Fundamentals of Metal Casting

CHAPTER 10
 Topics

• Introduction
• Solidification of Metals
• Fluid Flow
• Fluidity of Metals
• Heat Transfer
• Defects
 Overview of Casting

• Casting uses the idea that a liquid metal can

take the shape of any vessel containing it.

• When the metal cools it has taken the shape of

its container

• Casting is one of the most versatile

manufacturing processes
 Advantages of Casting

• Low cost and quick

• Easier to manufacture
• Can produce intricate shapes and
internal openings
• Can produce parts in one piece
• Best suited for composite components
 Introduction

Important Considerations

– Flow of Molten Metal

– Solidification and Cooling
– Type of Mold Material
 Solidification of Metals
 Involves liquid metal turning back in to solid metal
 The process is different for Pure metals and alloys
 Can be divided into two steps:
 Formation of stable nuclei
 Growth of crystals

Pure Metals
• Have a clearly defined melting point
• Temperature remains constant during freezing
• Solidifies from the walls of the mold toward the center of
the part
Grain Structure for Pure Metals

• Two types of grains are formed for a pure metal

– Fine equiaxed grains
– Columnar

• Rapid cooling at the walls produces fine equiaxed grains

• Columnar grains grow opposite of the heat transfer throughout the

mold following the chill zone

Equiaxed Grains
• If crystals can grow approximately equally in all directions –
equiaxed grains will grow.

• Large amounts of under cooling is needed near the wall of the

mold.
Illustration of Cast Structures
 Alloys
• Solidification in alloys begins when the temperature drops below
the liquidus TL and is complete when it reaches the solidus, TS.
 Alloys
• Within the TL and TS Temperature range, the alloy is like a slushy with columnar
dendrites
 Effects of Cooling Rates

• Slow cool rates results in course grain structures (102 K/s)

• Faster cooling rates produce finer grain structures (104 K/s)

• For even faster cooling rates, the structures are amorphous (106
– 108 K/s)

• Grain size influences strength of a material

• Smaller grains have higher ductility and strength

• Smaller grains help prevent hot tearing and/or cracks in the

casting
 Fluid Flow
Basic casting system:
– Fluid is pored though a pouring basin
– Flows though the gating system into the mold cavity

Schematic of typical riser-gated casting.

Fig : Schematic illustration of a

typical riser-gated casting.
Risers serve as reservoirs,
supplying molten metal to the
casting as it shrinks during
solidification.
 Fluid Flow
Sprue – is a vertical channel though which the molten metal flows downward
in the mold

Runners – channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold
cavity

Gate – is the portion of the runner though which the molten metal enters the
mold cavity

Risers – serve as reservoirs to supply the molten metal necessary to

prevent shrinkage.

Principles of fluid flow

– Bernoulli’s Theorem
– Continuity

Flow Characteristics: turbulence is an important consideration in gating

systems.
Flow Characteristics

Reynolds Number is used to quantify this aspect

• 0 < Re < 2000 => laminar flow

• 2000 < Re < 20 000 =>mixture of laminar and turbulent flow

• Re > 20 000 => severe turbulence

Techniques for minimizing turbulence

• Avoid sudden changes in flow direction

• Dross or slag can be eliminated by vacuum casting

• Use of filters eliminates turbulent flow in the runner system

 Fluidity of Molten Metal
Fluidity of Molten Metal : The capability of molten metal to fill mold
cavities is called fluidity.

The following influence fluidity

• Characteristics of molten metal
– Viscosity
– Surface tension
– Inclusions
– Solidification pattern of the alloy

• Casting parameters
– Mold design
– Mold material and its surface characteristics
– Degree of superheat
– Rate of pouring
– Heat transfer

Note: Castability – describes the case with which a metal can be cast to obtain a
part with good quality.
 Fluidity of Molten Metal

Fig : A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the spiral
passage. The greater the length of the solidified metal, the greater the length of the solidified metal, the
greater is its fluidity.
 Heat Transfer
Important consideration in casting
– Heat flow in the system
• Complex
• Depends of flow characteristics

Solidification Time
– A function of the volume of a casting and its surface area
• Solidification time = C volume 2

surface area

– Effects on solidification time

• Mold Geometry
• Skin thickness
 Heat Transfer
• Shrinkage – causes dimensional changes and, sometimes cracking, is
the result of the following:
– Contraction prior to solidification
– Contraction during phase changes
– Contraction as temperature drops to ambient temperature

Fig : Solidified skin on a steel

casting. The remaining
molten metal is poured
out at times indicated in
the figure. Hollow
ornamental and
decorative objects are
made by a process called
slush casting, which
based on this principle
 Defects • Cavities
– Internal or external
• Metallic projections • Blow holes
– Fins • Pin holes
– Flash
• Shrinkage cavities
– Massive projections
• Discontinuities
• Swells
– Cracks
• Rough surfaces
– Cold or hot tearing
– Cold shunts

Fig : Examples of hot tears in

castings. These defects
occur because the casting
cannot shrink freely during
cooling, owing to
constraints in various
portions of the molds and
cores. Exothermic (heat-
producing) compounds
may be used (as
exothermic padding) to
control cooling at critical
sections to avoid hot
tearing.
 Incorrect Dimensions or Shape
Defective surface
(i) Folds
(ii) Laps
(iii) Scars
(iv) Adhering sand layers
(v) Oxide scale
Inclusions – form after melting,
Incomplete casting
(i) Misruns
(ii) Insufficient volume
(iii) Runout – due to loss
of metal from mold
(iv) Temperature too low
when metal is poured
(v) Metal is poured to
slow
(i) Improper shrinkage allowance
(ii) Pattern mounting error
(iii) Irregular contraction
(iv) Deformed pattern
(v) Warped casting
solidification and molding
– Non-metallic
– Harmful
• Stress raisers
• Reduce the strength of the
casting
– May react with:
• Environment
• Crucible
• Mold material

Slags and other foreign material entrapped in the metal can become
inclusions too.
 Casting Defects

Fig : Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and
preparation of, olds and control of pouring procedures.
POROSITY: Methods of removal of porosity by (a)Internal and
(b)External chills

Fig : Various types of (a)

internal and (b)
external chills (dark
areas at corners),
used in castings to
eliminate porosity
caused by shrinkage.
Chills are placed in
regions where there is
a larger volume of
metal as shown in (c).
THE END