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Internal Combustion Engine: 1-Four-Stroke IC Engine
Internal Combustion Engine: 1-Four-Stroke IC Engine
In a gasoline engine, a mixture of gasoline and air is sprayed into a cylinder. This is compressed by a piston and at optimal point in
the compression stroke; a spark plug creates an electrical spark that ignites the fuel. The combustion of the fuel results in the
generation of heat, and the hot gases that are in the cylinder are then at a higher pressure than the fuel-air mixture and so drive the
piston back down. These combustion gases are vented and the fuel-air mixture reintroduced to run a second stroke. The outward
linear motion of the piston is ordinarily harnessed by a crankshaft to produce circular motion. Valves control the intake of air-fuel
mixture and allow exhaust gasses to exit at the appropriate times.
Types:
1-Four-Stroke IC Engine
2-Two-Stroke IC Engine
1-Four-Stroke IC Engine:
Engine Diagram:
Engine Operations:
It is a good engine to learn the fundamentals of engine operation. This type of internal combustion engine is called a four-stroke
engine because there are four movements, or strokes, of the piston before the entire engine firing sequence is repeated. The four
strokes are described below with some still figures. In the animation and in all the figures, we have colored the fuel/air intake system
Intake Stroke
The engine cycle begins with the intake stroke as the piston is pulled towards the crankshaft (to the left in the figure). The intake
valve is open, and fuel and air are drawn past the valve and into the combustion chamber and cylinder from the intake manifold
located on top of the combustion chamber. The exhaust valve is closed and the electrical contact switch is open. The fuel/air mixture
is at a relatively low pressure (near atmospheric) and is colored blue in this figure. At the end of the intake stroke, the piston is
located at the far left and begins to move back towards the right. The cylinder and combustion chamber are full of the low pressure
fuel/air mixture and, as the piston begins to move to the right, the intake valve closes.
Compression Stroke
With both valves closed, the combination of the cylinder and combustion chamber form a completely closed vessel containing the
fuel/air mixture. As the piston is pushed to the right, the volume is reduced and the fuel/air mixture is compressed during the
compression stroke. During the compression, no heat is transferred to the fuel/air mixture. As the volume is decreased because of
the piston's motion, the pressure in the gas is increased, as described by the laws of thermodynamics. In the figure, the mixture has
been colored yellow to denote a moderate increase in pressure. To produce the increased pressure, we have to do work on the
mixture, just as you have to do work to inflate a bicycle tire using a pump. During the compression stroke, the electrical contact is
kept opened. When the volume is the smallest, and the pressure the highest as shown in the figure, the contact is closed, and a
current of electricity flows through the plug.
Power Stroke
At the beginning of the power stroke, the electrical contact is opened. The sudden opening of the contact produces a spark in the
combustion chamber which ignites the fuel/air mixture. Rapid combustion of the fuel releases heat, and produces exhaust gases in
the combustion chamber. Because the intake and exhaust valves are closed, the combustion of the fuel takes place in a totally
enclosed (and nearly constant volume) vessel. The combustion increases the temperature of the exhaust gases, any residual air in
the combustion chamber, and the combustion chamber itself. From the ideal gas law, the increased temperature of the gases also
produces an increased pressure in the combustion chamber. We have colored the gases red in the figure to denote the high
pressure. The high pressure of the gases acting on the face of the piston causes the piston to move to the left which initiates the
power stroke.
Exhaust Stroke
At the end of the power stroke, the piston is located at the far left. Heat that is left over from the power stroke is now transferred to
the water in the water jacket until the pressure approaches atmospheric pressure. The exhaust valve is then opened by the cam
pushing on the rocker arm to begin the exhaust stroke. The purpose of the exhaust stroke is to clear the cylinder of the spent
exhaust in preparation for another ignition cycle. As the exhaust stroke begins, the cylinder and combustion chamber are full of
exhaust products at low pressure (colored blue on the figure above.) Because the exhaust valve is open, the exhaust gas is pushed
past the valve and exits the engine. The intake valve is closed and the electrical contact is open during this movement of the piston.
