Course Title

IEQ-05 Earthquake Geology and Geoinformatics

(Dept. of Earthquake Engineering, IIT Roorkee)

Deformation: Stress and Strain

Deformation

Stress is the force applied to material that tends to change its dimensions. Strain is
the effect of stress shown by the material. Strength is the limiting stress that a material
can withstand without failing by rupture or continuous plastic flow. The response of a
rock to stress depends on the type of stress, the amount of pressure, the temperature, the
type of rock, and the length of time the rock is subjected to the stress. Stress is defined
as Force per unit area σ = F/A

Lithostatic Stress

What would be the stress on a bottom horizontal surface

1500m by 1500m across at the base of a 3.375x109m3 of
granite in the upper crust where ρ is density, V is volume,
a, is the acceleration due to gravity, and F is force.
Substituting the values taken from the problem formulated
above yields

• F=V.ρ.a
(1500m x 1500m x 1500m) x 2700kg/m3 x 9.8m/s2
= 8.93 x 1013 kg.m/s2

• Stress is force acting over some surface area, we divide this value by the area of
the base of the cube of granite.

8.93 x 1013 N / 1500m x 1500m = 39,690,000 N/m2 or 39.69 MPa

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How do rocks become deformed?

Compressive stress: Squeezes rocks together

Tensile stress: Pulls rocks apart

Shear stress: Causes rocks to slide past one another

Types of Stress

There are three types of stress:

1. Compressional stress - Forces are directed toward one another. Decreases the
volume of a material. Lithostatic pressure is an all-sided confining pressure
produced by burial.
2. Tensional stress - Stretching stress that tends to increase the volume of a material.
3. Shear stress - Force is parallel, but in opposite directions resulting in displacement
of adjacent layers along closely spaced planes.

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 Rock Response to Stress

Large scale deformation of rocks are explained as:

1. Elastic deformation - Occurs when a body is deformed in response to a stress, but

returns to its original shape when stress is removed. Stress is totally reversible or
recoverable.
2. Plastic Deformation - Permanent deformation caused by flowing and folding at
stresses above the elastic limit at high confining pressure and/or temperature.
Warm rocks tend to deform plastically. Irreversible strain without visible
fractures.
3. Brittle Deformation - Any rock will break if the applied stress is too great. Rocks
at or near the surface (cold, low pressure) tend to deform by brittle rupture.
Results in fracturing and faulting (rock shows differential movement on either
side of the fracture surface. When stresses are removed, a portion of the strain
remains. Irreversible, not recoverable strain. Material loses cohesion.

Time Factor

At a particular temperature and pressure, the response of a rock to stress is

dependent upon the type of stress and the length of time over which the stress is applied.
Slow application of stress favors plastic deformation. Rapid application of stress favors
brittle deformation.

Strength of Rocks

Different types of rock respond to stress differently. Rocks have different strengths
for different types of applied stress. Tensional strength is less than compressional
strength.

1. Material is brittle when the difference is large. Rock behaves as a brittle material
near surface where temperature and pressure are low.

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 2. Material is ductile when the difference is small. Rock behaves as a ductile
material before it fails at high confining pressures and/or high temperatures.

Features of Plastic Deformation

Folds are produced by plastic and elastic deformation during compressive stress.
Mechanism of folding (not in book) falls in to two categories:

1. Concentric (Flexural Slip) folding - The bending of surface rock beds without
change of thickness or volume (= elastic deformation).
2. Flow Folding - Occurs in plastic rocks subjected to directed stress at high
pressures and temperatures (= plastic deformation). Thickness and volume of rock
beds can change.

Four deformation components are:

Translation- movement from initial location.

Rotation- spin about an axis

Distortion- change in shape (Strain)- describes displacement field of points

within the body; i.e., from an internal reference frame.

Dilation- volume change

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 Homogeneous Strain- Situation in which strain in all points of a rock body is the
same

Original straight lines remain straight

Original parallel lines remain parallel
Circles become ellipses;
3-D spheres become ellipsoids

Heterogeneous Strain- Strain is different in various parts of the rock body.

