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A G Matrices, D S E: Ppendix: Eterminants, and Ystems of Quations
A G Matrices, D S E: Ppendix: Eterminants, and Ystems of Quations
A G Matrices, D S E: Ppendix: Eterminants, and Ystems of Quations
Appendix G: Matrices,
Determinants, and Systems
of Equations
For each subscript, aij, i ¼ the row, and j ¼ the column. If m ¼ n, the matrix is said to
be a square matrix.
Vector
If a matrix has just one row, it is called a row vector. An example of a row vector
follows:
If a matrix has just one column, it is called a column vector. An example of a column
vector follows:
2 3
c11
6c 7
6 12 7
C¼6
6 ..
7
7 ðG:3Þ
4 . 5
cm1
1
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Partitioned Matrix
A matrix can be partitioned into component matrices or vectors. For example, let
2 3 2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14 a11 a12 a13 a14
6a
6 21 a22 a23 a24 7 6
7 6 a21 a22 a23 a24 7
7 A11 A12
A¼6 7¼6 7 ¼ ðG:4Þ
4 a31 a32 a33 a34 5 4 a31 a32 a33 a34 5 A21 A22
a41 a42 a43 a44 a41 a42 a43 a44
where
2 3 2 3
a11 a12 a13 a14
6 7 6 7
A11 ¼ 4 a21 a22 5; A12 ¼ 4 a23 a24 5
a31 a32 a33 a34
A21 ¼ ½ a41 a42 ; A22 ¼ ½ a43 a44
Null Matrix
A matrix with all elements equal to zero is called the null matrix; that is, aij ¼ 0 for all
i and j An example of a null matrix follows:
2 3
0 0 0 0
60 07
6 0 0 7
A¼6
6 .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7
7 ðG:5Þ
4. . . . . . .5
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix with all elements off of the diagonal equal to zero is said to
be a diagonal matrix; that is, aij ¼ 0 for i 6¼ j. An example of a diagonal matrix
follows:
2 3
a11 0 0 0
6 7
6 0 a22 0 0 7
6 7
6 0 a33 0 7
A¼6 0 7 ðG:6Þ
6 . .. .. .. .. 7
6 . 7
4 . . . . . 5
0 0 0 ann
Identity Matrix
A diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements equal to unity is called an identity
matrix and is denoted by I; that is, aij ¼ 1 for i ¼ j, and aij ¼ 0 for i 6¼ j. An example of
an identity matrix follows:
2 3
1 0 0 0
60 0 07
6 1 7
A¼6
6 .. .. .. .. .. 7
7 ðG:7Þ
4. . . . .5
0 0 0 1
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Symmetric Matrix
A square matrix for which aij ¼ aji is called a symmetric matrix. An example of a
symmetric matrix follows:
2 3
3 8 7
6 7
A ¼ 48 9 25 ðG:8Þ
7 2 4
Matrix Transpose
The transpose of matrix A, designated AT, is formed by interchanging the rows
and columns of A. Thus, if A is an m n matrix with elements aij, the transpose is an
n m matrix with elements aji. An example follows. Given
2 3
1 7 9
6 2 6 3 7
6 7
A¼6 7 ðG:9Þ
4 4 8 55
1 3 2
then
2 3
1 2 4 1
6 7
AT ¼ 4 7 6 8 35 ðG:10Þ
9 3 5 2
is evaluated as
a11 a12
det A ¼ ¼ a11 a22 a21 a12 ðG:13Þ
a21 a22
Minor of an Element
The minor, Mij of element aij of det A is the determinant formed by removing the ith row
and the jth column from det A. As an example, consider the following determinant:
3 8 7
det A ¼ 6 9 2 ðG:14Þ
5 1 4
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The minor M32 is the determinant formed by removing the third row and the second
column from det A. Thus,
3 7
M32 ¼ ¼ 36 ðG:15Þ
6 2
Cofactor of an Element
The cofactor, Cij, of element aij of det A is defined to be
Ci j ¼ ð1ÞðiþjÞ Mi j ðG:16Þ
where n ¼ number of columns of A; j is the jth row selected to expand by minors; and
Cik is the cofactor of aik. Expanding along any column, we find
P
m
det A ¼ akj Ckj ðG:19Þ
k¼1
Singular Matrix
A matrix is singular if its determinant equals zero.
Nonsingular Matrix
A matrix is nonsingular if its determinant does not equal zero.
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Adjoint of a Matrix
The adjoint of a square matrix, A, written adj A, is the matrix formed from the transpose
of the matrix A after all elements have been replaced by their cofactors. Thus,
2 3
C11 C12 C1n T
6C C2n 7
6 21 C22 7
adj A ¼ 6
6 .. .. .. .. 7
7 ðG:23Þ
4 . . . . 5
Cn1 Cn2 Cnn
For example, consider the following matrix:
2 3
1 2 3
6 7
A ¼ 4 1 4 5 5 ðG:24Þ
6 8 7
Hence,
2 3
4 5 1 5 1 4 T
6 8 7 7 6 87 2 3
6 6 7
6 7 12 10 2
6 2 3 1 3 1 27
adj A ¼ 6 7 ¼6 7
6 8 7 6 7 87
4 37 11 8 5 ðG:25Þ
6 6 7
6 7 32 4 6
4 2
3 1 3 1 2 5
4
5 1 5 1 4
Rank of a Matrix
The rank of a matrix, A, equals the number of linearly independent rows or columns.