At the end of the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve is closed and the engine begins another intake stroke.
Classification:
1-Physical Structure Base 2-Overhead Cam Engine 3-Cam Shaft directly Operated Valve
6-Fuel-Injection
i. Single point injection ii. Multi point fuel injection iii. Gasoline direct injection
7-Fuel Injector
8-Ignition System
9-Air Intake
Supercharging:
One way to increase engine power is to force more air into the cylinder so that more power can be produced
from each power stroke. This can be done using some type of air compression device known as a
supercharger, which can be powered by the engine crankshaft.
Supercharging increases the power output limits of an internal combustion engine relative to its displacement.
Most commonly, the supercharger is always running, but there have been designs that allow it to be cut out or
run at varying speeds (relative to engine speed). Mechanically driven supercharging has the disadvantage that
some of the output power is used to drive the supercharger, while power is wasted in the high pressure
exhaust, as the air has been compressed twice and then gains more potential volume in the combustion but it
is only expanded in one stage.
Turbo charging:
A turbocharger is a supercharger that is driven by the engine's exhaust gases, by means of a turbine. It consists
of a two piece, high-speed turbine assembly with one side that compresses the intake air, and the other side
that is powered by the exhaust gas outflow.
Turbo charging allows for more efficient engine operation because it is driven by exhaust pressure that would
otherwise be (mostly) wasted, but there is a design limitation known as turbo lag. The increased engine power
is not immediately available; due to the need to sharply increase engine RPM, to build up pressure and to spin
up the turbo, before the turbo starts to do any useful air compression. The increased intake volume causes
increased exhaust and spins the turbo faster, and so forth until steady high power operation is reached.
Another difficulty is that the higher exhaust pressure causes the exhaust gas to transfer more of its heat to the
mechanical parts of the engine.
Compression Ratio:
Compression ratio, in an internal-combustion engine, degree to which the fuel mixture is compressed before
ignition. It is defined as the maximum volume of the combustion chamber (with the piston farthest out, or
bottom dead centre) divided by the volume with the piston in the full-compression position (with the piston
nearest the head of the cylinder, or top dead centre). A compression ratio of six means that the mixture is
compressed to one-sixth its original volume by the action of the piston in the cylinder. The maximum possible
ratio based on cylinder dimensions may not be achieved if the intake valve closes after the piston begins its
compression stroke, as this would cause backflow of the combustible mixture from the cylinder. A high ratio
promotes efficiency but may cause engine knock.
Higher compression ratio, Here, we are limited by auto ignition of the gasoline – knock. That is, if the gasoline
engine compression is above about 10.5, unless the octane number of the fuel is high, knocking combustion
occurs. This is annoying and if persistent, damage to the engine can occur. Thus, gasoline engines are limited
in their efficiency by the inability of the fuel to smoothly burn in high compression ratio engines.
However, the diesel engine is not subject to this limitation. It runs at high compression ratio. In part, this
explains its high efficiency. It also runs lean, and its pumping work is low, further increasing its efficiency over
the gasoline engine. Humankind needs quiet, smoke-free, odor-free diesels
Vs=Swept volume
Vc=Clearance Volume
PV Diagrams:
This is in fact enough information to fully describe a simple system from a thermodynamic standpoint. The
diagrams are useful when one wants to calculate the work done by the system, the integral of the pressure
with respect to volume. One can often quickly calculate this using the PV diagram as it is simply the area
enclosed by the cycle.
TS Diagrams:
In internal combustion engines, variable valve timing, often abbreviated to VVT, is a generic term for an
automobile piston engine technology. VVT allows the lift, duration or timing (in various combinations) of the
intake and/or exhaust valves to be changed while the engine is in operation. Two-stroke engines use a power
valve system to get similar results to VVT. Piston engines normally use poppet valves for intake and exhaust.
