of dK=
ƥ ds
ƥ Since the characteristic equation is given by
ƥ 1+G(s)H(s)= , we have
ƥ 1+ K (s+2) =
ƥ s2+2s+3
ƥ
ƥ Hence, K= -(s2+2s+3)
ƥ (s+2)
ƥ we have, dK = -(2s+2)(s+2)
(2s+2)(s+2)--(s2+2s+3)
ƥ ds (s+2)2 =

ƥ which gives s2+4s+1=

ƥ c
Ä
ƥ i.e., s= -3.v32 or s= - .2Ä8
ƥ Note that point s= -3.v32 is on the root
locus.
ƥ Hence this point is an actual break-
break-in point.
ƥ Since s= - .2Ä8 is not on the root locus it is
not an actual break-
break-in point.

c
v
ƥ Step 5. Sketch root-
root-locus plot based on the
information obtained in the foregoing steps.
ƥ To determine root loci accurately, several
points must be found using angle condition.
ƥ

c
V
ƥ Root locus plot

c
þ j j2

x jƹ2

j1

 

o
ivi -2 -1 1

-j1

x -jƹ2 c
'
c
þ
ƥ It is seen that root locus in the complex s
plane is a part of a circle.
ƥ we can prove that root locus is circular in
shape by deriving the eqn for the root locus,
using the angle condition.
ƥ For the present system, the angle condition
is
ƥ S+2 ƛ s+1-
s+1- jƹ2 ƛ s+1+ jƹ2 = 18 (2k+1)
ƥ If s= +j
+j is substituted in to this last eqn,
we obtain
ƥ +2+j
+2+j - +1+j
+1+j  - jƹ2 ƛ +1+j
+1+j  + jƹ2 =
ƥ 
 18 (2k+1)
cþ
ƥ which can be written as
ƥ Tan ( R ) - Tan (  c ) - Tan-1( R
- 1  - 1   R
c
)=

 18 (2k+1)

cþc
ƥ Sketch the root locus plot for the system
having open loop transfer function given
by G(s)H(s) = k
ƥ s(s+4)(s2+4s +13)

cþR
ƥ Step 1.
1. Locate the poles & zeros of
plane.
G(s)H(s) on the s plane.
ƥ The open-
open-loop poles are,
ƥ s = , s= - 4, s = -2 + j 3,
3, s = -2 -
j3
ƥ The number of open loop poles = 4
ƥ The number of open loop zeros =
ƥ Hence number of branches of root locus
ƥ =4ƛ =4

cþi
 

 i

R

c
 

i R c
c

R

 i

cþ

ƥ Step 2. Determine the root loci on the real

axis.
axis.
ƥ Root loci on the real axis is determined by
poles and zeros lying on itit..
ƥ If we select any test point between & -
4, we find that number of poles to the
right of test point is = 1 (odd
(odd))
ƥ Hence the segment of real axis between
& -4 is on the root loci.

cþþ
 

 i

R

c
 

i R c
c

R

 i

cþÄ
ƥ Step 3.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the
root loci.
ƥ Angles of asymptotes = 18 (2k+1)
ƥ n-m
ƥ where k= ,1,2,Ʀ
ƥ n=4
ƥ m=
ƥ number of asymptotes = n-n-m = 4
ƥ Angles of asymptotes =
ƥ + 45 , - 45 ,+135 , -135
cþv
ƥ Point of intersection of asymptotes (on the
real axis)
ƥ or the centroid =
ƥ (sum of poles)
poles)--(sum of zeros)
ƥ n-m
ƥ = ( +-
+-4+-
4+-2+j3+ -2-j3) ƛ
= -2
ƥ 4

cþV
ƥ Step 4:
4: Determine the break away point
ƥ The break away points can be determined
from the roots of dK =
ƥ ds
ƥ The characteristic equation is
ƥ 1+G(s)H(s)=
ƥ i.e., 1+ k =
ƥ s(s+4)(s2+4s +13)

ƥ i.e., s(s+4)(s2+4s +13) + k =

ƥ
cþ'
ƥ K = - ( s4 + 8s3 + 29 s2 + 52s)
ƥ d K = -(4s3 + 24 s2 + 58 s +52)
ds
put d K =
ds
Thus (4s3 + 24 s2 + 58 s +52) =
The break away points are given by
roots of the above equation. One of the
roots is s = -2 .
The other roots are found as follows:
cÄ
ƥ (s+2) is a factor ,
ƥ Hence we have (4s3 + 24 s2 + 58 s +52)
ƥ (s+2)
ƥ = (4s2 + 1Äs + 2Ä)
ƥ and thus (s+2) (4s2 + 1Äs + 2Ä)
=
ƥ The two complex break away points are
given by roots of (4s2 + 1Äs + 2Ä) =
ƥ i.e. , s= -2 + j 1.58 , -2 ƛ j 1.58

cÄc
ƥ Step 5. Determination of angle of departure.
ƥ Presence of a pair of complex conjugate poles
demand determination of angle of departure from
these poles.
ƥ Angle of departure from pole at -2+j3
ƥ = 18 -(1+ 2+ 3)

