Communication

Communication is the process of meaningful

interaction among human beings. (D.E.
McFarland)

Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas,

opinions or emotions by two or more persons.
(Newman
and C.F. Summer Jr.)

Communication is any behavior that results in an

exchange of meaning.
(The American Management Association)

Communication is a process of passing information

and understanding from one person to another
(Keith Davis)
Through communication we exercise:

*influence on other
*bring about changes in the
attitudes and views of others
*Motivate others
*Maintain relations
 The transmission of the sender’s
ideas to the receiver and the
receiver’s feedback or reaction to
the sender completes the
communication cycle.

 One way Communication process

RECEIVED
MESSAGE IDEA
IDEA MESSAGE
 Components/elements of Communication
Process

1. Sender :
 Sender/Transmitter initiates the process of
Communication
 He must be clear about the purpose and
the receiver (intended communication has
a purpose)
 The sender’s functions are clarifying the
objectives, encoding the message, choosing
the medium and sending the message
2. Idea and encoding:
The process of putting the idea into
symbols is called encoding
Symbols (words, signs, pictures,
sounds) stand for ideas
Symbols must be understood by
the receiver
Sender and receiver, both must
assign the same meaning to the
symbols used
3. Medium:

 Medium is the channel used for

conveying the encoded message to the
receiver.
 The choice of medium depends on
factors like
*urgency of the message
*availability and effectiveness of a
medium
*relationship between the two
communicants
4. Received Message and decoding:
The process of converting words or
symbols of received message into
ideas is called decoding.
 The meaning that a receiver gives
to the message is influenced by …….
*his/her knowledge
*intelligence
* past experience
*Relation with the sender
 If the sender and the receiver have a common field of
experience, the receiver’s understanding of the
message will be according to the sender’s intentions.

6. Context:
 Context is the environment in which the process of
communication takes place. It includes……..
*situation
*the place
*the time
*the circumstances of each communicant
*their relationship
The context influences both encoding and decoding
7. Feedback:
*Feedback is knowledge of the receiver’s response to our
communication.
*Feedback can be utilized to modify the communication
method to make it more effective
*Immediate and continuous feedback is available in face to
face communication.
*Feedback is slow in written communication.
*The feedback comes partly when the reply comes and
partly when the receiver’s action is seen by the sender
*In Mass communication, that is, TV, radio,
internet,
newspaper etc. feedback is so little and delayed that
special efforts are made to collect feedback from public.
*Feedback is not only for checking the understanding of
the message, but also important to know how the message
has been received (emotional reaction)
OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION
1. Information 2. Persuasion

OBJECTIVES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

Instructions and Orders Education and Training
Warning Raising Morale
Motivation Advice
Counseling Appreciation

OBJECTIVES OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

Suggestion Request
Application Appeal
Demand Representation
Complaint
 OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNICATION
An objective is something that we want to attain or accomplish by
our efforts, it is the purpose with which we undertake an activity.

The main objectives of communication are……

1. Information
2. Persuasion

1. Information: consists of facts and figures and data arranged in

patterns which are useful for different purposes.
*Information reduces uncertainty about the situation or the
environment
*Information moves in all directions in an organization
*Information moves out of the organization
*Information may be given orally or in writing
External Information…..
…..About company’s product
…..About availability of credit
…...about availability of raw materials
…... About govt. rules and regulations
…...About advtg. Media
…...About latest development in the field of science and
technology

Internal Information…..
…...About job assignments and procedures governing
them
…...About status and decision making power
…...General Information on the policies and activities of
the organisation
2. Persuasion means making efforts to change or
influence the attitudes and behavior of others by
using the best arguments.
*requires the skill and ability to use the symbols of
communication in an effective manner.
Factors in persuasion
 The personal character and reputation of the persuader
must be respected and accepted by others (source
credibility)
 The emotional appeal made by the persuader must be
suitable and effective (satisfaction of social and ego
needs of others)
 The logic of the presentation made by the persuader must
be reasonable.
The persuader needs knowledge of the background
and the present attitudes/views of the people in order
to use the right appeals and reasons.