These are driven (directly or indirectly) by cams on a camshaft. The cams open the valves (lift) for a certain
amount of time (duration) during each intake and exhaust cycle. The timing of the valve opening and closing is
also important. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft through timing belts, gears or chains.
The profile, or position and shape of the cam lobes on the shaft, is
optimized for a certain engine revolutions per minute (RPM), and this
tradeoff normally limits low-end torque, or high-end power. VVT allows
the cam timing to change, which results in greater efficiency and power,
over a wider range of engine RPMs.
Carburetor:
The carburetor works on Bernoulli's principle: the faster air moves, the lower its static pressure, and the
higher its dynamic pressure. The throttle (accelerator) linkage does not directly control the flow of liquid fuel.
Instead, it actuates carburetor mechanisms which meter the flow of air being pulled into the engine. The
speed of this flow, and therefore its pressure, determines the amount of fuel drawn into the airstream.
When carburetors are used in aircraft with piston engines, special designs and features are needed to prevent
fuel starvation during inverted flight. Later engines used an early form of fuel injection known as a pressure
carburetor.
Valve Overlap:
On a 4-stroke, the intake valve begins to open while the exhaust valve is still off its seat. This is valve overlap. This allows
the negative exhaust pulse (the reflection of the positive pulse) to actually pull more fresh mixture past the intake valve
and into the cylinder. Here's how it works, and it has nothing to do with exhaust tuning as such.
When the combustion cycle begins, the piston is forced downward; this is the power stroke. Near the bottom of the
power stroke the energy is mostly spent and the exhaust valve starts to open. It will actually start to open slightly before
bottom dead center. The exhaust charge then begins to rush out the exhaust pipe.
The exhaust gases rushing out are further assisted by the piston pushing up on the exhaust stroke. This forms a stream
of hot gas in very rapid motion away from the cylinder. This stream of hot gas has inertia and it will tend to continue
moving in the same direction out the exhaust pipe even after the piston stops pushing it. This creates a region of
reduced pressure in the vicinity of the exhaust valve.
By opening the intake valve just prior to top dead center, while the exhaust
valve is still open (overlap), the gases going out the exhaust pipe will begin
pulling the new intake mixture in behind them. Or, the intake stream will try
to flow into the region of reduced pressure behind the exhaust stream, if
you want to look at it that way. So overlap merely takes advantage of the
inertia of the exhaust gases and the low-pressure region that it produces
near the exhaust valve at the end of the exhaust stroke.
That part of the overlap design is common to all 4-stroke engines in order to
gain additional charging of the cylinder with fuel mix at high RPM. The
higher the RPM we design for, the greater the intake and exhaust overlap
we build into the cam lobes. Most engines are fitted with exhaust manifolds
that collect all the gases from a bank of cylinders. They also usually have a long pipe and muffler. So, while the physics of
gases in motion will apply there, tuning for the exhaust pulse will not.
Engine Work:
Well Work is the integral of P*dV and since the crank angle plot doesn't directly show volume you need to calculate
instaneous volume of the cylinder as a function of crank angle. If you know the bore and stroke you can find the volume
of the cylinder and you can relate this to the crank angle. Once you have these values you can replace the crank angle
with volume and have a P-V plot or pressure on the y-axis and volume on the x-axis. Then you can integrate the area
under the curve and find the work from the engine.
However, all this is done for you if you can find the P-V diagram for your engine or engine cycle (Sterling, Atkinson, Otto,
Diesel, etc.) and integrate this for the work.
2-Two Stroke IC
Engine:
In combustion engines the inner energy set free by combustion (e.g. of gasoline or diesel fuel) is changed partly into
mechanical energy. Beside the four-stroke engine, the two-stroke engine is used (e.g. in lawn-mowers or in power saws).
