Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
of
Body-Mind Disciplines
The Illustrated Encyclopedia
of
Body-Mind Disciplines
Allison, Nancy
The illustrated encyclopedia of body-mind disciplines/Nancy Allison, editor
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index
ISBN 0-8239-2546-3
1. Alternative medicine—Encyclopedias. 2. Mind and body therapies—Encyclopedias.
I. Allison, Nancy, 1954-
R733.I46 1998
615.5—dc21 98-24969
CIP
Nancy Allison, CMA, has always been interested in the role of movement in
human society, its inner impulses and outer forms. This interest led her to pursue a
career in dance. She performed during her childhood with the National Ballet of
Washington, DC, and with Moscow’s world-renowned Bolshoi Ballet during its 1963
American tour. She graduated with honors from Ohio University with a B.F.A. in
Dance. While at Ohio University she augmented her study of dance with courses in
philosophy and psychology. As a young professional dancer she joined the Theater
of the Open Eye in New York City, founded by choreographer Jean Erdman and the
late Joseph Campbell. Allison distinguished herself as the leading interpreter of
Erdman’s dance repertory from the 1940s and 1950s, producing the three-volume
video archive Dance and Myth: The World of Jean Erdman.
Inspired by both Erdman and Campbell, Allison expanded her exploration of
movement to include the body-mind relationship. She has studied hatha yoga, t’ai chi
ch’üan, the Pilates Method, bioenergetics, authentic movement, and Laban move-
ment analysis, in which she earned a degree as a certified movement analyst. A much
sought after teacher, Allison has taught master classes and workshops throughout the
United States. She currently resides in New York, where she teaches at the School of
Education of New York University.
Acknowledgments
So many people have helped create this volume that it is probably impossible to
name them all, but given this opportunity, I would like to try. I feel deeply indebted
to Joseph Campbell, whose personal encouragement guided my early explorations
into the world of body-mind and whose spirit and knowledge are a constant well-
spring of inspiration to me. I also want to thank my husband, who believed in my
ability to complete this project and nurtured both it and me with his constant love
and support.
I am eternally grateful to all of the distinguished teachers, healers, and writers
who contributed entries to this volume. Their dedication to their respective fields and
their generous gifts of time and knowledge to this project have earned my undying
respect and admiration. I believe they are, each in their own wonderfully unique way,
helping to make this world a better place.
Certain writers and consultants have been particularly influential in my own
development, and I want to acknowledge their gifts to me: T’ai chi master Sophia
Delza, who passed away during the course of our work, taught me to follow the flow
of the life force in its endless cycle from full to empty and back to full again; Ed Groff;
Janet Hamburg; Clio Pavlantos and Jackie Hand, who taught me to recognize the
endless permutations of that force through the language of Laban movement
analysis; Nina Robinson, who introduced me to the thrill of liberating that force
through bioenergetics; Lillo (Leela) Way, who taught me the true nature of a spir-
itual practice; Jane Magee and Jackie Hand, whose healing hands managed to
untangle the knots into which I seem to want to endlessly entangle my body; and Dr.
v
Domenick Masiello, whose healing artistry has restored me and so many of my loved
ones to a vibrant state of health. I am also indebted to Dr. Masiello for the many fine
contributing writers he recommended to this project. In that regard I am also deeply
indebted to Thomas Claire and Ken Frey.
There are also those who, while not contributing writers, were important to my abil-
ity to realize this project: Clifford Schulman, Jeff McMahon, Anne Johnson, Joanna
Kosartes Vergoth, and Cynthia Reynolds, all of whom recommended contributing writ-
ers to the project; Romana Kryzanowska, who gave me my first teaching job in the body-
mind arena at the Pilates Studio; Carol Walker and Steven Giordano, who encouraged me
to expand and explore that skill and knowledge at SUNY Purchase; Miriam Roskin
Berger, who has supported so many of my creative endeavors and gave me the opportu-
nity to develop my teaching at New York University, and all of my students over the
years who continually show me through their amazing transformations that my
approach to this material is valuable and life-enhancing.
Finally, I would like to thank the staff at the Rosen Publishing Group, all of whom
were extraordinarily helpful and supportive; especially Christine Slovey, who worked
long and diligently to uphold cohesive reference standards while allowing each individ-
ual voice to be heard; Michael Isaac and Margaret Haerens, who each offered their own
perspective and editing skills; Kim Sonsky, whose artistic talents created the cover
design; Vera Amadzadeh, whose tireless photo research efforts brought such vivid visu-
al expression to the ideas contained in the writing; and Olga Vega, whose layout and
design expertise give such visual clarity and accessibility to the volume.
With such a huge task, spanning so many years, I'm sure there are others I have
missed. Please forgive me and know that you have my deepest respect and gratitude.
vi
Contributors
vii
Dance Department. She is also codirec- coauthor of Out of Sight into Vision, a
tor of the Hampshire College Program consumer self-help book presenting new
in contemplative dance. models of seeing and vision therapy.
viii
Bodynamics Analysis Chiropractic
Peter Bernhardt, MFCC, is director Dr. Trina Marx is a doctor of chiro-
of the Clement Street Counseling Center practic with a degree in clinical nutri-
Faculty at California Institute of Integral tion, also specializing in exercise
Studies in Somatics program, in San psychology and holistic treatments. In
Francisco, California, and a founding addition to her private practice, she is
member of the Bodynamics Institute, the chiropractor for the American Tap
USA. He has led trainings and work- Dance Orchestra. Her volunteer work
shops throughout the United States and includes providing chiropractic ser-
Europe, has twenty years’ experience as vices for the Gay Men’s Health Crisis
a body psychotherapist, and is in private and for children born with addictions
practice near Berkeley, California. and HIV. She has also written Body
Almanac and Tap Dance.
Bowen Technique
Oswald H. Rentsch is the principal Connective Tissue TherapySM
and founder of the Bowen Therapy Jackie Hand, M.A., is a certified
Academy of Australia, the official orga- Laban movement analyst (CMA) and a
nization of Bowtech®. From 1974 to 1976 registered movement therapist (RMT).
he studied under Thomas A. Bowen, She is a movement consultant and a
who commissioned Rentsch to docu- dance specialist, performing movement
ment and teach his original techniques. retraining and bodywork. On the facul-
He has earned a diploma of osteopathy ty at the Laban/Bartenieff Institute of
from the South Pacific Council of Movement Studies, she integrates her
Natural Therapies, an honorary doctor- years of dance training with her move-
ate of massage therapy from the ment observation skills to educate
Australian Registrar of Massage clients in movement awareness and
Therapists, and a diploma of homeopa- observation. She studied anatomy with
thy ionization principles from the Irene Dowd and Connective Tissue
Australian Academy of Homeopathy. Therapy™ with Theresa Lamb. She has a
Oswald Rentsch has twenty-two years holistic approach to movement and
of experience with the Bowen technique bodywork and is nationally certified in
and, together with his wife Elaine, has therapeutic massage and bodywork
spent ten years as a Bowtech teacher. (NCTMB).
ix
Core Energetics myofascial therapy and CORE structur-
Pamela L. Chubbuck, Ph.D., LPC, is al integrative therapy. Kousaleos also
on the senior international teaching fac- served as the general manager of the
ulty of the Core Energetic Institute in British Olympic Sports Massage
New York City, where she is also director Therapy Team (1994–1996).
of faculty development. Dr. Chubbuck Gary N. Genna, LMT, is the founder
is the director of Core Energetics South and owner of the CORE Institute of
and has worked personally and exten- Tennessee. A graduate of SUNY Cortland
sively with John C. Pierrakos, M.D., for with a degree in biology and education,
more than twenty-five years. Dr. Genna has been an advanced instructor
Chubbuck is the author of Passages to for the CORE Institute since 1989. He has
Womanhood: Stories of Celebration for presented at various state and interna-
Young Women, and numerous articles tional conferences and spent more than
on the core energetics process. three years working as a neuromuscular
therapist at St. Anthony’s Hospital Sports
coreSomatics® Medicine and Orthopedic Rehabilitation
Kay Miller is certified in the Center in St. Petersburg, Florida. He has
Rubenfeld synergy method and the been both a massage therapist and a mas-
Feldenkrais Method® and received her sage educator for more than twenty-five
gestalt training in the three-year post- years, highlighted as the head coach for
graduate program at the Gestalt the British Olympic Sports Massage
Institute of Cleveland. She has served Team in 1995 and 1996.
as consultant, staff, and/or workshop
leader for the Pennsylvania Department CranioSacral Therapy
of Education, the University of Kenneth I. Frey, PT, is director of
Pittsburgh, Carlow College, the the Institute of Physical Therapy, a pri-
University of West Virginia, Long Island vate practice and clinical resource cen-
University, the Gestalt Institute of ter in New York City.
Cleveland, and the Western Psychiatric
Institute. Dance Therapy
Anne L. Wennerstrad is a
CORE Structural Integrative Therapy dance/movement therapist, clinical
George P. Kousaleos has been a social worker, and dance educator work-
licensed massage therapist specializing ing in mental health and education.
in structural integration and myofascial Currently she is coordinator of under-
therapy since 1978. A graduate of graduate dance education at New York
Harvard University and the SOMA University, where she teaches and advis-
Institute of Neuromuscular Integration, es students. She has presented and writ-
he has practiced and taught in Germany, ten on the arts in education and therapy.
Greece, and throughout America. In Her clinical work focuses on creative
1990, he founded the CORE Institute mind/body approaches to helping peo-
School of Massage Therapy of ple with eating problems, anxiety,
Tallahassee, Florida, a state-licensed and depression, and chronic mental illness. A
nationally accredited program. He former professional dancer, she is also on
trains massage therapists in continuing the staff of Career Transition for Dancers,
education certification courses in CORE a nonprofit counseling service.
x
Do-In Association (1984), the Organization
John Kozinski has taught do-in, tra- Transformation Network (1985), the
ditional exercises, and healing through Massachusetts Association of Body-
food and natural therapies throughout Oriented Psychotherapy and Counseling
the United States and in Asia and South Bodyworkers (1989), and the Somatics
America. He offers seminars on do-in, Community of the Association for
traditional exercises, and the macrobi- Humanistic Psychology. In 1990 she
otic approach to health and healing at founded the Institute for Emotional-
the Kushi Institute in Massachusetts, as Kinesthetic Psychotherapy. She has writ-
well as in Connecticut and New York. ten a column on psychology for Spirit of
He also has an active health counseling Change magazine for the past ten years.
practice in which he recommends spe- She is the author of Living with Vision:
cific traditional foods, remedies, and Reclaiming the Power of the Heart.
natural lifestyle practices to foster heal-
ing and general well-being. Enneagram
Janet Levine is an author, educator,
Drama Therapy and organizer. She is founder of Learning
Professor Patricia Sternberg and The Enneagram, an educational
RDT/BCT (registered drama enterprise dedicated to spreading knowl-
therapist/board certified trainer) is the edge of the enneagram system and its
chairperson of the Board of Examiners of applications in education and related
the National Association for Drama fields. She has taught at Milton Academy,
Therapy. She is a full professor of the Massachusetts, for ten years. She is direc-
Department of Theater at Hunter College tor of the National Educators Institute for
in New York and heads the developmen- Enneagram Studies at Milton Academy.
tal drama program there. She is a play- She has presented her work on education
wright with more than twenty-five plays and the enneagram at national confer-
produced and/or published and is the ences and many other venues.
author of seven books, including
Sociodrama: Who’s in Your Shoes? (with Eurythmy
Antonina Garcia). She is currently work- Beth Dunn-Fox was raised and edu-
ing on her eighth, Theater for Conflict cated in northern California, where she
Resolution. A well-known presenter and studied and performed ballet, charac-
workshop leader, having presented both ter, and modern dance. A graduate of
nationally and internationally, Sternberg Eurythmy Spring Valley, she has toured
is a practicing drama therapist and for throughout North America and Europe
the past ten years has worked with a vari- with their professional ensemble for
ety of populations in both psychiatric twelve years. In addition to perform-
and educational facilities. ing, she has also carried the finance and
development work of Eurythmy Spring
Emotional-Kinesthetic Psychotherapy Valley over a number of years.
Linda Marks has practiced body-cen-
tered psychotherapy with individuals, Eye Movement Desensitization and
couples, and groups for twelve years. She Reprocessing
has helped found and served on the Barbara A. Parrett, RN, M.S., is a
Board of the Interface Business nurse and psychotherapist who brings a
xi
holistic approach to her work with er and coordinator, she has been prac-
individuals and organizations. She has ticing and teaching focusing for twenty
been thoroughly trained in EMDR and years.
teaches this discipline to other thera-
pists on an international scale, where Hakomi Integrative Somatics
she is in much demand as trainer and Pat Ogden, M.A., is a founding mem-
educator. ber of the Hakomi Institute, serves on its
trainers’ board, and is the originator and
Feldenkrais Method® director of hakomi integrative somatics.
Alan S. Questel is a founding mem- Trained in a wide variety of somatic
ber of Delman/Questel Associates, approaches, she is a structural integrator
Inc., and is a Feldenkrais practitioner. (Guild for Structural Integration) and
serves on the faculty of Ergos Institute
Feng Shui (founded by Peter Levine, specializing in
Marilyn Saltzman is a feng shui prac- healing the effects of trauma) and the
titioner. She studied feng shui with Naropa Institute.
Nancy SantoPietro, a certified teacher
trained by Master Lin Yun. In addi- Halprin Life Art Process
tion, she has studied Transcendental Daria Halprin-Khalighi, M.A., CET,
Meditation and reiki, and she is a cer- is the cofounder and director of the
tified rebirther and hypnotherapist. Tampala Institute. She maintains a pri-
Saltzman has given lectures and work- vate practice in Marin County and is a
shops on feng shui throughout Virginia certified expressive arts therapist. She
and Maryland. is the author of Coming Alive: The
Creative Expression Method.
Flower Remedies
Leslie J. Kaslof is an internationally Hanna Somatic Education®
recognized pioneer, researcher, writer, Eleanor Criswell Hanna, Ed.D., is
and educator in the field of holistic professor of psychology and former
health, preventative medicine, and nat- chair of the psychology department,
ural approaches to stress reduction. He Sonoma State University, California. In
has written numerous articles in profes- 1975, she cofounded, with Thomas
sional and popular publications and has Hanna, the Novato Institute for Somatic
written many other works, including Research and Training, Novato,
Herb and Ailment Cross-Reference Chart, California. She trained in somatic edu-
the pioneering book Wholistic Dimensions cation with Thomas Hanna in his 1981
in Healing, and The Traditional Flower Australian training program; she has
Remedies of Dr. Edward Bach: A Self-Help worked closely with him in the develop-
Guide. ment of the field of somatics over the
years. She is currently serving as presi-
Focusing dent of the Somatics Society and editor
Joan Klagsbrun, Ph.D., is a clinical of Somatics. A licensed psychologist, she
psychologist practicing focusing-ori- maintains a private practice in psy-
ented psychotherapy in private prac- chotherapy, biofeedback, and somatic
tice in Boston, Massachusetts. A college education. She is the author of
professor and a certified focusing train- Biofeedback and Somatics.
xii
Herbal Medicine author of The Breathwork Experience:
Mark Blumenthal is the founder Exploration and Healing in Nonordinary
and executive director of the States of Consciousness and The Ethics of
American Botanical Council (ABC), a Caring: Honoring the Web of Life in Our
leading nonprofit research and educa- Professional Healing Relationships. She
tion organization in Austin, Texas. He has served as editor of the Inner Door,
also edits the quarterly magazine the newsletter of the Association for
HerbalGram. Holotropic Breathwork International.
xiii
education and worked for many years 1982. He was a founding member of the
with deaf children, communicating in Scientific Advisory Board of the
sign language. She was trained in mas- Institute for the Advancement of
sage in 1987 and began communicating Health. He has written numerous arti-
through touch in her practice with adults. cles and publications and was a winner
She became a certified infant massage of the American Health Book Award in
instructor in 1989, combining her love for 1987.
teaching and her love of massage. Her
practice includes teaching parents with Iyengar Yoga
healthy babies as well as parents with Janet MacLeod teaches yoga full-
babies who are medically fragile or have time, offering ongoing classes in San
developmental delays. Francisco and teaching workshops
around the country. She is on the faculty
Integral Yoga of the Iyengar Yoga Institute of San
Reverend Kumari de Sachy, Ed.D., Francisco teacher training program. She
has been a student of Swami is a certified teacher at the intermediate
Satchidananda since 1980. In 1981, she level and continues to study in Pune with
became an integral yoga instructor and the Iyengar family on a regular basis.
proceeded to teach at integral yoga insti-
tutes, colleges, universities, and prisons. Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM
In 1994, she was ordained as an integral Iona Marsaa Teeguarden, M.A., is
yoga minister. For the past ten years, she the originator of Jin Shin Do® Bodymind
and her husband have been living and AcupressureTM. She founded the Jin Shin
serving as whole-time members at Do Foundation and began offering JSD
Satchidananda Ashram–Yogaville with teacher training programs. She has writ-
the spiritual master Sri Swami ten several books and articles on the
Satchidananda. At Yogaville, she has practice of JSD.
taught English and French, in addition to
serving as director of the Yogaville Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy
Summer Program for Children and Ian Kraut is a practitioner of Jin
Teens. She is also the editor of Integral Shin Jyutsu and a licensed massage
Yoga Publications, which publishes therapist. He is a member of the staff at
Swami Satchidananda’s books and the Jin Shin Jyutsu, Inc., in Scarsdale,
quarterly magazine Integral Yoga. Arizona. He has a B.A. in music from
SUNY Binghamton and has studied
Interactive Guided Imagery Andean music in South America.
Martin Rossman, M.D., is a 1969
graduate of the University of Michigan Journal Therapy
Medical School and is board certified in Kathleen Adams, M.A., LPC, is a
acupuncture. He is the founder and licensed psychotherapist and the
director of the Collaborative Medicine founder/director of the Center for
Center in Mill Valley, California. As the Journal Therapy in Denver, Colorado,
codirector of the Academy for Guided an organization dedicated to teaching
Imagery in Mill Valley, he has taught the healing art of journal writing to
clinical guided imagery to more than individuals, groups, and mental health
9,000 health care professionals since professionals. She has specialized in
xiv
journal therapy since 1985 and is one the author of numerous articles on the
of the pioneers in the field. She is the KMP. She has given intensive courses on
author of three books on the use of this material in Germany and Italy. She is
journal writing as a therapeutic tool. the coeditor of a textbook on the KMP
published in 1997.
Ju Jutsu, Karate Janet Kestenberg Amighi is an
Stefan Nikander is a certified karate anthropologist who has done fieldwork
and ju jutsu instructor. Having taught in Iran and Bali. She is the author of
soccer to children since the age of fif- Zoroastrians in Iran: Assimilation,
teen, he became certified as a soccer Conversion and Persistence. She coteaches
trainer in 1983. He is also a certified a course on the KMP with Susan Loman
nursery school teacher and has worked and is coeditor of a textbook on the KMP.
professionally at schools and play cen-
ters since 1990. He is the vice chairman Kinetic Awareness
of the children’s committee of the Ellen Saltonstall, M.A., MCKA, is a
Swedish Budo Federation, a martial certified master teacher of kinetic
arts organization. His writing has awareness, a licensed massage thera-
appeared in various martial arts maga- pist, and a teacher and practitioner of
zines in several countries, and he has hatha yoga. She has taught at the New
written columns for Scandinavian School, Columbia University, and Bard
newspapers on the subject of martial College and is currently is on the staff
arts as a means to stop violence. He is of the Mind/Body Medical Institute of
currently training to become a personal St. Peters Hospital in New Brunswick,
trainer and massage therapist. New Jersey.
J. Robin Powell, Ph.D., CSW, MCKA,
Kendo is a certified master teacher of kinetic
Daniel T. Ebihara is the chairman of awareness and teaches at New York
Ken Zen Institute Ltd. and a member of University and other institutions, as well
the board of directors of All United as privately. She is a founding board
States Kendo Federation. He has written member of the Kinetic Awareness Center,
several articles about the martial arts for Inc., and teaches in the teacher training
various periodicals and is an advanced program.
student of karate, kendo, and judo. Michelle Berne, M.A., MCKA,
Bruce Robertson Smith is a first- introduced the first university course in
degree black belt in kendo, having stud- body/mind therapies while on the fac-
ied martial arts in Japan with the Budo ulty of New York University, where she
master Fushi Sensei. He has trained taught for twelve years. As a profes-
extensively in bodywork and structural sional dancer and choreographer in
integration and has done shamanic jour- New York, she presented original work
neywork. with her own company and performed
with others. She is a certified master
Kestenberg Movement Profile teacher of kinetic awareness and cur-
Susan Loman is the director of a mas- rently teaches kinetic awareness, neu-
ter’s program in dance/movement ther- romuscular reeducation, and alignment
apy at Antioch New England Graduate in Los Angeles, California. She is also a
School in Keene, New Hampshire, and celebration artist who choreographs
xv
and produces large-scale community Magnet Therapy
art events for cities and nonprofit orga- Dr. John Zimmerman earned his
nizations across the country. Ph.D. in biological psychology and
neurosciences at the University of
Kung-Fu Wu Su Colorado at Boulder in 1981. He is a
Oswald Rivera is a senior instructor member of the American Sleep
at Alan Lee’s Chinese Kung-Fu Wu-Su Disorders Association and the North
Association. He has practiced Shaolin American Academy of Magnetic
style kung-fu for twenty-four years. He Therapy. Currently he serves as the
is also the author of the novel Fire and laboratory director of the Washoe
Rain and the cookbook Puerto Rican Sleep Disorders Center in Reno. Dr.