ƥ where 1 = 18 - tan -1 (3/2)

ƥ 2 = tan -1 (3/2)
ƥ 3 = 9
ƥ
cÄR
 

 i

R

cc
 

i R c
c

R

 i

cÄi
ƥ Hence angle of departure from pole at -
2+j3
ƥ = 18 -(1+ 2+ 3)
ƥ = 18 -(18 - tan -1 (3/2)+ tan -1 (3/2)+
(3/2)+tan
9 )
ƥ =-9
ƥ And angle of departure from pole at -2-j3
ƥ =+9

cÄ

ƥ Step :Ä. Determine the points where the

root loci cross the imaginary axis
ƥ By use of Routhƞs stability criterion
ƥ The characteristic equation is
ƥ 1+G(s)H(s)=

ƥ i.e., 1+ k =
ƥ s(s+4)(s2+4s +13)

i.e., s(s+4)(s2+4s +13) + k =

ƥ i.e., s4 + 8s3 + 29 s2 + 52s+k =

cÄþ
ƥ Routhƞs array :
ƥ s4 1 29 K
ƥ s3 8 52
ƥ s2 22.5 K
ƥ s1 (52 ƛ .35K)
ƥ s K
ƥ For stability , (52 ƛ .35K) ƿ
ƥ or K ƾ 148.Ä
ƥ when K = 148.Ä , root loci intersects the j
axis .

cÄÄ
ƥ Corresponding value of s is found from
ƥ auxiliary equation for s2 row.
ƥ i.e., 22.5 s2 + K =
ƥ or 22.5 s2 + 14Ä.8 =

ƥ Or s = +j 2.5Ä,
2.5Ä, - j 2.5Ä

cÄv
 



 i

ciþ
þ
 R 



þ
ciþ

 i




cÄV
ƥ Home work

ƥ Draw the root locus plot for the system

having open loop transfer function
G(s)H(s) = K
(s2 + 2s +2) (s2 + 2s + 5)

cÄ'
Frequency Response Analysis

ƥ Frequency Response means the steady state

response of a system to a sinusoidal
Input.
ƥ In Frequency Response Analysis, we vary
the frequency of the input signal over a
certain range and study the resulting
response.

cv
Bode Plot
ƥ A sinusoidal transfer function may be
represented by two separate plots, one
giving the magnitude versus frequency,
ƥ And other the phase angle (in degrees)
versus frequency.
ƥ A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:
ƥ One is a plot of the logarithm of the
magnitude of a sinusoidal transfer
function; other is a plot of the phase
angle; cvc
ƥ both are plotted against frequency in
logarithmic scale .
ƥ The standard representation of logarithmic
magnitude of sinusoidal transfer function
ƥ G( j
j) is 2 log G( jj
) , where the base
of logarithm is 1 .
ƥ The unit used in this representation of
magnitude is the decibel, (dB).
ƥ The curves are drawn in semi log paper,
using the log scale for frequency and the
linear scale for both magnitude (in
decibel)
ƥ And phase angle (in degrees). cvR
ƥ The open loop transfer function of a closed
loop control system may assume following
general form:
ƥ G(s)H(s) = K [(1+ sT1) (1+ sT2) Ʀ] n2
ƥ sN
[(1+sTa)(1+sTb)Ʀ]
)Ʀ](s(s2+2ns+
+2 s+n2)
ƥ The sinusoidal transfer function is obtained
j, thus
by substituting s= j
ƥ G(
G(jj)H(
)H(jj) = K [(1+ jT1) (1+ jT2) Ʀ] n2
ƥ (j [(1+jjTa)(1+ jTb)Ʀ]
(j)N[(1+ )Ʀ]((n2- 2 +
j2n)
j2
ƥ N = Type of the system cvi
 ƥ Initial Slope of Bode plot :
Type of system Initial Slope Intersection
N -2 N dB/decade with dB axis
at
dB/decade Parallel to dB
axis
1 -2 dB/decade =K

2 -4 dB/decade =K 1/2

3 -Ä dB/decade =K 1/3

Ʀ Ʀ Ʀ
N -2 NdB/decade =K 1/N

cv

ƥ Each first order term , i.e. , (1+j

(1+jT ) term
ƥ In the denominator will contribute -2
dB/decade .
ƥ Each first order term , i.e. , (1+j
(1+jT ) term
ƥ In the numerator will contribute +2
dB/decade.
ƥ Each second order term in in the
denominator will contribute -4 dB/decade

cvþ
ƥ Corner frequency:
Determination of corner frequency is vital,
since the slope of magnitude plot will
change at each corner frequency .
ƥ Each first order term , i.e. , (1+j
(1+jT ) term
has a corner frequency of  = 1/T
ƥ Each second order term , i.e. ,
ƥ n2
ƥ (s2+2 ns+
+2 s+ n2) term has a
corner frequency of n .
ƥ
cvÄ
ƥ Draw the Bode plot for the following
ƥ Open
Open--loop transfer function
ƥ G(s)H(s) = 4
ƥ s(1+ .5s)(1+ . 8s)
ƥ And determine (a) the gain margin
ƥ (b) the phase margin
ƥ (c) the closed loop
stability

cvv
ƥ G(s)H(s) = 4
ƥ s(1+ .5s)(1+ . 8s)
ƥ Step1
Step1:: Check whether given transfer function is
in normalized form.
ƥ Here, G(s)H(s) is in normalized form
ƥ Then put s= jj
ƥ G(j
G(j)H(j
)H(j) = 4
ƥ j(1+ .5 jj
)(1+ . 8 jj
)