Every second stroke the engine is operating - there are no valves. It is necessary to use a mix of gasoline and oil (two-
stroke oil) as fuel. This is used to lubricate the piston and the crank shaft.
1ST Stroke:
The compressed fuel-air mixture ignites and thereby the piston is pressed down. At the same time the intake
port I is covered by the piston. Now the new mixture in the crankcase becomes precompressed. Shortly before
the piston approaches the lower dead centre, the exhaust port and the overflow conduit are uncovered. Being
pressurized in the crankcase the mixture rushes into the cylinder displacing the consumed mixture (exhaust
now).
2nd Stroke:
The piston is moving up. The overflow conduit and the exhaust port are covered; the mixture in the cylinder is
compressed. At the same time new fuel-air mixture is sucked into the crankcase. By means of a crank shaft the
up and down motion is converted into a rotational motion.
Stroke cycle is very widely employed where small power required for motor cycle, auto rickshaw, scooters.
These types of engines are compact in size, easy for manufacturing and simple in operations. One drawback is
there, Specific Fuel Consumption (S.F.C) is more.(means fuel per Break Horse Power (b.h.p.) per hour is more).
There are no inlet and exhaust valves as in four stroke engine but we have inlet and exhaust ports only, due to
which suction and exhaust stroke are eliminated in two stroke cycle engine. Here the burnt exhaust gases are
forced out through the exhaust port by a fresh charge of fuel which enters the cylinder nearly at the end of
working stroke through inlet port. This process is called as "Scavenging". Details about Scavenging will be
covered in another post.
As I told above, it has no valves but consists of the inlet port (IP), exhaust port (EP) and transfer port (TP).The
ignition starts due to the spark given by spark plug when the piston be nearing the completion of its
compression stroke. As a result, piston is pushed down performing the working stroke and in doing so; the air-
fuel mixture already drawn from the inlet port in the previous stroke is compressed to a pressure of about 1.4
kilogram/centimeter square.
When 80% of this stroke is completed the exhaust port is uncovered slightly and some of the charge of burnt
gases escapes to the atmosphere. As the exhaust port is uncovered by the further downward movement of
the piston, the transfer port, which is slightly lower than exhaust port, is also uncovered and a charge of
compressed air-fuel mixture enters the cylinder and further pushes out the burnt gases out of the exhaust
port.
PV and TS Diagram:
We calculate CR by taking the total volume (displacement plus head) and dividing that by the head
volume alone. For a 70cc kit with a 7 cc head (stock 50cc) + gaskets ( 1-2 cc) it works out like
(70+8)/8= 9.75:1.
The 'squish band' affects the 'v' or velocity part of the equation. Air moving quickly has more energy
and explodes faster. Imagine having a bowl of vinegar and dumping in baking soda. If you stir the heck
out of it, it will fizz up much more violently. That is what is happening as the piston approaches the
squish band. The quick decrease in volume will blast all the gasses into the hemispherical chamber
around the spark plug at the same time, the violence of moving air speeds the reaction. Jennings and
Bell recommend the 40% of area- 7 deg taper method of sizing a squish band.
Because of the 'faster' flame in a high compression setup, ignition timing will have to be retarded. The
ignition triggers and begins igniting the fumes before top dead center, to account for the time it takes
to burn the air. When the everything burns faster, the max intensity of the explosion is at the wrong
time and pushes the piston down as it comes up (knocking or pinging). This is exacerbated by a pipe,
(or supercharger) which increases the pressure in the cylinder.
Sometimes the compression is just too high, the fuel ignites without any
spark, and this is also problematic. Going to a higher octane fuel (only
necessary in this condition) will allow you to continue to run the higher
CR and pipe, otherwise you have to drop CR or go to a different pipe
The effect of higher compression ratio on fuel consumption and power output was
investigated for an air-cooled two-stroke motorcycle engine. The results show that
actual fuel consumption can improve by 1-3% for each unit increase of compression
ratio over the compression ratio range of 6.6 to 13.6. The rate of improvement is
smaller however as compared to theoretical values. The discrepancies are mainly due to increased mechanical and
cooling losses, short-circuiting at low loads, and increased time losses at heavy loads. Power output also improves, but
the maximum compression ratio is limited due to knock and the increase in thermal load.