Cuisine in America. Zimmerman is also the founder and
president of the nonprofit organiza-
Laban Movement Analysis tion called the Bio-Electro-Magnetics
Ed Groff, M.F.A., CMA, is currently Institute (BEMI), which researches and
director of graduate studies in the provides resources on magnet therapy.
department of modern dance at the
University of Utah. He has served on Martial Arts
the faculties of Temple University, Michael Maliszewski received his
Hampshire College, Connecticut Ph.D. in psychology from the
College, Tufts University, and University of Chicago. He has held a
Evergreen State College. He has taught number of positions at the University
in the certification programs in Laban of Chicago and has conducted
Movement Analysis at schools and insti- research and published in a variety of
tutions in New York, Seattle, Salt Lake areas ranging from medicine to reli-
City, Columbus, Rotterdam, and Berlin. gious studies. He is currently a consul-
His choreography has been presented in tant in psychiatry at Massachusetts
the United States, Europe, and Asia. General Hospital and lecturer at
Harvard Medical School. He has been
Light Therapy involved in the study of martial arts
Dr. Brian J. Breiling is a licensed mar- and meditative traditions since 1970
riage, family, and child counselor and and has studied throughout the
school psychologist. He is the co-editor United States and Asia. Included
and publisher of Light Years Ahead: The among his publications in the martial
Illustrated Guide to Full Spectrum and arts are the book Spiritual Dimensions
Colored Light in Mindbody Healing. He is of the Martial Arts, as well as articles
also the author of three chapters in this that have appeared in the Journal of
book on the professional and self-care Asian Martial Arts, where he also
applications of light therapy. For the last serves as an associate editor.
ten years, he successfully used flashing
colored light stimulation through the Massage
eyes to aid his clients in uncovering and Katie Scoville is a New York State-
working through emotional traumas, licensed massage therapist who prac-
depression, and pain, as well as to tices Swedish massage, shiatsu, med-
enhance learning and intellectual perfor- ical massage, and pregnancy massage.
mance in adults and children. She has a private practice in
xvi
Manhattan, Studio of Massage Arts Meditation
(SOMA), and also works with physical Eugene Taylor, Ph.D., is a lecturer
therapists. She is a shiatsu and clinic on psychiatry, Harvard Medical School;
instructor at the Swedish Institute of executive faculty, Saybrook Institute;
Massage Therapy and Allied Health and director of the Cambridge Institute
Sciences in New York City and a mem- of Psychology and Religion.
ber of the American Massage Therapy Marilyn Schlitz, Ph.D., is a social
Association. Katie holds a B.F.A. in anthropologist and director of research
dance and brings to her practice more at the Institute of Noetic Sciences in
than fifteen years of dance training Sausalito, California.
and professional dance experience.
Meir Schneider Self-Healing Method
Medical Orgone Therapy Carol Gallup works at the Center
Dr. Peter Crist received his M.D. for Self-Healing in San Francisco,
from the UCLA School of Medicine in California.
1977. Dr. Crist is a fellow of the
American College of Orgonomy and Movement Pattern Analysis
has been its president since 1991. As a Warren Lamb developed movement
member of the ACO training faculty, pattern analysis with Rudolf Laban. In
he has been training medical orgono- 1950 Lamb joined Paton Lawrence & Co.,
mists since 1982. He has authored clin- management consultants, to apply the
ical and theoretical articles as well as newly developed assessment method.
book reviews and is an assistant editor He has been a professional dancer, a pro-
of the Journal of Orgonomy. Dr. Crist is ducer of plays, and a lecturer in the
also assistant clinical professor, United Kingdom and United States. In
Department of Psychiatry, UMDNJ- 1952 he founded his own consultancy
Robert Wood Johnson School of firm to use movement pattern analysis
Medicine, New Brunswick, New for top management teams worldwide.
Jersey. He has a private practice in His publications include Posture and
Belle Mead, New Jersey. Gesture, Management Behavior, Body Code,
Dr. Richard Schwartzman, D.O., and more than 100 journal articles.
graduated from the Philadelphia
College of Osteopathic Medicine in Multi-Modal Expressive Arts Therapy
1966. He is a member of the faculty of Susan Spaniol, Ed.D., ATR-BC,
Hahnemann University, an assistant LMHC, is assistant professor in the
clinical professor of psychiatry, and Expressive Therapies Division of
medical director of the Hahnemann Lesley College. She received her Ed.D.
University Correctional Mental Health at Boston University and is a board-cer-
Program. He is a fellow of the tified art therapist and a licensed men-
American College of Orgonomy, tal health counselor. She serves as
where he conducts the advanced train- associate editor of Art Therapy: Journal
ing seminar. He is an assistant editor of the American Art Therapy Association
and contributing author of the Journal and is an associate in psychiatry at
of Orgonomy. Dr. Schwartzman main- Harvard Medical School.
tains a private practice in medical Phillip Speiser, Ph.D., REAT, RDT, is
orgone therapy in Philadelphia. director of Arts Across Cultures, Boston.
xvii
Speiser is a psychodrama, drama, and work in music therapy has included
expressive arts educator/therapist who child psychology, group therapy, and
has been developing and implementing private practice. She studied musicolo-
integrated arts programs since 1980. He gy and anthropology at the Hebrew
is an adjunct professor at Lesley College University of Jerusalem, and classical
in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and has guitar in Israel and London. She holds
taught and lectured extensively at train- a master’s degree in musicology from
ing institutes and colleges throughout Bar Ilan University and teaches at the
Scandinavia, Europe, Israel, and the Institute for Art Therapy of David
United States. He is the former chairper- Yellin College in Jerusalem and at the
son of Very Special Arts, Sweden, and Department of Music Therapy of Bar
the International Expressive Arts Ilan University.
Therapy Association.
Mariagnese Cattaneo, Ph.D., ATR, Myofascial Trigger Point Therapy
LMHC, is a professor in the Expressive Elliot Shratter has been practicing
Therapies Division at Lesley College, trigger point myotherapy since 1987. He
Cambridge, Massachusetts. She is an is board certified by the National
expressive therapist and has trained Association of Trigger Point Myo-
expressive therapists for more than therapists Certification Board and the
twenty-five years. Presently she is the American Academy of Pain Manage-
coordinator of art therapy specializa- ment. He has served as president and
tion and director of field training. journal editor of the National Association
of Trigger Point Myotherapists and chair-
Muscular Therapy person of the Trigger Point Myo-
Ben E. Benjamin holds a Ph.D. in therapists National Certification Board.
sports medicine and education and is He is currently in practice in
the founder and president of the Albuquerque, New Mexico, at Synergy
Muscular Therapy Institute in Physical Therapy.
Cambridge, Massachusetts. He is the
author of the widely used books in the Naturopathic Medicine
field: Are You Tense?—The Benjamin Lauri M. Aesoph, ND, a graduate of
System of Muscular Therapy, Sports Bastyr University, is a medical writer,
Without Pain, and Listen to Your Pain— editor, and educator. Over the past ten
Understanding, Identifying, and Treating years, Dr. Aesoph’s work has appeared
Pain. He has been a regular contributor in dozens of magazines and numerous
to the Muscular Therapy Journal since books. She makes her home in Sioux
1986. He has been in private practice Falls, South Dakota, with her husband
for more than thirty-five years and has and two sons.
been teaching massage therapists in
workshops internationally since 1973. Network Chiropractic
Mary Ann diRoberts, LICSW, CMT, Donald Epstein, DCA, is a chiro-
is on the faculty of the Muscular Therapy practor and developer of network
Institute in Cambridge, Massachusetts. spinal analysis. He is the president of
the Association for Network
Music Therapy Chiropractic. He is also the author of
Adva Frank-Schwebel has been a several articles on the practice of this
music therapist for fifteen years. Her discipline.
xviii
Organismic Psychotherapy the author of Movement in Psychotherapy
Elliot Greene, M.A., is a counselor (1969) and Experience in Action (1973)
who has specialized in body psy- and coeditor with John Crandell of
chotherapy for the past twenty-four Moving Psychotherapy: Theory and
years. His principal training has been in Applications of Pesso Boyden System/
organismic body psychotherapy with Psychomotor Psychology (1991).
Dr. Malcolm Brown and Katherine
Ennis-Brown. He is also trained in Pilates Method of Body Conditioning®
bioenergetics, gestalt, and other related Leah Chaback, director of the
body-oriented methods. In addition, he Movement Center, is a certified Pilates
is nationally certified as a massage ther- instructor and teacher-trainer. She
apist and served as president of the began studying the Pilates Method in
American Massage Therapy Association 1986 at SUNY Purchase, New York.
from 1990 to 1994. He has a private prac- Ms. Chaback has trained and worked
tice in Silver Springs, Maryland. extensively with Romana Kryzanowska,
disciple of Joseph Pilates and master
Orthomolecular Medicine teacher of his method for more than
California freelance writer Martin fifty years. After teaching the Pilates
Zucker has been writing for many Method in New York City studios, she
years about health, nutrition, and pre- opened the Movement Center in 1990.
ventive medicine. He is a former
Associated Press foreign correspon- Poetry Therapy
dent. He has written numerous pub- Nicholas Mazza, Ph.D., is a profes-
lished articles, coauthored five books, sor at the School of Social Work at
ghostwritten several others, and writ- Florida State University. He is also edi-
ten many safety and environmental tor of the Journal of Poetry Therapy. He
videos for the National Safety Council has lectured and published extensively
and other organizations. He has been a on the use of poetry and music in clini-
contributing editor to Let’s Live, a lead- cal practice.
ing health magazine, since 1978.
xxiii
Trager Psychophysical Integration anatomy coloring book published by
Deane Juhan has been on staff at the Swedish Institute. She maintains a
Esalen Institute since 1973 and a Trager private practice in Eastern bodywork,
practitioner there since 1978. He lec- specializing in shiatsu, tui na, and
tures on anatomy and physiology for nuad bo ran.
bodyworkers and has recently pub-
lished a major work on that subject, Unergi
Job’s Body: A Handbook for Bodywork. Ute Arnold is an artist and thera-
Deane is also an instructor at the Trager pist in private practice and is the
Institute. director of the UNERGI Center. She is
a certified Rubenfeld synergy practi-
Transcendental Meditation tioner and trainer and holds degrees
Robert Roth is the author of the in art and design from Schaeffer
popular book Transcendental Meditation, School of Design, San Francisco, and
which has now been translated into ten Chelsea School of Art, London. She
languages. Roth has lectured and has been leading workshops and
taught TM for more than twenty-five trainings since 1978 for centers in
years to tens of thousands of people in Scandinavia, France, Canada, and the
the United States, Canada, and United States.
throughout Europe. He is a senior advi-
sor to the Maharishi Corporate Wellness
Development Program, the nonprofit Brian Luke Seaward, Ph.D., is a fac-
organization that teaches the TM pro- ulty member of the University of
gram in business and industry, as well Colorado. He is recognized internation-
as a founder of the Institute for Fitness ally as a leading expert in the fields of
and Athletic Excellence, which offers stress management, mind-body-spirit
the technique to amateur and profes- healing, and human spirituality. Dr.
sional athletes. Seaward is the author of the critically
acclaimed collegiate textbook Managing
Tui Na Stress: Principles and Strategies for Health
Gina Martin is a licensed massage and Wellbeing and the popular best-
therapist and chair of the Eastern seller, Stand like Mountain, Flow like
Studies Department of the Swedish Water: Reflections on Stress and Human
Institute School of Massage Therapy. Spirituality.
She was chair of the New York State
Board of Massage Therapy from 1994 Yoga
to 1998 and is a current board member. Lillo (Leela) Way is certified by the
Ms. Martin is recognized by the Integral Yoga Institute to teach hatha
American Oriental Bodywork yoga asana (poses), prenatal yoga,
Therapy Association as a certified panayama (breathing practices), deep
instructor in fine element style shiatsu. relaxation, chanting, and meditation.
She has been featured in the magazine She is an actor and dancer and has been
First for Women and is a contributing the director of her own dance company.
author to the Reader’s Digest Family Way taught at New York University for
Guide to Natural Medicine. Her book seven years. She also taught at Hunter
The Shiatsu Workbook is an Eastern College and was a visiting professor at
xxiv
Princeton University. In addition to her
private practice, she is currently on the
faculty of the Integral Yoga Institute and
the Soho Sanctuary in New York.
Zero Balancing®
Originator of Zero Balancing®, Dr.
Fritz Smith has taught body energy
work to hundreds of health care practi-
tioners since 1973. He is an Osteopathic
M.D., acupuncturist, and teacher. Dr.
Smith is a pioneer in the blending of
Eastern energy systems with Western
science and bodywork. He is the author
of Inner Bridges: A Guide to Energy
Movement and Body Structure.
Staff Credits
Editors: Margaret Haerens, Michael Isaac, Jane Kelly Kosek, Christine Slovey
Photo Researcher: Vera Ahmadzadeh
Book Designer: Olga M. Vega
Production Designer: Christine Innamorato
xxv
Table of Contents
Introduction xxvi
V. Sensory Therapies 82
Aromatherapy 86
Bates Method 88
Behavioral Vision Therapy 90
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing 94
Flower Remedies 96
Hydrotherapy 99
Light Therapy 103
Sounding 109
Tomatis Method 111
.
xxvi
VI. Subtle Energy Practices 115
Do-In 118
Feng Shui 119
Magnet Therapy 124
Polarity Therapy 126
Qigong 129
Reiki 133
SHEN® 137
Therapeutic Touch 139
xxvii
Soma Neuromuscular Integration 235
Somato Respiratory Integration 238
Trager Psychophysical Integration 239
xxviii
Authentic Movement 350
Dance Therapy 352
Drama Therapy 356
Halprin Life/Art Process 359
Journal Therapy 361
Multi-Modal Expressive Arts Therapy 363
Music Therapy 366
Poetry Therapy 370
Sandplay Therapy 374
xxix
Introduction
Body-mind is a term often seen in print and heard in conversation today. It is used
frequently both in private discussions about disease and healing and in public
forums on health care, where the value of alternative or complementary medicine is
gaining recognition. Today, many educators are developing new methods that use
the body-mind connection to help children learn how to live productive and creative
lives in today’s complex technological society. The phrase body-mind resonates
through the halls of gymnasiums, physical conditioning studios, and in self-defense
classes. It echoes in theaters, dance studios, and music practice rooms. What exactly
is this concept that is exciting so many people and changing the way we heal, learn,
work, and play?
Body-mind is a way of seeing and understanding the human organism. To see a
human being in terms of body-mind is to see him or her as a totality wherein his or
her physical, psychological, and spiritual aspects are all interrelated and reflective of
one another. In other words, the body is not simply the material receptacle of the
mind or spirit, it is the medium through which we experience, each in a unique and
individual way, the unfolding, transforming nature of spirit itself.
From this perspective, the functioning of the body influences the functioning of
the mind and the emotions. In a like manner, thoughts and feelings have a profound
and direct effect on the body. On a deeper level, many body-mind models believe
that the physical, emotional, and mental aspects of human experience are a reflection
of and inextricably linked to an all-pervasive spiritual essence. In different cultures
and in different times, this spiritual essence has had many names: Atman, the Tao,
God, energy, the force.
A body-mind discipline is an organized program of activity that seeks to awaken
and activate the links between body, mind, and spirit. The practice of a body-mind
discipline may involve a variety of activities, all of which aim to incorporate the
physical body with the sensing, feeling, thinking, and/or intuiting faculties of the
mind. Through the practice of a body-mind discipline, one develops awareness of
physical sensations and mental and emotional processes. This awareness can be the
basis of healing and improved health, greater efficiency and expressiveness in one’s
activities, more rewarding relationships and interactions, and a deeper, clearer sense
of purpose in one’s life.
The practice of body-mind disciplines is ancient. We have evidence that some, such
as yoga and various forms of touch therapy, were widespread even well before written
treatises were available. The ancient disciplines were based on one of the earliest and
most perseverant of human desires—to live a long, meaningful, and healthy life. For
most of human history this meant living in a state of balance and harmony, both
within oneself and within one’s environment. The body-mind disciplines that
evolved in all cultures addressed, each in their own particular way, the many ele-
ments that create and maintain this balance and harmony.
Western culture, with its roots in the civilizations of the Fertile Crescent and
Ancient Greece, once shared this same value for balance and harmony. For example,
the Greek physician Hippocrates understood the importance of balance and believed
his patients’ health could be affected by many factors. He believed it was more
xxx
important to know the kind of person he was treating than to know what kind of dis-
ease the person had. He was known to prescribe herbs, dietary changes, forms of
hydrotherapy, skeletal manipulation, movement therapy, and creative arts therapies
to help his patients regain a state of balance and harmony.
Over many centuries, however, there has been a gradual erosion of this holistic
viewpoint as Western culture developed a highly technical and specialized perspec-
tive. By comparison, today most of us no longer have a single physician who knows
us as a total human being and draws on any number of healing methods. Instead we
go to one specialist for a problem in our ears, nose, and throat, another for our gas-
trointestinal tract, and still another for troubling emotional situations. Although each
specialist may have a wealth of information regarding his or her area of expertise, no
one seems to be looking at the whole picture. Often, the pharmaceutical or surgical
solutions each specialist recommends address only one aspect of our problem and
sometimes create new problems.
This segmented, specialized perspective is evident not only in our approach to
health care, but our approach to education and the arts as well. Instead of encourag-
ing each person to feel alive, whole, and connected to the rest of the world, this per-
spective seems to foster a lack of confidence in one's experience and judgment, a
weakened sense of personal agency, and a feeling of spiritual isolation. For this rea-
son, more and more people today are seeking the holistic, centering experience of
body-mind disciplines.
In this volume we have tried to include all of the major disciplines with which a
reader may come into contact. With a subject of such scope it was necessary to create
certain limits in order to complete the task at all. We deliberately excluded any art or
skill that is used primarily for performance or competition, although we recognize that
any such art or skill may be practiced from a body-mind perspective. We also exclud-
ed any practice that is exclusively associated with a specific religious practice,
although here again we do not diminish the value of any religious practice and its
ability to incorporate body and mind. What we have included is a cross-cultural sam-
pling of techniques and methods developing the body-mind connection that have
evolved in the worlds of health care, education, physical conditioning, self-defense,
spirituality, psychology, and the arts.
We have arranged the entries in sixteen sections that generally reflect the world
in which the disciplines developed, highlight the multicultural approaches to a par-
ticular practice, or sometimes draw attention to historical connections. Each section
is introduced by an essay that provides an overview of the histories, theoretical foun-
dations, and methodologies of the disciplines that are included in the section. The
introductory essays also help relate each individual section to other sections of the
encyclopedia. It is possible to get a broad perspective of the entire world of body-
mind by simply reading the sixteen introductory essays.
Most of the entries are written by certified practitioners of these disciplines. The
entries describe in detail the history, philosophy, and techniques of the specific disci-
plines. The entries also describe what it feels like to practice or experience the disci-
pline. It is our hope that the reader will not only gain intellectual knowledge from
reading an entry, but will be stimulated on a sensory level as well.
Within each of the sections the reader will find disciplines that work along sever-
xxxi
al different continuums. The broad spectrum of approaches reflects the belief of body-
mind disciplines that each individual is unique and has specific strengths, weakness-
es, and predilections. The first of these continuums may best be described as the
percentage of physical work as compared to the percentage of mental or emotional
work required of the practitioner. For example, somato respiratory integration
requires the practitioner to remain relatively still, focusing the mind on physical sen-
sations and emotional memories, whereas the Feldenkrais Method® develops aware-
ness of mental and emotional patterns by moving the body through prescribed spatial
forms. This continuum, found within individual sections of the encyclopedia, is also
apparent from section to section. For example, all of the practices in the Meditation
section approach the process of building the body-mind connection somewhat more
from the use of the mind, whereas all of the disciplines in the somatic practices sec-
tion come at the process somewhat more from the use of the body. A person may enter
the world of body-mind at any point along this continuum that suits his or her needs
or temperament.
Another continuum along which the various practices can be viewed concerns
the degree of spontaneous action as compared to structured action used by the dis-
cipline. For example, contact improvisation and Skinner release technique work
largely through improvisational forms created by the practitioner. The quality of
one’s conscious control of the movement patterns is loose and free flowing. By con-
trast, the Pilates Method and t'ai chi ch' üan use intricately structured movement
sequences that rarely vary. They require a different kind of control in order to achieve
a free-flowing connection of body and mind.
Another of the continuums along which one might view these disciplines con-
cerns the degree of involvement of the practitioner, or receiver, as a whole. In any of
the forms of massage therapy the receiver is relatively passive, in contrast to the very
active participation required by any of the forms of martial arts. All body-mind dis-
ciplines, however, ultimately encourage the active participation of the practitioner on
some level. As the practice awakens awareness of physical sensations and mental or
emotional processes, the participant naturally becomes more capable of taking an
active role in the practice, whether that means learning how to relax and experience
physical sensations more deeply or follow complex thought, breath, and movement
patterns more effortlessly and subtly. This active awareness and participation is a
basic value of all body-mind disciplines.
Some of the disciplines included in this volume have as their primary goal the
relief of physical pain. It may not seem immediately clear how such practices devel-
op the body-mind connection. In body-mind terms, the response to pain can be the
first step toward awakening a deeper awareness of the body. The theoretical under-
pinnings of every discipline included here view pain as a message from the body to
the mind that some vital link between the two is not functioning. Pain is the cry of
the body when it has been ignored, when the body-mind connection has not been
honored. When viewed this way, pain is transformed from a symptom to be eradi-
cated into a call to undertake a journey of self-discovery.
