INTRODUCTION TO

SHIPHANDLING

I. Forces
II. Terminology
III. Standard Commands
 FORCES
• To understand shiphandling, we must first
look at all the forces that affect a ship.
Controllable:
•Engines Uncontrollable:
•Rudder •Wind
•Lines •Current
•Anchor
•Shallow water effects
•Tugs
•Auxiliary Propulsion
 ENGINES

• Power train: power source turns a shaft

(through reduction gears), which turns a
propeller
• Propellers may be fixed or controllable
pitch:
– Fixed: Ship speed is controlled by shaft rpm
only
– CPP: Ship speed is controlled by both shaft rpm
and propeller blade pitch
 ENGINES

• Almost all Navy ships have one of three

propulsion plants:
– Gas turbine (requires CPP): most surface
combatants
– Diesel: Large auxiliaries, minesweepers
– Steam (Conventional or Nuclear): Older ships,
aircraft carriers, submarines
 SIDE FORCE

• In addition to fore and aft thrust, propeller

rotation also causes what is known as “side
force”:
– Side force is a lateral force caused by propeller
rotation.
– The direction of the force is the direction in
which the propeller would “walk” along the
bottom due to its rotation.
 SIDE FORCE

Standard propeller rotation for single and twin screw

ships (ahead operation)
SIDE FORCE
 AUXILIARY PROPULSION

• Bow thruster
– Hull-mounted, transverse propeller used to
develop lateral thrust when pierside
– Normally found on larger ships
• Auxiliary Propulsion Unit (APU)
– Retractable, omni-directional propulsion unit
– Emergency propulsion for single-screw ships
– Can be used for pierside maneuvering
 RUDDERS

• Configuration: normally one rudder for

each propeller, mounted directly astern of
the propeller.
• Range of motion: 35° left or right of CL
– Hard rudder: 35°
– Full rudder: 30°
– Standard rudder: 15°
 RUDDERS

• Rudder effectiveness is dependent on flow

velocity over the rudder surface.
– “Bare steerageway” is the minimum speed at
which a rudder is still effective. This is
generally 2 to 3 knots for most ships.
• Rudder angles must be reversed for astern
operation
 MOORING LINES
• Lines are used next to a pier to control ship
positioning.
• General terms:
– Breast line: limits lateral motion
– Spring line: limits fore/aft motion
• Each line has a specific name, indicating
location, direction, and purpose
• Lines are numbered, fore to aft, based on
location on the ship.
 MOORING LINES

1 - Bow line
2 - After bow spring line
3 - Forward bow spring line
(No number) - Breast line
4 - After quarter spring line
5 - Forward quarter spring line
6 - Stern line
 TUGS
• Used to assist ships in pierside maneuvers
• Three ship-to-tug tie-ups are used:
– Single headline: Simple; effective for steady
pushing/pulling in one direction
– Double headline:Allows tug to push the ship
both ahead and astern
– Power: Best general purpose tie-up; allows tug
to use engines and rudder in any direction
without moving itself
• Pictures are shown on the next slide.
TUGS
 SHALLOW WATER EFFECTS

• Increased resistance: In relatively shallow

water at high speeds, pressure drag on the
hull is significantly increased, resulting in
actual speed less than ordered speed.
• Squatting: The ship’s bow wave is
increased, resulting in a lifting of the bow
and sinking of the stern.
 SHIP TERMINOLOGY

• Bow • Superstructure •Shaft

• Stern • Pilothouse •Propeller
• Forecastle • Mast •Rudder
• Hawsepipe • Yardarm •Stern
• Weather decks • Truck •Transom
• Draft • Stack •Waterline
• Freeboard • Keel
 SHIPHANDLING TERMS

• Turning Circle - Path followed by the

ship’s pivot point in a constant turn
• Pivot point - The point on the CL about
which the ship pivots in a turn
– Typically about 1/3 of length abaft the bow
• Advance
• Transfer
 SHIPHANDLING TERMS
• Tactical Diameter - Perpendicular distance
between the path of the ship on original
course and final course after a 180° turn
• Standard Tactical Diameter - Tactical
diameter prescribed by current tactical
orders for formation maneuvers
• Reduced Tactical Diameter - Diameter
obtained at full rudder using standard speed
 SHIPHANDLING TERMS

• Final Diameter - Diameter of the ship’s

turning circle
• Kick - Momentary movement, at the start of
a turn, of the ship’s stern toward the side
opposite the direction of the turn
• Surge - Distance gained/lost during a speed
increase or decrease
 SHIPHANDLING
CHARACTERISTICS
 STANDARD COMMANDS

• We have previously discussed the role and

importance of the Conning Officer.
• To avoid any possible confusion between
the Conning Officer and the Helm or Lee
Helm, all steering and engine orders are
given using standard phraseology and
format.
 FORMAT

CONNING OFFICER HELM/LEE HELM

Command
Reply

Report

Acknowledgement
HELM CONSOLE
ENGINE ORDER TELEGRAPH
MODERN HELM CONSOLE
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM

Format Example

-Direction "Right. . ."