The rank can be found by finding the highest-order square submatrix that is
nonsingular. For example, consider the following:
2 3
1 5 2
6 7
A¼4 4 7 5 5 ðG:26Þ
3 15 6
The determinant of A ¼ 0. Since the determinant is zero, the 3 3 matrix is singular.
Choosing the submatrix
1 5
A¼ ðG:27Þ
4 7
whose determinant equals 27, we conclude that A is of rank 2.
Subtraction
The difference between two matrices, written A – B ¼ C, is defined by aij – bij ¼ cij.
For example,
2 1 7 5 5 4
¼ ðG:29Þ
3 5 4 3 7 2
Multiplication Pn
The product of two matrices, written AB ¼ C, is defined by cij ¼ aik bkj. For
example, if k¼1
2 3
b11 b12 b13
a11 a12 a13 6 7
A¼ ; B ¼ 4 b21 b22 b23 5 ðG:30Þ
a21 a22 a23
b31 b32 b33
then
ða11 b11 þ a12 b21 þ a13 b31 Þ ða11 b12 þ a12 b22 þ a13 b32 Þ ða11 b13 þ a12 b23 þ a13 b33 Þ
C¼
ða21 b11 þ a22 b21 þ a23 b31 Þ ða21 b12 þ a22 b22 þ a23 b32 Þ ða21 b13 þ a22 b23 þ a23 b33 Þ
ðG:31Þ
Notice that muitiplicalion is defined only if the number of columns of A equals the
number of rows of B.
Multiplication by a Constant
A matrix can be multiplied by a constant by multiplying every element of the matrix
by that constant. For example, if
a11 a12
A¼ ðG:32Þ
a21 a22
then
ka11 ka12
kA ¼ ðG:33Þ
ka21 ka22
Inverse
An n n square matrix, A, has an inverse, denoted by A1, which is defined by
AA1 ¼ I ðG:34Þ
where I is an n n identity matrix. The inverse of A is given by
adj A
A1 ¼ ðG:35Þ
det A
For example, find the inverse of A in Eq.(G.24). The adjoint was calculated in
Eq. (G.25). The determinant of A is
4 5 2 3 2 3
det A ¼ 1 ð1Þ
8 þ 6
4 ¼ 34 ðG:36Þ
8 7 7 5
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Hence,
2 3
12 10 2
6 7
4 37 11 8 5 2 3
0:353 0:294 0:059
32 4 6 6 7
A1 ¼ ¼ 4 1:088 0:324 0:235 5 ðG:37Þ
34
0:941 0:118 0:176
Matrix Identities
Commutative Law
AþB¼BþA ðG:38Þ
AB 6¼ BA ðG:39Þ
Associative Law
A þ ðB þ CÞ ¼ ðA þ BÞ þ C ðG:40Þ
Transpose of Sum
ðA þ BÞT ¼ AT þ BT ðG:42Þ
Transpose of Product
ðABÞT ¼ BT AT ðG:43Þ
Determinant Identities
Multiplication of a Single Row or Single Column of a Matrix, A, by a Constant
If a single row or single column of a matrix, A, is multiplied by a constant, k, forming
the matrix, A,~ then
~ ¼ k det A
det A ðG:44Þ
Transpose
where
2 3 2 3 2 3
a11 a12 a1n b1 x1
6a a2n 7 6b 7 6x 7
6 21 a22 7 6 27 6 27
A¼6
6 .. .. .. .. 7
7; B¼6 7
6 .. 7; x¼6 7
6 .. 7
4 . . . . 5 4 . 5 4 . 5
an1 an2 ann bn xn
For example, the following system of equations,
5x1 þ 7x2 ¼ 3 ðG:51aÞ
x ¼ A1 B ðG:53Þ
For example, premultiplying both sides of Eq. (G.52) by A1, where
1
1 5 7 0:0526 0:0921
A ¼ ¼ ðG:54Þ
8 4 0:1053 0:0658
we solve for x ¼ A1B as follows:
x1 0:0526 0:0921 3 0:987
¼ ¼ ðG:55Þ
x2 0:1053 0:0658 9 0:276
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Bibliography 9
we find
3 7
9 4 75
x1 ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:987 ðG:57Þ
5 7 76
8 4
and
5 3
8 9 21
x2 ¼ ¼
¼ 2:276 ðG:58Þ
5 7 76
8 4
Bibliography
Dorf, R. C. Matrix Algebra—A Programmed Introduction. Wiley, New York, 1969.
Kreyszig, E. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. 4th ed. Wiley, New York, 1979.
Wylie, C. R., Jr. Advanced Engineering Mathematics. 5th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1982.
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