We hope this volume will offer the reader useful information for his or her unique
journey. We wish each of you a voyage filled with the excitement of discovery, the
creativity of transformation, and the joys of fulfillment.
xxxii
PART I: ALTERNATIVE HEALTH MODELS
2
In the 1960s dissatisfaction with social conventions and institutions, including
allopathic health care, caused Westerners to investigate the ancient health models of
Eastern and indigenous cultures, as well as older European-based models. Many peo-
ple began to feel that allopathic strategies did not provide a complete approach to
health care. Disciplines combining Western psychological insights with ancient con-
cepts of harmony and balance, such as holistic health and wellness, became more
popular.
In the 1970s and 1980s soaring health care costs and the appearance of many
chronic health problems caused even greater interest in alternative health models.
Today, these disciplines are practiced individually and as a complement to allo-
pathic care. The philosophical viewpoint upon which these disciplines are based
continues to exert an ever-growing and far-reaching influence on the practice of
contemporary medicine.
3
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Further Reading:
4
Ayurvedic Medicine
A
yurvedic medicine, the ancient distinct types of energy, called doshas,
Indian science of healthy living, that are present in all people and things.
places great emphasis on disease There are no words in English to
prevention. It encourages the mainte- describe these energies, so we use the
nance of health by paying close atten- original Sanskrit words vata, pitta, and
tion to the balance of one’s body, mind, kapha. In the physical body vata, com-
and spirit. Ayurvedic medicine teaches posed of air and ether, is the subtle ener-
patients to bring about and maintain gy associated with movement. It governs
this balance through proper lifestyle, breathing, blinking, muscle and tissue
diet, exercise, herbs, and meditation. movement, pulsation of the heart, and
Practitioners of ayurveda learn to iden- all movements in the cytoplasm and cell
tify the patient’s personal “constitu- membranes. Pitta, made up of fire and
tion,” understood as a unique mixture water, is considered the body’s
of three distinct life energies, or doshas. metabolic energy. It governs digestion,
A healthy person employs positive absorption, assimilation, nutrition,
thinking, diet, and lifestyle to maintain metabolism, and body temperature.
a perfect proportion of life energies. Kapha is formed from earth and water
and is the energy that forms the body’s
structure—bones, muscles, tendons—
The History of Ayurvedic Medicine and provides the “glue” that holds the
Ayurvedic medicine is considered by
cells together. Kapha also supplies the
many scholars to be the world’s oldest
water for all bodily parts and systems. It
healing science. It dates back five thou-
lubricates joints, moisturizes the skin,
sand years to the ancient Vedic culture
and maintains immunity.
of the Rishis, the philosophers and reli-
All people have vata, pitta, and
gious leaders of ancient India. Ayurve-
kapha; one is usually primary, one sec-
da, which means “the science of life” in
ondary, and the third least prominent.
the ancient Indian language of Sanskrit,
The cause of disease in ayurveda is
was passed on in the oral tradition from
viewed as the lack of proper cellular
master to disciple for thousands of
function because of an excess or
years. Some of this knowledge was pub-
deficiency of one of these three energies
lished a few thousand years ago,
and/or the presence of toxins.
notably in the ancient holy texts of Hin-
duism, one of the world’s oldest existing
literatures. It is believed that much of A Balanced Life
the tradition has actually been lost. Just as everyone has an individual face
Ayurveda has been practiced in daily or thumbprint, according to ayurveda,
life in India for more than four thousand each person has a particular pattern of
years. Western medicine has influenced energy—an individual combination of
(and been influenced by) ayurvedic med- physical, mental, and emotional charac-
icine, but the traditional ayurvedic teristics—that is his or her constitu-
lifestyle management is, for many Indi- tion. This constitution is determined at
ans, still the primary therapy for ailments. conception. Many factors, both internal
The principles of many natural healing and external, can disturb this balance,
methods now familiar in the West, such as which is reflected as a change in one’s con-
homeopathy, wellness, and polarity ther- stitution.
apy, have their roots in ayurveda. When all of the three doshas are prop-
erly proportioned, they nourish and build
Philosophy of Ayurveda mental and physical health in a person.
According to ayurvedic philosophy, the The proper amount of vata promotes cre-
entire cosmos is made up of the five ativity and flexibility; pitta engenders
5
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
understanding and intelligence; kapha observing the tongue and eyes, and lis-
is expressed as love, calmness, and for- tening to the tone of the patient’s voice.
giveness. The results of these tests, coupled with a
Disease is viewed as improper body patient’s physical attributes and family
functioning that is caused by an excess traits, are used to understand the cause
or deficiency of vata, pitta, or kapha as of disease, the dosha(s) involved, and
compared to the original balance of the stage of the disease process.
these doshas. This imbalance can be The assessment provides the doctor
caused by any number of factors. Genet- with a standard of the patient’s normal
ic or congenital traits may predispose a functioning. Armed with this knowledge,
person to develop unhealthy habits such the ayurvedic physician can suggest steps
as overeating or smoking. Accidents or to help return the client’s health to a bal-
other upsetting events can cause physi- anced state. Typically this involves the
cal, mental, or emotional trauma, further implementation of a different lifestyle
disrupting the individual’s balance. Fur- with a new diet, exercise, and meditation
thermore, all of us have certain personal plan. In cases where disease can be attrib-
sensitivities, such as weather conditions, uted to toxins or other external stresses,
spicy food, and flower pollen, that can the ayurvedic physician may prescribe
disrupt the body’s function. additional herbal remedies, breathing
In all of these cases, when mind exercises, and sun and massage therapies.
and/or body are upset, the doshas In some cases, participation in an inten-
become imbalanced. When this happens, sive cleansing program known as “pan-
the process of disease begins, as fear and chakarma” is suggested to help the body
anxiety can raise vata in a person. Too rid itself of accumulated toxins.
much or too little vata can produce fear
and anxiety. Similarly, pitta can stir anger,
hate, and jealousy, and kapha can lead to
Benefits and Risks
Ayurvedic medicine is and has been
greed, attachment, and envy.
practiced throughout the world for
thousands of years. Its patients claim
Typical Ayurveda increased longevity and better health.
In times of health, when there are no Proper ayurvedic practice demands
dominant outside traumas or toxins adherence to a strict, carefully planned
afflicting a person, practitioners of lifestyle. Furthermore, many in the
ayurveda pay strict attention to diet and ayurvedic field have integrated Western
lifestyle. Just as each person has a medicine into their practices, acknowl-
unique constitution, there exists for edging that different systems can com-
each person a specific “right” lifestyle, plement each other. For these reasons,
tailored to cultivate the exactly perfect anyone interested in pursuing ayurveda,
levels of the three doshas. This right particularly patients with preexisting
lifestyle engages body, mind, and spir- conditions, should consult an estab-
it—three distinct but interrelated lished clinic or ayurvedic physician.
aspects of each person—in a regimen of
diet, breathing exercises, meditation, —Dr. Vasant Lad
and physical activity.
In times of illness, an ayurvedic
physician must first determine which of Resources:
the three basic constitutional types the
patient is. Then the symptoms must be American Institute of Vedic Studies
understood as to whether they are of 1701 Sante Fe River Rd.
vata, pitta, or kapha type. Vata heart Sante Fe, NM 87501
pain is different from pitta or kapha Tel: (505) 983-9385
heart pain. Accordingly, a battery of tests Provides information on training programs and
are applied, including taking the pulse, practitioners.
6
Holistic Health
H
olistic health is an approach to practical options to meet the growing
life. Rather than focusing on ill- desire for enjoying a high level of vitality
ness or specific parts of the body, and well-being.
7
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The conventional (or allopathic) medical model taught in most Western medical schools
does not include the holistic principles. Complementary (or alternative) medical tradi-
tions, such as acupuncture, chiropractic, homeopathy, massage therapy, and naturopa-
thy, include many of the principles of holistic medicine. Yet some medical doctors are
holistic in how they deal with their patients, and some practitioners using complemen-
tary therapies are not holistic. Patients are learning to check for both technical expertise
and whether a practitioner uses the holistic principles.
People interested in a career as a holistic practitioner must first become qualified in one or
more methods of delivering health care, such as chiropractic, massage therapy, medicine,
naturopathy, or psychology. Then they add on the holistic qualities and philosophy.
9
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
H
ple of contraria contraris, which means
omeopathy is a holistic system the healing by opposites; and the treat-
that is used to treat chronic and ment of likes with likes, namely the pre-
acute illness and disease. Founded scribing of medicines that cause similar
by Samuel Hahnemann in the late 1700s, symptoms in healthy individuals. Hah-
homeopathy is based on the concept of nemann coined the term Homeopathy,
“like cures like,” which means that reme- from the Greek words homois, similar,
dies are matched to symptom patterns and pathos, meaning disease. The word
in the patient. To “match” symptoms homeopathic first appeared in print in
means that the physician analyzes a an article he published in 1807.
patient’s symptoms to find a substance, Published in 1810, the Organon of
usually from plants, minerals, and ani- Rational Medicine is Hahnemann’s quin-
mals, that induces the same symptoms tessential work, a complete exposition of
in a healthy person. By ingesting small, his healing method. To this day it forms
diluted doses of these substances, the the foundation of homeopathy. The
body is stimulated to fight illness. In principle of similia similibus, first set
recent times, homeopathic practices forth in his essay of 1796, was now
have grown dramatically in popularity as expanded to similia similibus curentor—
people all over the world rediscover the let likes be treated by likes—the core
inexpensive, natural remedies used to principle of homeopathy. The reception
cure illnesses that do not respond to of this work was lukewarm.
conventional treatment. Despite the apathetic reception
Organon had received, he attempted to
History of Homeopathy teach homeopathy through his newly
The founder of homeopathy, Samuel formed Institute for the Postgraduate
Hahnemann, was born in Meissen, Ger- Study of Homeopathy. Not one person
many in 1755. He was thin, delicate, and responded to his advertisement. In 1812
highly intelligent, with an interest in the Napoleon was driven from Germany, and
natural sciences and languages. He the war flooded the area with refugees,
established his first medical practice in starvation, and no less than 80,000
1780. Hahnemann was appalled by the dead and another 80,000 wounded.
10
Homeopathy
Photo: Corbis-Bettmann
the substance, which has not under- 8. There is a distinction between acute
gone a proving but which has yield- or epidemic diseases and chronic dis-
ed a cure in clinical practice. Added ease patterns of patients. Preventative
to this is the information of symp- homeopathic care requires an under-
toms produced by accidental poi- standing of these chronic patterns.
sonings with toxic substances. The
proving, clinical, and toxicological Despite more than 200 years of clinical
data form the materia medica of the efficacy, the way that these remedies
remedy. work is still a mystery. We do not yet
3. The ability of an organism to feel, possess the technology or the method-
sense, act, or achieve homeostasis ology necessary to unlock homeopa-
(or equilibrium) is maintained by a thy’s secrets.
non-material principle called the Philosophically, homeopathy is holis-
dynamis. This dynamis, or “spirit- tic (not merely alternative) because the
like” vital force is, according to Hah- essential task is to understand the
nemann, similar in nature to gravity patient as a whole person. As a method,
or magnetism. It is a force that to homeopathy is a synthesis of the natural
date has eluded explanation or clas- science approach and the phenomeno-
sification by the natural sciences. logical or descriptive approach. The
Diseases, therefore, are not actual physician must blend his or her natural
material things; rather they are science training in anatomy, physiology,
descriptions or classifications of pathology, biochemistry, physical diag-
symptom patterns. Symptoms are nosis, etc., with observation of the
not things to be removed or sup- patient and understanding of the
pressed by drugs; rather they are an patient’s self-description. The challenge
expression of the vital force’s of homeopathy, even in the treatment of
attempt to heal. The properly pre- apparently purely physical conditions, is
pared, selected, and administered to select a few probable remedies from
homeopathic remedy somehow the thousand or more possible remedies.
“resonates” with the vital force and Just like a novel with many chapters
stimulates the healing process. and plot twists, so a patient’s cure
4. A single remedy at a time is given. Sin- unfolds. The process is highly individ-
gle-remedy administration also allows ual. The homeopathic physician will be
a clear evaluation of its efficacy. guided by certain principles of cure:
5. A minimum dose must be used. healing occurs from above downward,
Small doses of a substance stimulate from the center to the periphery, from
healing, medium doses paralyze the more vital organs to less vital organs
patient, and large doses kill. and in reverse order of the appearance
6. Individualization of the treatment is of the original symptoms.
essential. No two people are exactly
alike in either sickness or health, Practicing Homeopathy
and although homeopaths use clas- A typical session with a homeopathic
sifications of disease types, finer, physician begins with the patient’s his-
individual distinctions must always tory. The patient is allowed to tell his or
be made since, although the action her story without interruption. Only
of two remedies may often be simi- after the patient is finished will the
lar, they are never exactly the same. physician ask specific questions to
7. The mere removal of symptoms by understand the symptoms, namely how
suppressive means is a grave danger they vary according to time of day or
because it defeats the vital force’s season, rest or activity, temperature,
attempt at homeostasis and puts the bathing, position, eating, thirst, sleep,
patient at risk for a more serious dis- social intercourse, perspiration, external
ease. stimuli, emotions, etc.
13
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
14
Naturopathic Medicine
of medicine to cure and are best dealt Roberts, Herbert. The Principles and Art of Cure
with on a preventive basis. by Homeopathy. Santa Barbara, CA: Health
Science Press, 1942.
—Dr. Domenick Masiello
Weiner, Michael, and Kathleen Gross.The Complete
Book of Homeopathy. Garden City, NY: Avery
Resources: Publishing Group, 1989.
N
Alexandria, VA 22314 aturopathic medicine is a form of
Tel: (703) 548-7790 health care that utilizes and inte-
e-mail: nchinfo@igc.apc.org grates different natural therapies
Nonprofit organization that promotes homeopa- such as clinical nutrition, homeopathy,
thy in the United States. Publishes monthly maga- hydrotherapy, botanical medicines,
zine entitled Homeopathy Today. minor surgery, Oriental medicine, physi-
cal medicine, lifestyle counseling, and
other treatments with a knowledge of tra-
Videotape: ditional diagnostic and medical therapies
in order to treat a range of afflictions. A
Winston, Julian. The Faces of Homeopathy: A Pic- licensed doctor of naturopathy (ND)
torial History. Alexandria, VA: The National must graduate from a four-year program
Center of Homeopathy, 1995. that specializes not only in naturopathic
studies, but also basic medical science.
Further Reading: Practitioners are then qualified to provide
primary care, perform diagnostic testing,
Cook, Trevor M. Samuel Hahnemann: His Life and and prescribe a course of treatment that
Times. Middlesex, Eng.: Homeopathic Studies draws from a long list of natural remedies
Ltd., 1981. and techniques.
Coulter, Harris. Homeopathic Medicine. St. Louis: The Origins of Naturopathic Medicine
Formur, 1972. The development of naturopathic medi-
cine began with Benedict Lust, a German
Hahnemann, Samuel. Organon of Medicine. who immigrated to the United States in
Translated by Jost Kunzli, Alain Nuadé, and 1892. A few years after arriving, Lust was
Peter Pendleton. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher, 1982. struck down with tuberculosis. When
American doctors couldn’t help him,
———. The Chronic Diseases: Their Peculiar Lust returned to Europe and sought out
Nature and Their Homeopathic Cure. New Father Sebastian Kneipp, a priest living
Delhi: B. Jain Publishers, 1985. in Bavaria who was known for his
“nature cure” treatments.
———. Materia Medica Pura. New Delhi: B. Jain Kneipp did what Lust’s doctor could
Publishers, 1984. not—he successfully treated Lust. This
was a turning point in Lust’s life. In
Kent, James Tyler. Lectures on Homeopathic Philoso- 1896, Kneipp gave Lust permission to
phy. Richmond, VA: North Atlantic Books, 1979. bring his treatments to America. Once
15
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
employed. And where appropriate, NDs take their role as teacher very seri-
stress management or counseling is ously as they instruct their patients in
suggested. how to stay healthy.
NDs are trained to perform minor As primary caregivers, NDs cooper-
surgery such as repairing superficial ate with other medical and health pro-
wounds, but will refer you to surgeons fessionals. An ND, like any general
and other doctors for major operations. practitioner, is the gatekeeper for your
Some states allow qualified NDs to pre- health care. When you’re sick, you see
scribe some drugs like antibiotics. your ND first. He or she will consult with
It’s perfectly appropriate, and some- or refer you to other physicians and spe-
times desirable, to mix and match cialists when appropriate.
naturopathic therapies with allopathic
treatment. This should be done only
under professional guidance to prevent —Lauri M. Aesoph, ND
potential problems. While all naturo-
pathic doctors are trained in the basics Resources:
of Oriental medicine, there are some
who specialize in acupuncture, herbal American Association of Naturopathic Physicians
medicine, and related therapies. Some (AANP)
NDs offer natural childbirth, including 601 Valley Street, Ste. 105
pre- and postnatal care, for pregnant Seattle, WA 98109
women. Tel: (206) 298-0125
Web site: www.infinite.org/naturopathic.
Benefits of Naturopathic Medicine physician
Naturopathic medical care is suitable e-mail: 74602.3715@compuserve.com
for all age groups and most acute and This professional organization provides referrals to
chronic conditions. Its whole-person, naturopathic physicians in the United States. A
natural-care approach allows you to myriad of information on naturopathic medicine
attain the best health possible in an is also available.
effective and safe manner. Because
naturopathic physicians are concerned Bastyr University
with solving, not masking, symptoms, 14500 Juanita Dr. NE
healing can take longer than with Bothell, WA 98011
conventional treatment. Naturopathic Tel: (206) 823-1300
medicine also requires that patients Web site: www.bastyr.edu
take an active role in their health care. Four-year postgraduate university that offers
Before applying for naturopathic medical school, one must complete a minimum of
three years of college, including specific prerequisite courses. It takes four years of grad-
uate-level study to earn the degree of Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine. Anatomy, phar-
macology, gynecology, and radiology are just some of the medical sciences taught.
Training in natural therapeutics is also included, as is time spent working in a clinical set-
ting seeing patients.
While an ND degree specifically prepares you for naturopathic medical practice, there
are other career opportunities. NDs also teach, do research, work for the natural health
industry, write, lecture, and work as consultants. As natural medicine expands and grows,
so does the potential for naturopathic medicine.
17
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
degrees in naturopathic medicine and related Ullman, Robert, and Judith Reichenberg-Ullman.
health care disciplines. The Patient’s Guide to Homeopathic Medicine.
Kent, WA: Pacific Pipeline, 1995.
Canadian Naturopathic Association
4174 Dundas Street W, Suite 304
Etobicoke, ON M8X 1X3
Canada
Tel: (416) 233-1043 SHAMANISM
Fax: (416) 233-2924
S
This professional group offers referrals to naturo-
hamanism is an ancient healing
pathic doctors throughout Canada.
method that allows a person to
enter and interact with an unseen
National College of Naturopathic Medicine
world of spirits. Contemporary shaman-
049 SW Porter
ism encompasses a wide range of spiri-
Portland, OR 97201
tual practices originating in civilizations
Tel: (503) 499-4343
in North and South America, Siberia,
Web site: www.ncnm.edu
Indonesia, Australia, Southeast Asia,
A postgraduate, four-year institution that provides
Japan, and Tibet. Throughout history,
classes in naturopathic medicine.
shamanic healers have been known by
many names, including medicine man
Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine &
or medicine woman, witch, warlock, or
Health Sciences
in African-based vodoun religions—
2140 East Broadway
priest or priestess. The word shaman
Tempe, AZ 85282
was derived from the Asian word
Tel: (602) 858-9100
saman by nineteenth-century Euro-
Fax: (602) 858-0222
pean scholars intrigued by the cultures
Web site: www.healthworld.com/pan/pa/
and practices of ancient shamanism.
naturopathic/aanp/SW/SW.college.home.html
Currently many Western medical
Four-year postgraduate college that offers degrees
researchers and psychologists are
in naturopathic medicine and related health care
exploring shamanism, not as a curiosi-
disciplines.
ty, but as a creative and constructive
way of viewing the world.
Further Reading:
The Early Shamans
Aesoph, Lauri. How to Eat Away Arthritis. Para- In ancient times, shamans served many
mus, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1996. roles in their societies. They performed
rituals to mark the migrations of the ani-
Brown, Donald. Herbal Prescriptions for Better mals that their societies hunted. Hunters
Health. Rocklin, CA: Prima Publishing, 1996. consulted shamans to learn where ani-
mals could be found. The shamans also
Kirchfeld, Friedhelm, and Wade Boyle. Nature designed and performed rituals to mark
Doctors: Pioneers in Naturopathic Medicine. the changing of seasons, the migration of
East Palestine, OH: Buckeye Naturopathic their people to different locations, and
Press, 1994 (distributed by Medicina Biologi- individual rites of passage such as birth,
ca, Portland, OR). the transition from adolescence to adult-
hood, marriage, and death.
Murray, Michael, and Joseph Pizzorno. Encyclope- Early shamans were also teachers. In
dia of Natural Medicine. Rocklin, CA: Prima many early societies, storytelling was an
Publishing, 1991. important part of the shaman’s skills.
Often, the stories he or she told taught
Murray, Michael. The Healing Powers of Foods, lessons about the society’s beliefs, fears,
New York: Ballantine Fawcett, 1993. and traditions.
18
Shamanism
Photo: Corbis-Bettmann
A Navajo shaman ministers to a mother and baby for better health.
Shamans were also healers. Since of gods, goddesses, and monsters in the
many societies believed that all illnesses narratives of their mythologies.
had a spiritual source, the shamans Shamanism is founded on a belief
were often chosen for their ability to that most diseases and grievances
communicate with the spirit world. between individuals or nations are
Healing rituals designed to remove caused by an imbalance in the natural
harmful spirits from individuals or order of the seen and unseen worlds. A
communities often took place in sacred shaman interacts with the invisible
spaces such as caves or mountains and world of forces and energies and restores
included wearing ceremonial clothing, the balance. His or her stories, rituals,
using herbs, playing drums, rattles, and and dances are used to subdue or stimu-
flutes, and dancing. late feelings that may bring new hope,
motivate a person to act, or simply
The Unseen World increase energy for healing and change.