The art of persuasion

*Persuasion needs conviction from the persuader

*Don’t impose yourself on the person being persuaded
*Consider the open-mindedness of the other person
*Bring yourself to the level of other person
OBJECTIVES OF DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION

Instructions and orders

 Instruction is information about processes and
procedures of tasks to be performed by the subordinate.
* Can be done orally, individually or in groups
*Oral instruction may be supplemented with written and
visual material (User manuals)

Order is the assignment of tasks.

*Authoritative communication
*directive to the employee to do, modify or alter the course
of action
*Order is formal
*It is in the written form, sometimes can be given orally
*Generally means that the matter mentioned in it, is
formally and finally accepted
 Types of Order
A) Written and oral order

*Written Orders are given in the following cases

---if it is essential to keep a record of it
---if highly responsible in nature
---if repetitive in nature
---situation of the order receiver is not comfortable for
Oral order

*O.O. are given when:

---job is to be done immediately
---jobs are ordinary
---relationship between superior subordinate is permanent
B) General and specific orders
---related to one specific activity/employee
---to cover obvious and unforeseen situations
C) Procedural and operational orders
---Procedural: General: tell how procedures are to be
adapted
---Operational: specific: relate to job at hand
D) Mandatory and Discretionary Orders
---MO: have to be obeyed
---DO: in the shape of recommendations, suggest what is
desirable

*Characteristics of an effective order

---It must be clear, complete and precise
---Its execution should be possible
---It should be given in a friendly way
 Effective ordering
1) Planning
--What action is required?
--Is it Feasible?
--Who is to perform it?
--In what time it is to be done?
--Likely problem and solutions?
--Type of order?
2) Preparing the order receiver
3) Presenting the order
4) Verification of reception
5) Action
6) Follow up
7) Appraisal
 Instruction is a type of order in which the subordinate is
not only ordered to do a job but is also given guidance on
how to do it.
2. Education and training:
*Conscious process of communication
*involves both teaching and learning
*widen knowledge; improve skills
It is carried out at three levels
a) For management
*innovations
*succession planning
b) For employees
*for introduction of technology in work routine
*for reorientation
c) For outside public
*knowledge of new products
*relative merits and demerits of brands in the market
*various sales promotion schemes
3. Warning
*as a corrective measure
*intended to caution someone of possible danger
----some warnings are general
----usually warnings are given to specific persons
----person should not be reprimanded in front of others
----the cause of undesirable behavior should be
investigated
----Aim: betterment of the organization

4. Raising Morale
*represents mental health
*sums up resolution and confidence
*catalyses achievements
FACTOR CONDUCIVE TO THE CREATION OF A HIGH
MORALE

 suitable work profile

 good performance is appreciated
 encouraged to give suggestions
 congenial work atmosphere
 efficient superiors with positive attitude
 avenues for personal growth
 proper grievance handling

5. Motivation
*encourages goal achievements
*order, persuasion and communicator are important
*communicator stays in the background
6. Advice
*may be given on matters related to work, or on personal
matters if the relationship permits
*It is most effective if it is oral, face to face, informal and
confidential

---Importance of Advice
*need for expertise and specialized knowledge in this era of
complexity
*essential function of managers and supervisors
---Flow of advice: *Horizontal and downwards
----To make advice effective……
*should be man-oriented and work-oriented
*should not make the other person feel inferior
*should be beneficial for the receiver of advice
*promotes understanding
*can be a two way channel of communication
7. Counselling

*is objective and impersonal

*counselor has low involvement and deep subject knowledge
*Advice: personal, Counselling: professional

8. Appreciation

*of good efforts, work and achievements

*creates a good attitude among the staff
*makes the recipient feel good and improves the motivation
*can be given orally, in writing and by non-verbal methods
OBJECTIVES OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION
1) Suggestion:
---supposed to be a subtle and mild form of communication
---Accepting suggestions is discretionary
---Can be voluntary
---flows horizontally and vertically upwards
2) Request
-----made by staff for various kinds of permission or favors
-----can be made orally with the immediate superior
-----can be in written form to a higher authority through
immediate superior
3) Application
---is a written request, giving full details of the matter and
supported with reasons (for job or leave)
4) Appeal
---is an request for help or support for something that does
not fall within your privileges
----may be written or oral with proper reasons
----can be made by an individual or by group
----power of persuasion is necessary for a successful appeal
5) Demand
---put through an employee union
----has to be supported by good arguments
----are usually collective and in writing
----if the management is unsympathetic or the union is
aggressive, requests or appeals for better service
conditions may turn into demands
6) Representation
---is always in writing (for grievances redressing)
---can be made by a group of persons
---must contain full explanation of the case with all
documentary evidences