One or more of homogeneous strain conditions do not apply

Original straight lines do not remain straight
Original parallel lines do not remain parallel
Circles do not become ellipses
3-D spheres do not become ellipsoids.

Measuring Deformation

Length Changes

Volume Changes

Angular (Rotational) Changes

Length Deformation

Longitudinal Strain (e) = extension

e (Extension) = (L - Lo)/ Lo

Lo=Original Length

L= Final Length i.e. changed length

e (Extension) is a dimensionless quantity

Shortening- negative values e<0 Extension- positive values e>0

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 Quadratic Elongation (λ)

alternative expression for length changes

• λ = (L / Lo)2
• λ = ( 1 + e )2

• Stretch (s) s = (λ)1/2

Volume Deformation

• Volumetric Strain (∆)

• Volume Change (∆) = (V - V0) / V0
• V0= Original Volume; V= Final Volume
• ∆ is a dimensionless quantity
• Decrease volume- negative values
• Increase volume- positive values

Rotational Deformation

• Angular Strain (Ψ) Rotational Change

• Change in angle between two initially perpendicular lines
• Shear Strain (γ)= tanΨ.
• Ψ = angular shear (psi) = deflection from an originally right angle
• Shear Strain and Angular Shear are dimensionless.

Elastic Behavior- linear plot of stress vs strain.

When stress is applied, strain is instantaneous; i.e., not time dependent.

Furthermore, instantaneous recovery ensues upon removal of stress.

Some rocks at shallow depths and for short periods of time, approach ideal elastic
behavior during small magnitudes of deformation.

The equation of the straight line describing the proportional relationship of stress to
strain for elastic bodies is Hook’s Law

σ=Ee

E = Young’s Modulus

E = σ / e = stress/strain

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 Young’s modulus describes the slope of the straight line stress-strain curve. E varies
from rock to rock reflecting natural differences in the resistance of rock to elastic
deformation.

Brittle Rocks- exhibit elastic behavior before rupture

Ductile Rocks- exhibit elastic-plastic behavior before rupture. The onset of plastic
deformation deformation during the experiment occurs when the load-displacement curve

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(or stress-strain curve) departs from its straight-line elastic mode and begins to bend to
form a convex-upward curve.

Elastic Limit – The point of departure from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called
the elastic limit. Its value is measured in stress. It is known as yield strength. Below its
yield strength, a rock behaves as an elastic solid. Above the elastic limit, the rock begins
to flow.

Young’s modulus (E) can be thought of as an elastic modulus that describes how
much stress is required to achieve a given amount of length-parallel elastic shortening
of a core of rock.

A second elastic modulus known as Poisson’s ratio ( ν ) describes the degree to which
core of rock bulge as it shortens. Poisson’s ratio describes the ratio of lateral strain to
longitudinal strain.

ν = e lat / e long

Graphical means to depict states of stress

• Mohr Circle developed by Otto Mohr (1835-1918) is a convenient graphical
means to depict states of stress.

A force applied to an area (stress) may be resolved into a normal force (Fn) perpendicular
to a plane and a shear force (Fs), parallel to a plane in questions.

Compressive Stress
σ1- Maximum Compressive Stress

σ2- Intermediate Compressive Stress

σ3- Minimum Compressive Stress

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σn - Normal Stress - oriented perpendicular to a plane

σs -Shear Stress - oriented parallel to a plane

θ - angle formed by an inclined plane with the maximum and minimum compressive
stress directions, and measured from the minimum stress position.

Experimental rock fracturing has shown that the difference in magnitude between σ1 and
σ3 is the most important factor in causing rocks to fracture. The magnitude of σ2 is not
believed to play a major role in the initiation of fracture.

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Stress acting on a plane

If we know the orientations and magnitudes of σ1 and σ3 then we can determine the
normal and shear stress acting across any plane perpendicular to the σ1 - σ3 plane

Now we want to determine the normal and shear stress acting on the above shown plane

Viewed in the σ1 - σ3 plane, we will call these surfaces A and B and define the angle θ as
the angle between the plane and σ3 direction. No change occurs in the triangle i.e. in
equilibrium.

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In equilibrium condition Normal Stress (σn) and Shear Stress (σs) acting on the plane
must be equal to σ1 and σ3 acting on surfaces A and B.