Shamans believe that there are two reali-
ties: the “seen” world, which is the world Shamanism in Today’s World
we perceive through our five senses, and It is unlikely that you will find the ser-
the “unseen” or “invisible” world, which vices of a shaman advertised at your
our five senses cannot detect. The unseen family health clinic, but many clinics do
world can be compared to the world of refer patients to therapists who use
dreams, emotions, instincts, and intu- techniques borrowed from the shaman-
ition. Emotions, such as fear, joy, love, ic tradition. For example, psychologists
and grief, or human sexual drives, cannot and hypnotherapists use hypnosis and
be seen but are very real forces in human mental visualization (a traditional
life. Ancient shamanic cultures honored shamanic technique) to help people
the forces of the unseen world in the form stop smoking, control their appetite,
19
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: © Anako
20
Shamanism
reduce anxiety, manage chronic pain, and image clearly in the person’s mind, the
recover from an addiction. Mental visual- shaman or shamanic counselor begins a
ization is a process in which a person sets steady rhythm with a hand drum, a rattle,
a goal by imagining himself or herself or recorded music. He or she may use a
accomplishing it. For example, a person rhythm similar to the human heart
who wants to calm his or her anxiety beat—between fifty-five and seventy
before delivering a speech may imagine beats per minute. This rhythm puts the
getting up on the podium, confidently person into a light trance, allowing him or
delivering a successful talk, and receiving a her to relax and enter a dreamlike state.
standing ovation. For many people these Upon entering the trance state, the
images can replace the old memories that person might meet and work with an
caused the fear. While shamans helped inner guide or adviser. During the jour-
their communities by telling stories or per- ney, the person might ask his or her
forming rituals, today’s practitioners guide questions, listen for answers, and
sometimes use “guided imagery” to possibly carry on a dialogue for several
achieve a similar goal. minutes or more. Eventually, the
There is also an increasing number of shamanic counselor will change the
organizations teaching traditional rhythm of the drum to indicate that the
shamanic practices throughout the world. person should return to the “seen”
Courses are taught by anthropologists, world. After returning, there might be
psychologists, and shamans from Native further discussion with the shamanic
American, African, Hawaiian, South counselor to help the person interpret
American, Australian, or other traditions. the meaning of the journey.
Typical workshops might include lectures
about basic principles of shamanism,
drumming workshops, and experiences in Benefits of Shamanism
the basic shamanistic technique of “jour- Although many people still view the
neying” into the unseen world. practices of shamanism as more fiction
Shamanic counseling is available than fact, a growing number of people
today in many parts of the United States. value the emphasis these practices place
It is used to aid a person’s physical, emo- on the unseen world of emotions,
tional, or spiritual health. A typical session dreams, and spiritual forces to help heal
illnesses and guide them in living a
may begin with a “smudging” ceremony.
healthy and fulfilling life. While shaman-
This consists of burning a small amount
ism rarely offers a quick fix for acute ill-
of dried sage, often mixed with other
nesses, many people have reported
herbs such as sweet grass and cedar.
profound physical and emotional relief
Smoke from the smudge pot might be
through contemporary shamanic prac-
wafted with a feathered fan over the per-
tices. With a history as long and enduring
son’s body, sometimes from head to toe.
as humankind itself, it is hard to find a
Shamans believe that the person is
more time-tested method for bringing
“cleansed” as the smoke lifts away dark or
harmony and comfort to body and mind.
negative influences and energies.
The smudging ceremony may be fol-
lowed by a “journey” in which the —Hal Zina Bennett
shaman enters the unseen world in
order to consult guiding spiritual forces.
Resources:
A person may also journey to the unseen
world for him- or herself. In this prac- Conference on the Study of Shamanism and Alter-
tice, the shamanic counselor may begin native Modes of Healing
by discussing the person’s problem. The Ruth-Inge Heinze, Ph.D.
person may then be told to close his or 2321 Russell Street, Suite 3A
her eyes, relax, and imagine the journey Berkeley, CA 94705
that he or she is about to make. With the Promotes shamanism as a healing practice.
21
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Vision Quests: In this practice, a person spends a day or more alone in the wilderness.
There he or she is able to fast and meditate without distractions. This can be used to
help people contemplate their own inner worlds, their fears, dreams, strengths, and
gifts. It can also be used to experience a oneness with nature.
Sun Dances: The sun dance was originally used to help warriors get in touch with their
inner strengths and to draw strength from the spirits of nature such as those found in
trees, rocks, clouds and sky. Usually over a period of several days, the young warrior
was prepared through fasting, meditation, and counsel with an elder. Then small
hooks or barbs were placed in the fleshy portions of his chest. Cords fastened these
hooks to a tree or post and the dancer leaned back against them, naturally causing
some pain. The dancers stood in this way from dawn to dusk, usually in the hot sun. It
was a test of one’s endurance and one’s ability to deal with his or her own fears and dis-
comforts. People who experienced the sun dance claimed to have gained dramatic
self-knowledge. Even today there are those who repeat the sun dance every year.
Drumming Circles: This practice uses drums for therapeutic purposes. Usually there is
a lead, or “mother,” drum with a deep voice that sets a simple rhythm based on the
heartbeat. People participate in these circles to help focus their energies, rather than
to perform or make music. During a drumming circle, there are many conversations
with the drums, which are used to teach participants how to listen and communicate
with one another. Some people look upon drumming circles as times of communion,
where people are brought together at a deep spiritual level.
Medicine Wheel: The medicine wheel is an important practice in most shamanic tra-
ditions; evidence of its use can be found in every part of the world. People form a
wheel by gathering in a circle to discuss a problem or to bring about a change that
affects them all. At the wheel, all people have equal status and an equal chance to
speak. The wheel is used to allow a joining of their “spirits,” that is, the inner worlds of
each participant. It is understood that no single person at the wheel ever has the ulti-
mate answer; rather, the solution is to be found as a community.
Sweat Lodge: A dome-shaped structure is constructed with willow branch poles, cov-
ered with hides or blankets. Prayers are offered and each participant is blessed upon
entering the lodge. Then rocks, which have been heated at a fire outside the lodge, are
brought inside and placed in the center. Water is poured over the rocks and the heat
inside the lodge rises. In this steamy, hot environment, the participants meditate and
contemplate their own lives or the lives of their community. The ceremonies and ritu-
als that are performed vary with each lodge. Some create a medicine wheel. Others
may sing. Still others may eat ritual herbs or peyote, a drug that produces hallucina-
tions. The purpose of the sweat lodge, as with most shamanic practices, is to get in
touch with the forces and energies of the invisible world in order to improve the qual-
ity of life.
22
Traditional Chinese Medicine
T
raditional Chinese medicine of years of fighting in the Warring States
(TCM) is an ancient approach to period (476–221 BCE). Both Confucian
health care. Still practiced today in and Taoist philosophies emerged from
one form or another by almost one the Warring States period, and both of
quarter of the world’s population, TCM these philosophies had an important
23
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
While discussing a patient’s state of health, TCM doctors observe other indicators, including skin color-
ing, body structure, tone of voice, and scent.
impact on TCM. At the time of the Han The lines or pathways are usually called
dynasty there were many different kinds meridians. Places where the qi comes
of healers and teachers in China. Confu- right up to the surface are called acu-
cianism was the main political power in points. The qi is believed to circulate
court. During this time Ssu-ma Chien through this system connecting the
became the Grand Historian of the Court, deepest internal organs to places on the
and great importance was placed on skin where the energy can be influenced
organizing and recording written records. and treated. The points can be treated
During this time three books were with needles (acupuncture), heat (moxi-
written that are still considered the cor- bustion), or manipulation (acupressure).
nerstones of TCM. The first was called The qi system was described in more
the Yellow Emperor’s Internal Classic detail in the second book, called the
(Huang di-nei Jing or simply Nei Jing). Classic of Difficult Issues (Nan Jing). The
The Nei Jing refers to both Taoist and Nan Jing is believed to have been written
Confucian concepts. The Taoist perspec- at least one hundred years after the Nei
tive of health emphasizes living in har- Jing. The Nan Jing refers to information
mony with nature and achieving in the Nei Jing and expands on those
longevity. The Confucian ideals describe ideas. The Nan Jing goes so far as to say
an integrated system within the human that a person’s health can be directly
body that reflected the orderly social analyzed just from carefully feeling the
structure finally made possible in one qi and blood as it moves through the
unified state. radial artery in the wrist. This is called
This organized structure was eventu- the radial pulse. Modern practices of
ally mapped into the specific lines and TCM still use this map of the qi system
pathways we see on acupuncture charts. to diagnose and treat their clients.
24
Traditional Chinese Medicine
in both the human body and in all the body can be treated as entirely sep-
nature. They viewed this movement as arate from the whole.
an interaction between two opposite but TCM uses the term resonance to
complementary energies that they describe the relationship between the
called yin and yang. In Chinese philoso- five essential substances and their role
phy these forces are understood to com- in our health. Resonance describes the
plement and help nourish each other. idea that certain qualities may be iden-
Neither can exist without the other. tified as similar within different spheres
Examples of dynamic interaction of existence. For example, the morning
between pairs of opposites can be seen time of day has a quality of energy that
in the constant interplay of day and is similar to or resonates with the spring
night, male and female, or hot and cold. time of the year. This quality of rising
All the organs and actions of the body energy identifies them as a particular
may be categorized as either yin or yang. stage in a cycle of change.
TCM identifies five “essential sub- Such stages of change are referred to
stances” at work in the human body: as elements or transformations. The
spring and morning are categorized as
1. Spirit (shen), which determines how
belonging to the wood element stage of
people direct and conduct them-
what is known as the five-element cycle.
selves in life.
This cycle is used to explain how energy is
2. Energy or electromagnetic force
constantly changing. It can be applied to
(qi ), a Chinese concept that cannot
the day, the year, the human body, or any-
be translated into just one English
thing else we want to understand.
word. Qi is how the spirit moves and
In TCM the five-element cycle has
becomes materialized in the body.
proved to be an exceptionally versatile
It describes both activity and a
frame of reference for explaining the
material substance. The concept of
patterns of dynamic change in our phys-
qi bridges the line of distinction
ical bodies. Each of our ten primary
that the English language makes
organs is correlated with one of the five
between energy and matter.
elements of nature: fire, soil, metal,
3. Blood is the same blood we refer to
water, and wood. Doctors of Chinese
from a Western anatomical view, but
medicine then correlate the ways in
from the TCM perspective, it is
which these elements interact in nature
imbued with the nutritional and
at large with the way these organs and
energetic qualities TCM attributes
the dynamic qualities of yin and yang
to qi. This aspect of blood is called
work together in the physical body. For
the ying qi and it circulates with and
example, an inflamed liver might be
in the blood, as it moves through
seen as having too much fire. The solu-
the vessels and performs its various
tion to the problem is best deduced from
functions.
the way nature cools fire with water. In
4. Body fluids ( jin ye), which include
the case of “liver fire,” a yang excess con-
sweat, tears, cerebral spinal fluid,
dition, the patient will naturally be very
and other fluids of the body.
thirsty and want to drink large quantities
5. Essence ( jing), which in English may
of cold water. The practitioner treating
be understood as potential. This
such a condition knows that the excess
includes our genetic potential as
“fire” needs to be dispersed or drained
well as the potential of any person or
and more “water” quality added to the
thing to take an action.
meridian in order to keep the fire in
These essential substances are under- check. Using either needles, acupres-
stood to exist as a continuum of each sure, magnets, or other techniques, a
other. None can be considered as skilled practitioner will choose to use a
entirely separate, just as no one part of dispersing technique on the fire point of
26
Traditional Chinese Medicine
the liver meridian and will tonify the cian to create formulas that skillfully
water point. Understanding that the match the patient’s condition.
entire kidney organ system reflects the Chinese herbal medicine stores can
water element, a practitioner may also usually be found in any major city of the
choose to bring in more water or yin United States where there is a significant
quality using specific kidney meridian Asian population. Often these herb
points. shops are owned or run by practitioners
Just as the five essential substances or “doctors” of Chinese herbal medicine.
are all seen as part of one living whole, When this is the case “customers” have
the dynamic interplay of yin and yang the option of becoming “patients” when
energies and the five elements are they go into the store. Often a number of
understood as having a complex inter- practitioners in one area will refer all
active relationship with one another. their patients to one local herb store in
Extensive study of Chinese medicine is order to have their herbal prescriptions
needed to truly understand and effec- filled. In this way Chinese herbal medi-
tively direct these complex interactions. cine stores act as pharmacies.
27
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
4. Listening and smelling : This aspect certification through the National Com-
of the four examinations involves mission for Certification of Acupuncture
listening to the patient’s voice, and Oriental Medicine (NCCAOM) is
noticing any strange odors (which one clear way to be sure that a practi-
could, for example, indicate infec- tioner is at least competent. It is quite
tion), and otherwise gleaning infor- possible, however, to find master-level
mation that a patient does not practitioners who have not chosen to get
actually report to the practitioner. such a credential.
Once the assessment is clear, the doc- —Cindy Banker
tor of herbal medicine writes out a pre-
scription to be filled with exact dosages of Resources:
each herb. Some prescriptions call for
bags or batches of herbs, which are often American Association of Acupuncture and Orien-
packed in wrapped paper. For such pre- tal Medicine
scriptions, dosage is determined by the 4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201
number of bags to be cooked and used Raleigh, NC 27607
within a specified time frame. Patients Tel: (919) 787-5181
who are unfamiliar with their formulas Offers information on TCM.
need to be instructed on how to cook their
prescription into a tea or soup. Some- National Commission for Certification of
times one or two herbs need to be added Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine
separately to make their cooking time (NCCAOM)
longer or shorter than other ingredients. 1424 16th St. NW, Suite 501
For less serious problems, experienced Washington, DC 20026
customers are able to use the herbal store Provides certification for practitioners of acupunc-
as a pharmacy, buying familiar, simple ture, Chinese herbal medicine, and Oriental body-
remedies without a prescription. work therapy.
W
ellness programs are based on to the belief that the human body acts
holism, sometimes called holis- like a machine and the way to treat dis-
tic wellness, a philosophy of ease and illness (the opposite of health)
health that believes well-being is not just was through medications and surgery.
a condition of physical health or the The wellness paradigm holds that
absence of disease and illness. Rather, there is no separation between mind,
health is a balance of elements that body, spirit, and emotions. All aspects of
include the mental, emotional, spiritual, the human condition are so tightly con-
and physical aspects of the human condi- nected that it is impossible to distin-
tion. In other words, wellness is the inte- guish one from the other. An ancient
gration, balance, and harmony of mind, theory that is supported by many
body, spirit, and emotions, where the experts in several disciplines suggests
whole is thought to be greater than the that each aspect of the human condi-
sum of the parts. Wellness professionals tion is comprised of energy, with the
believe that the lines separating the men- most dense energy being the most obvi-
tal, physical, emotional, and spiritual ous and tangible: the physical body.
aspects exist in theory, but not in actuali- Here then are definitions for each
ty. Research in the field of psychoneu- aspect of the wellness paradigm:
roimmunology (the relationship between • Emotional well-being is best defined
emotions and the body) reveals that there as the ability to feel and express the
is no division between these aspects, and entire range of human emotions
they should be regarded as one. from anger to love, and to control
them, not be controlled by them.
History of the Wellness Approach • Physical well-being is defined as the
Although the concept of wellness is optimal condition of each of the
thousands of years old, the word well- body’s physiological systems. These
ness was introduced into the American include pulmonary, cardiovascular,
vernacular in the 1960s. Thought by nervous, immune, reproductive, uri-
many to be an expansion of the fitness nary, endocrine, musculoskeletal
movement of the late 1970s and early and digestive.
1980s, wellness is considered to be a • Mental well-being is understood as
more comprehensive approach to opti- the ability to gather, process, recall,
mal health than standard health educa- and communicate information. Like
tion programs that treated specific a computer, the mind can gather and
symptoms or were used to prevent dis- store mass quantities of information.
ease. Addressing more than physical ail- • Spiritual well-being is defined as the
ments, wellness programs integrate, maturation of higher consciousness
balance, and harmonize the physical, as developed through the dynamic
mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects integration of three facets: relation-
of the wellness paradigm. Today pro- ships (internal, how you relate to
grams are offered in corporate, commu- yourself and a higher power, however
nity, hospital, and fitness club settings. you conceive this to be; and external,
how you relate and interact with all
people in your life), a personal value
The Basic Principles of Wellness system, and a meaningful purpose in
It may seem as if mind, body, spirit, and
life.
emotions are separate aspects—a
premise proposed by the French philoso- An important figure in the wellness
pher René Descartes (1596–1650) stated area, Dr. Elizabeth Kübler-Ross, outlines
that the mind and body are separate a theory that suggests that although all
29
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Spiritual Emotional
Well-being Well-being
Mental Physical
Well-being Well-being
four components are always present in years. As Kübler-Ross and others note,
the human condition, each component there are many people who never move
dominates in our lives as we journey into this phase of development because
through the life cycle. The first compo- of laziness, mistrust, or fear.
nent is the emotional, in which we
experience the array of human emo- How Wellness Works
tions. During this time, we may be con- With the help of a thorough personal
ditioned by parents, guardians, or even history and open discussions between
society to suppress our feelings, which the patient and practitioner, the practi-
could likely result in emotional dys- tioner will be able to recognize an
function later in life. The influence of imbalance or problem in one of the four
physical development begins to domi- areas. He or she will then be able to
nate at puberty and continues well guide the patient to a program or ser-
throughout the teen years. The mental vices that address the patient’s needs.
or intellectual aspect kicks in during the The wellness professional has a whole
college years and endures well into mid- range of programs to choose from and is
life, as we exercise our mental capabili- aware of how these services and pro-
ties through the thinking processes of grams interact and affect the patient.
the right and left brain and the con- Wellness professionals work in partner-
scious and unconscious minds. The last ship with their patients and recom-
section of the wellness paradigm, the mend treatments that support the
spiritual, emerges during the mid-life body’s natural healing system.
30
Wellness
Wellness Programming
When evaluating the dynamics of wellness applications, there are many programs
and services that need to be considered. Below is a partial list of wellness program
services, by their respective holistic components. Keep in mind that a service listed in
one area has a crossover effect in all the other areas.
31
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
—Brian Luke Seaward, Ph.D. Edlin, Gordon, Eric Golanty, and Kelli McCormack
Brown. Health and Wellness. Sudbury, MA:
Jones and Bartlett, 1996.
Resources:
Travis, John, and Regina S. Ryan. The Wellness
National Wellness Association (NWA)
Workbook, Second Edition. Berkeley, CA: Ten
1045 Clark St., Suite 210
Speed Press, 1988.
Stevens Point, WI 54481-0827
Tel: (715) 342-2969
Fax: (715) 342-2979
e-mail: nwa@wellnesswi.org
Web site: www.wellnesswi.org/nwa.html
A nonprofit professional membership organization
that disseminates information and provides ser-
vices to professionals working in wellness areas.
32
PART II: SKELETAL MANIPULATION
METHODS
Chiropractic • CranioSacral Therapy • Network Chiropractic • Osteopathy
• Zero Balancing®
Skeletal manipulation
methods are a group of
healing practices that focus
on the form of the skeleton
to improve the functioning
of the whole person. They
are part of a larger group of
practices that have come to
be known collectively as
bodywork. Bodywork is a
general term describing a
wide variety of methods
that use touch to improve
awareness of feelings and
and spirit, possessing its own innate healing and balancing mechanisms that guide
communication between the interrelated systems of the body. The goal of all of these
drugless methods is to remove any structural alterations to the natural skeletal align-
ment that may impede the operation of these innate healing and balancing mecha-
nisms. The older methods, osteopathy and chiropractic, are used by millions as
primary health care modalities for treating a wide variety of health problems. The
younger methods derived from them are generally used to treat specific problems or
to enhance general physical health and emotional well-being.
the alignment of the skeleton and the state of the muscular system. In this way they
are able to treat a spectrum of chronic and acute health problems.
Each of these disciplines has its standard techniques for manipulating the skele-
ton. Chiropractors focus on the manipulation of the spine itself. They see the flow of
information from the central nervous system housed inside the spine as the primary
self-regulating system of the body. CranioSacral therapists focus on the relationship
of the bones of the skull to each other to monitor the wavelike flow of cerebrospinal
fluid, which they believe to be a barometer of healthy functioning throughout all the
systems of the body. Zero Balancers focus on special joints, called foundation joints,
which they believe are the primary regulators of energy throughout the body.
Osteopaths may manipulate the spine, including the skull, or any other joint of the
skeleton where they feel skeletal misalignment is negatively affecting the whole per-
son. Although in their original and most pure forms osteopathy and chiropractic
used only manipulation techniques, today many D.O.s and DCs add other tech-
niques to treatment plans, including recommendations of specific exercises, dietary
or lifestyle changes, and in some cases herbal or pharmaceutical remedies.