7) Complaint
---are made when there are faults or the defects in the goods
or services (for correction)
---may be oral or written depending upon the nature of
complaint and the relationship between the two
communicants
COMMUNICATION MODELS
1. ARISTOTLE’S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION
*The earliest model of communication
*developed by the greek philosopher ARISTOTLE
*Five essential elements of communication……

1. Speaker
2. Speech/Message
3. Audience
4. Occasion
5. Effect

*ARISTOTLE advised the speaker to construct a speech for

different audiences on different occasions for different
effect
*Most applicable to public speaking
SHANNON & WEAVER”S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

*Presented in the Mathematical Theory of Communication

(1949) by Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver
*This theory is widely accepted because modern
communication studies are based on this
*The model was developed during the second world war in
the Bell Telephone Laboratories
*This engineering model conceives communication as a
linear act of transmission of a message from a source to a
receiver via a signal producing transmitter
THE COMMUNICATION MODEL COMPRISES FOUR
ELEMENTS

 A source of information with messages to communicate

 A transmitter or sender with the capacity to transform
message into signals
 A receiver which decodes the signal in order to retrieve
the initial message
 The destination, a person/thing for whom the message is
intended

*According to this model, communication follows a simple

left to right process
*The information source (speaker) selects a desired message
from all the possible messages. The message is sent
through a transmitter and is changed into signals. The
signals are received by the receiver, changed back into the
message and given to a destination, a listener.
*In the process of transmission certain distortions are added
to the signal which are not part of the message and these
will be called as NOISE

*Simplicity and linearity are the main characteristics of this

model

*The simplicity of the model has attracted several derivatives

and linearity has led to criticism
Shannon and Weaver has identified three levels of problems
in the study of communication
Level A: Technical problems: How accurately can the
symbols of communication be transmitted?
* These problems are the simplest to understand and these
are the ones that the model was originally developed to
explain
Level B: Semantic Problems: How precisely do the
transmitted symbols convey the desired meaning?
*These problems are easy to identify, but hard to solve
Level C: Effectiveness problems: How effectively does the
received meaning affect conduct in the desired way?
*At first sight, these problems imply that Shannon and
Weaver see communication as manipulation
PERFECT COMMUNICATION (BY SHANNON AND
WEAVER)

The sender X communicated effectively with receiver Y

when Y responds in the way X desires him to.
*The source is seen as the decision maker, the source decides
which messages to send. The selected message is then
changed by the transmitter into signal which is sent
through the channel to the receiver
*In a conversation, the brain is the source, the mouth is the
transmitter, the signal is the sound wave which passes
through the channel (air) and the ear is the receiver.
*In discussing communication, Shannon and Weaver
introduced the term NOISE, a label for any distortion
which interfered with the transmission of signal from the
source to the destination e.g. static on the radio
*The engineering model was used in electronics for several
purposes, from the design of telephone networks to the
matrices of computer memories.
Importance of Effective Communication
*Internal Communication: Communication within the
organization

1. Business has grown in size

*no. of branches within the country and abroad

*Need for every node to be aware of HQ information and

vice-versa

2.Business activity has become extremely complex

*specialized activities (planning, productin, sales, stores,
advtg. Etc.) handled by different departments