ƥ Step 2:
2: the corner frequencies are
ƥ  = 1/ .5 = 2
ƥ and  = 1/ . 8 = 12.5
ƥ
cvV
ƥ The starting frequency of the Bode plot is
taken as lower than the lowest corner
frequency.
ƥ Step 3.
3. Determine the initial slope and
point of intersection with frequency
()axis:
ƥ Since system is type 1, the initial slope of
the Bode plot is -2 db/ decade.
ƥ point of intersection with frequency
()axis
occurs at  = K = 4
cv'
ƥ Step 4:
4: Determine change in slope at each
corner frequency and plot the magnitude
plot.
ƥ The initial slope of -2 db/ decade continues
( = 2) is
till the lowest corner frequency (
reached.
ƥ The corner frequency ( ( = 2) is due to the
first order term in the denominator,
.5) which will contribute -2 db/
(1+j .5
decade.

cV
ƥ Hence total slope becomes (-
(-2 + -2 ) db/
decade = -4 db/ decade
ƥ ( Note that a decade is a frequency band
from 1 to 1 1, where 1 is any
frequency)
ƥ ( Also note that an octave is a frequency
band from 1 to 21, where 1 is any
frequency)
ƥ ( Octave = 1/ .3 1decade)
1decade)
ƥ Hence 2 db/ decade = 2 x .3 db/ octave
ƥ = Ä db/ octave
ƥ
cVc
ƥ The slope of -4 db/decade will continue
( = 12.5) is
till the next corner frequency (
reached.
ƥ The corner frequency ( ( = 12.5) is due to
the first order term in the denominator,
(1+j . 88) which will contribute -2 db/
decade.
ƥ Hence total slope becomes (- (-4 + -2 )
db/ decade = -Ä db/ decade.
ƥ The slope of -Ä db/decade will continue
for frequencies greater than  = 12.5.
cVR
ƥ Step 5: calculate G(j
G(j ) H(j
H(j) for
frequencies between  = 1 to 1 :
ƥ G(j ) H(j
G(j H(j)=
ƥ .5)- tan-1( . 8
-9 ƛ tan-1( .5 8)
 1 2 8 1 2 5
rad/sec

G(j
G(j ) H(j
H(j -121 -144 -2 2 -2 v -234 -252
degree

cVi

R cR
R  !" 
c cþ

þ cV
c
 c
Rv c
c 
 !"  Rc

R R

Rv
R  !" 

cV

ƥ The gain margin is defined as negative of

gain in db at phase cross over frequency.
ƥ phase cross over frequency is 5 rad/sec
ƥ And corresponding gain value = -13 db
ƥ Hence gain margin = 13 db
ƥ The phase margin is given by
ƥ 18 + G(j)H(j
G(j)H(j) at gain cross
over frequency .
ƥ The gain cross over frequency is 2.v
rad/sec
ƥ And corresponding phase angle = -15 cVþ
ƥ Hence phase margin = 18 + (-(-15 )
ƥ =3
ƥ The phase margin & gain margin are both
positive.
ƥ Hence system is stable.
ƥ If phase cross over frequency is greater
than gain cross over frequency, system
will be stable.

cVÄ
ƥ Draw the Bode plot for the following
ƥ Open
Open--loop transfer function
ƥ G(s)H(s) = 3
ƥ s(1+ .5s)(1+ . 8s)
ƥ And determine (a) the gain margin
ƥ (b) the phase margin
ƥ (c) the closed loop
stability

cVv
ƥ Draw the Bode plot for the following
ƥ Open
Open--loop transfer function
ƥ G(s)H(s) = 48(s+1 )
ƥ s(s+2 )(s2+2.4s+1Ä)
ƥ And determine (a) the gain margin
ƥ (b) the phase margin
ƥ (c) the closed loop stability

cVV
ƥ G(s)H(s) = 48(s+1 )
ƥ s(s+2 ) (s2+2.4s+1Ä)
ƥ Step1
Step1:: Check whether given transfer
function is in normalized form.
ƥ Here, G(s)H(s) is not in normalized form.
ƥ G(s)H(s) = 48 x 1 [s/1 +1] 1Ä
ƥ 1Äxx s[s/2 +1] (s2+2.4s+1Ä)
2 x 1Ä

ƥ = 1.5( .1s +1) x 1Ä

s( . 5s + 1) (s2+2.4s+1Ä)
cV'
 j
Then put s= j
ƥ G(j
G(j)H(j
)H(j) =1.5( .1j
.1j +1) x 1Ä
j ( . 5 j
j + 1) [ j2.4 (1Ä-- 2)]
j2.4 + (1Ä