C
hiropractic is a mode of bodywork century in derivation. Manual “bone-
that promotes self-healing by setting” was accepted practice, and
manipulating the spine so as to irregularities in the nervous system
remove blocks in the transmission of were commonly viewed as the cause of
nerve impulses from the brain through illness. The third major component in
the spinal nerves and out to all parts of chiropractic, the use of the hands to
the body. It postulates that malfunction harmonize the circulation of nervous
in any aspect of the individual can be energy, came from Palmer’s experience
attributed to subluxations, misalign- as a magnetic healer, or Mesmerist. In
ments of the vertebrae that disturb the Mesmerism the hands are passed over
spinal nerves in their mediation of the person’s field of electromagnetic
mind and body. Further, chiropractic energy with the aim of correcting imbal-
subscribes to the basic principle that ances regarded as the cause of illness.
the immune system will function per- Palmer advanced beyond Mesmerist
fectly and maintain the person in concepts as his work progressed, but he
robust, good health as long as misalign- never relinquished its vision of a treat-
ments of the spine do not constrict the ment that bypasses drugs and surgery
nervous system. Other therapeutic in favor of direct contact between the
methods such as nutritional counseling hands of the healer and the life force of
may be included in chiropractic, but the person. By 1895 he had put together
treatment always focuses upon detec- the basic principles of chiropractic and
tion and adjustment of vertebral mis- was winning renown throughout the
alignments. Chiropractic is the second- Midwest for “miracle cures” of appar-
largest primary health care field in the ently irreversible problems.
world. Proponents credit it with a wide Palmer’s son, Bartlett Joshua Palmer
range of benefits, from relief of chronic (1881–1961), transformed chiropractic
back pain to successful treatment of into a profession with a following that
asthma and depression. was devoted but rocked by persistent
controversy. Doctors of medicine were
A Long History generally opposed to the growth of a
There is strong evidence that adjust- competing system of health care and
ment of the spine has been used as a led efforts to make chiropractic illegal.
form of medical treatment since civi- Attacks on its lack of scientific rigor
lization first began. A Chinese manu- intensified debate about the interpre-
script of 2700 BCE records details of soft tation of Palmer’s legacy within the chi-
tissue manipulation, and the Greeks are ropractic community. “Straights”
known to have developed similar prac- argued that chiropractic should consist
tices around 1500 BCE. In a treatise of the solely of hands-on vertebral adjustment
fifth century BCE, Hippocrates encour- and condemned as traitors those who
aged his patients to “get knowledge of “mixed” spinal adjustment with other
the spine, for many diseases have their forms of therapy or used mechanical
origin in dislocations of the vertebral devices in lieu of their hands.
column.” Present-day chiropractors continue to
David Daniel Palmer is responsible identify themselves as either “straights”
for developing the form of spinal or “mixers,” but the struggle to win public
adjustment used today. Born in 1845, respect and authority for chiropractic is
Palmer was an American who worked as largely over. During the 1930s John J.
a healer through most of his life but had Nugent started a movement that gradual-
no formal medical training. While its ly raised the standards at chiropractic
Greek name, chiropractic, meaning schools and set up chiropractic licensing
37
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Chiropractic techniques manipulate the spine to aid the healing process in any part of the body.
laws in all the states. More recently chiro- study of symptoms generally overlooks
practic has benefited from a swing the true cause of the crisis. Ninety-five
toward natural medicine that stimulated percent of all disease, he contended, is
broad interest in its history and potential attributable to vertebral misalignment
as an alternative mode of health care. that interferes with the transmission of
Because of the experiments of “mixers,” information from the “innate intelli-
chiropractic is rapidly becoming more gence” to the spinal nerves.
diversified and offers nutritional coun- Contemporary chiropractors are
seling, massage, and an increasing use of more apt to speak of an inborn switch-
mechanical devices. board than of “innate intelligence,” but
they adhere to Palmer’s belief that ill-
Finding the True Cause nesses are often caused by subluxated
Palmer believed the human being is vertebrae and in numerous instances
born with an ever vigilant “innate intel- are misdiagnosed because the symp-
ligence” or “innate mind” that superin- toms do not point directly to back trou-
tends all the body’s functions and seeks ble. For example, chronic bladder
to achieve homeostasis, a state of bal- infection may be the result of a mis-
ance that extends “to every individual alignment of the lower vertebrae that
cell in the living organism.” Thus in chi- irritates the nerves leading to the blad-
ropractic, much as in therapeutic touch der. Palmer performed his most famous
or osteopathy, virtually unlimited pow- cure, restoring the hearing of a man
ers of self-healing are imputed to the deaf for seventeen years, by correcting a
person, and drugs are seen as detrimen- subluxation of the upper spine.
tal to the workings of the body’s own Diagnosis and treatment in chiroprac-
defense mechanisms. Palmer also tic are therefore organized, not around
taught that diagnosis of disease through disease, but around signs of systemic
38
Chiropractic
Chiropractic Training
39
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
C
ranioSacral therapy is a gentle land, Dr. Upledger worked to scientifically
form of bodywork based on releas- confirm the mobility of the cranial bones
ing restrictions in the craniosacral and the subsequent existence of the cran-
system to help people achieve their high- iosacral system. From 1975 to 1983, he
est levels of physical, mental, and emo- served as clinical researcher and a profes-
tional well-being. It was developed over sor of biomechanics at Michigan State
40
CranioSacral Therapy
41
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
42
Network Chiropractic
N
etwork chiropractic is a branch of around the joint. This therapy relies on
chiropractic, a health care the body’s ability to recover without
method that views all health as a surgery or drugs.
result of the body’s inability to express, Network shares the historical philos-
relay, and distribute energy and infor- ophy of chiropractic, which is based on
mation through the nervous system. the concept that the information the
Chiropractors aim to enable the brain body needs to function is conveyed
and the body to better communicate through oscillation, or vibration. The
through the elimination of disruptions nervous system coordinates all vibration
in the central nervous system, which is through the body, relaying energy and
housed in the protective bones of the information to all body parts, and
spinal column. To do this, they use gen- influencing all body functions. Tension
tle manual pressure and adjustment to on the spinal cord or the nerves exiting
reduce muscular tension, skeletal tor- from the spinal cord causes an energy
sion or twisting, and compression of the disturbance. Network chiropractic seeks
spinal cord or the nerves branching to enhance communication between
from it which may result in a disruption the brain and the body through the cor-
of the body’s essential energy and infor- rection (adjustment) of vertebral sub-
mation highway. luxations.
Network chiropractic is a form of Network practitioners believe that
chiropractic that seeks to develop the subluxations are caused by physical,
body’s self-corrective mechanism. It is emotional, mental, or chemical stress-
believed that this improvement will es. In network care it is common for the
enhance a person’s health, wellness, body to express the energy unavailable
and quality of life. to the body as spontaneous muscular
movement, stretching, or the outward
Establishing a Network expression of emotion such as laughter
Donald Epstein, D.CA., a 1977 graduate of or crying. This liberates the spine from
New York Chiropractic College, devel- the interference caused by the inability
oped this method of chiropractic, which to effectively “move the energy” and cir-
has been researched through the Depart- culates the body’s information.
ment of Anatomy and Neurobiology and
Sociology at the College of Medicine at The Practice of Network Chiropractic
the University of California–Irvine, and at Before beginning sessions, the chiro-
the University of Southern California, practor will request that individuals
Department of Engineering. Epstein’s complete a questionnaire that discusses
method resulted from his efforts to incor- the individual’s physical, emotional,
porate many different approaches and mental, and chemical stresses and histo-
theories into a single “network” of estab- ry. The spine will be evaluated for pos-
lished chiropractic techniques. Also ture, muscle tension patterns, tension in
known as network spinal analysis, the the extremities that may be related to
system has been evolving since 1982 and spinal cord tension, range of motion, or
is currently practiced by chiropractors the involvement of spinal motion with
under the trade name network chiro- respiration. Some practitioners may uti-
practic. lize various noninvasive instrumenta-
tion to further assess the functioning of
Enhancing Communication the nervous system. Spinal X rays are not
Adjustment is a central technique of chi- routine, however, and are taken as indi-
ropractic doctors. Adjustment means cated on an individual basis.
43
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Dr. Donald Epstein, founder of network chiropractic, demonstrates the light pressure tech-
niques he developed to release tension.
Resources: Journals:
Journal of Vertebral Subluxation Research, Vol. 1,
Association for Network Chiropractors No. 1 (1996).
444 North Maine Street
Longmont, CO 80501
Tel: (303) 678-8101
Professional organization of network chiroprac-
tors. OSTEOPATHY
O
International Chiropractors Association steopathy is a holistic and drug-
1110 North Glebe Rd. less approach to health and dis-
Suite 1000 ease. It is based on the idea that a
Arlington, VA 22201 human being is not merely a collection
Tel: (703) 528-5000 of parts but a totality imbued with spir-
Provides information on practitioners. it. The human body functions as a unit
and possesses self-healing and self-reg-
World Chiropractic Alliance
ulating mechanisms. Osteopathy main-
2950 N. Dobson Rd., Suite 1
tains that there is a reciprocal
Chandler, AZ 85224
relationship between structure and
Tel: (800) 347-1011
function, that is, an alteration in struc-
Promotes the practice of network chiropractic.
ture (the musculoskeletal system)
through injury, will result in a change in
function (in internal organs), namely,
Further Reading: disease. Likewise, a diseased internal
organ will result in an alteration in the
Books: musculoskeletal system. The osteo-
Epstein, Donald, and Nathaniel Altman. The pathic physician, by his or her intimate
Twelve Stages of Healing: A Network Approach knowledge of human anatomy, can rec-
to Wholeness. San Rafael, CA: Amber-Allen Pub- ognize even subtle deviations from nor-
lishing, 1994. mal bodily functioning and by the
application of various techniques can
Maynard, Joseph E. Healing Hands: The Story of restore the proper structure and func-
the Palmer Family, Discoverers and Developers tion and assist the inherent self-healing
of Chiropractic. Fourth edition. Woodstock, GA: powers of the body.
Jonorm Publishers, 1992.
A Rejection of Conventional Medicine
Woodham and Peters. Encyclopedia of Healing The practice of osteopathy was devel-
Therapies. New York: DK Publishers, 1997. oped by Andrew Taylor Still, M.D.
The largest study of health and wellness benefits of a chiropractic method was per-
formed at the University of California–Irvine. Patients evaluated their own improve-
ments through a wide range of health and wellness indicators. The study showed
evidence of significant improvement in the areas of physical symptoms, emotional and
mental state, stress evaluation, life enjoyment and overall quality of life.
45
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The first class of the American School of Osteopathy in Kirksville, Missouri, winter term (1892-1893).
movements making their way across and Still was later reported to have said
America during his lifetime. that he thought women made better
Over the years Still continued to osteopaths than men.
practice conventional medicine— Still was assisted in his teaching by
including service as a surgeon in the William Smith, M.D., an 1889 graduate
Union army during the Civil War—and of the University of Edinburgh. After
to develop his unique healing methods. one year Still determined that for the
He devised a system of manipulation most part his attempt to teach osteopa-
and spinal reflexes with which he treat- thy was a failure. He issued certificates
ed all types of conditions. but beseeched the graduates to return
Despite his therapeutic successes he for another year of instruction. Some
was viewed as a medical heretic, a grave did not return.
robber, and a “crazy crank” because of However, in 1893, Still did receive
his unorthodox views, study of corpses, some confirmation that his method
long hours of solitary study, and casual could be successfully learned when two
dress. His methods obtained results of his sons saved many lives during a
that were seemingly inexplicable, so black diphtheria epidemic in Minneso-
some viewed his practice as the work of ta. Graduation for those members of the
the devil. In 1873, while living in first class who had returned was held on
Kirksville, Missouri, Still saved many March 4, 1894. Slowly, the curriculum
lives during an epidemic of infectious improved, more and better students
diarrhea, without the use of any drugs. graduated, and an infirmary was built in
Despite this success, his reputation as 1895. In that year Still and his students
an eccentric followed him and he was performed thirty thousand osteopathic
shunned by most until he cured a treatments. By the late 1890s his school,
prominent Presbyterian minister’s crip- infirmary, and new surgical hospital
pled daughter. were increasingly successful, both acad-
In 1874 Still severed his ties to con- emically and financially.
ventional medicine and announced the In its struggle for acceptance, orga-
founding of his new medical science, nized osteopathy had to battle the pow-
which he called osteopathy. This new erful American Medical Association,
school of medical thought was con- which sought to maintain its control of
ceived as a reformation or improvement the practice of medicine in America.
of conventional medicine, not an alter- Denied the right to serve as physicians
native system. During the 1880s he con- in the military and other government
tinued to refine his science and made jobs, the osteopathic profession lobbied
several attempts to train others. hard for inclusion.
Although he initially had trouble train- It wasn’t until the Vietnam War that
ing others in the practice of osteopathy, osteopaths were allowed to serve their
Still hoped to establish an osteopathic country as physicians. Today there are
school. During this time patients seventeen osteopathic colleges. Some are
flocked to Kirksville from all over Amer- state-supported schools where faculty
ica for his treatment. Hotels were built and facilities are shared with students of
in the town to house the many patients allopathic medicine. Osteopathic physi-
arriving daily, and several railroad com- cians can now practice in all medical and
panies advertised train service to surgical specialties and serve in all
Kirksville. branches of the military and government
On November 1, 1892, the American health service organizations.
School of Osteopathy was opened. The The curriculum at osteopathic schools
first class of eleven students consisted is identical to its allopathic counterpart
of former patients, family friends, and with the exception that D.O.s learn osteo-
five of Still’s children. Five women were pathic philosophy and manipulation.
among the members of this first class, However, with equality comes paradox.
47
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Popularity of Osteopathy
There are currently around 35,000 osteopathic physicians in the United States, yet only
about 500 osteopaths practice the original healing art, as many use manipulation tech-
niques merely as an adjunct to their conventional practices. Nevertheless, the original
osteopathic concept has made a lasting impression on medicine throughout the world.
Osteopathic and conventional forms of research have validated and confirmed many of
Still’s original ideas. Today even the conventional medical world has many manual med-
icine societies, and the specialties of psychiatry and rehabilitation medicine benefit
from Still’s pioneering work. The osteopathic concept has also spread worldwide. There
are colleges in England, Canada, and continental Europe. To date, thirty-two countries
have granted osteopathic physicians unlimited practice privileges, with an additional
nine countries granting privileges limited to manipulation techniques.
49
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
———. Philosophy of Osteopathy. Kirksville, MO: years. The son of a prominent chiro-
privately printed, 1899. practor, Smith trained as an osteopath
and medical doctor in the 1950s, and
———. Philosophy and Mechanical Principles of later as a five element acupuncturist
Osteopathy. Kirksville, MO: privately printed, with Professor J. R. Worsley. He was also
1902. a student of shakti yoga as taught by
Swami Muktananda, a massage thera-
———. Osteopathy: Research and Practice. pist and certified Rolfer (while he was
Kirksville, MO: privately printed, 1910. studying with Ida Rolf he was her model
for seven of the ten-hour sessions). Out
Still, Charles F., Jr. Frontier Doctor, Medical Pio- of these various experiences he formu-
neer: The Life and Times of A.T. Still and His lated his own distinct set of ideas and
Family. Kirksville, MO: The Thomas Jefferson techniques that later became known as
University Press, 1991. Zero Balancing.
Z
ero Balancing® (ZB) is a hands-on mind—knowing on another level that
body-balancing and integrating all these aspects are forms of energy.
approach that aligns body energy Smith postulates that the strongest
fields with body structure. ZB is based fields of energy are in the bones of the
on the Western understanding of anato- skeletal system. This is the densest tis-
my and physiology but is distinct in that sue in the body and therefore entraps
it uses Eastern concepts of energy as the densest energy of the body. Whereas
working tools as well as guiding princi- ZB also addresses soft tissue, its main
ples for the integration of the whole focus is on the skeletal system. Within
person. Alignment through ZB balances the skeletal system its main focus is on
body energy and structure, creates the foundation and semi-foundation
clearer fields of vibration throughout joints of the body—those joints that
the body, releases tension patterns from have more to do with the transmission,
the body tissue, the mind, and the emo- absorption, and equalization of energy
tions, and allows the vibration of stress in the body than with locomotion or
to pass more freely through the person. movement. Examples of these joints are
the sacroiliac joints, the tarsal and
The History of Zero Balancing® carpal joints of the feet and hands, and
Fritz Frederick Smith, M.D., developed the inter- and costo-vertebral articula-
the system of Zero Balancing over several tions of the spine.
50
Zero Balancing ®
ZB has been conceived of as analogous to wind (energy) and the sail (structure) of a sail-
boat—knowing that somewhere the wind meets the sail. A well-functioning body is one
in which the body and its parts are well tacked into the movement of energy as it passes
through the system. The person is well tacked into his or her life. Clinical experience has
shown that if the relationship of energy and structure within the body is discordant, it
can be improved and aligned through touch, which results in enhanced performance
and feelings of well-being.
51
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
52
PART III: NUTRITIONAL AND
DIETARY PRACTICES
Herbal Medicine • Orthomolecular Medicine
The Development of Herbs are the primary ingredient in many commercial pharmaceuticals.
Nutritional and Dietary
Practices
The roots of nutritional and dietary practices are firmly planted in the deepest bio-
logical and psychological instincts of the human race. When ill, humans and many
other animals instinctively fast, which cleanses and rests the digestive system. In
addition, animals have been observed in their natural environments searching out
and eating specific plants for medicinal purposes.
Indigenous peoples also use plants from their surrounding environment for medici-
nal purposes. Much of our knowledge of herbal medicine comes from anthropologists
53
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
who have lived with these peoples and learned their age-old wisdom. The diets of these
peoples invariably include a variety of fruits, vegetables, grains, and sometimes animal
products native to their area. These locally produced diets create a chemical balance
within each person’s body and between the people and their environment.
Nutritional practices and herbal medicine form an integral part of all classical healing
systems. Both ayurvedic and traditional Chinese medicine doctors diagnose patients, in
part, by knowledge of their dietary preferences and cravings. Both systems prescribe
dietary changes and herbal medicines to balance the body-mind disharmonies they per-
ceive through their diagnostic methods. Like those of indigenous peoples, both of these
highly developed healing systems are based on a belief that disharmony of body and
mind, or of the body-mind complex and the surrounding environment, is the root cause
of disease.
In classical Greece, where the modern Western healing system originated, the
physician Hippocrates (c. 460–c. 377 BCE) also believed in health as a balance between
the individual and his or her environment. Discussing the prescription of food as
medicine, Hippocrates is believed to have said, “Food or drink which is in itself slight-
ly inferior, but more pleasant should be preferred to that which is better in itself, but
less pleasant.” In this recommendation Hippocrates seems to affirm not only a belief
that food could be used as medicine, but that the human organism has the innate
ability to direct its own healing, in part at least, through the sense of taste.
Throughout European history people continued to rely on their sense of taste to
develop a varied, balanced, moderate diet that made use of local fruits, grains, and ani-
mal products. They also used various herbs and foods to heal specific conditions. For
example, garlic has been used by people in many European countries for centuries to
heal infections. Chamomile tea has long been recommended to calm the nerves.
The French chemist Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) was the first person to see bacteria
under a microscope. This momentous discovery led to many innovations in Western
health care including sterilization of surgical instruments, hygienic standards of
cleanliness in hospitals, and the process known as pasteurization of milk and other
liquids. It also led to the development of the germ theory of disease in which all dis-
ease was believed to be caused by outside organisms invading the human body.
In order to fight the outside invaders, biochemists developed an arsenal of antibi-
otics and other pharmaceutical germ-killers. These medicines appeared to work more
quickly and to be more effective than the traditional dietary and herbal cures. Doctors
began to pay less and less attention to the diet of their patients. Instead they began to
rely more and more on a growing stockpile of synthesized drugs to relieve painful and
uncomfortable symptoms.
Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries there were many voices of
dissent against this shift away from natural whole-food diets and toward dependence
on pharmaceutical drugs for healing. Some of those voices, such as that of American
doctor Sylvester Graham (1794–1851), were dismissed as alarmists by allopathic, or
conventional Western, doctors. Other individuals such as Japanese doctor Michio
Kushi, a leading proponent of macrobiotics, were dismissed as exotic and extremist.
In the mid-twentieth century scientists such as two-time Nobel Prize winner Linus
Pauling (1901–1994) began using Western biochemical methods to study the effects of
54
the individual vitamins found in foods on various physical, mental, and emotional
conditions. The discoveries made by Pauling and other scientists form the basis of
orthomolecular medicine, a contemporary scientific nutritional practice that recom-
mends individualized whole food diets and high doses of vitamins instead of drugs to
heal disease and create optimum health.
In the 1960s a growing number of people became increasingly disillusioned with the
use of pharmaceutical drugs. Some people felt, as many feel today, that the drugs are cost-
ly, increasingly ineffective, and that they often produce as many side effects and compli-
cations as they appear to cure. For these reasons many individuals, and eventually the U.S.
government through the National Institutes of Health, began to reconsider nutritional and
dietary practices as a safe and effective means of disease prevention and health care.
55
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
more on his or her physical observations and questioning of you to arrive at a diagnosis.
Once diagnosed, both will probably recommend changes in your diet and pre-
scribe specific supplements. An herbalist may recommend that you buy a specific
herb or combination of herbs that can be prepared and eaten in various ways, where-
as the orthomolecular physician may recommend various doses of vitamins.
Whichever practice you follow, these practitioners work with you and your other
health care professionals to help you attain your maximum state of health.
The International Society for Orthomolecular Santillo, Humbert B.S., MH. Natural Healing with
Medicine Herbs. Prescott Valley, AZ: Hohm Press, 1984.
16 Florence Avenue
Toronto, ON M2N 1E9 Journals:
Canada Willoughby, John, “Primal Prescription.” Eating
e-mail: centre@orthomed.org Well ™ Inc. (May-June 1991).