* So there is a need of communication for coordination

amongst these departments
 3. Effective communication promotes a spirit of
understanding and cooperation
*Effective communication between the management and the
employees, bring about an atmosphere of mutual trust and
confidence
*The employees know what is expected from them
*the management is aware of the potentialities (can be
exploited) and limitations (can be made up) of the
employees
*External Communication: Communication with govt.
agencies and departments; and with distributors, retailers,
customers and public)
1. With govt. agencies and departments
*need to deal with licensing authorities and regulatory
Bodies
*tactful and proper liasoning
2. Distributors, retailers, customers etc.
*to survive competition
*persuade to sell
3. Communication Skill a Job Requirement
*Certain areas need exceptional communication skills.
e.g. PR, Sales etc.
4. Important Factor for Promotion
*John Fielden (1965) ranked the communication skill higher
than other essential attributes such as capacity for hard
work, the ability for making sound decisions, academic
qualifications and ambition drive.
*According to him the ability to communicate is the most
essential requisite for promotion of the executives.
Barriers to Communication

Wrong choice of medium: Each communication must be

transmitted through an appropriate medium. An
unsuitable medium is one of the biggest barriers to
communication.

Physical Barriers:
Noise:
---Loud noise of machines in factories
---Electronic noise like blaring while using
telephone or loudspeaker
---The word noise is also used to refer all kinds
of physical interference like illegible hand
writing, bad quality of photocopies, poor
telephone connections etc.
Time and distance:
----If telecom facilities are not available or are
not working
----if employees are working in different shifts
----faulty seating arrangement in the hall

3. Semantic Barriers:
Interpretation of words:
---the transmitter and the receiver assign different meanings
to the same word (“value”, “poor”)
Bypassed instructions:
---use different words for same meaning (take this paper to
the stockroom and burn it)
Denotations or Connotations:

*literal meaning of a word is called its denotative meaning

---it just informs and names objects without indicating any –
tive or +tive qualities (table, book, accounts, meeting)
etc.
*Connotative meanings arouse qualitative judgments and
personal reactions (honest, competent, sincere, cheap,
slow etc.)

But some words have favorable connotation in certain

context and unfavorable in others (cheap) which
creates miscommunication.
How to overcome semantic barriers:
*Use the words which are familiar to the receiver
*If you want to give unfamiliar meaning to a familiar word
then clarify it to the receiver when you use it for the first
time
*Whenever possible, use the words with positive
connotations

Different Comprehension of Reality:

*no two persons perceive reality in identical Manners

Abstracting: picking a few details and leaving out others.

*It saves time, space and money
*but improper abstracting can lead to miscommunication
how to overcome:
*make abstract as fairly representative of the whole situation
as possible
*be mentally prepared for different abstracting from
different individuals

b) Slanting: giving a particular bias to the reality

*in slanting, we are aware of the existence of other aspects,
but we deliberately select a few (usually unfavorable) and
make them representative of the whole.
how to overcome:
*try to be objective in observations and assessments
*try to avoid the mistake of judging the whole by what might
be only a fraction of it
c)Inferring: drawing inferences from observations (if rains
fail, prices will go up)
*inference of the experts in their fields are even accepted as
legal evidence
*but when non-experts draw inferences without trying to
verify facts, they get into communication trouble.
how to overcome:
*carefully distinguish between facts and assumptions
*make sure that our inferences are based on verifiable facts
 Socio-psychological barriers
Attitudes and opinions: If an information agrees with
our opinions and attitudes, we tend to receive it
favorably
Emotions: Emotional states (worried, excited, afraid,
nervous, happy, calm, cool etc.) of mind of sender and
receiver will be reflected in the message of the sender
and will influence the understanding of the receiver
Closed mind: If the receiver is closed mind, he will not
be prepared to reconsider his opinions.
Status-consciousness: Generally people don’t like to
communicate with the persons who are superior
(because of fear, hesitation etc.) or junior (ego problems)
in status in comparison to their position.
The source of communication: If the receiver has
suspicion about the source (sender), there is a barrier to
communication (if source credibility is not there)
Inattentiveness: If the message contains a new idea, then
there is inattentiveness (because generally people resist
changes), which acts as barrier to communication.
Faulty transmission: If there is a requirement of
translation of the original message into simple language
and this translation is not accurate then it will not be
communicating the original message exactly.
Poor retention: Oral messages in particular are lost due
to poor human retention.
Unsolicited communication: We are unresponsive if the
communication is unsolicited or not invited.
“The meaning of communication is in the way
that it is received”. What do you think of this
statement?