Volumetric efficiency:
Volumetric efficiency in internal combustion engine design refers to the efficiency with which the engine can move the
charge into and out of the cylinders. More specifically, volumetric efficiency is a ratio (or percentage) of what quantity of
fuel and air actually enters the cylinder during induction to the actual capacity of the cylinder under static conditions.
Therefore, those engines that can create higher induction manifold pressures - above ambient - will have efficiencies
greater than 100%. Volumetric efficiencies can be improved in a number of ways, but most notably the size of the valve
openings compared to the volume of the cylinder and streamlining the ports. Engines with higher volumetric efficiency
There are several standard ways to improve volumetric efficiency. A common approach for manufacturers is to use
larger valves or multiple valves. Larger valves increase flow but weigh more. Multi-valve engines combine two or more
smaller valves with areas greater than a single, large valve while having less weight. Carefully streamlining the ports
increases flow capability. This is referred to as Porting and is done with the aid of an air flow bench for testing.
Many high performance cars use carefully arranged air intakes and tuned exhaust systems to push air into and out of the
cylinders, making use of the resonance of the system. Two-stroke engines take this concept even further with expansion
chambers that return the escaping air-fuel mixture back to the cylinder. A more modern technique, variable valve
timing, and attempts to address changes in volumetric efficiency with changes in speed of the engine: at higher speeds
the engine needs the valves open for a greater percentage of the cycle time to move the charge in and out of the engine.
Volumetric efficiencies above 100% can be reached by using forced induction such as supercharging or turbocharging.
With proper tuning, volumetric efficiencies above 100% can also be reached by naturally-aspirated engines. The limit for
naturally-aspirated engines is about 137% [1]; these engines are typically of a DOHC layout with four valves per cylinder.
Torsion bar suspensions are currently used on armored fighting vehicles or tanks like the T-72 (Many tanks later in World
War II used this suspension), trucks and SUVs from Ford, Dodge, GM, Mitsubishi, Mazda, Nissan and Toyota.
Manufacturers change the torsion bar or key to adjust the ride height, usually to compensate for heavier or lighter
engine packages. While the ride height may be adjusted by turning the adjuster bolts on the stock torsion key, rotating
the stock keys too far can bend the adjusting bolt and (more importantly) place the shock piston outside the standard
travel. Over-rotating the torsion bars can also cause the suspension to hit the bump stop prematurely, causing a harsh
ride. Aftermarket forged torsion key kits use relocked adjuster keys to prevent over-rotation, as well as shock brackets
that keep the piston travel in the stock position.
Because of the torsion that torsion rods are subject to, they may require periodic adjustment in order to keep
functioning properly. One of the most common problems that can occur with torsion bar suspensions is that
the torsion rods in the suspension will begin to warp or sag slightly. This leads to the suspension not offering
as much support for the vehicle as it once did and can result in an uneven ride and reduced gas mileage.
Periodic adjustment of the torsion bars can eliminate this sagging and can also allow your mechanic to
recognize excess wear in the torsion rods of your suspension so that you will know when the rods need to be
replaced.
Speed Governor:
A governor, or speed limiter, is a device used to measure and regulate the speed of a machine, such as an engine. A
classic example is the centrifugal governor, also known as the Watt or fly-ball governor, which uses weights mounted on
spring-loaded arms to determine how fast a shaft is spinning, and then uses proportional control to regulate the shaft
speed.
Operation of a Governor:
A vital component of any diesel engine system is the governor, which limits the speed of the engine by controlling the
rate of fuel delivery.