The plane is represented by A / cos θ or B / sin θ

The vertical and horizontal forces acting on this line are as shown in the figure.

The equations of equilibrium for this plane are

σ A=
A
(σn cosθ + σs sinθ ) σ3 B =
B
(σn sinθ − σs cosθ)
sin θ
1
cos θ

Derivation of Normal Stress (σn)

[σ 1 cos θ = (σn cosθ + σs sinθ )]× cosθ

[σ 3 sin θ = (σn sinθ −σs cosθ )] × sinθ

σ 1 cos θ = (σn cos θ +σs sinθ cosθ ).......1
2 2

σ 3 sin θ = (σn sin θ −σs cosθ sinθ )..........2

2 2

Add 1 & 2
σ cos θ +σ sin θ = σn (cos θ + sin θ )
1
2
3
2 2 2

σn σ cos θ +σ sin θ
= 1
2
3
2

 cos 2θ + sin 2θ = 1




=σ 1 (1 + cos2
2
θ)
+σ 3
(1 − cos2θ )
2

 cos 2θ =
 (1 + cos2θ )
 
 2 


 sin 2θ =
 (1 − cos2θ )
 
 2 

=σ 1 +σ2 1 cos2θ +
σ 3 −σ 3 cos2θ
2

Normal Stress Equation

σn = σ 1 +2σ 3  + σ 1 −2σ 3  cos2θ 11

 Derivation of Shear Stress (σs)

[σ 1 cos θ = (σn cosθ +σs sinθ )]× sinθ

[σ 3 sin θ = (σn sinθ −σs cosθ )]× cosθ
σ 1 cosθ sinθ = (σn cosθ sinθ +σs sin θ ).......32

σ 3 sinθ cosθ = (σn sinθ cosθ -σs cos θ )..........4 2

Substract 3 & 4

(σ 1 -σ 3) cosθ sinθ =σs (sin θ + cos θ )

2 2

σs (σ −σ
= 1 3 ) cosθ sinθ
 sin 2θ + cos 2θ = 1



σs = (σ 1-σ 3).22 . cosθ sinθ

[ sin2θ = 2sinθ cosθ ]


Shear Stress Equation

σs = σ 1 −2σ 3  sin2θ

Mohr Stress Circle
Mohr expressed the stress equations graphically by plotting shear stress against
normal stress.

Knowing the magnitude of the principal stresses, the normal and shear stresses on any
plane, with values of θ between 0o and 180o, can be determined using these
equations.

If the normal and shear stresses for all values of θ are plotted, they form a circle,
known as the Mohr’s stress circle.

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Plotting Mohr's Diagram

Mohr's circle is plotted on two

perpendicular axes: The vertical axis
(ordinate) depicts shear stress and the
horizontal axis (abscissa) depicts normal
stress.

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 Shearing stresses that have a sinistral
(counterclockwise) sense are, by
convention, considered positive and are
plotted above the origin. Dextral
(clockwise) shearing stresses are plotted on
the lower, negative half of the diagram.

Principle Stresses σ1 (maximum compressive

stress) and σ3 (minimum compressive stress)
plot as two points on the horizontal axis.
These two points define the diameter of a
circle. The Circle is plotted on the abscissa.

These points establish a radius (R) where by:

(σ 1 - σ 3 )
R =
2
The center (C) is then plotted:
(σ + σ )
C =
1 3

We can determine the normal and shear

stress on any plane oriented at an angle θ
from the abscissa, as measured counter-
clockwise from the minimum compressive
stress direction.

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 Because of the properties of a circle, the
angle between Point P, the center of the
circle and the maximum compressive stress
direction = 2 θ, as measured counter-
clockwise from the center of the circle.

Mohr’s Circle can graphically depict stress on

any plane inclined relative to the principal plane.

Normal and shear stresses can be determined

graphically using the circle or by using
equations.

Maximum shear stress occurs on planes oriented

45o to the maximum and minimum compressive
stress directions; thus, these points plot at the top
and bottom of Mohr's Circle

Differential stress, that is the difference between the maximum and minimum
compressive stress, is the most important factor in rock fracturing. The intermediate
principal stress generally does not cause rock fractring.

