Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Urban Planning
Urban Planning
Urban Planning
GENERAL NOTIONS
The generic term of town has today a variety of forms: traditional town,
metropolis, urban area, and urban agglomeration. It is better to use a wider meaning
of the notion, which is urban phenomenon. This term covers all the urban forms,
whatever their size.
During the last decades the town-planning term suffered important changes
compared with the initial meaning. Even though this practice of organising the space
is very old, the town-planning is a recent discipline born at the end of the XIXth
century. Today town-planning includes a wide range in which are involved many
urban disciplines: sociology, urban economy, urban engineering, urban financial
administration, and urban low.
For the sociologist, the city is the physical expression of the inner social
relations; for the engineer, the city is a system of under structures of all kinds; for the
ecologist, it represents the condensation of human productions that disturbs the
natural order; for the economist, it is the ensemble of profitableness factors often
unequally distributed.
The urban structure term reflects better the urban phenomenon on the
whole and offers a simple and effective model starting from the systems and
structures systems.
Town-planning is a spatial expression of politics such as: economics, social,
cultural, ecological.
It concerns all the aspects connected to:
- physical and spatial planning;
- arrangements ;
- financial administration
of the terrains at all levels (rural, urban, metropolitan, regional, national,
international).
It requests an interdisciplinary approach for the integration of all aspects:
physical, social, cultural, economical, political.
It requests a work in a team.
The town-planning methods include:
- the synthesis and analysis;
- the composition and creation;
- the financial administration of the territory.
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Generally speaking, this science has in view some aspects like: history,
organisation, equipping, long term development, conservation and administration of a
town. The aim of planning is to efficiently transform the reality and change it in
accordance with the human aspirations. Planning means to settle the objectives and
the achievement ways of them. The followed steps are:
- the settlement of problems to solve;
- the definition of the goals;
- the evaluation of ways;
- the assessment of the efficiency;
- the fixing of the realistic goals, taking into account the problems
emergency;
- the searching of the priority order;
- the differentiation of the objectives in accordance with the priority list;
- the selection of the proper intervention ways;
- the insurance of the objectives achievement in the foreseen period of time.
The town-planning is the science that studies the arrangements of towns and
their surroundings using different ways for a better site of streets, buildings and
public services in a manner that can give to the inhabitants healthy, convenient and
agreeable conditions.
The shape of a square, the site of a lighting post in a street, of a tree, the
combing manners of the drinking and used water, the colour, shape and sitting of
screen signs, street publicity, advertising the solving way of collective dwellings,
organisation of the building terrains, places for statues, all of them are town-planning
problems.
The town-planning study analysis: how it originates the evolution in time, the
adoption of human requirements at the zone topography, hygiene aspects,
circulation, improving of life conditions of the community, arrangement and
embellishment of town through:
- protecting the inhabitants from difficulties due to climatic conditions and
cohabitation (living together);
- arranging the activities from urban agglomeration in order to obtain maximum
outputs and minimum expenses;
- creation of a harmonious and pleasant life frame considering aesthetics as
progress factor.
The modern profession of town planning arose in response to the urban
problems caused by rapid industrialisation from the late 19th century. Social reformers
recognised the need for corrective intervention to deal with the growth forces
unleashed by modernisation.
The missions of the town-planner are:
1) the needs identification (present and future) of the collectivities and
emphasising: - the opportunities;
- risks;
- constraints;
- implications of actions.
2) the proposal of necessary actions for starting, organisation, protecting and
changes based on the study results in the form of: - politics
- arrangement plan
3) insurances needs
leading of plans / politics according to the evolution of resources
changing objectives
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4) evaluation and administration of effects
implications
of changes according to their appearances
In the town planning activities are involved social, economic, social and
environmental policies. Although the physical appearance and functioning of the city
are the traditional focus of the town planning, the city’s population, economic
resources and environmental issues are an important concern. Thus, contemporary
town planning continues to focus on physical design, but also addresses the many
long-range social and economic decisions that must be made.
A city has social and economic capital. The city government acts as a
purchasing agent for many services needed by residents and businesses- for
example, education, water supply, police and fire protection and recreation. The
quality, character and efficiency of these services require planning to fit needs and
desire with funding, with technological change, and with objectives for physical
development.
Town planning should be concern with providing decent housing ( and minimal
economic aid) to residents who cannot afford this basic amenity. When local housing
is deficient and economic resources permit its upgrading, the town planning
department may survey housing conditions and coordinate funding to finance its
development and rehabilitation.
The city’s economic development and redevelopment also fall with the scope
of town planning. Economic development plans make use of a mixture of incentives,
technical assistance and marketing to create jobs, establish new industry and
business, help existing enterprises, rehabilitate what is salvageable and redevelop
what cannot be saved.
Town planners today are becoming ever more involved with environmental
concerns. Environmental planning coordinates development to meet objectives for
clean air and water; removal of toxic and other wastes; recycling of resources;
energy conservation; protection of wetlands; hillsides, farmlands, forests and
floodplains; preservation of wildlife, natural reserves and rivers. Historic preservation
strives to keep important buildings and places as part of the permanent environment
and uses them to finance the maintenance costs.