"Left. . ."
-Amount ". . standard rudder. . ."
". . .ten degrees rudder. . ."
-Course ". . .steady course two zero zero."
". . .steady on course one one five."
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM

• Direction: Either left, right or “Rudder

amidships”

• Amount: Expressed as a number of degrees

of rudder (10, 15, etc.), or one of the
following: (nominal values given)
– Standard: 15°
– Full: 30°
– Hard: 35°(maximum rudder angle)
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM

• Direction and rudder angle together

comprise the first portion of the command.
– “Right ten degrees rudder”
– “Left full rudder”
– Two exceptions to the phraseology:
• “Rudder amidships”
• Hard rudder: “Hard right rudder” instead of “Right
hard rudder”
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM

• Course to steer: This portion of the

command is not required. If not given, the
Helm maintains the rudder at the ordered
angle until another order is given.
– “Steady course ___”
– This order tells the Helm to adjust the rudder
and steady on a final course.
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM

• Exception: Course changes of 10° or less:

– For small course changes, a specific rudder
angle is not given. This allows the Helm to use
up to 10° of rudder to make the course change.
– The standard command is:
• Direction: “Come right/left”
• Course to steer: “Steer course ___”
 COMMANDS TO THE HELM

• Examples:
– “Right standard rudder, steady course 260”
– “Left 15° rudder”
– “Rudder amidships”
– “Come right, steer course 158”
– “Hard left rudder”
 OTHER HELM COMMANDS

• Desired action: Increase or decrease rudder

angle from a previously ordered angle
• Command:
– “Increase your rudder to ________”
– “Ease your rudder to _______”
• Note: Anytime a new rudder angle is
ordered, a steering/steady course must be
repeated if it is desired.
 OTHER HELM COMMANDS

• Desired action: Change rudder angle to an

equal amount of rudder in the opposite
direction
• Command: “Shift your rudder”
• Note: Again, if desired, course to steer must
be repeated.
 OTHER HELM COMMANDS
• Desired action: Steady the ship on the
current heading
• Command: “Steady as she goes”
– When given, the Helm immediately determines
ship’s head at the instant of the command, and
steadies the ship on that course.
– This should normally be given only with the
rudder at or near amidships.
 OTHER HELM COMMANDS
• Desired action:
Determine current • Desired action:
ship’s heading Warn the Helm to
• Command: “Mark your steer more exactly
head” • Command: “Mind
– When given, the Helm your helm”
immediately determines
ship’s head at the instant
of the command,and
reports it to the Conn.
 HELM REPLY

• Whenever an order to the Helm is given, the

Helm repeats the order back to the Conn
verbatim.
• This assures the conning officer that the
order was heard and understood correctly.
 HELM REPLY

• Examples:
– The Conn orders: “Right standard rudder,
steady course 260.”
– The Helm replies: “Right standard rudder,
steady course 260, aye.”
 HELM REPLY

• Order: “Mark your head”

• Reply: “Mark my head, aye. 283.”

• Order: “Mind your helm”

• Reply: “Mind my helm, aye.”
 HELM REPLY

• If the helm does not understand an order

from the Conn, the helm will reply:
“Orders to the helm”
• The Conn should immediately check his/her
order and restate it clearly to the Helm.
REPORT & ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

• Once a desired action is complete, the Helm

reports it to the Conn.
• The Conn acknowledges all reports with
“Very well’
• If the Conn does not acknowledge a report,
the Helm should repeat the report until
acknowledged.
 EXAMPLES

Order: “Right standard rudder, steady course

298.”
Reply: “Right standard rudder, steady course
298, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is right standard,
coming to new course 298.”
Report: “Sir, steady on course 298, checking
309.”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “Come left, steer course 345.”

Reply: “Come left, steer course 345, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is left 5°, coming to
new course 345.”
Report: “Sir, steady on course 345, checking
352.”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “Right full rudder.”

Reply: “Right full rudder, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is right full, no new
course given.”
Report: “Passing 230 to the right.”
Order: “Belay your passing heads.”
Reply: “Belay my passing heads, aye.”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “Ease your rudder to right 15°.”