ƥ Step 2:
2: the corner frequencies are
ƥ  = 1/ .1 = 1 ,
ƥ  = 1/ . 5 = 2 , and
ƥ  = n =ƹ 1Ä = 4 since n2
= 1Ä
ƥ in the quadratic term.
ƥ
ƥ
c'
ƥ The starting frequency of the Bode plot is
taken as lower than the lowest corner
frequency.
ƥ Step 3.
3. Determine the initial slope and
point of intersection with frequency
()axis:
ƥ Since system is type 1, the initial slope of
the Bode plot is -2 db/ decade.
ƥ point of intersection with frequency
()axis
occurs at  = K = 1.5
c'c
ƥ Step 4:
4: Determine change in slope at each
corner frequency and plot the magnitude
plot.
ƥ The initial slope of -2 db/ decade continues
( = 4) is
till the lowest corner frequency (
reached.
ƥ The corner frequency ( ( = 4) is due to the
second order term (quadratic term) in the
denominator, 1Ä
ƥ j2.4 + (1Ä
[ j2.4 (1Ä-- 2)]
ƥ which will contribute -4 db/ decade.
c'R
ƥ Hence total slope becomes (-
(-2 + -4 ) db/ decade
= -Ä db/ decade
ƥ ( Note that a decade is a frequency band from 1
to 1 1, where 1 is any frequency)
ƥ ( Also note that an octave is a frequency band from
1 to 21, where 1 is any frequency)
ƥ ( Octave = 1/ .3 1 1decade)
decade)
ƥ Hence -Ä db/ decade = -Ä x .3 db/ octave
ƥ = -18 db/ octave
ƥ

c'i
ƥ The slope of -Ä db/decade will continue
( = 1 ) is
till the next corner frequency (
reached.
ƥ The corner frequency ( ( = 1 ) is due to
the first order term in the numerator,
.1) which will contribute +2 db/
(1+j .1
decade.
ƥ Hence total slope becomes (- (-Ä + +2 )
db/ decade = -4 db/ decade.
ƥ The slope of -4 db/decade will continue
( = 2 ) is
till the next corner frequency (
reached.
c'

ƥ The corner frequency (

( = 2 ) is due to
the first order term in the denominator,
(1+j . 55) which will contribute -2 db/
decade.

ƥ Hence total slope becomes (-

(-4 + -2 )
db/ decade = -Ä db/ decade.

ƥ The slope of -Ä db/decade will continue

for frequencies greater than  =2

c'þ
ƥ Step 5: calculate G(j
G(j ) H(j
H(j) for
frequencies between  = 1 to 1 :
ƥ G(j ) H(j
G(j H(j)= tan-1( .1
.1) -9 ƛ
ƥ 5)- tan-1 2.4
tan-1( . 5 /(1Ä
2.4/(1Ä-- 2 )
 1 4 5 1 2 5
rad/sec

G(j
G(j )H(j
)H(j - 9Ä -1Ä9 -2 4 -235 -244 -25Ä
degree

c'Ä
The Nyquist Criterion:

c'v
Mathematical background:
ƥ Consider the denominator of overall transfer
function:
ƥ Do(s) = 1+G(s)H(s)
ƥ = K(s-
K(s-s1)(s
)(s--s2)(s
)(s--s3)Ʀ(s
)Ʀ(s--sm)
ƥ (s
(s--sa)(s
)(s--sb)(s
)(s--sc)Ʀ(s
)Ʀ(s--sn)
Equation(1)
ƥ where s1,s2,Ʀ,sm are zeros of Do(s) and sa,
sb, Ʀ sn are poles of Do(s) and s is a
complex variable : s =  + j
j
c'V
ƥ The function Do(s) apparently will also be
complex.
ƥ Let us write Do(s) = u(s) + j v(s)
ƥ when s takes on different values, both u(s)
and v(s) will vary.
ƥ It is manifestly impossible to represent the
function Do(s) graphically in a single diagram
for all complex values of s.
ƥ However, since the zeros, s1,s2,Ʀ,sm and the
poles, sa, sb,Ʀ, sn, completely characterize
the function Do(s), a simple plot in the s-
s-plane
showing the location of zeros and poles,
poles,
provides a neat way of specifying properties of
Do(s) graphically. c''
ƥ For each value , so , of s, there corresponds
a value of Do(s
Do(so) = u(s
u(so) + j v(s
v(so) which can
be represented by a point in Do(s) plane.
ƥ If we now allow s to take on successive
values along a closed contour C in the
ƥ s-plane , a corresponding closed contour R,
as shown in the next slide, will be traced.
ƥ we say that the contour C in the s-s-plane is
mapped onto the Do(s) plane as the contour
R by the functional relationship given in
ƥ Equation(1)
R
ƥ Mapping of a contour C in S-
S-plane onto a contour š
in Do(s) plane
M'