56
Herbal Medicine
H
erbal medicine has become one of 1997 indicated that one-third of adult
the most popular forms of alter- Americans are using herbal medicines,
native medicine in the United spending an average of $54 per person
States today. People use herbal reme- annually, thus creating a total estimated
dies for a variety of reasons: to aid retail market of $3.24 billion. Once found
digestion; to relax; to alleviate minor only in health food stores, mail-order cat-
aches, pains, and headaches; to stave alogs, and marketing organizations,
off disease; and to diminish the symp- herbal medicines are now sold in drug-
toms of the common cold or flu. Besides stores, supermarkets, and mass-market
addressing specific symptoms or needs, retailers, where herbal preparations con-
some herbalists believe that these stitute one of the fastest growing areas.
remedies bring the body and mind into Increased popular interest in herbs
balance and can therefore cure chronic has been fueled in part by the passage of
or long-term illnesses. the Dietary Supplement Health and
Education Act of 1994 (DSHEA). In 1993
Herbal Medicine Throughout the Ages and 1994, when the act was being con-
Herbal remedies have been utilized in sidered, Congress received more mail
many cultures throughout time to alle- from American voters concerning this
viate pain and cure disease. The ways new law than they had concerning any
that herbs are used in diverse geograph- other single issue since the Vietnam
ical areas reflect the philosophy and val- War. This overwhelming response sug-
ues of each particular culture as well as gests that consumers are interested in
what herbs are available in each region. using herbs and other dietary supple-
For instance, in traditional Chinese ments for their health.
medicine, herbs are used to restore bal- In addition, the heightened interest in
ance in the body and are part of a long- herbal medicine reflects consumer con-
term treatment that seeks to maintain cern about the high cost of Western med-
the health of both mind and body. In icine in general and pharmaceutical
Western medicine, herbal medications drugs in particular. Further, there is a
have been developed to treat particular growing perception among consumers
physical symptoms immediately. This that many conventional medicines are
pharmacologically based system has toxic and produce adverse side effects,
been especially successful in the treat- despite the fact that they have been
ment of acute illness. approved by the Food and Drug Adminis-
Herbs form the basis of many mod- tration (FDA). These concerns have
ern pharmaceutical drugs. Today, about revived interest in many traditional herbs
25 percent of all prescription medicines and medicinal plants, as well as other
are derived from medicinal plants. forms of alternative medicine. Many
Pharmaceutical companies are doing Americans have also become interested
research on herbs from the Brazilian in this area because of the increased
rain forests. In fact, the word drug media coverage in alternative medicine
derives from the old Dutch word droge, and the creation of the Office of Alterna-
which means “to dry.” During the Mid- tive Medicine (OAM) at the National
dle Ages, Dutch pharmacists dried Institutes of Health (NIH) to study herbs
plants for use as medicines. and other alternative modalities.
In 1994 an estimated 17 percent of all
Americans used herbs for some medicinal A Description of Herbal Medicines
or health reason. The herbal industry is Herbs are popular all over the world.
estimated to have earned $2 billion in The World Health Organization (WHO)
57
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
An herbalist teaches about the medicinal use of common trees and plants.
two dozen clinical studies. Because the care to help treat senile dementia and
German government allows such claims short-term memory loss in elderly
on garlic tablets, garlic is the biggest- patients. Another useful phytomedi-
selling over-the-counter medicine sold cine is the standardized extract of milk
in German pharmacies. thistle fruits (Silybum marianum). This
Another increasingly popular use for preparation is a safe and effective tonic
herbs is as alternatives to modern syn- to the liver, especially for persons who
thetic prescription drugs. Millions of suffer from alcohol-induced cirrhosis
American men have begun to use the of the liver, who have been exposed to
extract of the fruits of the native Ameri- toxic industrial chemicals, or who suf-
can saw palmetto plant (Serenoa repens) fer from certain types of hepatitis.
as a safe and clinically documented rem-
edy for benign prostatic hyperplasia How Herbal Remedies Are Used
(BPH), nonmalignant enlargement of the Herbal medicines can be taken as teas
prostate that affects about half of men that have been either steeped or boiled
over fifty years of age. Gaining popularity in water, known as an infusion and
is the standardized extract of St. John’s decoction, respectively. They can be
wort (Hypericum perforatum), which is ingested as powdered herbs in capsules
considered a safe and effective remedy and tablets, or as liquid extracts made
for mild to moderate depression. The with water and alcohol or just alcohol.
efficacy of this herb, called a phytomedi- They can also be taken as standardized
cine in Europe, has been established in extracts, which have recently been devel-
numerous clinical studies. oped. In these extracts, the level of one
There are many more examples. naturally occurring chemical compound
Standardized extract of ginkgo leaf or group of compounds is chemically
(Ginkgo biloba) has been shown in guaranteed from one batch to another in
many clinical studies to be safe and order to ensure reliable content.
effective in stimulating peripheral cir- Herbs can also be used topically.
culation, especially in the brain. This Fresh aloe gel (Aloe vera) can be directly
herb is especially useful in geriatric applied to the skin to help reduce the
59
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
O
likely that more scientific research will rthomolecular medicine strives to
continue to place herbs in a position to achieve optimum health of its
offer many benefits in the new medicine patients, as well as treat and pre-
of the twenty-first century. vent disease, by creating the uniquely
individual levels of nutrients needed in
each body through diet, vitamin supple-
—Mark Blumenthal
mentation, and lifestyle changes. Practi-
tioners employ what is more commonly
Resources: known as megavitamin therapy, which is
the use of large doses of certain vitamins
American Botanical Council (ABC) based on thorough biochemical analysis
P.O. Box 201660 to correct ineffective or destructive
60
Orthomolecular Medicine
61
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Some people have argued that high doses of certain vitamins can be dangerous, even
toxic, to those who take them. Studies have shown that the dangers are minor compared
to the dangers of taking high doses of pharmaceutical medications.
If symptoms occur, or you feel that you are taking too much of a certain vitamin, ask your
orthomolecular practitioner. He or she will be aware of the dangers and can tell you all
you need to know about your treatment.
If you are taking too much of a certain nutrient, the practitioner will lower your dosage
immediately, and the level of that nutrient will adjust within a very short time. The most
important issue is to keep your doctor aware of any changes or symptoms you might
experience during orthomolecular therapy.
62
Orthomolecular Medicine
63
PART IV: MIND/BODY MEDICINE
Mind/body med-
icine is a contem-
porary term used to
describe a number
of disciplines that
study or approach
healing the physi-
cal body, or trans-
forming human
behavior, by engag-
ing the conscious or
unconscious powers
of the mind. While
“mind/body medi-
cine” is a term used
in this section of
the encyclopedia to
describe a growing
field of study and
practice in contem-
porary Western
Photo: Corbis-Bettmann
medicine, it is also
used by others to
describe ancient
Eastern disciplines
such as yoga, medi-
Franz Anton Mesmer (1734–1815), now called the “Father of Hypnosis,”
was one of the earliest Western scientists to investigate the connection
tation, traditional
between body and mind. Chinese medicine,
and subtle energy
therapies. The vari-
ety of disciplines that comprise mind/body medicine in this encyclopedia combine
a theory of the relationship between body and mind that has much in common with
these ancient Eastern disciplines with Western scientific models of biology and
chemistry. These disciplines are also characterized by an emphasis on individual
64
motivation in the healing process and a more personal relationship between caregiv-
er and receiver. These practices have been used to treat stress-related conditions,
such as chronic pain, allergies, chemical and emotional dependencies, and perfor-
mance anxiety.
65
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Split off from philosophical or spiritual inquiry, Western medical science devel-
oped by studying the physical body and treating it as a purely mechanical instrument
that could be broken down into smaller and more knowable components. While this
approach yielded many amazing, lifesaving achievements over the last 300 years, it
investigated only the physical treatment of ailments. The relationship of the mind and
body was not fully investigated by Western medicine until the beginning of this cen-
tury, gaining ever more momentum in the last thirty-five years. The neurologist Sig-
mund Freud’s (1856–1939) theory of the unconscious mind opened new ways of
considering the mind’s effect on behavior and physical health. The research that
inspired Freud’s theories employed many of the techniques that are a part of hyp-
notherapy and guided imagery practices.
Throughout the twentieth century, data pointing to a relationship between our
thoughts, emotions, and health began to appear from many branches of science,
including sociology, anthropology, and psychology. For example, in 1956 Hans Selye,
a Canadian physiologist, revealed the devastating effects of traumatic experiences,
which he termed stress, on an organism’s health. Then in the 1960s a more specific
clue to the connections between mind and body appeared. Drs. Elmer and Alyce
Green, pioneering researchers in biofeedback, documented the profound abilities of
advanced yoga practitioners to control consciously their heart rate, temperature, and
brain wave patterns. As the century continued, scientists in the newly developing field
of psychoneuroimmunology presented evidence linking particular chemical sub-
stances, such as endorphins, to specific human emotions, such as pleasure. They
showed how certain levels of endorphins in the body may act as a chemical shield
against invading viruses or germs.
Today mind/body medicine practices are a respected part of treatment in many
major hospitals and clinics throughout the United States. They may be used for relief
of pain before or during surgery and to aid in the postoperative process. In addition,
individuals seeking help for a variety of chronic physical conditions, including cancer
and AIDS, as well as those seeking to change painful and destructive behavior pat-
terns, such as chemical addictions or eating disorders, are enhancing traditional West-
ern methods of treatment with mind/body medicine practices.
66
sugared water, and told that it would relieve their chronic pain. The patients’ emo-
tional attitudes about their pain, as well as their physical progress, were closely mon-
itored. The results showed that patients who believe they will recover are much more
likely to do so than those who think they won’t, or those who think they will get worse.
Mind/body medicine practitioners believe that these results strongly suggest that
emotions and mental attitudes play an important role in the body’s ability to heal.
Finally, all mind/body medicine practices believe in the importance of personal
motivation in the healing process. This belief is supported by clinical research, which
shows that cancer patients who become actively involved in their treatment are more
likely to recover than those who passively accept their diagnosis and fail to examine
their treatment options. Taking charge of one’s life fends off feelings of hopelessness
and lack of control, both of which have been shown through psychoneuroimmunolo-
gy studies to reduce the number of disease-fighting cells in the body. By emphasizing
personal responsibility, mind/body medicine practitioners aim to empower patients
to make a successful healing journey.
Because mind/body medicine practitioners emphasize the individual’s participa-
tion in the healing process, special attention is given to the relationship between care-
giver and receiver. For instance, in guided imagery the caregiver is often referred to as
a guide or knowledgeable aide. The guide’s role is viewed as helping the receiver
access his or her own inner sources of physical, mental, and emotional health and
offering positive reinforcement as he or she learns to navigate the channels between
body and mind.
Further Reading:
67
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
B
to alter the rhythms and responses of
iofeedback training is a means of
the body so extensively that they can
enhancing mental awareness of
become impervious to extremes of tem-
body changes. It is a process that
perature and pain. Under the direction
offers techniques for regulating the
of Joe Kamiya, volunteers in another
body’s vital functions and fostering
study learned to use feedback from the
overall health. Electronic biofeedback
EEG to recognize and achieve the alpha
instruments supply information about
state, an alert sense of effortless well-
the body not usually available to the
being normally associated with
consciousness. Heart rate, muscle ten-
advanced stages of meditation.
sion, blood circulation, brain wave
During the late 1960s the excitement
activity, and other body functions are
generated by the initial findings of
made perceptible as visual and auditory
biofeedback research led to overly opti-
signals that enable an individual to
mistic claims about “miracle cures” of
monitor his or her physiological reac-
the future. Nonetheless, it was clear that
tion to various stimuli or situations.
a fundamental concept in the human
With the help of the biofeedback instru-
sciences, the distinction between vol-
ment it is possible to develop new,
untary and involuntary nervous activity,
healthier patterns of response through-
had been discredited. Vital functions
out the body’s systems, even those pre-
like blood pressure were now seen as
viously regarded as involuntary and
subject to the control of the individual.
outside the reach of the conscious
Behavioral modification accordingly
mind. Biofeedback training has a vast
became an ever more accepted mode of
range of diagnostic, therapeutic, and
health care. The first professional meet-
preventive applications, particularly in
ing of feedback researchers was held in
cases where stress and related psycho-
1968, chaired by Les Fehmi. In 1969
logical factors play a role.
biofeedback researchers founded a pro-
fessional support group, the Biofeedback
The History of Biofeedback Training Research Society, later renamed the
The use of biofeedback devices to mod- Association for Applied Psychophysiol-
ify behavior started in 1938, when ogy and Biofeedback (AAPB). The volu-
Hobart G. Mowrer introduced an alarm minous scholarly literature on various
triggered by urine to stop children from aspects of biofeedback attests to the
wetting their beds. Beginning in the interest it has attracted in the scientific
1940s muscle-tension biofeedback was community.
successfully used in the field of neuro-
muscular rehabilitation. Biofeedback The Theory of Biofeedback Training
developed rapidly in America during Biofeedback training approaches the
the 1950s and 1960s because of a coinci- brain as a control center that sends
dence of two factors. There was growing impulses through the nervous system to
awareness that stress was a principal program the body’s vital functions:
cause of disease and an accompanying heart rate, blood pressure, circulation,
interest in expanding the mind’s ability digestion, breath, perspiration, and so
to respond to stress more positively and forth. By automatically signaling the
nurture all parts of one’s self. At the different systems when to turn on or off,
same time the invention of the elec- people live safely and comfortably in
troencephalograph machine (EEG) and their surroundings without deliberating
similar electronic equipment gave sci- over the body’s basic activities. But
entists new tools for monitoring the stress, illness, or an accident can dis-
internal workings of the body-mind rupt the natural process and cause it to
68
Biofeedback Training
send signals that produce common muscles and a fall in body temperature,
health problems like insomnia, muscu- that the person may never have noticed.
lar or vascular pain, and irritable bowel Furthermore, the machines serve as a pre-
syndrome, to name just a few. While cise, objective gauge of the physiological
these stress-aggravated processes make effects accomplished by using a relaxation
the body seem unpredictable and technique such as visualizing a pleasant
beyond control, biofeedback training scene or soothing color. The true source of
can help reverse overreactions. the self-healing promoted and reflected by
The use of electronic instruments to biofeedback training are techniques that
measure and reflect the status of body normalize physiological functioning.
functions is only one element of biofeed- These techniques enable the person to
back training. It also uses relaxation tech- stabilize erratic or unhealthy physical
niques derived from ancient meditation responses and to take responsibility for his
practice and requires participants to be or her own well-being.
open to the idea of attentional flexibility.
Contrary to popular belief, the machines Biofeedback Training in Practice
do not intervene in the information travel- In its most frequent application,
ing between the body and mind. Instead, biofeedback training is used to teach
the instruments act as a mirror of one’s people techniques for coping with
internal reactions, allowing an individual health problems that have already been
to observe this behavior and to be aware of diagnosed by a medical doctor or psy-
harmful reactions. This information helps chologist. The role of the certified prac-
uncover hidden patterns of physiological titioners who administer biofeedback
reactions to stress, for example, tensing of training is to show the client how to
69
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
70
Guided Imagery
G
uided imagery is a therapeutic of the links between mind and body.
technique in which a person with- Following the precepts of René
draws into his or her mind to Descartes, the body was considered a
focus on scenes and symbols pertaining mechanical structure, and the imagina-
to an illness, accident, or personal issue. tion’s role in either the body or the oper-
Within one’s imagination, problems are ations of the intellect was severely
replaced with a “make-believe” story of restricted. Sigmund Freud’s study of
recovered health and happiness. Guid- hysteria, a psychosomatic disorder,
ed imagery is based on the principle marks the beginning of a revolution in
that the imagination has the capacity to medicine that can be viewed as a revival
relieve pain and promote healing when of ancient and Renaissance teachings
it is optimistic and confident and, about the power of the imagination. By
inversely, can help trigger a breakdown explaining hysteria as a physical mani-
when it is consumed by worry. The tech- festation of emotional trauma, Freud
niques of guided imagery are designed challenged Descartes’ notion that ill-
to teach individuals how to use their nesses may have only a physical cause.
own powers of imagination to steer He believed that an effective treatment
away from negative thoughts toward must also address the patient’s inner
models of well-being. Guided imagery experiences.
generally serves as an adjunct to med- The current American approach to
ical treatment and has been incorporat- guided imagery is based on Carl Simon-
ed in sports training programs and ton’s work with cancer patients during
methods of self-care. the 1970s. He instructed cancer patients
to imagine white cells as warriors
defeating the cancer cells and discov-
The Development of Guided Imagery ered that these patients lived twice as
for Healing long as those relying on medical treat-
What is now called guided imagery can ment alone. After Bernie Siegel con-
be traced back to practices found in ducted an equally successful pilot
early civilizations around the world. program at Yale University, there was a
Symbols and spirits were summoned to rapid expansion in medical research
promote healing, and envisioning one’s into the benefits and workings of sys-
health was a key element in rituals per- tems of internal visualization from day-
formed by shamans. When medicine dreaming to self-hypnosis to doodling
was first separated from religion in clas- and drawing. By 1990, guided imagery
sical Greek culture, imagery continued had emerged as an established mode of
to be regarded as a valuable tool in the treatment, acclaimed by advocates of
maintenance of physical and mental both traditional and alternative medi-
well-being. According to the Greek cine.
philosopher Hippocrates, inner pictures
produce a “spirit” that arouses the heart The Theory of Guided Imagery
and other parts of the body. They need Recent research has suggested that
to be controlled if the person is to be mental imagery can modify the func-
healthy. Renaissance doctors took a tioning of the body. The brain responds
similar view of the role of the imagina- to an image much as if it were the real
tion. Paracelsus, for example, wrote that thing, recalling past experiences and
“the power of the imagination is a great triggering a set of responses that lead
factor in medicine. It may produce dis- from the cerebral cortex to the hypo-
eases . . . and it may cure them.” thalamus. The hypothalamus, in turn,
71
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
H
ypnotherapy is the use of hypno- founding the School of Nancy in France
sis, trance states, and suggestion and developing the doctrine of sugges-
for therapeutic results. It is used tive therapeutics. Working under him,
73
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: Corbis-Bettmann
A group of French doctors in the 1890s watch a colleague put a patient into a trance.
is trained in using trance to learn and increasingly withdrawn from the out-
practice new skills for alleviating symp- side environment, while suggestions
toms or changing behavior. Suggestions engage more and more of his or her
may be incorporated unconsciously inner awareness, the trance will become
and can be brought to normal con- deeper. The goal of the trance is to allow
sciousness when that part of the mind is one to experience an expanded aware-
ready. ness, unhindered by ordinary limita-
At the start of a typical hypnotherapy tions. In this state intuitive, instinctive,
session, the therapist first will ask ques- and imaginative thoughts and feelings
tions about the client’s problem and are used to address the issue at hand.
what he or she hopes to gain from the Most work is done in light or medium
treatment. After discussing the prob- trances, but catalepsy, a condition
lem, the procedure to be used, and the where the limbs stay where they are
goals to be realized, the therapist then placed, often occurs. Unconscious hand
will explain what is to be done and levitation is a common technique for
answer any questions or concerns. A verifying and deepening the trance
series of instructions will be provided experience. The session is usually
that help guide the person into a ended with suggestions to feel
relaxed trance state. Since hypnosis is a refreshed, alert, and completely ready
learned skill, the induction process is for the rest of the day.
practiced slowly until the person feels The induction procedure is often
comfortable and is able to relax and taught to the client so that it can be
focus. Suggestions then are offered to practiced at home, or used when need-
help with the problem or issue at hand. ed, for example, at times of stress.
As a person’s conscious thinking is Appropriate suggestions are prepared
75
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
So far as I know hypnosis as a human activity has been used since the beginning of the
human race.
—Milton H. Erickson.
76
Interactive Guided ImagerySM
The American Society of Clinical Hypnosis Hammond, D. Corydon, ed. Hypnotic Suggestions
2250 E. Devon Avenue., Suite 336 and Metaphors. New York: W. W. Norton, 1990.
Des Plaines, IL. 60018
Tel: (847) 297-3317 Hunter, Marlene Elva. Creative Scripts for Hyp-
Has sections in major cities in the United States. notherapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1994.
Publishes the newsletter American Journal of Clini-
cal Hypnosis and has regional workshops for pro- Lynn, Steven Jay, and Judith W. Rhue, eds. Theo-
fessionals throughout the year. ASCH provides the ries of Hypnosis: Current Models and Perspec-
most rigorous credentialing process for profession- tives. New York: Guilford Press, 1991.
als.
Phillips, Maggie, and Claire Frederick. Healing the
Divided Self: Clinical and Ericksonian Hyp-
International Medical and Dental Hypnotherapy
notherapy for Post-traumatic and Dissociative
Association
Conditions. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1995.
4110 Edgeland, Suite 800
Royal Oak, MI 49073
Rowley, David T. Hypnosis and Hypnotherapy.
Tel: (248) 549-5594
Philadelphia: Charles Press, 1986.
Toll-free: (800) 257-5467
I
New York, NY 10024
Tel: (212) 873-6459 nteractive Guided ImagerySM is a
Provides a 100-hour comprehensive training pro- method of using the mind to support
gram (chartered by the Board of Regents of New healing and growth. An expert will use
York State) in Ericksonian approaches in psy- certain techniques to help a person
chotherapy and hypnotherapy and a referral ser- enhance his or her awareness of uncon-
vice for the New York tristate area. scious images and help him or her to learn
to effectively interact with them. With the
The Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypno- aid of a guide, people use Interactive Guid-
sis, Inc. ed Imagery sessions to learn to relax,
111 North 49th Street relieve stress, enhance body-mind com-
Philadelphia, PA 19139 munication, sharpen intuition, and
Publishes The International Journal of Clinical become more effective at reaching goals. It
and Experimental Hypnosis. is used to mobilize the latent, innate heal-
ing abilities of the client to support reha-
bilitation, recovery, and health.