Although town planners may report to mayors, city managers or other officials,
their true clients are the people and businesses of the city. Their plans must reflect
the interests and priorities of these two groups, and the programmes that are
implemented must help the city survive and maintain the quality of life that these
group desire.
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II. Town-planning as an integrator process
2.Fundamental concepts
The local development is a process that meets the local population
interests:
- the physical development with two types of investments:
• one connected to spatial planning and physic environment of the
town;
• one tied to the land use, by the possibilities of localization for
industrial companies;
- the industrial development, including the financial support and
consulting services;
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- the human resources development, including training activities, and
encouraging the hiring the available work force;
- the town marketing, including actions for the attraction of the target
groups and for the promotion of the local image.
The urban marketing represents the adaptation of the urban policies from
the conceive moment till the implementation one, to the local economic factors and to
the hopes and expectations of the external factors that must be involved in order to
promote the local economy, considered to be the force of the town wellbeing.
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country, following the increasing of the cohesion and efficiency of social and
economic relations.
The main objectives of the territory arrangement are:
• the balanced social and economic development of
different regions, respecting their specific;
• the improving the life quality;
• the responsible administration of natural environment;
• the rational utilization of the territory.
The town structure means its entire construction defined by the functional
and public utilities needs, by economic and esthetical requirements.
The town structure results from the setting way and by the relationships
settled between its elements: industries, dwellings, green areas, circulation ways, all
types of buildings for the population needs.
The main elements that characterize the town structure determine:
the circulation ways;
the buildings and green areas arrangement;
the streets span;
the buildings placement inside the streets network;
the relations between the distances and the heights of buildings;
the terrain occupation degree.
All these determine:
- the town texture;
- the town appearance;
- the volumetric expression.
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placements, elaboration and of buildings design. It is a result of the functional
aesthetical and morphological organisation or an urban space.
The The current The instruments The target of the The relations
structure name of physical physical planning and
level in the development determinations
hierarchy planning of the
hierarchical
systems
Territorial - continental - the arrangement -the it influences the
macro- - national plan of the harmonization of territorial
system European territory the sectorial systems of
- the arrangement policies of the inferior level
plan of the development and
national territory rehabilitation of
the human and
natural habitats
Territorial - the county - the arrangement -interrelations it determines
system of - the region plan of the county between the the systems
settlements - the arrangement settlements development of
plan of the inferior level
regional territory
System of - the town - the general - the ecologic - it limits the
human - the village town-planning balance of the districts;
habitat, plan ecosystem (urban - it solves the
urban and -the general or rural) circulation;
rural regulations of - own identity - it harmonizes
town-planning - functional the settlement
independence functions
Subsystem - the district - the regional - homogeneous - it limits the
town-planning morphological homogeneous
plan; structure; structures;
- the general -complementarity - it distributes
regulations of the inside the system the circulation;
town-planning - relative - it distributes
independence the public
utilities network
Micro- - the - the local plan of - original - it determines
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system ensemble development; structure adapted the conditions
territorial -the particular to the specific for
unit of town-planning functions; authorization of
reference regulations - it settles the the building
location of
buildings
Element - the - the building - the insurance of - the building
building project the optimum and the town
conditions; are mutually
- the positive determined and
impact on the have equal
environment value
The assessment scheme of the policies and strategies for the urban areas
devepolment-rehabilitation
SCHEMA
3.History
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unagricultural activities and later of some urban professions. The most important are
the administrative, religious, military, trade and transport activities.
The excess of goods created by different type of activity, must be changed for
some others to ensure for each man a variety of supplies. This is the root of the
market. The trade became quickly an activity as important as the goods production
itself. It wasn’t possible that the same people to practice the production and trade
activity in the same time. The trade became itself a speciality that could encourage
the economical production increasing. Beginning with this moment the wealth existed
in sufficient quantities not only for changes, but also for being accumulated. Some
people having as professions the production, administration and trade activity, and
some other holding the political and religious power, they could influence and control
the society. The social hierarchy was established in accordance with the power and
wealth.
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The essential principle imposed in the town building was the harmony and the
discipline spirit. Platon said that only the law and discipline could have positive
effects on the community life. Aristotel in “politics” said that the hygiene, defence and
circulation requirements are the main priorities for the town buildings. Another
principle was that of the urban functions specialization. The main characteristic of the
Greek spatial organisation is its functionality, connected to the manifestations of the
urban community life.
The famous architect Vitruviu said that the building requirements are: defence,
hygiene, beauty and utility.
The population in many towns was 10.000 inhabitants. The houses of the
majority, having 1-3 floors, were placed downward from the temples, without light and
sanitary conditions, in noisy and overpopulated districts.
The efforts of the antique urban authors wasn’t concentrated to the popular
dwellings but was especially oriented to the architectural composition of the royal and
religious buildings and public places. Their architecture shows the taste for
symmetry, volumes and big proportions. Neglecting some aspects concerning the
protection against the wind and sun, the main streets were oriented toward the four
cardinal points. There were long, straight, large and converging to the middle of the
town as of the universe centre.
The rectangular plan was used in the antique world, but also today in America.
The difference is that in the Antiquity, the reason was the religious beliefs and today
the reason is the commercial profit. In antiquity, these streets were used for religious
parades or as royal ways. In the outlying districts, the streets were narrow, without
green areas and pavement. But the conditions in these outlying districts were
favourable for the wind and sun protection, and their intimacy allowed a rich social
life.