ƥ contour C contour š
M

ƥ (a) s-plane (b) Do(s) plane

R c
ƥ we know that the exact shape of contour R
depends critically on that of contour  ;
ƥ but why have we drawn contour R clockwise
for a clockwise contour  as shown
ƥ In order to answer this question we have to
pursue further by examining four different
cases listed below:
ƥ (1) contour encircles
encircles neither zeros nor poles
of Do(s), (2
(2) contour encircles
encircles zeros contour
encircles poles,(3
encircles poles,(3) contour encircles
encircles poles
(4) contour encircles
but not zeros, (4 encircles both
poles and zeros. R R
ƥ (1) Contour C encircles neither zeros nor poles:
poles:
ƥ It is clear that a closed contour in the s-
s-plane
maps onto a closed contour in the Do(s) plane.
ƥ Contours C and š essentially divide the s &
Do(s) plane into two regions, one inside and
one outside the contours.
ƥ If the contour C in the s-
s-plane does not encircle
any poles or zeros, then the contour š in the
Do(s)--plane cannot encircle either the origin or
Do(s)
the point at infinity.
ƥ As we trace the contour C in the clockwise
direction (in the direction of arrow), the interior
R i
ƥ the interior of the contour which contains
neither zeros nor poles is always on the right
of the contour.
ƥ Correspondingly, in the Do(s) plane the region
which contains neither the origin nor the point
at infinity should also be on the right of the
contour as R is traced.
ƥ In other words, the interior of the contour C in
the s-
s-plane is mapped onto the Do(s) plane as
the interior of the contour R
and

and if C is
described in clockwise direction, so is R 
R

Mapping of a contour C which encircles a

zero of Do(s) jv
jw

š
s1 C


u

(a) S plane
(b) Do(s) plane

R þ
Mapping of a contour C which encircles two
zeros of Do(s) jv
jw

s1 C
š

u
s2

(a) S plane
(b) Do(s) plane

R Ä
ƥ (2) Contour C encircles zeros but not poles:
ƥ As we trace the contour C in the direction of
arrow, the interior of the contour, which is
always on the right of the contour and which
contains a zero, s1, maps onto Do(s)-
Do(s)-plane
as the contour R
ƥ R is correspondingly traced with its interior,
which contains the origin, always on its right.
ƥ Hence if C is described in a clockwise
direction, so is R 

R v
Mapping of a contour C which encircles a
pole of Do(s) jv
jw

C
X Sa š

u

(a) S plane
(b) Do(s) plane

R V
ƥ The contour R encircles the origin of the
Do(s) plane once in clockwise direction
because the contour C encircles one zero in
the s-
s-plane in the clockwise direction.
ƥ In general, if the contour C encircles Z zeros
in the clockwise direction, the corresponding
ƥ contour R

@ @
 the origin of the Do(s)


@ @
the
plane Z times in clockwise direction 
ƥ A zero of multiplicity k counts as k zeros.

R '
ƥ (3) Contour C encircles poles but not zeros:
ƥ Here, as we trace the contour C in the
direction of arrow, the region on the right
which contains a pole, Sa, maps on to the
ƥ Do(s)
Do(s)--plane as the region also on the right of
the contour R
which

which contains the point at
infinity as š is described.
ƥ Hence interior of contour C maps onto the
exterior of the contour R .
ƥ Since

Rc
Mapping of a contour C which encircles a
pole of Do(s) jv
jw

C
X Sa š

u

(a) S plane
(b) Do(s) plane

Rcc
Contour C which encloses the entire right
half of the complex s-
s- plane
jw

S = +jƺ


S=

S = -jƺ

(a) S plane

RcR
 Module 3

Analysis of Discrete Systems

Rci
ƥ Stability Analysis in z-
z-plane:
plane:
ƥ Juri's Stability Test:
ƥ Consider the characteristic polynomial
ƥ F(z) = anzn+ an-1 zn-1 + Ʀ + a = , an >
ƥ Like Routh-
Routh-Hurwitz criterion , Juri's Stability
Test consists of two parts:
ƥ 1. A simple test for necessary conditions &
ƥ 2. A test for sufficient conditions.
conditions.
ƥ The necessary conditions for stability are
ƥ F(1) > , (-1)nF( F(--1)>
Rc

ƥ The sufficient condition for stability can be

established by the following method.
ƥ Method
Method::
ƥ Prepare a table of coefficients of the
characteristic polynomial as shown:
ƥ

Rcþ
Row z z 1 z 2 z 3 Ʀ z n-k Ʀ z n-2 z n-2 z n
1 a a 1 a 2 a 3 Ʀ a n-k Ʀ a n-2 a n-1 a n
2 an a n-1 a n-2 a n-3 Ʀ a k Ʀ a2 a1 a

3 b b1 b2 b3 Ʀ bn-k Ʀ bn-2 bn-1

4 bn-1 bn-2 bn-3 bn-4 Ʀ bk-1 Ʀ b1 b
5 c c1 c2 c3 Ʀ cn-k Ʀ cn-2
Ä cn-2 cn-3 cn-4 cn-5 Ʀ c k- 2 Ʀ c
... Ʀ Ʀ Ʀ Ʀ Ʀ Ʀ
2n--5
2n s s1 s2 s3
2n--4
2n s3 s2 s1 s
2n--3
2n r r1 r2
RcÄ
ƥ where
ƥ bk = a an-k
ƥ an ak