Further Reading: Interactive Guided Imagery was cre-
ated by Martin L. Rossman, a medical
Cheek, David B., and L.M. LeCaron. Clinical Hyp- doctor, and David E. Bresler, a health psy-
notherapy. New York: Grune and Stratton, 1968. chologist. Both had been independently
77
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
researching clinical applications of body- certified guide can assist a person with
mind effects in health since the late these approaches.
1960s. In 1982 Dr. Rossman co-created Interactive Guided Imagery seeks to
the Power of Imagination Conference, help a person learn to relax, mentally and
where leading clinicians and researchers physically, relieve pain or other physical
introduced to more than 1,400 health symptoms, stimulate healing responses
professionals nationwide the practical in the body, solve difficult problems,
applications of imagery work. Frequent resolve emotional issues, and envision
requests for clinical training led to the and plan for the future. It may be used for
creation of “clinical guided imagery” self-care or by physicians, psychothera-
courses taught by Drs. Rossman and pists, nurses, and other professionals.
Bresler around the United States from Interactive Guided Imagery can pose
1982 to 1989. In 1989, Dr. Rossman and certain risks when used by poorly
Dr. Bresler founded the Academy for trained personnel. There is a possibility
Guided Imagery. In 1995, the mission of of uncovering traumatic insight or over-
the academy was expanded to include whelming effects. A certified Interactive
teaching the public and organizations to Guided Imagery guide is trained and
work with the imagery methods the prepared to help prevent this whenever
academy had refined over the years. possible, and to help a person work
A session in Interactive Guided through it, should it occur.
Imagery begins with a simple relaxation
technique used to help a client focus his —Martin Rossman, M.D.
or her attention inward. The guide will
then teach skills to help with problem Resources:
solving, conflict resolution, goal setting,
stimulating healing responses in the Academy for Guided Imagery
body, or using personal strengths and P.O. Box 2070
resources most effectively. Participants Mill Valley, CA 94942
are fully aware of their guide’s sugges- Tel: (800) 726-2070
tions and questions, and are engaged in Fax: (415) 389-9342
an active dialogue at all times. In one Sponsors professional training conferences, semi-
typical technique, a client is asked to nars, and retreats, and produces educational books
close his or her eyes to allow the mind to and tapes to teach imagery skills to professionals,
present a picture representing the expe- businesses, and the general public.
rience of his or her problem. The client
may then be guided in an imaginary dia-
Further Reading:
logue with this image to explore and
reveal its meaning and relevance to the
Bresler, David. Free Yourself from Pain. New York:
problem or issue. These images can pro-
Simon & Schuster, 1979.
vide information not only about the
problem, but also about clients’ beliefs, Rossman, Martin. Healing Yourself: A Step-by-Step
hopes, expectations, fears, resources, Program for Better Health Through Imagery.
and solutions. The imagery process is New York: Pocket Books, 1989.
used to reveal the clients’ intuitions
about a problem and its solution.
The guide works to make a person
become more aware of his or her own
thoughts, feelings, and body responses,
allowing him or her to have more con-
PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY
trol of how he or she feels. Many Inter-
P
active Guided Imagery self-care sychoneuroimmunology, also com-
techniques can be learned from books, monly referred to as PNI, is the study
home study programs, and tapes. A of how thoughts and emotions may
78
Psychoneuroimmunology
affect the body’s immune system. The became ill and some died. Researchers
immune system is the body’s elaborate believed that the rats had learned to
and varied defense mechanism that associate the sweet water with the
fights against disease and illness. Advo- effect of the drug, thus proving that a
cates of this discipline have observed thought or mental association could
that the quality of a person’s mental alter an animal’s immune system. This
state, when improved through humor, experiment inspired similar studies
positive thinking, and relaxation, can that concluded that mental attributes,
improve his or her body’s ability to fight such as attitudes, sensations, memo-
disease. Accordingly, stress, grief, and ries, and emotions could change the
pain are seen to cause the body’s immune system’s ability to resist infec-
defenses to weaken. Many supporters of tions.
this theory promote the use of relax- These early experiments developed
ation techniques as a preventive mea- into the field of study known today as
sure for ensuring physical well-being. PNI. Much of current PNI research
Some also see these techniques as a part investigates the physical effects of stress.
of treatment for patients with chronic Some researchers believe that stress,
illnesses. especially over long periods of time, can
weaken the body’s ability to recover
PNI Research from illnesses. To find out the physical
For most of this century, science has effects of stress, researchers have tested
taught that the nervous system, includ- the concentrations of lymphocytes in
ing the brain, and the immune system people’s bodies while they were experi-
function independently. The body’s encing stressful situations. In one of
ability to fight disease was thought to be these experiments, widowers were test-
beyond our conscious control. In the ed during the months following the
1960s, several researchers suggested death of their wives. The widowers’
that there is actually a complex network immune systems were found to be func-
linking these two systems. Nerve cells, tioning more weakly than those of men
for instance, penetrate into the princi- who had not suffered the loss of their
pal organs of the immune system, partner. In another experiment, medical
including the thyroid, spleen, and students’ immune systems appeared to
lymph glands, where lymphocytes, or weaken before they took exams. As a
disease-fighting cells, reside until they result of these studies, some researchers
are called into action. Researchers also claim that reducing stress can help a
discovered that the chemicals nerve person’s immune system.
cells use to communicate with one
another lock onto the membranes of The Benefits of Positive Thinking
lymphocytes; thus the information that The case of noted journalist and com-
the brain is sending and receiving is also mentator Norman Cousins changed the
shared with the immune system. way many people thought about the
The idea of the connection between relationship between body and mind. In
the nervous and immune systems 1976, Cousins was diagnosed with a
gained attention after an experiment in severe, crippling disease of the spine
1975 appeared to confirm that the mind (ankylosing spondylitis), and there was
could affect physical health. Researchers no known therapy that offered any real
fed rats saccharin-flavored water along promise for recovery. Cousins decided to
with a drug that suppressed their confront his gloomy future with humor—
immune functions. Later, when the rats with an intense diet of movies by Laurel
were given the saccharin-flavored and Hardy, the Marx Brothers, and other
water without the drug, the researchers famous comedians—and by prescribing
found that the rats’ immune systems for himself large doses of vitamin C. After
did not recover. As a result, the rats months of laughter and good feelings,
79
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
• Early in the U.S. space program, NASA found that astronauts had reduced white blood
cell counts after returning from space. Many scientists believed that it was a result of
the stress of reentry.
• Subjects who viewed a film of Mother Teresa ministering to the poor were found to
have increased levels of immune chemicals in their saliva.
• Researchers observed that women with breast cancer who attended support groups
tended to survive longer than women who faced their illness alone.
• People who experienced the stress of being responsible for the care of another person
were found to have fewer infection-fighting cells, suffer more upper-respiratory infec-
tions, and take longer to heal wounds.
81
PART V: SENSORY THERAPIES
observed as the precursors and hindrances to healing of the physical ailments pre-
sented by his patients. The thirty-eight remedies and methods he discovered are the
basis of present-day flower remedies.
85
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A
romatherapy is a branch of herbal Three Wise Men presenting gifts of frank-
medicine in which aromatic plant incense and myrrh to the infant Christ are
extracts are inhaled or applied to an example of the ancient ritual use of
the skin as a means of treating illness and aromatic balms.
promoting beneficial changes in mood Modern aromatherapy is based on
and outlook. Though aromatherapy and the research of a French chemist, René-
herbal medicine use many of the same Maurice Gattefosse, who recognized the
plants, in aromatherapy the plants are healing powers of the substances rou-
distilled into oils of exceptional potency. tinely made into perfumes. In 1928, he
As much as three thousand pounds of a published a paper that gave the medici-
plant may be consumed in the produc- nal use of plant oils a name, “aro-
tion of one pound of “essential oil” suit- matherapy,” as well as introducing a set
able for aromatherapy. of principles.
The therapeutic power of such oils is These principles were developed by
generally attributed to their ability to a handful of French and English scien-
influence the workings of the limbic sys- tists, most notably Marguerite Maury
tem, the “switchboard” in the brain that and Jean Valnet, who compiled data and
coordinates mind and body activity. When published a number of books, including
a small amount of oil is rubbed into the Valnet’s classic, The Practice of Aro-
skin or inhaled, it sets off a chain reaction matherapy. But awareness of the
that leads to rapid, profound alteration in benefits of aromatherapy was confined
memory, heart rate, and other bodily to European circles until the advent of
processes. Most recipients choose oils that holistic medicine swept it into promi-
promote relaxation, but certain oils can nence in the United States.
boost energy, and others are thought to By 1990, aromatherapy had sparked a
have pharmaceutical properties. nationwide boom in the sale of incense,
The 1990s saw an explosion of scien- scented candles, and bath oils and
tific interest in all aspects of aromather- became a popular adjunct of massage
apy. It is, however, an ancient mode of and stress-management programs.
medicine that can be traced back to the Today, Egyptian, ayurvedic, Chinese, and
dawn of civilization. Native American practices are all being
studied with a view toward scientific
adaptation. Drug-free treatments for
A Long History shingles and herpes have already been
In ancient Egypt, extracts of plants were
developed, and there are indications
mixed with animal oil to form aromatic
essential oils can also be helpful in treat-
balms thought to be of inestimable
ing colds and similar airborne infectious
worth in proper care of the person’s
diseases, arthritis, and muscle disorders.
whole being, mind, body, and soul. The
balms were rubbed into the skin and
hair for medicinal as well as cosmetic The Power of Fragrance
purposes and burned in religious rituals Aromatherapy is based on the belief that
at temples and tombs. The practice of plants, particularly flowers and herbs,
mummification was itself a type of aro- have healing properties that can be con-
matherapy, since the body was pre- centrated when the plants are distilled
served and purified through the into fragrant oils. The aroma of the oils is
systematic application of balms. by no means simply an attractive extra,
While the ancient Greeks and Romans like the candy coating on a bitter pill.
did not practice mummification, they The limbic system of the brain is highly
employed aromatic balms much as the sensitive to odors and routinely encodes
Egyptians had. Balms were regarded as them into patterns of associations and
86
Aromatherapy
memories that are ever present within that aromatherapy is often described as
the unconscious. Because the limbic an art and a science. The rules governing
system is also a “switchboard” control- the mixing and application of the plant
ling heart rate, blood pressure, breath- extracts have to be interpreted in a way
ing, and hormone levels, aroma that is sensitive to the person’s inner and
provides a subtle yet effective way to outer condition.
induce beneficial changes in the vital
functions of the organism. Using Aromatherapy
When essential oils are rubbed into Aromatherapy can be performed by
the skin, the power of their fragrance is either a practitioner who is likely to spe-
thought to be increased by their ability cialize in both aromatherapy and tradi-
to penetrate bodily tissue and make tional herbal medicine or a massage
swift entry into the bloodstream. In the therapist who includes aromatherapy in
case of eucalyptus, for example, the his or her regimen. It is also possible to
action is said to be anti-inflammatory approach aromatherapy as home care,
in nature. Other oils are believed to using products bought at a holistic health
have antiviral, antibacterial, or detoxi- center or ordered from an aromatherapy
fying powers. institute. Generally speaking, beginners
Approximately three dozen essential are advised to consult an expert before
oils are now in common use among embarking on aromatherapy.
Aromatherapists. Though the oils can be Once the appropriate essential oils
administered separately, a typical treat- have been acquired, they are either
ment entails a blend of oils made to suit inhaled or applied to the skin through one
the physiological and psychological of several methods. The oil can be put on
needs of the individual. It is for this reason a piece of cotton that is held close to the
87
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
ment should ever involve more than a few he Bates method is a system of
drops of essential oil. Overdosage may holistic eye care that uses mental
cause a severe toxic reaction. A physician’s and physical exercises, rather than
guidance is required if the oil is to be corrective lenses, to improve chronic
placed on the tongue or swallowed. problems of vision. It is named after its
founder, the American ophthalmologist
William Bates (1860–1931), who chal-
Resources:
lenged the medical establishment by
ascribing poor sight to habitual misuse
Aromatherapy Seminars
of eye muscles caused ultimately by
3379 S. Robertson Boulevard
emotional stress. Bates believed the
Los Angeles, CA 90034
damaging habits could be unlearned
Tel: (800) 677-2368
through application of a daily routine of
Offers a variety of educational services in aro-
exercises designed to relieve tension in
matherapy, including introductory and advanced
the eye muscles and teach the eyes to
training programs, correspondence courses, and
function in a relaxed, natural way. Con-
videotapes.
temporary vision training makes exten-
sive use of these exercises.
National Association for Holistic Aromatherapy
P.O. Box 17622
Boulder, CO 80398-0622 A Controversial Treatment
Tel: (303) 258-3791 Bates was a prominent ophthalmologist
Provides courses in aromatherapy and a nation- in New York City when he began to doubt
wide referral service for aromatherapists. the fundamental principles of his profes-
sion. Problems of vision were generally
The Pacific Institute of Aromatherapy considered hereditary or part of the aging
P.O. Box 6842 process and treated with prescription
San Rafael, CA 94903 glasses, which did little to halt, let alone
Tel: (415) 479-9121 reverse, the weakening of vision.
A research and teaching institute that offers indi- After several years of research, Bates
vidual and group courses in aromatherapy. published a controversial book, Better
88
Bates Method
Eyesight Without Glasses (1920), in which His primary concern was the func-
he argued that the standard treatment tioning of the six muscles controlling the
was not only based on false premises but shape of the eye. In his opinion, they
actually damaged patients’ ability to determine the eye’s ability to focus and,
recover. Glasses, Bates reasoned, rein- therefore, constitute the all-important
forced bad use of eye muscles, caused link between mind and vision. Accumu-
initially by psychological tension, and lated tension in any of these small mus-
destined their wearers to a lifetime of cles could gradually weaken vision,
impaired vision. The remedial exercises producing nearsightedness, farsighted-
recommended by Bates proved to be as ness, astigmatism, or a condition such
controversial as his attack upon pre- as “lazy eye.” Conversely, Bates argued,
scription glasses and found little support releasing the tension and encouraging
in professional circles. the muscles to regain their innate flexi-
Nonetheless, the Bates method did bility and strength could repair poor
attract followers and had some notable vision.
successes. One of these success stories Bates’s understanding of vision is
was the British writer Aldous Huxley. In based on the behavioral model of
an essay about his experiences with the health, also crucial to the Alexander
treatment, Huxley contended that ques- technique, which credits the organism
tions concerning the “orthodoxy” of the with the ability to heal itself once
Bates method were misinformed. It is, he “blocks” in its natural operation are
explained, “a method of education, fun- removed. To this end, he formulated a
damentally similar to the method of set of eye exercises, commonly referred
education devised and successfully used to as the Bates method, which he
by all the teachers of psycho-physical believed could “reeducate” the muscles
skills for the last several thousand years.” of the eye.
Practitioners believe that the Bates No doubt, the most surprising of
method is a pioneering form of biofeed- Bates’s training exercises is one that turns
back and stress-reduction training. In the vision test chart into a memory device.
addition, Bates is notable as one of the By memorizing the letters and numbers
first doctors to recognize the relation- on the chart, trainees simultaneously
ship between vision and emotional dis- sharpen their acuity of vision and assume
turbance, an insight of vast significance mastery of a source of anxiety. Most of the
to fields ranging from special education exercises were designed to stop the habit-
to sports to the study of art. ual staring Bates identified as a prime
symptom of “blocked” vision. In “shifting,”
Reeducating the Eye the trainee learns to look “through”
According to Bates, “we see very largely objects, while in “swinging,” they move
with the mind and only partly with the their eyes in accordance with a rhythmic
eyes.” This hypothesis led Bates to side-to-side swaying of the body.
regard vision as inherently individual
and variable: mood, memory, health, A Flexible and Demanding Treatment
and circumstances play a role in what Treatment with the Bates method is
and how a person sees. available from optometrists who have
89
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
B
include recently developed techniques ehavioral vision therapy is an opto-
or updated versions of the Bates exer- metric specialty that uses a visual
cises. In most cases, therapy entails training regimen to improve vision
several months of weekly training ses- by strengthening the vital link between
sions and faithful performance of a the mind and the eye complex. In con-
routine of daily exercises at home, trast, surgery for eye-muscle problems
school, or work. targets the physical structure of the eye
while neglecting the mental aspects of
Benefits and Risks seeing and therefore may produce less-
The Bates method is credited with dra- than-desirable results. Behavioral
matic improvement in the vision of optometrists consider environmental
many people required to wear corrective factors that affect vision as well as psy-
lenses because of a common vision chological and physiological factors
problem. By relieving a key pocket of that may contribute to—and result
stress, it is also thought to enhance the from—vision difficulties. With vision
individual’s sense of well-being and training, significant improvements in
sometimes can speed recovery from social, academic, and athletic skills can
other disorders. be achieved.
But the Bates method, with or with-
out a comprehensive vision training The History of Behavioral Vision
program, should not be considered an Therapy
appropriate treatment for cataracts, In the mid-1800s, the French ophthal-
glaucoma, or other diseases of the eye. mologist Emile Javal developed a scien-
Anyone with these or related problems tific and nonsurgical method of visual
is advised to consult a licensed ophthal- rehabilitation known as orthoptics after
mologist. witnessing the horrible outcomes of eye
surgery for both his father and sister.
Orthoptics was designed to treat
Resources: improper eye alignment, specifically
crossed eyes (inward turn), wall eyes
College of Optometrists in Vision Development (outward turn), and lazy eyes (visual
P.O. Box 285 impairment not correctable by glasses).
Chula Vista, CA 91912 Modern vision therapy, an advanced
Tel: (619)425-6191 form of the orthoptic eye exercises
Fax: (619)425-0733 developed by Dr. Javal, deals with a
A professional organization for optometrists spe- much wider variety of visual and per-
cializing in the Bates method and other techniques ceptual problems while also consider-
of vision training. ing their effects on behavior and
performance. By the twentieth century
the practice of orthoptics had pro-
Further Reading: gressed significantly in England and
France.
Bates, W. The Bates Method for Better Eyesight The dawn of orthoptics in the United
Without Glasses. New York: Henry Holt & Co., States occurred in 1912. This was the
1987 (first published 1920). result of the publication of a compre-
hensive text on stereoscopic, or three-
Cheney, E. The Eyes Have It: A Self-Help Manual dimensional (3-D), eye exercises by Dr.
for Better Vision. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weis- David Wells, an ophthalmologist at
er, Inc., 1987. Boston University Medical School. A
90
Behavioral Vision Therapy
large part of this classic text is devoted conditions, diet, and by our own style
to the treatment of eye-muscle prob- of visual perception. An expanded,
lems that are harder to diagnose humanistic approach to vision further
because they are not as easily recog- maintains that total visual perfor-
nized as crossed or wall eyes, which mance cannot be adequately reduced
have a definite observable cosmetic to a single measurement such as 20/20.
component. Wells believed that subtle More traditional methods measure
eye problems were more common than visual performance by reading charts at
the visibly obvious eye turns. Wells pro- a distance of twenty feet, assessing the
posed the idea that having a single ability to focus on stationary images
unified vision of the world through two directly ahead. The rating 20/20 is
eyes is an important and complex psy- equated as “perfect vision.” It has never
chic ability, and that “its inefficiency been scientifically or clinically validat-
could result in an inability to fix one’s ed that 20/20 endows us with the abili-
mind on study and reading.” Wells also ty to see with comfort, efficiency,
strongly felt that the clinical meaning, or while in motion. As the
significance of common eye problems educational consultant Sally Brockett
was largely ignored by practicing oph- has written, “When we speak of vision,
thalmologists. Many modern practi- we are referring to the ability of the
tioners of vision therapy feel that this is brain to organize and interpret infor-
still a problem among ophthalmolo- mation seen so it becomes understand-
gists. able or meaningful. Even individuals
The Optometric Extension Program with good eyesight (20/20 acuity) can
(OEP), postgraduate study dedicated to have undiagnosed vision problems that
education and research in vision, was make it difficult to correctly compre-
established in 1928. OEP represented hend the visual message.” Although
the earliest organized approach to testing for 20/20 is clinically valid, this
orthoptics within the optometric pro- measurement is only a partial assess-
fession, and it is still a vital force in the ment of an extremely complex process.
field of behavioral vision care today. A According to behavioral optometrists,
leading figure in OEP, Dr. A. M. traditional eye-care methods—those
Skeffington, broadened the orthoptic represented by the simple chart test—
approach, giving it a much more holis- need to be supplemented by more
tic base. He introduced the idea that dynamic approaches to testing and
eye-muscle and focusing deficiencies, enhancing visual performance.
rather than developing spontaneously,
may evolve as a person grows and The “Eye Gym”: Experiencing
adapts to the environment. Skeffington
Behavioral Vision Therapy
and other behavioral optometrists also Participants in a behavioral vision thera-
introduced the revolutionary concepts py program have all aspects of their visu-
of reducing and controlling nearsight- al performance tested and trained in an
edness and improving focusing ability “eye gym,” which has an almost carnival-
through vision training. like appearance. It consists of walking
rails, balance boards, trampolines, eye-
A Humanistic Approach to Vision exercise equipment, metronomes,
Modern vision therapy is based on the focusing charts, special training lenses
concept that vision is a dynamic process and prisms, strobe lights, and other
made up of numerous skills that can be light-therapy devices. This equipment is
learned through training. In addition, used to improve visual comfort, efficien-
vision is a process influenced by emo- cy, and performance. Exercises vary in
tions, intellect, posture, breathing, phys- difficulty and frequently involve several
iology, visual working habits, lighting different kinds of sensory information
91
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Optometrist Dr. Joseph Shapiro uses physical behavioral vision therapy exercises to help a
young girl improve her vision.
presented simultaneously to the patient. strengthens the eye and brain connec-
For example, an individual may stand on a tion and can improve performance in
balance board and attempt eye-hand most cases. An example of an optical
coordination tasks while trying to perform device used for a biofeedback session
in time with a metronome. The exercises might be a pair of glasses with one red
are repeated and, over time, they increase lens and one green lens. An individual
in difficulty until the individual gradually wearing these glasses and looking at a
enhances neurological response related to beam of light should perceive only a sin-
vision and establishes good habits. gle light that is a red-green mixture that
Visual biofeedback is commonly results from the brain’s combination of
incorporated into treatment, giving the sensory input received through the red
individual a physiological readout of lens and the green lens. In contrast, an
current performance levels. Often peo- individual who perceives two separate
ple are unaware of the extent, nature, or lights, one red and one green, has dou-
even presence of eye problems. Feed- ble vision. Alternatively, the person who
back indicators show blurring, dou- perceives only one colored light, either
bling, or vanishing of an image. Training red or green, is relying primarily on one
techniques are designed to isolate and eye to see. Now the individual has con-
highlight symptoms of eye dysfunction, crete, understandable feedback that
enabling the individual to better recog- something is wrong, and can start work-
nize, understand, and respond to the ing on consciously changing the incor-
specific features of his or her vision rect response. Through practice, the
problems. The individual is taught to proper response may become naturally
send a conscious message to the eyes to and unconsciously incorporated into
restore the clarity, singleness of vision, the individual’s daily performance.
or presence of the image. This practice Depending on the individual’s level of
92
Behavioral Vision Therapy
—Dr. Joseph Shapiro, Optometrist Cohen, Neville S., and Joseph L. Shapiro. Out of
Sight and into Vision. New York: Simon &
Schuster, 1977.