*Diesel engine speed is controlled solely by the amount of fuel injected into the
engine by the injectors. Because a diesel engine is not self-speed-limiting, it
requires not only a means of changing engine speed (throttle control) but also a
means of maintaining the desired speed. The governor provides the engine with
the feedback mechanism to change speed as needed and to maintain a speed
once reached. A governor is essentially a speed-sensitive device, designed to
maintain a constant engine speed regardless of load variation. Since all governors
used on diesel engines control engine speed through the regulation of the
quantity of fuel delivered to the cylinders, these governors may be classified as
speed-regulating governors.
As with the engines themselves there are many types and variations of
governors. In this module, only the common mechanical-hydraulic type governor will be reviewed. The major function of
the governor is determined by the application of the engine. In an engine that is required to come up and run at only a
single speed regardless of load, the governor is called a constant-speed type governor. If the engine is manually
controlled, or controlled by an outside device with engine speed being controlled over a range, the governor is called a
variable- speed type governor. If the engine governor is designed to keep the engine speed above a minimum and below
a maximum, then the governor is a speed-limiting type. The last category of governor is the load limiting type. This type
of governor limits fuel to ensure that the engine is not loaded above a specified limit. Note that many governors act to
perform several of these functions simultaneously and cause the governor to shut down the engine. This provides the
engine with a built-in shutdown device to protect the engine in the event of loss of lubricating oil pressure.
Engine knocking:
Knocking (also called knock, detonation, spark knock, pinging or pinking) in spark-ignition internal combustion engines
occurs when combustion of the air/fuel mixture in the cylinder starts off correctly in
response to ignition by the spark plug, but one or more pockets of air/fuel mixture
explode outside the envelope of the normal combustion front. The fuel-air charge is
meant to be ignited by the spark plug only, and at a precise time in the piston's stroke
cycle. The peak of the combustion process no longer occurs at the optimum moment
for the four-stroke cycle. The shock wave creates the characteristic metallic "pinging"
sound, and cylinder pressure increases dramatically. Effects of engine knocking range
from inconsequential to completely destructive. It should not be confused with pre-
ignition.
Knock detection:
Due to the large variation in fuel quality, a large number of engines now contain mechanisms to detect knocking and
adjust timing or boost pressure accordingly in order to offer improved performance on high octane fuels while reducing
the risk of engine damage caused by knock while running on low octane fuels. An early example of this is in turbo
charged Saab H engines, where a system called Automatic Performance Control was used to reduce boost pressure if it
caused the engine to knock
Knock prediction:
Since the avoidance of knocking combustion is so important to development engineers, a variety of simulation
technologies have been developed which can identify engine design or operating conditions in which knock might be
expected to occur. This then enables engineers to design ways to mitigate knocking combustion whilst maintaining a
high thermal efficiency.
Since the onset of knock is sensitive to the in-cylinder pressure, temperature and auto ignition chemistry associated with
the local mixture compositions within the combustion chamber, simulations which account for all of these aspects [7]
have thus proven most effective in determining knock operating limits and enabling engineers to determine the most
appropriate operating strategy.
A cracked or broken flywheel or flex-plate that attaches the engine to the transmission
A failed or loose timing belt tension can knock when the timing belt slaps against it
An alternator with worn rotor bearings can knock when the pistons fire
The octane rating is a measure of the fuel's resistance to self-ignition, by increasing the temperature at which
it will self-ignite. A fuel with a greater octane rating allows for a much higher compression ratio, virtually
eliminating the risk of damage due to self-ignition.
Diesel engines rely on self-ignition for the engine to function. The premature ignition problem is solved by
separately injecting high-pressure fuel into the cylinder shortly before the piston has reached TDC. Air without
fuel can be compressed to a very high degree without concern for self-ignition, and the highly pressurized fuel
in the fuel injection system cannot ignite without the presence of air.