ƥ ck = b bn-1-k
ƥ bn-1 bk

ƥ dk = c cn-2-k
ƥ c n- 2 c k
ƥ
ƥ Ʀ Ʀ Ʀ
ƥ Rcv
ƥ The sufficient conditions for stability are :
ƥ a < an
ƥ b > bn-1
ƥ c > c n- 2 n-1 constraints
ƥ Ʀ
ƥ Ʀ
ƥ r > r2

RcV
ƥ Problem
Problem::
ƥ Determine stability of the system
described by the characteristic equation:
ƥ 2z4 + vz3 + 1 z2 +4z +1 =

Rc'
ƥ Necessary conditions:
conditions:
ƥ F(1) = 2+v+1 +4+1=24 > satisfied
ƥ (-1)4F(
F(--1)= 2-
2-v+1 ƛ 4+1 > satisfied
Row z z1 z2 z3 z4
ƥ
1 1 4 1 v 2
2 2 v 1 4 1
3 -3 -1 -1 -1
4 -1 -1 -1 -3
5 8 2 2

RR
ƥ Applying the stability constraints:
ƥ 1 < 2 satisfied
ƥ
ƥ -3 > - 1 satisfied
ƥ 8 > 2 not satisfied

ƥ Hence system is unstable

RRc
 HOME wORK
Determine stability of the system described
by the characteristic equation:
equation:
z4 ƛ 1.v z3 + 1. 4 z2 ƛ .2Ä8 z + . 24=

RRR
DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS
ƥ Before attempting to solve difference
equations, knowledge of the following
theorem is vital.
ƥ The Shifting Theorem:
Theorem:
ƥ If —[f(t)] = (z) , then
ƥ —[f(t+T)] = z[ (z) ƛ f( )]

RRi
ƥ COROLLARY 1: 1:
ƥ If —[f(t)] = (z) , then
ƥ —[f(t+2T)] = z2[ (z) ƛ f( )]-
)]- zf(T)

ƥ COROLLARY 2:
2:

ƥ If —[f(t)] = (z) , then

ƥ —[f(t- U(t-nT] = z-n[ (z)]
[f(t- nT) U(t-
ƥ

RR

ƥ Problem
Problem::
ƥ Solve the difference equation
ƥ x(k+2) - 3x(k+1) + 2x(k) = 4k ;
ƥ x( )= , x(1)=1
ƥ Solution:
ƥ Taking the z-z-transform of the difference
equation,
[z2 (z)
(z)-- z2x( ) ƛ zx(1)]
(1)]--3[z
3[z(z)
(z)--zx( )]+ 2
2(z)
= z/(z-
z/(z-4)

RRþ
(z2-3z+2) (z) = z2x( )+z[x
)+z[x(1)
(1)--3x( )]+z/(z-
)]+z/(z-4)

(z) = {z2x( )+z[x

)+z[x(1) )]}/ (z2-3z+2)
(1)--3x( )]}

+ (z--4) (z2-3z+2)}
z/{(z 3z+2)}

Substituting the initial conditions,

(z) = z/z/{(z
(z--1)(z-
1)(z-2)
2)}} + z/{(z (z--1)(z-
1)(z-2)(z-
2)(z-4)
4)}}
[-z/(z
= [- (z--1)
1)++z/(z
(z--2)
2)]] +
[z/
z/3(z
3(z--1) -z/
z/2(z
2(z--2) + z/
z/Ä(z
Ä(z--4)
4)]]
RRÄ
ƥ Taking inverse z-
z-transform:
ƥ x(k) = [ -1 + (2)k ] + [ 1/3 ƛ (1/2) (2)k +
ƥ (1/Ä) (4)k ]

RRv
ƥ Home work
work::
ƥ Solve the difference equation:
ƥ c(k+2) + 3c(k+1) +2c(k) = u(k); c( ) = 1,
ƥ c(k) = for k<

ƥ [Hint
Hint:: c(1) needed in the solution can be
found by letting k=-
k=-1, thus:
ƥ c(1) + 3 c( ) +2c(
+2c(--1) = u(-
u(-1)
ƥ hence c(1) =3
=3 ]

RRV
Module 4

State Space Analysis

RR'
ƥ State
State::
ƥ The state of a dynamic system is the
smallest set of variables ( called state
variables) such that the knowledge of
these variables at t = t , together with the
knowledge of the input for t ƿ t ,
completely determine the behavior of the
system for any time t ƿ t .

Ri
ƥ State variables:
variables:
ƥ The state variables of a dynamic system are
the variables making up the smallest set of
variables that determine the state of the
dynamic system.
ƥ If at least n variables x1,x2,Ʀ,xn are needed to
completely describe the behavior of a
dynamic system (so that once the input is
given for t ƿ t and the initial state at t = t
is specified, the future state of the system is
completely determined), then such n
variables are a set of state variables.
Ric
ƥ State vector:
vector:
ƥ If n state variables are needed to
completely describe the behavior of a
system, then these n state variables can
be considered the n components of a
vector  
ƥ Such a vector is called state vector.
ƥ A state vector is thus a vector that
determines uniquely the system state
(t) for any time t ƿ t , once the state at
(t)

t = t is given and input u(t) for t ƿ t is
specified.
RiR
ƥ State space:
space:
ƥ The n-
n-diamensional space whose
coordinate axes consists of the x1 axis,
x2 axis, x3 axis, Ʀ , xn axis is called a state
space.
ƥ Any state can be represented by a point in
state space.