Fig. p 16
The political town
This type of town is characteristic for Middle Age (476-1453).
With the time passing, the political and military dimensions are getting more
and more importance than the religious one.
The towns became more fortified and were surrounded by water ditches. The
fortress became the main structure of the town. It marked the limits between the high
society and the farmers. To survive in the case of some prolonged sieges, they
included the agricultural land inside the fortress.
The narrow and tortuous streets, like labyrinths, favoured the urban rebellions
and the conspiracy. This is the reason why, large and straight streets are cut in the
popular districts to enable the military parades. The view was open on big royal
palace on statues or military buildings. The Haussmann baron was famous for his
town-planning in Paris and his avenues.
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overpopulated and without sanitary conditions. The free and green spaces
disappeared. The trade was the king.
The emulation of Graeco-Roman classicism during the Renaissance revived
town-planning efforts along classical lines. The Piazza of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome
and the Piazza of St. Mark’s in Venice exemplify an ideal of grandeur in civic
structures and public places. In sharp contrast to the narrow, irregular streets of
medieval settlements, renaissance planning stressed wide, regular radial and
circumferential streets, that is, streets forming concentric circles around a central
point, with other streets radiating out from that point like spokes of a wheel.
Examples include the streets design in London by the English architect Sir
Christopher Wren.
The Renaissance architects considered that to build means to define an order
in space and time and the town, as whole, is an organism or a big house.
Leonardo da Vinci proposed new models that ignored the theoretical tradition.
He designed a double floor fortress. The upper streets “at the first level were limited
by porticoes. The traffic at the inferior level was facilitated by tunnels.
fig p19
The industrial town
The industry became an important sector.
Because of the lack of land, the life conditions, for the working class, were very
poor. The dwellings had only one room, with no ventilation, lights and sanitation.
Many people lived in the basement.
In 1845, in Manchester was only a toilette for 21 people.
The industrial town was crowded, overpopulated, built without any rules, where
the poverty, misery and illness were present.
From this moment, the town-planning replace the traditional practice of
organizing the space, that was considered to be exclusively aesthetical and
incapable to solve the social problems of the towns.
Planning the buildings placement and land utilization, it was hoped to improve
the public hygiene and to diminish the risk of some epidemics.
It was estimated that in a healthy built environment, the social order would be
guaranteed, and that would lead to the industrial production increase.
For the first time, the urban-planning concept was formulated by the Spanish
engineer, Idelfonso Cerda, in 1876. He proposed a urban plan for the extension of
the Barcelona town. For the first time, the town-planning was a concentrated action,
having in view the space arrangement.
From 1880, the town-planning term was known in the whole Europe.
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and functional standards and the provision of public services for them. On another,
perhaps more important, level it also comprises:
- the background, education, work and aspirations of its residents;
- the general functioning of the economic system to which they belong, as well
as their positions in and rewards from that system;
- their ability to make or influence the policy decisions that affect their daily
lives.
Viewed from this perspective, town planning requires more than a narrow
specialist who can develop and implement a physical plan. More general skills and
activities are also needed. They include:
- the collection and analysis of data about the city and its population;
- research into the need for and availability of social services;
-the development, evaluation, coordination, and administration of programmes
and timetables to supply these services;
- programmes for economic and housing development and redevelopment –
not only planning, but also packaging, financing and carrying out the development,
establishing public and private partnerships;
- effective use of political activity and citizen participation to influence the
character of and give support to development programmes.
The problem of the urban areas organization is a present one. It can be
discussed as the ideal town term.
The ideal town is an organised political and social structure considered to be
perfect; it has all the features that made it real.
Fig p23
7.2. Accessibility.
The chose of placement is connected with the communication networks, or the
joining must be cheap.
8.Urban functions
All the urban settings, natural or conventional formed, must answer to some
necessities.
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Ex.: - Romans built towns because of strategic reason wishing to introduce their
civilisation or to create local administrative premises.
- Opening a mine urban setting.
1) Administrative function
Includes different services, regional or town administration the necessity of
public buildings destinated to offices, personal.
2) Social function
The social aspects consist of guidance the population interest for hygiene and
sanitation problems. For these reasons there were created public bathrooms,
libraries, health units.
3) Economic function
Agriculture, as the alimentation source of the urban setting, it is developed
outside the locality.
The industrial areas must be placed outside the towns in the dominant wind
directions. This is convenient because the discharge of residual waters coming from
the industries must be done downstream from the localities.
These industrial areas must be placed near the transport ways. There must be
connected to railways or navigable ways.
The production function can give a specific feature to a locality: mining town,
metallurgic town, chemical.
The wholesale trade needs storehouses near the transport ways, markets,
favourable connections to the central part of the town.
The retail trade must be placed near the big cross sections in the district
centres, their function being adapted to the inhabitants needs.
For the trade function are necessary: halls, markets, stores, commercial
market placed near the main commercial groups.
4) Education function
In the urban settings there are universities, high-schools, primary schools.
They need lecture rooms, laboratories, administrative spaces, green spaces, sports
yards and must be distributed uniformly on the area.
5) Dwelling function
The dwelling is the essential condition for every urban setting.
6) The rest function gives a touristic feature.