Octane number, also called Antiknock Rating, measure of the ability of a fuel to resist knocking when ignited in a mixture
with air in the cylinder of an internal-combustion engine. The octane number is determined by comparing, under
standard conditions, the knock intensity of the fuel with that of blends of two reference fuels: iso-octane, which resists
knocking, and heptanes, which knocks readily. The octane number is the percentage by volume of iso-octane in the iso-
octane–heptanes mixture that matches the fuel being tested in a standard test engine.
Fuel with a higher octane number suitable for your vehicle's engine will eliminate knocking. Older cars that were
designed to run on a lower RON fuel can also benefit from a higher RON, because the older the car and the higher the
kilometers, means the engine will have a greater propensity to knock. This is mainly caused by a build-up of
contaminants and carbon deposits which, when hot, can cause pre-ignition. Rotary engines suffered from this too. As
carbon deposits build up on the three apex seals of each rotor, the deposits get so hot, they glow orange with heat and
then bang…detonation!
If you’ve ever seen an apex seal with what looks like burnt, corroded and ‘blown’ corners, you’ll know why. So
in effect, a higher RON fuel when used in these situations will have a much higher threshold to detonate,
therefore reducing that nasty characteristic of detonation.
The performance of an engine is dependent upon many factors, one of which is the severity of operation. Accordingly
the performance of a fuel is also dependent upon engine severity. To account for differences in the performance quality
of a fuel two engine octane numbers are routinely used. The Research Octane Number (RON or F1) simulates fuel
performance under low severity engine operation. The Motor Octane Number (MON, or F2) simulates more severe
operation that might be incurred at high speed or high load. In practice the octane of a gasoline is reported as the
average of RON and MON or R+M/2.
Classically, both numbers are measured with a standardized single cylinder, variable compression ratio engine. For both
RON and MON, the engine is operated at a constant speed (RPM's) and the compression ratio is increased until the
onset of knocking. For RON engine speed is set at 600 rpm and MON is at 900 rpm.
In general, RON values are never less than MON, although exceptions to this rule exist. For pure compounds the
differences between RON and MON range from 0 to more than 15 numbers. Typical values for gasoline range
hydrocarbons having boiling points between 30° and 350° F go from less than 0 to greater than 100 with the extreme
values being generated by extrapolation. Table 1 summarizes actual RON and MON values for a variety of pure
hydrocarbons.
In practice octane numbers do not blend linearly. To accommodate this, complex blending calculations employing
blending octane numbers as opposed to the values for pure hydrocarbons are routinely employed. There is no universal
blending program used industry wide. In fact, for a given oil company, blending calculations that are refinery specific are
not uncommon. As an improvement over octane numbers of pure compounds, there are tabulations of blending octane
numbers for both RON and MON. Summarized in Table 1, these numbers are measured by blending 20 vol.% of the
specific hydrocarbon in 80 vol.% of a 60/40 iso-octane/n-heptanes mixture. Although still not exactly indicative of the
actual blending octane number for a specific gasoline composition, the blending octane numbers are more
representative. In general, the blending octane numbers are greater than the corresponding pure octane number.
Cetane number:
Cetane number or CN is actually a measure of a fuel's ignition delay; the time period between the start of injection and
the first identifiable pressure increase during combustion of the fuel. In a particular diesel engine, higher cetane fuels
will have shorter ignition delay periods than lower cetane fuels. Cetane numbers are only used for the relatively light
distillate diesel oils.
To measure the cetane number properly is rather difficult, as it requires burning the fuel in a special, hard-to-find, diesel
engine called a Cooperative Fuel Research (CFR) engine, under standard test conditions. The operator of the CFR engine
uses a hand-wheel to increase the compression ratio (and therefore the peak pressure within the cylinder) of the engine
until the time between fuel injection and ignition is 2.407ms. The resulting cetane number is then calculated by
determining which mixture of cetane (hexadecane) and isocetane (2, 2, 4, 4, 6, 8, 8-heptamethylnonane) will result in
the same ignition delay.
Diesel fuels with cetane number lower than minimum engine requirements can cause rough engine operation.