Rii
ƥ State
State--space equations:
equations:
ƥ In state-
state-space analysis we are concerned with
three types of variables : input variables,
variables,
output variables,
variables, and state variables.
variables.
ƥ For any time-
time-invariant system , the state
equation has the following general form:
ƥ x(t) = A x(t) + B u(t)
ƥ and the output equation is :
ƥ y(t) = C x(t) + D u(t)
ƥ where A is called state matrix, B is input
matrix, C is output matrix & D is direct
transmission matrix.
Ri

ƥ State
State--transition Matrix:
ƥ The solution of homogeneous state
equation
ƥ
x = Ax can be written as
x(t) = #(t) x( )
where #(t) is an n x n matrix and is the
unique solution of
#(t) = A #(t) , #( ) =I
ƥ
ƥ
ƥ
Riþ
ƥ To verify this, note that
ƥ x( ) = #( ) x( ) = x( )
ƥ and x(t) = #(t) x( )
ƥ = A #(t) x( )
ƥ = A x(t)
ƥ Hence the proof.
ƥ Also , #(t) = e At = $ -1 [ (sI-
(sI-A) -1 ]

ƥ Note that #-1(t) = e -At = #(-t)

ƥ
RiÄ
ƥ Properties of state-
state-transition matrix:
ƥ For the time-
time-invariant system
ƥ x = Ax
ƥ for which #(t) = e At we have
ƥ 1. #( ) = e A = I
ƥ 2. #(t) = e At = (e
(e ƛAt ) -1 =[
=[##(-t)
t)]] -1
ƥ or # -1(t) = #(-t)

ƥ 3. #(t1+t2) = e A(t1+t2) = e At1 e At2

ƥ =#(t1) #(t2)
ƥ
Riv
ƥ 4. [#
[#(t)
(t)]] n = #(nt)
ƥ 5. #(t2
(t2--t1) #(t1
(t1--t ) = #(t2
(t2--t )
ƥ = #(t1
(t1--t ) #(t2
(t2--t1)
ƥ

RiV
ƥ Problem:
ƥ Obtain the state-
state-transition matrix #(t) of
the following system :
ƥ x1 1 x1
ƥ x2 = -2 -3 x2
ƥ Find also the inverse of state transition
matrix.

Ri'
ƥ For this system,
ƥ A= 1
ƥ -2 - 3
ƥ The state-
state-transition matrix #(t) is given
by #(t) = e At = $ -1 [ (sI-
(sI-A) -1 ]
ƥ since sI-
sI-A = s 1
ƥ s - -2 - 3
ƥ = s -1
ƥ 2 s+3

ƥ The inverse of (s I-I-A) is given by

ƥ (sI--A) -1 = 1
(sI s+3 1
ƥ (s+1)(s+2) -2 s
ƥ s+3 1
ƥ (s+1)(s+2) (s+1)(s+2)
ƥ = -2 s
ƥ (s+1)(s+2) (s+1)(s+2)
ƥ

R
c
ƥ Hence #(t) = e At = $ -1 [ (sI-
(sI-A) -1 ]
ƥ = 2e ƛt ƛ e-2t e-t ƛ e-2t
ƥ
ƥ -2e ƛt +2e -2t -e-t +2e-2t

ƥ since, # -1(t) = #(-t) , we obtain the

inverse of state transition matrix as
follows :
ƥ # -1(t) =#(-t)= 2e t ƛ e2t
(t)= et ƛ e2t
ƥ -2et +2e 2t -et +2e2t

R
R
ƥ Problem
Problem::
ƥ Obtain the state-
state-transition matrix #(t) of
the following system :
ƥ x1 -1 - .5 x1
ƥ x2 = 1 x2

R
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ƥ For this system ,
ƥ A = -1 - .5
ƥ 1
ƥ The state-
state-transition matrix #(t) is given
by #(t) = e At = $ -1 [ (sI-
(sI-A) -1 ]
ƥ sI-A = s+1 .5
since sI-
ƥ -1 s
ƥ (sI--A) -1 = s+1 .5 -1
(sI
ƥ -1 s

ƥ (sI
(sI--A) -1 = 1 s - .5
ƥ s2 + s+ .5 1 s+1

ƥ = s+ .5-
.5- .5 - .5
ƥ s2 + s+ .5 s2 + s+ .5
ƥ 1 s+ .5+ .5
ƥ s2 + s+ .5 s2 + s+ .5
ƥ

R
þ
ƥ we have #(t) = e At = $ -1 [ (sI-
(sI-A) -1 ]
ƥ
ƥ = e- .5t(cos .5t ƛ sin .5t) -e- .5t sin .5t
ƥ 2e- .5t sin .5t e- .5t(cos .5t ƛ sin .5t)

R
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ƥ For the electrical
network shown
determine the state


model. Consider i1, i2
and vc as state 

variables. The output

variables are i1 and i2.
ƥ Current supplied by e1
is i1 & that by e2 is i2.