7) Circulation gives a specific feature to a town. The harbour towns have a
specific solving. Brăila has streets in a fan shape with radial streets going to the
harbour.
The main character is given by the most important function.
The urban frame is the complex physic environment where evolve and
develop the urban functions.
The urban frame consists of built spaces and the arranged spaces.
The built spaces are the ensemble of the buildings whatever the destination,
form and size, isolated, grouped or compact.
The arranged spaces are those spaces remaining free between buildings.
They consist of circulation ways, planted surfaces, water surfaces, parkings, playing
yards.
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The urban frame is different from the rural frame, because of the arrangement
quality, of the way of the land occupancy, way of placement and its diversity. The
urban frame is the fix, static element of the urban organism, unlike the dynamic,
evolutionary element consisting of the urban functions.
The contradiction between the built environment and urban functions are
solved by the periodic bringing up-to date of the urban frame.
The categories of relations between the urban frame elements are divided in
two:
A. utilisation relations;
B. composition relations.
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The atmospheric air quality is influenced by the wind direction and intensity. If
the wind is cold, it must be avoided the streets along the dominant wind direction. In
warm areas this is favourable. The dwellings must be placed in a way that winds do
not brink smokes, gases from industrial area. The dominant wind direction could be
influenced by hills, rivers, air temperature and other atmospheric conditions.
11.1. The climate influences in large measure the town structures, the sizes
and direction of streets, the size of green spaces, the placement and density of
buildings.
The microclimate is different because of differential uses of land according to
the number of buildings and streets is higher, the air temperature is growing, the
moisture is decreasing, and the air speed is changed.
The factors that influence the climate are: - the sun lighting;
- the temperature;
- the rainfall;
- the air movement.
1) The sun lighting inside building influences the people health. So that the
building orientation could enable the sun lighting depending on the season and
latitude.
The sun lighting may be of:
a) isolated buildings;
b) streets;
c) urban ensemble.
a) The buildings must be faced toward East, West, South.
b) In general, streets are delimitated by façades of buildings. Because the sun
rarely gets the vertical of the site, one of the façade becomes an obstacle for the
other.
For the sun lighting of façades it must be taken into account:
- the height of façades;
- the period of time when it is necessary;
- the geographic coordinates of the placement;
- the solar coordinates of different seasons.
The size of streets must be gradually increased depending on the latitude.
It is admitted that 1 hour is the minim necessary for the town streets in the most
unfavourable period of year.
c) The urban ensemble sun lighting
In the case of field towns the streets position is not so essential. In the case of
hills, the latitude and position could add a shadow more than that resulted from the
near buildings.
To assess a sun lighting plan means:
- the assessment of height and azimuth of the sun;
- the study of site plan with the relief lines;
- the study of sun lighting at 9, 12, 15 o’clock and the shadow area.
The light getting by building could be direct, reflected and diffuse. The two last
ones are not taken into account in the estimation.
A building is getting more light when the distance to the near one is d = (1…3)
h depending on the: - shape of the land;
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- building orientation;
- latitude;
- mutual position.
Fig p60
2. The temperature. In Romania there are big temperature differences
between winter and summer.
The most unfavourable amplitude is in Bucharest, 70ºC (+50ºC during
summer, -20ºC during winter). The presence of green areas have as a result the
decreasing of the temperature amplitude. In valleys, the temperature during the night
is lower, and higher during the days. In towns, the temperature conditions are
unfavourable during summer, because of the radiant energy coming from buildings
and streets pavement. In towns, during summer, because of built areas, the air
temperature is higher with 2°C than the outside areas. So, it is very important that the
green areas to be very large, because, as we know, the leaves temperature is with
3…5ºC than the air temperature, and with 12…14ºC than the walls temperature.
Fig. p63 ambele
The position of buildings against winds is very important from the ventilation
and protection against winds effects point of view.
Fig.p65
It is better to avoid some unfavourable configuration:
- to avoid the industry placement in the wind direction toward the
dwellings areas;
- to avoid the dwellings placement on the hills.
For a better protection of dwellings, buildings must be placed with the small
size in the wind direction or oblique.
Green areas are an efficient protection against winds.
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Adequate sanitation is critical in controlling diseases and improving the quality
of life in communities. However, it is very difficult to define and quantify what
constitutes adequate sanitation. Like the basic water requirement, adequacy
depends on socio-cultural factors, traditions, and practices, and needs to be judged
with respect to people’s priorities.
Poor sanitation leads to diseases and often death, especially in the low-
income high-density settlements.
Life in town must have hygiene and sanitation conditions.
There are many causes – natural or artificial – which influence the life
conditions in a negative way:
- land erosion, as a permanent source of dust;
- unstable lands, with a higher elevation of underground wastes;
- difficult lightening;
- noise source;
- wrong placement of industry;
- overpopulation.
The amount of water required is an important factor. It depends on local
factors, like, habits, social status, customs and climatic conditions. Taking personal
hygiene into account, the minimum required is 50 litres per person each day.
Greater attention, better planning, better operation, maintenance and
management for sanitation are desperately needed to improve the livability of the
settlements. Planning for sanitation ought to be an integral part of the socio-
economic development process.
To make water supply and sanitation sustainable, a better appreciation of the
complex interrelationships between environmental, social and economic issues is
vital.