They are more difficult to start, especially in cold weather or at high altitudes. They accelerate lube oil sludge
formation. Many low cetane fuels increase engine deposits resulting in more smoke, increased exhaust
emissions and greater engine wear.
Using fuels which meet engine operating requirements will improve cold starting, reduce smoke during start-up,
improve fuel economy, reduce exhaust emissions, improve engine durability and reduce noise and vibration.
These engine fuel requirements are published in the operating manual for each specific engine or vehicle.
Overall fuel quality and performance depend on the ratio of paraffinic and aromatic hydrocarbons, the presence of
sulfur, water, bacteria, and other contaminants, and the fuel's resistance to oxidation. The most important measures of
fuel quality include API gravity, heat value (BTU content), distillation range and viscosity. Cleanliness and corrosion
resistance are also important. For use in cold weather, cloud point and low temperature filter plugging point must
receive serious consideration. Cetane number does not measure any of these characteristics.
In internal combustion engines, a variable length intake manifold (VLIM), or variable intake manifold (VIM) is
an automobile internal combustion engine manifold technology. As the name implies, VLIM/VIM can vary the
length of the intake tract - in order to optimize power and torque across the range of engine speed operation,
as well as help provide better fuel efficiency. This effect is often achieved by having two separate intake ports,
Swirl:
Variable geometry can create a beneficial air swirl pattern, or turbulence in the combustion chamber. The swirling helps
distribute the fuel and form a homogeneous air-fuel mixture - this aids the initiation of the combustion process, helps
minimize engine knocking, and helps facilitate complete combustion. At low revolutions per minute (rpm), the speed of
the airflow is increased by directing the air through a longer path with limited capacity (i.e., cross-sectional area) - and
this assists in improving low engine speed torque. At high rpms, the shorter and larger path opens when the load
increases, so that a greater amount of air with least resistance can enter the chamber - this helps maximize 'top-end'
power. In double overhead camshaft (DOHC) designs, the air paths may sometimes be connected to separate intake
valves so the shorter path can be excluded by de-activating the intake valve itself.
Pressurization:
A tuned intake path can have a light pressurizing effect similar to a low-pressure supercharger - due to Helmholtz
resonance. However, this effect occurs only over a narrow engine speed band. A variable intake can create two or more
pressurized "hot spots", increasing engine output. When the intake air speed is higher, the dynamic pressure pushing
the air (and/or mixture) inside the engine is increased. The dynamic pressure is proportional to the square of the inlet air
speed, so by making the passage narrower or longer the speed/dynamic pressure is increased.
The process is controlled by a cylindrical cell rotor whose speed is synchronized with
the engine crankshaft speed via a belt or chain. Individual cells alternately open and
close the exhaust gas and fresh air apertures, when the aperture on the exhaust gas
side is reached pressurized exhaust gas flows into the cell and compresses the fresh air
there. As the cell rotor continues to rotate and reaches the aperture on the inlet side
the compressed air flows to the engine. Before the exhaust gas can flow the aperture is
First air is drawn into the cylinder like any other internal combustion engine by the downward movement of the piston,
and with the Comprex in its path the air naturally must pass through it first. Inside the compressor air is turned and the
blades are moved past the ports on either end of the chamber. When hot exhaust gases enter the chamber it is at a
much higher pressure than that of the air that is already in the Comprex which in turn starts a pressure equalization
process. When two compressible mediums change state they change by means of pressure waves. So when each blade
passes by the exhaust inlet port air enters that cell (the area between each of the blades) and sends a pressure wave
towards the intake air at the speed of sound. Now for the tricky part. Since the wheel is turning perpendicular to the
movement of the pressure waves and with the help of physics the waves then move in a slanting motion towards the
other end of cell, compressing the intake air (which is at atmospheric pressure) to the pressure level of the expanding
exhaust gases. The exhaust gas then follows the pressure wave at a much lower velocity.