Mohr's Diagram

On a Mohr’s Diagram, the following sense of shear conventions apply:

Sinistral (counterclockwise) shear is Positive (+) and

Dextral (clockwise) shear is Negative (-).

Angles 2 θ associated with planes experiencing sinistral shear plot in the upper
hemisphere. Angles 2 θ associated with planes experiencing dextral shear plot in
the lower hemisphere

Note that the axes of Mohr’s diagram do not have a geographic orientation.

Importance of Mohr’s Diagram

For any value of maximum compressive stress value and minimum compressive stress
value, one can determine the normal and shear stress for any planes that lie at an angle θ.

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Depicts the attitude of planes along which shear stress is the greatest for a given stress
state.

The most important aspect of Mohr’s diagram is that it facilitates a quick, graphical
determination of stresses on planes of any orientation.

Example

Suppose σ1 is oriented east-west,

horizontal, and equal to 40 MPa, while σ3
is vertical and equal to 20 MPa. We can
find the normal and shear stresses on a
o
fault plane striking N-S and dipping 55
west.

Construct a Mohr circle of stress for a given values of σ1 and σ3.

Determine the value of sign of angle 2θ for the fault plane.

Angle θ is the angle between the fault plane and σ3, which in this case is 35o.

So 2θ is 70o. Shearing stress on this fault have a dextral or negative sense, so angle 2θ is
located in the lower hemisphere of the Mohr circle.

The normal and shear stress coordinates can be read from graph.

In this example σn is 33.4 MPa and σs is 9.4 MPa.

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Mohr Envelop of Failure

The main objective was to understand or predict the orientation and magnitude of stresses
that would cause a particular rock to fracture or fail.

Examination of brittle failure wherein a cylinder of rock is axially compressed.

Suppose the radially applied confining

pressure, σc , is kept constant at 40 MPa,
σa, while the axial load, begins at 40 MPa
and gradually increased until the rock fails
at an axial load of 540 MPa.

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Mohr Envelop of Failure

Now suppose we perform a series of three experiments on identical samples, but at

different confining pressures.

We would find hat the fracture strength of the rock increases with confining pressure.
Refer to the table.

In experiment 2 the confining pressure was raised to 150 MPa, and in experiment 3 to
400 MPa.

Mohr Envelop of Failure

Three resulting Mohr circles are drawn. Because each experiment in this series has a
higher confining pressure than the previous one, the Mohr circles of failure become
progressively larger.

The Mohr circles at failure under different confining pressures together define a
boundary called the Mohr envelope or failure envelope for a particular rock.

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 The failure envelop is an empirically derived characteristic that expresses the
combination of σ1 and σ3 magnitude that will cause a particular rock (or manmade
material such as concrete) to fracture.

If the Mohr circle representing a particular combination of σ1 and σ3 intersects the

material’s failure envelop then the material will fracture; if the Mohr circle does not
intersect the failure envelop the material will not fracture.

Coulomb coefficient

At intermediate confining pressures the fracture strength usually increases linearly with
increasing confining pressure, producing a failure envelop with straight lines.

The angle between these lines and the horizontal axis is called the angle of internal
friction φ and the slope of the envelop is called the Coulomb coefficient µ

µ = tan φ

Anderson’s Dynamics of Faulting

Anderson (1951) recognized that the properties of principal stress directions, in

combination with the Coulomb law of failure implies that only strike-slip, thrust-slip, and
normal-slip faults form at or near the surface of the Earth.

He postulated a standard state of stress in the Earth’s crust, which is equivalent to a

‘hydrostatic state’, in that the magnitude of the horizontal stresses, at any specific depth
in the crust, is equal to that of the vertical geostatic stress induced at that depth by
gravitational loading.

Angle of internal friction determines the angle between the fault surface and the
direction of greatest principal stress. Most rocks in nature posses an angle of internal
o
friction about 30 .

Anderson pointed out that the magnitudes of the horizontal stresses, relative to that of
the vertical geostatic stress, could change in one or three ways and (if the changes in
the magnitudes of the stresses were sufficient) could cause faults to develop.

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