11.2.1. Wastes
The manner of collecting of solid wastes at the producing places influences
the architectural solutions of the buildings, and the manner of transport and treatment
of them influence the town-planning solutions.
Depending on the way of production, these solid wastes could be:
- domestic;
- industrial;
- from streets;
- agricultural;
- medicinal.
It is estimated as a mean volume: 1 kg/day wastes / inhabitant.
Generally speaking, this values shows the life level and civilisation of the
population but also the consciousness. A high level means waste or not well being.
The wastes sorting on categories must be done even at pre-collecting. After
that the wastes are transported to the treatment, destroying or using places.
In general, wastes have 75% organic compounds and a high degree of
moisture. This is the reason why the wastes rapidly are decaying. It is necessary that
the wastes have to be deposited in special arranged places, with special measures of
tightness to prevent the infiltration coming from wastes in the underground water.
Garbage can become a serious problem. Burning garbage causes air
pollution. Burying it can allow dangerous and unhealthy materials to seep into the
water layer located beneath the ground. A solution is to pack garbage into special
containers and to send to some special facility, where it is transformed into electricity
and other useful by-products. For that it is needed that the garbage be selected into
glass, plastics, paper, cans, bottles and other recyclable materials.
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11.2.2. Air purification
Air contains big quantities of dust and toxic gases. All these impurities are
coming from incomplete burning of fuels, from vehicle exhaust, industry,
decomposition of animal and vegetal wastes, inadequate deposited and insufficient
maintenance of pavements and sewage.
The main role of purifying has the vegetation, which is important for the leaves
holding effect and the nature of them.
As measures: filters, and wet processes in industries and other and removing
gases and impurities measures.
11.2.3. Noise control measures
Noise can be defined as “unwanted sound”, and an audible acoustic energy
that adversely affects the physiological and/or psychological well-being of people, or
which disturbs or impairs the convenience or peace of any person. It can be
generalized by saying that the sound becomes unwanted when it:
- hinders speech communication;
- impedes the thinking process;
- interferes with concentration;
- obstructs activities (work or leisure);
- presents a health risk due to hearing damage.
Definitions of disturbing noise and a noise nuisance
Disturbing Noise Noise Nuisance
Means a noise level that exceeds the Means ant sound, which disturbs or
ambient sound level measured impairs or may disturb or impair the
continuously at the same measuring convenience or peace of any person.
point by 7dBA or more.
Ambient sound level means the reading Ambient noise means the totally
on an integrating impulse sound level encompassing sound in a given time, and
meter taken in the absence of any usually is composed of sound from many
alleged disturbing noise sources, both near and far.
Noise level means the reading at a Residual noise is the ambient noise that
measuring point in the presence of any remains at a given situation when one or
alleged disturbing noise at the end of a more specific noises are suppressed.
total period of at least ten minutes after Specific noise is a component of the
such meter was put into operation, and , ambient noise which can be specifically
if the alleged disturbing noise has a identified by acoustical means and which
discernable pitch, for example, a whistle, may be associated with a specific source.
buzz, drone or music, to which 5 dBA is
added.
Physical properties of sound
Sound is the result of pressure changes in the air, caused by vibration or
turbulence. The “loudness” of these pressure changes is stated in terms of sound
level, and the rapidity with which these changes occur is the sounds frequency.
Sound level is expressed in decibels(dB). To hear sounds, air pressure
changes must be very rapid. Changes must complete a cycle at least 20 times per
second and not more than 20 000times a second. The rate at which these cycles
repeat is called the frequency of the sound and is measured in Hertz. One Hertz is
equal to one cycle per second.
Different types of sound
Continuous sounds – are sounds that have little or no variation over
duration of time.
Varying sounds – are sounds that have differing maximum levels over
duration of time.
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Intermittent sounds – are sounds that are interspersed with quiet
periods.
Impulsive sounds – are sounds that are characterized by relatively high
sound levels over a very short duration of time.
Mainly the duration and level of the noise determine the effects of noise. Long
lasting, high level sounds are the most disturbing and damaging to hearing and
generally the most annoying. Duration of sounds is also important; in that intermittent
sounds appear to be less damaging to hearing than continuous sounds because of
the ear’s ability to regenerate during the quiet periods. However, intermittent and
impulsive sounds tend to be more annoying because of their unpredictability.
The cost of noise
Economic interest has always dominated noise control, but we now have to
weigh this against other likely costs such as:
loss of earnings;
loss of productivity;
burden on the health services and the criminal justice system;
increasing violence;
human misery;
social anger;
loss of quality of life that noise causes.
Typical everyday noise levels
Decibels (dB) Common sounds Perception
10 dB -30 dB Whisper, quiet Barely audible
conversation
30 dB – 50 dB Rainfall, quiet office, Heard faintly
refrigerator, computer
50 dB – 60dB Dishwasher, normal Moderate level
conversation radio
60 dB – 70 dB Hairdryer, heavy traffic, Moderate to loud
ringing phone
70 dB – 80dB Noise office, alarm clock Loud
80 dB – 90 dB Electric razor, vacuum Loud to very loud
cleaner
90 dB -100dB Chain saw, air Very loud
compressor, jackhammer
100 dB -110 dB Rock concert, power saw, Extremely loud
hifi on full
110 dB -120 dB Jet take off, nightclub, Extremely loud to painful
thunder
120 dB – 130 dB Shotgun Painful
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The sonorous intensity level on a quite street is 30 – 40 dB, and with high
traffic 79 – 90 dB.