R
v
ƥ The differential equations are written
below:
ƥ R1i1 + L1 di1+ vc = e1
ƥ dt
ƥ R2i2 + L2 di2+ vc = e2
ƥ dt
ƥ And c dv
dvc = i1 + i2
ƥ dt

R
V
ƥ On rearranging above equations:
ƥ di1 = - R1 i1 ƛ 1 vc + 1 e1
ƥ dt L1 L1 L1
ƥ di2 = - R2 ƛ 1 vc + 1 e2
ƥ dt L2 L2 L2
ƥ And dv
dvc = 1 i1 + 1 i2
ƥ dt C C

R
'
ƥ The output equation is :
ƥ y1 = i1
ƥ and y2 = i2
ƥ Put x1 = i1, x2 = i2 and x3 = vc.

Rþ
ƥ x1 -R1/L1 -1/L1 x1
x2 = -R2/L2 -1/L2 x2 +
ƥ x3 1/C 1/C x3

ƥ 1/L1 e1
ƥ 1/L2 e2
ƥ

ƥ and y = y1 1 x1
ƥ y2 = 1 x2
Rþc
 Home work
ƥ Problem
Problem::
ƥ Obtain state space
representation for the
electrical network
shown.

RþR
ƥ Select v1(t), v2(t) and i(t) as state
variables.
ƥ The equations describing dynamic
behavior of the system are:
ƥ v1
v1-- e + C1 dv1 + i = , at node 1
ƥ R1 dt
ƥ C2dv2 + v2 ƛ i = , at node 2
ƥ dt R2
ƥ Ldi + v2 ƛ v1 =
ƥ dt
Rþi
ƥ Rearranging the above equations yield :
ƥ dv1 = - v1 ƛ i + e
ƥ dt R1C1 C1 R1C1
ƥ dv2 = - v2 + I
ƥ dt R2C2 C2
ƥ
ƥ di = v1 - v2
ƥ dt L L

Rþ

ƥ Since v1, v2, i are selected as state

variables, therefore,
ƥ x1 = v1
ƥ x2 = v2
ƥ and x3 = i
ƥ Hence state space representation can be
obtained as :
ƥ x1 = - 1 x1 ƛ 1 x3 + 1 e
ƥ R1C1 C1 R1C1
ƥ x2 = - 1 x2 + 1 x3
ƥ R2C2 C2
Rþþ
ƥ x3 = 1 x1 ƛ 1 x2
ƥ L L
ƥ In matrix form, state space representation:
ƥ x1 -1/R1C1 1/C1 x1
ƥ x2 = -1/R2C2 1/C2 x2
ƥ x3 1/L - 1/L x3

ƥ + 1/R1C1
ƥ e
ƥ
RþÄ
ƥ Module 4 (contdƦ)
ƥ Solution of State Equation:
ƥ The solution of nonhomogeneous state
equation can be obtained as
ƥ X(t) = eAt X( ) + t eA(tA(t--š)Bu(
Bu(šš)dš
)dš,

Rþv
ƥ x1 1 x1
ƥ x2 = -2 -3 x2 + 1 u
ƥ Obtain the time response of the above
system, where u(t) is the unit step
function occurring at t= , or u(t) =1(t)

RþV
ƥ For the given system:
ƥ A= 1 B=
ƥ -2 -3 1

ƥ The state transition matrix #(t) = e At

ƥ = $ -1 [ (sI-
(sI-A) -1 ] is
ƥ = 2e ƛt ƛ e-2t e-t ƛ e-2t
ƥ
ƥ -2e ƛt +2e -2t -e-t +2e-2t

Rþ'
ƥ The response to the unit-
unit-step input is then
obtained as:
ƥ X(t) = eAt X( ) + t eA(t
A(t--š)Bu(
Bu(šš)dš
)dš,
ƥ = eAt X( ) +
ƥ t 2e ƛ(t(t-- š) ƛ e-2(t-
2(t- š) e-(t
(t--š) ƛ e-2(t-
2(t-š)

ƥ
ƥ -2e (t-- š)
ƛ(t 2(t- š) -e-(t
+2e-2(t- (t-- š) +2e-2(t-
2(t- š) 1 1
dš

RÄ
ƥ x1(t) 2e-t ƛ e-2t e-t ƛ e-2t x1( )
ƥ x2(t) = -2e-t +2e-2t -e-t +2e-2t x2( )

ƥ + ½ - e-t + ½ e-2t
ƥ e-t - e-2t
ƥ If the initial state is zero or ( ) =
ƥ or x1( ) =
ƥ x2( ) =
ƥ Then (t) can be simplified , thus:
ƥ
RÄc
ƥ x1(t) ½ - e-t + ½ e-2t
ƥ x2(t) = e-t - e-2t

RÄR
Thank you

RÄi