Reply: “Ease my rudder to right 15°, aye.”
Report: “Ma’am, my rudder is right 15°, no
new course given.”
Order: “Steady course 143.”
Reply: “Steady course 143, aye.”
Report: “Ma’am, my rudder is right 15°,
coming to new course 143.”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “Hard left rudder.”

Reply: “Hard left rudder, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is left 35°, no new
course given.”
Order: “Shift your rudder.”
Reply: “Shift my rudder, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is right 35°, no new
course given.”
 EXAMPLES
Order: “Right full rudder.”
Reply: “Right full rudder, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is right 30°, no new
course given.”
Order: “Rudder amidships”
Reply: “Rudder amidships, aye.”
Report: “Sir, my rudder is amidships, no new
course given.”
Order: “Steady as you go.”
Reply: “Steady as you go, aye. Course 098.”
Report: “Steady on course 098, checking 107.”
 ENGINE ORDERS

• For fixed pitch propellers, ship speed is

dependent on shaft rpm only.
• For controllable pitch propellers, ship speed
is dependent on shaft rpm and, below about
12 knots, propeller blade pitch.
– For gas turbines, the shaft is always spinning
when the engine is on line. “All engines stop”
is achieved by a blade pitch of 0°.
 ENGINE ORDERS

• Prescribed standard speeds are

predetermined ship’s speeds:
– “Standard speed” - normally 15 knots
– “1/3” - one third of standard speed
– “2/3” - two thirds of standard speed
– “Full” - speed higher than standard speed
– “Flank” - maximum speed
 ENGINE ORDERS

Typical Prescribed
Standard Speeds
• Ahead
• Astern
Bell Speed
1/3 5 Bell Speed
2/3 10 1/3 5
Std 15 2/3 10
Full 20 Full Max
Flank Max speed
speed
 ENGINE ORDERS
Format Example

-Engines ”All engines. . ."

-Direction ". . ahead full. . ."
". . .back 2/3. . ."
-Speed ". . indicate 108 revolutions for 15
knots."
". . .indicate 072 revolutions and
20% pitch for 3 knots."
 ENGINE ORDERS

• Engines: Port, starboard, or all engines.

Unnecessary for single screw ships.

• Direction: Ahead, back or stop, and nearest

standard speed (except for stop)
 ENGINE ORDERS

• Speed:
“..indicate ____ turns for __ knots.”, OR
“..indicate turns for __ knots.”
– For controllable pitch propellers below 12
knots:
“..indicate ___ turns and __% pitch for __ knots.”
OR, “..indicate pitch and turns for __ knots.”
MANEUVERING COMBINATIONS

• In maneuvering situations, where frequent

engine changes are expected, the Conning
Officer may set “maneuvering
combinations”.
• When set, the Lee Helm answers all bells at
the prescribed standard speed increment.
• On ships with an EOT, this is indicated by
an RPM setting of “999”.
 REPLIES AND REPORTS

• Reply: Verbatim repeatback is required.

• Reports: Lee Helm reports when action is
completed.
– Note: Every report must include the complete
status of all engines, even if only one was
changed.
• Acknowledgement: Conn will acknowledge
all reports with “Very well”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “All engines ahead standard, indicate

115 revolutions for 16 knots.”
Reply: “All engines ahead standard, indicate
115 revolutions for 16 knots, aye.”
Report: “Ma’am, engine room answers all
engines ahead standard, indicating 115
revolutions for 16 knots.”
 EXAMPLES

(Continued from previous slide)

Order: “Indicate 122 revolutions for 17
knots.”
Reply: “Indicate 122 revolutions for 17 knots,
aye.”
Report: “Ma’am, engine room answers all
engines ahead standard, indicating 122
revolutions for 17 knots.”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “Port engine ahead 1/3, starboard

engine back 2/3.”
Reply: “Port engine ahead 1/3, starboard
engine back 2/3, aye.”
Report: “Ma’am, engine room answers port
engine ahead 1/3, starboard engine back
2/3.”
 EXAMPLES

(Continued from previous slide)

Order: “Starboard engine stop.”
Reply: “Starboard engine stop, aye.”
Report: “Ma’am, engine room answers
starboard engine stop, port engine ahead
1/3.”
 EXAMPLES

Order: “All engines ahead 1/3, indicate pitch

and turns for 5 knots.”
Reply: “All engines ahead 1/3, indicate pitch
and turns for 5 knots, aye.”
Report: “Sir, engine room answers all engines
ahead 1/3, indicating 075 turns and 34%
pitch for 5 knots.”