The bearable threshold for a human organism is 70 dB if the noise is
continuous.
In industry the noise level 70 – 110 dB
air craft 110 – 120 dB
The noise level is influenced by climate, relief, water, vegetation and town
organization.
The wind speed influences the propagation distance a high level of moisture
reduces the propagation distances and lessen the noise intensity because of
reflexion and absorption phenomenon the importance of water surfaces.
Measures to have in view:
▪ the town zoning ensures the correct sitting of factories, industries and
residential areas to reduce noise pollution to the minimum
▪ the industries placement must be chosen so that the dominant wind will blow
toward town;
▪ the green spaces must be placed between the streets and buildings;
▪ buildings must be arranged with the long side perpendicular on the street
direction with green areas between them;
▪ when the streets have on both sides continuous buildings, or when buildings
form open spaces noises are reflected in many directions and are also amplified;
▪ it is better to place toward the streets some screen buildings playing other
roles than dwelling. It is recommended to plant trees with dense wreath – linden tree,
aspen tree, chestnut tree.
▪ noise buffers in the form of sand, covered with grass, may be considered as
a means of protecting communities from unacceptable noise levels. These barriers
need to be large enough to make them effective;
▪ noise pollution from aircraft is controlled through the zoning of airfields away
from residential areas;
▪ road noise can be controlled by setting maximum noise levels for each class
of motor vehicle and through information such as traffic flow, speed, light/heavy
traffic.
Fig p72, 73
Peculiar conditions:
- nature, kind and importance of industry: extractive,
processing,
intermediate.
The presence of the raw material plays an important role. From it depends the
placement and structure of urban areas.
Depending on the caused noxiousness degree:
industry wholesome, healthy
unwholesome
industry disturbing
undisturbing
intermediate
Depending on the noxiousness and insurance degree of the industrial area,
we can estimate the size of the safety (security) area.
Fig p77
- Faraway from towns are placed the unwholesome industries. The sanitary
protection area is 500 – 1000 m.
These industries require big land surfaces, or implies big quantities to be
transported or degrade the ground.
- At the town limit are placed the industries that require smaller quantities of
row materials or processed materials. The sanitary protection area is 100 – 300 m.
- In towns are placed industries which don’t require railways and are
wholesome. SPA = 50 m.
29
- town structure.
31
The district is the organizatoric unit of the town including a number of quarters
and a core (district centre) in which there are these endowments necessary for the
population and which are rarely used.
These endowments which are not parts of the district centre must be uniformly
distributed on the surface.
The quarter is made or not of many more groups of dwellings surface 15-45
ha, number of inhabitants 3000-12000 includes endowments for frequent uses or
daily using:
- education institutions;
- commercial complex;
- units for services;
- medical centre;
- playing places for children;
- sport field;
- parking, garages;
- cultural buildings.
The placement for these buildings is made as uniform as possible so that the
longer distances to the building don’t be greater than 400 m.
The quarter is limited by collecting streets, natural elements or the terrain limit
of some institutions. The circulation inside the quarter must be reduced as much as
possible to the access to the dwellings.
The dwellings group, if it exists, is a part of the quarter. The surface area is
2-8 ha, the number of inhabitants is 400-2500, depending on the size, mean number
of buildings storeys, relief conditions.
The connections between dwellings and the endowments must be direct, easy
and short. Very important is the maxim insurance of the pedestrian and vehicles
circulation.
The territory must be rational used by grouping the dwellings and
endowments, avoiding the terrain waste, but ensuring the needed free space.
The dwelling disposition must ensure a good sun lighting of buildings, terrain,
and a better protection against dominant winds.
Depending on local situation and circulation network we have several
schemes for quarter.
Fig p103
The green spaces and the endowments can be placed in two ways:
- centralized – advantageous for grouping the green spaces.
- decentralized – has a better distribution of endowments and a more direct
connection between green spaces and dwellings.
The internal streets network ensures the connection between buildings and
guide the inside circulation to the exterior; it is made of:
- local streets (internal) - closed (blind);
- open at both sides.
- carriage alleys (access or service)
- pedestrian alleys has a breadth multiple of 0.75 m for a single flux of
pedestrian.
Fig p106
The distance between buildings and carriage alley will be minim 4 m and
maxim 60 m till the most far-off building entrance.
The places for carriage streets is chosen so that:
- they ensure the rapid movement of rain waters;
- to lessen the negative consequences of circulation (accidents, dust,
noxes, noise);
- to ensure easier connections between different elements of the town.
When the vehicles circulation is very important, and also the pedestrian
circulation, we can build pedestrian passages superior (gang ways) or inferior ones.
33
Depending on the direction of the streets, the buildings could be placed in
many ways:
- parallel with the longitudinal axes of the street, making a linear front;
- perpendicular or oblique to the street;
- could form open or closed precincts.
Fig p112
The buildings distribution may be realized after a geometric or a free
composition.
After a geometric composition, the buildings are placed in a strict order,
continuous, following the street line.
In the case of free composition, the buildings have a discontinuous
distribution, more different, quite independent from the street.
The building placement could be made after:
- the street line;
- or retired, with gardens in front of terrain with 6-8 m breadth for protection.
For a better sun lighting of the dwellings, between buildings it must be a
distance of 1-3 heights of the building, depending on the mutual position of buildings,
of altitude and land orientation.
In the case of buildings with a few floors, to ensure the necessary space for
circulation or the insulation from the street, the distance could be 6 heights.
From an economic point of view, the most favourable, is a building with a great
number of floors, reducing in this way the foundation and roof cost related to the
habitable surface and the utilities cost.
Depending on the floors number we have:
- buildings with 1-2 floors used for individual dwellings or cultural;
- buildings with 2-5 floors blocks of flats without or with a brick work structure,
without elevator;
- buildings with many floors, with elevator, having a frame structure and
diaphragms.
The individual dwellings have a lot of land with carriage access. They may be
placed isolated, grouped, or in a sequence distribution. The last one is the most
economic from the point of view of land using, it may have an integrated and well
balanced architecture.
The usual surfaces of the land lots:
120 – 180 m2 for isolated buildings;
300 – 180 m2 for grouped buildings;
400 – 600 m2 for the sequence distributed buildings.
The blocks of flats are made by the assembling of some standardized
sections.
The land surface depends on the length and breadth.
The utilities works costs are decreasing with 15-25% when the number of
floors are increasing from 2 to 3, and with 11-18% for 3 to 4.
The distribution of the blocks of flats could be made after the continuous or
discontinuous line, with or without precincts and around a blind street.
36
The cultural buildings include:
- the cinemas, placed in the district centre and also in the town centre; the
required capacity is 24 places/1000 inhabitants;
- the theatres, placed in a specific area, with many transports possibilities;
the capacity is 10 places/1000 inhabitants;
- the museums and exhibitions halls; the recommended area is 10m2/1000
inhabitants;
- the libraries, placed in quite areas, near parks or education institutions;
- the clubs, placed in the dwelling area, requiring green surfaces, sport
fields; the required area is 0,25m2/inhabitant.
37
A building is considered to be middling, if the repairing values exceed the 50%
of the replacing value. Otherwise, the state of the building is poor. When it is
necessary, the building without value, are demolished; the others are kept eventually
supporting strengthening works.
The planting spaces represent 8-15% from the entire surface or 10-
15m2/inhab.
Parks must have minim 20 - 30 ha.
Gardens 5 - 20 ha.
Squares 0.3 - 2 ha.
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12.3.3. Placement and organisation of planting areas
It is better to avoid the easily flooded areas or with important noxes favourable
are the placements near the water basins.
Are chosen the unsuitable terrain for buildings:
- with important slopes;
- with underground water at small depth
- filling terrain.
The land must be: - well sun lighted;
- well protected against cold winds;
- have water alimentation sewerage.
40
The internal transportations ensure the connection between different
elements of the town, having a double function: to guide the persons and goods
transport and to divide the territory to obtain the shape and size of the complex urban
units.
In the existent towns, the streets network is in general inadequate and can
not cope with the growing number of the means of transportation. Often the transit
traffic is included in the local traffic. Because the number of the vehicles is
continuously growing, it is necessary to protect the central part from an excessive
traffic and also the dwelling districts from the heavy and speedy traffic.
The streets classification depends on:
- the size and nature of traffic;
- the connections importance;
- the way of solving the transversal profile.
The categories of streets are:
- streets of first degree – thoroughfare;
- streets of second degree – collecting main streets;
- secondary streets;
- special streets – quays, esplanades, cornice streets.
The basic streets network is made of thoroughfares and collecting main
streets.
The thoroughfares have 4 traffic lane/way and are:
- main transit streets;
- radial streets;
- transversal streets;
- ring streets, rounding the central part;
- deviation streets.
The collecting main streets have 2-3 traffic lane/way and are:
- secondary penetration streets;
- connection additional streets.
The main streets have a collecting function of the traffic from different areas of
the town and to distribute it to other areas by means of basic network.
The secondary streets ensure the penetration to different objectives inside the
urban areas. On these streets, it is not allowed the public transport.
The local streets make the connection between buildings and the secondary
streets.
The streets schemes are of two kinds:
- of natural or spontaneous formation;
- of conventional or preconceived creation.
The schemes are of different forms:
- geometric:
- orthogonal;
- linear;
- cruciform;
- parallel;
- rectangular.
- radial;
- ring shaped;
- of free rout.
The orthogonal scheme is easy to be drown, the land division is clear and
simple and it allows an easy organisation of the land.
The disadvantages are: the monotony given by the uniform aspect of the
streets and their length.
41
The radial and ring shaped could be of natural or voluntary formation. This
solution has a concentration of main streets in the central part, called civic centre.
The connection between the centre and the outlying districts is made in a direct way.
The distances to the outlying districts are long. The ring shaped scheme hasn’t some
of these disadvantages.
The free rout scheme has a sinuous form and is used mainly at the small
towns, placed on a roughly terrain.
At the same time with the streets scheme drawing, there are established the
positions of the interest centres at the main streets crossings or in connection with
some thoroughfares.
The street elements are:
- the route;
- the longitudinal profile;
- the transversal profile.
A normal traffic depends on a correct solving of these elements.
In big cities, it is better to separate the pedestrian and the vehicles traffic. This
can be done in horizontal or vertical plan.
The separation in the horizontal plan is achieved by creation of parallel routes;
the pedestrian traffic passes through the dwelling area. To cut the distance for
pedestrians, between two parallel streets can be placed some passages.
In the case of the separation in vertical direction, the ground level is dedicated
to the pedestrians and the vehicles traffic is at the upper level, or vice versa: the
vehicles at ground level and the pedestrian on the upper level, on special pavement.
The first alternative has the advantage that it ensures a better security, people
can enjoy of the planting spaces, but it requires expansive and difficult works for the
vehicles.
The second alternative is more economical and has a better organisation of
the parking places.
In big cities, with a heavy traffic, the main streets are placed on a higher level,
with crossings at different levels. More often are used suspended roads solutions,
independent from the traffic at the ground level.
Depending on their importance and function, the streets can be:
- straight;
- curved;
- with a broken line.
The straight route is the most convenient for traffic. It is used for main streets
or when are emphasized some important buildings. But the straight route become
tiring and monotone when it is too long.
The curved route is used for secondary streets; it depends on the relief and it
is also necessary to respect the visibility conditions at minimum 200m.
The broken line route is used only when is made of portions of line sufficiently
long.
12.4.2. The streets elements
The longitudinal profile is influenced by the specific features of the terrain. It
could be concave, convex, or inclined in a single direction.
For a traffic in good conditions are admitted maximum and minimum values for
slopes, depending on the speed vehicles and pavement nature. The more convenient
is 1-2,5%. For the traffic security, the concave longitudinal profiles must have
minimum radius of 600 – 1000m and for convex profiles 1000 -2500m. The concave
profile is better than the convex one because it ensures a good visibility and a large
view in that area.
42
The transversal profile depends on the traffic and hygiene requirements.
Depending on the traffic requirements, the span of the traffic lane could be:
- for one flux for pedestrians: 0,75m;
- for bicycles: (0,8 – 1m) + (0,2 – 0,5m, for security);
- for vehicles with low speed: 2,75m
mean speed: 3m
high speed: 3,5m.
fig p142
Usually the local streets have a carriage lane of 6,0m and 1 – 2 side walks of
1,5m. The collecting streets have the carriage part of 11,5m (2x3 + 2x2,75) or 12m =
4x3 and the side walks of 3 – 6m.
Depending on the importance and function of traffic, the traffic could be
divided in automobiles, bicycles, public transport and heavy traffic.
Depending on the speed, the traffic could be: rapid, reduced and local service.
When there are necessary earth works, it is better that the volumes of
excavations to be equal to that of the fillings.
The breadth of transversal profile depends on the traffic, size of vehicles,
maximum speed. Depending on the traffic volume, the roads can have 2-4 traffic
lanes.
Hen the road crosses a town, there are added the spaces for bicycles and the
pedestrian walks (1…1,5m). The plantations are at least 0,5 from the traffic lane.
In the case of highways, the two circulation direction are divided by green
space of 5m.
The total breadth could be:
- for international and national roads - 26m;
- for regional roads - 16-20m;
- for communal roads 10m;
- for high ways 40m.
The transversal profile could be made in different ways:
- mound (embakment);
- cutting (excavation);
- mix.
Fig p155
45
system requires a single art work, and the ring distribution requires five.
The disadvantage for the first is that the curvature radius is smaller.
- The triangle system is adopted when there are three traffic lanes. This
solution requires three art works and a terrain area quite big.
- The trumpet system is adopted when there are three traffic ways, but one
is more important. It requires one art work and a reduced surface.
- The prolonged loop system is used when two of the four traffic lanes are
more important. It requires two art works and allows a good visibility.
Fig pag 157
The railways
It is the most economic mean of transportation, having a high speed and low
energy consumption.
The disadvantages are: the direct connection to the relief, the limitation of the
inclination because of the reduced friction between rails and wheels and the limitation
of the curvature. Usually the slope is 18% and the curvature is 600m.
The high cost for building a railway is compensated by the energy savings.
The railway complex placement
The railway is made of rails, stations for travellers, for goods, industrial,
marshalling yard, deposits. Depending on the town and traffic importance, it could be
one or more stations, with a certain or more functions. For small towns, a single
station answers to all the necessities.
It is better that the railways route to avoid the dwelling districts.
There are some solutions:
- The tangent solution allows a good exploitation of the railway and also the
town development; it is favourable for small towns.
- The ring shaped solution has 1-2 stations; it allows a good railway
operation, but the town development has some problems.
- The diametrically solution is the most favourable from all the points of view.
- The radial solution allows the free development of the town but has some
problems concerning the operating and the direct connections.
- The ring-shaped solution has the advantage of the radial solution, but it
eliminates the difficulties concerning the transit travelling.
Fig p 160
Fig p163
The first solution is favourable for landing, but is not favourable for the take-off
because it is made in the town direction, the air plane must win height on short
distances. Another disadvantage is the noise propagation toward the town because
of the wind direction.
The third solution is favourable only for landing.
46
The second is the most favourable, because the airplanes are not obliged to
fly over the town.
Fig p164
Fig p 167
48