Resources:
Dawkins, Hazel Richmond, et al. The Suddenly
American Optometric Association Successful Student: A Guide to Overcoming
243 N. Lindbergh Blvd. Learning and Behavioral Problems. Second
St. Louis, MO 63141 revised edition. Santa Ana, CA: Optometric
Tel: (314) 991-4100 Extension Program, 1990.
Fax: (314) 991-4101
Professional society of optometrists. The associa- Flax, Nathan, ed. Vision Therapy and Insurance: A
tion will provide referrals to behavioral Position Statement. New York: State University
optometrists upon request. of New York/State College of Optometry, 1986.
The study of developmental vision, that is, of the development of the faculty of sight,
emerged in the 1950s. The Gesell Institute of Child Development in New Haven, Con-
necticut, sponsored controlled studies of children and served as a training ground for
optometrists in applied research. Working on the premise that newborn children do not
have the visual abilities of adults, researchers at the Gesell Institute tested the eyesight of
infants over a period of time in order to identify the components involved in the devel-
opment of vision.
93
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Keogh, Barbara, and Michelle Pelland. “Vision disturbing thoughts that she was having
Training Revisited.” Journal of Learning Dis- sometimes disappeared suddenly. When
abilities, Vol. 18, No. 4, April, 1985. she consciously brought these thoughts
back, they held none of the previous “hot”
Marcus, Steven E., and Arthur S. Seiderman. 20/20 or negative weight. She later realized that
Is Not Enough: The New World of Vision. New at the time of her original thoughts, her
York: Knopf, 1989. eyes had spontaneously begun a rapid
back-and-forth motion. Dr. Shapiro theo-
Toufexis, Anastasia. “Workouts for the Eyes.” rized that the removal of the upset from
Time, February 13, 1989. the memory might be linked to that move-
ment, and tested her theory as treatment
Wells, David Washburn. Stereoscopic Treatment of for post-traumatic stress disorder. Initial
Heterophoria and Heterotropia. New York: E. B. success in small, controlled studies
Meyrowitz, 1912. encouraged her to pursue research further
and to found the EMDR Institute. Since
1990, more than 22,000 therapists world-
wide have been trained in this method.
E
ry asserts that the brain handles “mem-
ye movement desensitization and ory” as a package of five distinct
reprocessing (EMDR) speeds recov- information components: the picture or
ery from a traumatic event by sepa- image, the thought or auditory bundle, an
rating upsetting memories into basic emotional feeling, a physical sensation,
parts. The therapy typically involves sim- and the belief about oneself that results
ple exercises such as using the eyes to from the event. This information is per-
track a rapidly moving object. While dis- ceived via the senses as what we see, hear,
cussing the upsetting events, these move- smell, touch, and taste. Under normal cir-
ments in the body create a reaction in the cumstances, the brain metabolizes, or
mind, desensitizing the brain to the dis- processes, these five types of information
turbing sensory and emotional aspects of by talking, thinking, and dreaming about
a memory and allowing the sufferer to them. Through these activities, the brain
begin reprocessing that trauma in the sorts the information, storing the valuable
present. Traditional psychotherapy is aspects for easy retrieval and discarding
then used to help the client digest the smaller, insignificant bits of data.
trauma and store it. While the mechanics In traumatic situations, however, this
of EMDR are not fully understood, it has natural process does not always function
gained particular respect for its applica- properly. A malfunction may leave the
tion in cases of post-traumatic stress dis- information in a distressing, “undigest-
order (PTSD), a common condition ed” state. In such cases, the mind locks all
among Vietnam veterans and rape vic- five types of information together, sur-
tims. It can also be used to help process rounding the resulting lump with nega-
less acute traumas such as negative child- tive emotional energy. The event thus
hood experiences, which can lead to poor becomes a blockage in the mental stor-
self-esteem and unhappiness. age system. Any attempt to access infor-
mation from the event stirs the negative
A History of EMDR energy surrounding it. In severe cases,
EMDR emerged from the experiences of this negative energy overwhelms and
Francine Shapiro, Ph.D. While taking a debilitates the sufferer. In these situa-
walk in 1987, Dr. Shapiro noticed that tions, the normal processes of thinking,
94
Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing
talking, and dreaming are inadequate the disturbing event. The practitioner
ways of handling these blockages. Just as then asks the patient to follow the thera-
a cut will not properly heal as long as a pist’s fingers or a light bar with his or her
splinter is still in it, the body’s normal eyes. The patient continues thinking of
processes can, at best, only work around the memory as the practitioner moves
a damaged memory bundle. the fingers or pointer rapidly from side to
EMDR may act as a more intense side. The participants then stop and dis-
version of rapid eye movement (REM) cuss any information or revelations that
sleep, harnessing the body to effect a occurred while the patient’s eyes were
change in the mind. The mechanics of moving. For most people, the traumatic
the EMDR and REM sleep are similar. event feels unexplainably less traumatic
During REM sleep, a dreamer’s eyes and more clear or more distant. The suf-
move rapidly from side to side. Dr. ferer can finally talk with some detach-
Shapiro believes that this eye move- ment about the event, which enables the
ment stimulates links between the two beginning of the healing process.
sides of the brain. Because each side of
the brain serves a different role—the left Risks and Benefits
side is the positive, analytical side, In many case studies, EMDR has helped
while the right side is the less linear, victims of PTSD and other anxiety-rid-
more sensory-oriented side—this link den conditions cope with their condi-
through REM seems to help informa- tions. The therapy is still largely
tion pass between the two sides and be unproved, however, and does not work
processed. Hence, REM is one catalyst with all patients. Ideally it should be per-
for natural memory “digestion.” formed in comfortable, stress-free situa-
Yet normal REM sleep cannot pene- tions and does not affect all people in the
trate some particularly severe hurts. As same way. Additionally, EMDR should
the patient’s unconscious seeks to be performed only by a trained and
access the memory through REM sleep, licensed/certified psychotherapist.
the sleeper’s mind re-creates the painful While the therapy may reduce the emo-
negative sensations that occurred at the tional attachment surrounding an event,
time of the hurt. Once awake, the right the patient is still left with factual mem-
and left sides of the brain are no longer ories of the unpleasant event, which are
able to continue their information pro- best processed through the therapeutic
cessing. The hurt remains locked in the skills of a trained professional.
body and mind.
Just as a car engine must be properly —Barbara Parrett, RN, M.S.
warmed up to tackle steep hills, an
activity of the body—eye movement—
warms the brain to the task of unravel- Resources:
ing even the most dense ball of hurt. It
EMDR Institute, Inc.
is believed that the conscious rapid eye
P.O. Box 51010
movement powerfully ignites one side
Pacific Grove, CA 93950-6010
of the brain, then the other in rapid suc-
Tel: (408)372-3900
cession, until finally both sides churn
Web site: www.emdr.com
together. Once warmed like this, the
Provides information on EMDR.
subconscious is empowered to process
the hurt without undue discomfort to
the patient. The splinter being thus Further Reading:
removed, normal healing begins.
Parnell, Laurel. EMDR : The Revolutionary New
Following the Baton Therapy for Freeing the Mind, Clearing the
A typical EMDR session lasts ninety min- Body, and Opening the Heart. New York : W. W.
utes. The patient is asked to think about Norton & Co., 1997.
95
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Shapiro, Francine, M.D. EMDR: Breakthrough in nature, not in the laboratory. Bach left
Therapy for Overcoming Anxiety, Stress, and his practice and decided to research his
Trauma. New York: Basic Books, 1997. theories. Leaving his practice to
research his theories, he began experi-
———. Eye Movement Desensitization and Repro- menting with various species of plants.
cessing: Basic Principles, Protocols, and Proce-
dures. Guilford, NC: Guilford Press, 1995.
Thirty-Eight Remedies
Believing the greatest healing value
resides in the flowering heads of plants
and trees, the doctor began developing
ways to prepare and administer them.
FLOWER REMEDIES Flowers were picked at various times in
their blooming cycle and floated in a
F
bowl of freshly obtained spring water, in
lower remedies are liquid prepara- direct sunlight. Other flowers were
tions made from the flowering gathered and prepared by boiling them
heads of plants and trees that are in water. These preparations were then
used to deal with emotional and psy- administered in minute doses accord-
chological difficulties. These difficulties ing to the emotional and psychological
include fear, lack of self-confidence, profile of the patient. After years of
jealousy, anger, and resentment, and are research, thirty-eight flowering plants,
believed by alternative health-care pro- trees, and special waters were discov-
fessionals to be one of the root causes of ered, preparations that were found to
physical disorder. have a profound positive effect in a
Flower remedies are not chosen wide range of emotional and psycho-
according to physical ailments but logical difficulties.
instead are selected based on emotional In the last few decades several com-
and psychological difficulties, which panies and researchers have produced
include information on personality and these same thirty-eight flower remedy
behavioral traits. Once administered, it is preparations under different brand
believed that flower remedies trigger a names, and have also produced other
mechanism within the brain that stimu- flower remedy preparations from newly
lates the body’s internal healing process- discovered flowering plants found in
es, eventually resulting in a healthier other parts of the world.
emotional, psychological, and physical Deeply visionary, Dr. Bach wrote:
state. Flower remedies have been used “All emotional, psychological, and
successfully not only on humans but also physical disorder grows out of a conflict
to deal with negative emotional and between our personality and our Soul,”
behavioral traits in animals. and he believed we should regard ill-
ness as a signal that we are out of har-
Nature’s Remedies mony within ourselves.
In the early 1930s Dr. Edward Bach, a Over the past number of years scien-
young British physician, discovered tists have begun to look at just how neg-
that many of his patients displayed var- ative thoughts and emotions affect our
ious emotional and psychological health. Their studies show that if an
difficulties prior to the onset of physi- emotional difficulty is not resolved
cal disease. He also found these same within a reasonable period of time, gen-
difficulties would complicate disease erally from six months to a year, serious
once it manifested, thereby making it internal problems and eventually phys-
more difficult to treat. The doctor’s prior ical disease can develop.
experience with pharmaceutical drugs In early stages we may see the devel-
and their side effects convinced him the opment of functional difficulties, which
answer to this dilemma could be found include predisposition to colds and
96
Flower Remedies
Flower remedies are made from the extract of the flowering heads of plants,
picked in various points in their blooming cycles, with different types of spring
water and a small percentage of alcohol.
other infections, sexual dysfunction, Bach wrote: “The main reason for the
headaches, fatigue, allergies, and diges- failure of modern medicine is that it is
tive problems. These problems, among dealing with results, not causes. . . . Dis-
others, are the first physical warning ease will never be cured or eradicated by
signs that we are out of harmony within. present materialistic methods for the
And if underlying psycho-emotional and simple reason that disease in its origin is
spiritual conflicts are not resolved, phys- not material, [but the] ultimate result
ical disease might result. It is here the produced in the body, the end product of
physician is generally consulted. To this deep and long-acting forces. . .”
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
98
Hydrotherapy
H
ydrotherapy is the treatment of cold water applications, and soon
injury or disease with the applica- began treating others with great suc-
tion of water in one of its three cess. German priest Father Sebastian
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: Corbis-Bettmann
Kneipp (1821–1897) was cured of tuber- exerts its greatest influence on the ner-
culosis after he had begun immersing vous system. John Harvey Kellogg
himself in cold water a few times a (1852–1943) established the Battle Creek
week. His book My Water Cure (1890) is Sanitorium in Michigan, where hundreds
a classic in the field of hydrotherapy. of patients were treated with hydrothera-
William Winternitz (1834–1912) was a py, diet, and exercise. Dr. Kellogg wrote
prominent physician who was the first Rational Hydrotherapy (1900), which
to demonstrate that hydrotherapy remains the most comprehensive text
100
Hydrotherapy
Photo: Corbis-Bettmann
In Bath, England, the same hot springs discovered by Romans in the first century C.E. are still enjoyed for
their therapeutic value.
Hydrotherapy is a holistic approach to healing. It holds that the body-mind has its own
self-regulating and healing processes and mechanisms. By its gentle, noninvasive tech-
niques, it aims to stimulate these innate healing capacities.
102
Light Therapy
L
ight therapy is a general term for Niels R. Finsen received the Nobel Prize
therapies that use the entire in medicine for establishing that visible
electromagnetic spectrum or wavelengths of blue-violet and invisible
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The Cameron-Spitler syntonizer, circa 1935, was one of the early syntonic optometry pho-
totherapy devices.
ultraviolet, when isolated and focused have “heliotherapy wards” that used
on the body, could cure tuberculosis of artificial light for the treatment of car-
the skin and other infectious conditions, diovascular and degenerative disorders.
such as measles and scarlet fever. Finsen After the development of the first
also effectively treated smallpox by using antibiotics in 1938, interest in light ther-
red light (filtered sunlight or artificial apy and other natural healing methods
light that excludes the heating rays of waned. However, in the 1940s Harry
infrared and the burning rays of blue- Spitler, a medical doctor and an
violet and ultraviolet). Psychiatric appli- optometrist, contributed to the develop-
cations of light therapy began in the ment of light therapy with his investiga-
1880s, when mental hospitals in Europe tion of syntonic optometry. The term
and South America routinely calmed agi- syntonic comes from a Greek word
tated patients with artificial blue light meaning “to bring into balance.”
and energized depressed and unrespon- Spitler’s treatment used rhythmic flash-
sive patients with red light applied ing of colored light into the eyes to
through the eyes and on the body. improve visual acuity and coordination
Throughout the opening decades of as well as energize and relax the auto-
the twentieth century, therapeutic sun- nomic nervous system. The patient’s
bathing, a method known as the “sun response varies with different flash rates
cure,” was a widely prescribed medical and colors. He found that warm colors—
treatment for tuberculosis, cholera, red, orange, and yellow—were invigorat-
viral pneumonia, bronchial asthma, ing, while cool colors—green, blue, and
gout, jaundice, and severe wounds. At violet—were relaxing. Spitler’s pioneer-
the same time, advances in the design ing work demonstrated that light enter-
of electric lighting made it possible for ing the eyes profoundly impacts the
hospitals in America and Europe to autonomic nervous system and the
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Light Therapy
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
tend to slow down and relax, are flashed states of consciousness. Clients look into
slowly (six to twelve times a minute) into the light and can easily and rapidly see
the eyes of a fast neurological individual. their unconscious material projected
Conversely, a slow neurological individ- before them. By selecting specific colors
ual is treated with rapid flashes (thirteen and specific strobe rates, desired results
to sixty times per minute) of red, orange, can be targeted. BSP seeks to release
and yellow. The typical course of treat- repressed traumas or other memories and
ment entails twenty or more half-hour emotions that may be the root cause of ill-
sessions of light therapy. ness. It may be part of treatment for vari-
These techniques lead to an increase ous psychological problems, including
in the patient’s visual field and to a reduc- depression, anxiety, panic attacks, obses-
tion of his or her blind spot, indicating sive compulsive disorder, addiction, eat-
that more light energy is reaching the ing disorders, closed brain injuries, and
visual cortex and other key brain struc- dissociative identity disorder.
tures. Besides visual enhancement, the Bright Light Therapy. This common
types of individuals who appear to be form of light therapy was developed in
helped by neurosensory development the 1980s to treat the condition known
are those with chronic fatigue, menstrual as winter depression, or seasonal affec-
difficulties, thyroid problems, insomnia, tive disorder (SAD). More recently this
depression, and mental inefficiency. therapy has been successfully applied
Brief Strobic Phototherapy. Like neu- to a wide variety of psychiatric condi-
rosensory development, this method also tions, including sleep difficulties, food
uses the photron. However, the treat- and substance addictions, jet lag,
ment goal is different. It is used to help Alzheimer’s disease, and attention
the client access his or her thoughts and deficit disorder in children.
feelings and work on the emotional com- The treatment itself is used either
ponents of physical illness. Brief strobic under professional guidance or for self-
phototherapy (BSP) was pioneered by Dr. care applications for less serious stress
Jacob Liberman, an optometrist, and Dr. symptoms. The light is usually viewed at
Steven Vazquez, a medical psychothera- home using a portable light box designed
pist. In this system the psychotherapist to fit on a desk or table. The participant
uses strobing colored light to facilitate sits with his or her head and upper body
awareness and resolution of the client’s facing about three feet from the light box
thoughts, feelings, and memories. and focuses his or her eyes upon a surface
Generally the therapist chooses a color illuminated by the light, not the light itself.
and flash rate that is emotionally evoca- The full-spectrum fluorescent light
tive and uncomfortable to the client. Vari- may be as much as twenty times stronger
ous colors tend to access different than normal room light and is usually the
psychological content and are selected most effective when it replicates the qual-
according to the client’s objectives. This ity of natural light just before dawn or sun-
stimulation is used to facilitate a partici- set. The intensity of the light and the
pant’s awareness of unresolved, uncon- scheduling and length of exposure are
scious thoughts, feelings, and sensations. determined on a case-by-case basis. Daily
At the start of a typical session, the thera- exposure in the early morning for thirty
pist uses flashes of colored light to put a minutes to several hours is often recom-
person into a trancelike state. Then the mended, and an additional late-afternoon
client engages in a variety of psychological session may be prescribed. Bright light
techniques to help facilitate emotional therapy is usually confined to the fall and
processing, such as talking, deep breath- winter months, when SAD patients expe-
ing, eye movement, awareness of physical rience severe depression, lethargy, fatigue,
sensations, and recollection of dreams. decreased energy and activity level, anxi-
The rhythmic colored lights stimulate ety, irritability, lowered sex drive, avoid-
brain wave patterns that evoke different ance of social activities, sadness,
106
Light Therapy
concentration and sleep difficulties, inter- before and after treatments by taking his
personal difficulties, carbohydrate and or her pulse or by examining a kirlian
sweet cravings, and weight gain. Bright photograph, a black-and-white image in
light therapy is usually discontinued in the which the body’s radiating energy
spring as the days get longer and brighter. appears. Colorpuncture is often used in
Once a satisfactory regimen is established, place of acupuncture, especially among
it must be maintained to receive maxi- children or adults who are frightened by
mum benefits. Bright light therapy relieves needles. It has the same applications as
the symptoms of SAD; it does not cure the acupuncture, including the treatment of
disorder. respiratory and gastrointestinal infec-
Colorpuncture. This discipline uses a tions, neurological and muscular difficul-
light pen to apply different frequencies of ties, visual and learning problems, and
visible light on the acupoints and meridi- pain. It may be used for stimulation of the
ans, where needles are placed in a tradi- immune system and as adjunctive thera-
tional acupuncture treatment. This py for those with mental disorders and
procedure was developed by German addictions.
naturopath Peter Mandel in the early There are many other medical appli-
1970s. A colorpuncture therapist balances cations of light, including ultraviolet
one’s vital energy by either stimulating or (UV) sterilization of human blood (pho-
sedating it with light. Different colors have toluminesence) and the UV treatment
different effects. Warm colors, such as red of psoriasis and infant jaundice. The
and yellow, are used to add energy while photodynamic treatment of cancer uses
cool colors, such as green and blue, are light to activate cancer medications and
used to subtract energy. A therapist may guide them to diseased tissue. Some
monitor the status of a client’s energy flow types of light therapy, such as bright
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
light therapy, are becoming more popu- Health Institute of North Texas
lar in the medical community and may P.O. Box 820963
be used either alone or in combination North Richland Hills, TX 76182
with psychiatric medication. Others, Tel: (817) 268-7050
such as syntonic optometry, neurosen- Fax: (817) 285-7729
sory development, and brief strobic e-mail: Vazquez@txcc.net
photostimulation, are gaining accep- Holistic treatment center, founded by psychologist
tance as research accumulates. Dr. Steven Vazquez, offering treatment and educa-
tion on brief strobic phototherapy (BSP).
Cautions
In over two decades of experimental trials, Society for Light Treatment and Biological
Bright light therapy, neurosensory devel- Rhythms
opment, brief strobic phototherapy, and 10200 West 44th Avenue, # 302
colorpuncture have been consistently Wheatridge, CO 80033-2840
found to be safe and effective when used Tel: (303) 424-3697
under the supervision of a competent and Fax: (303) 422-8894
licensed health professional. However, an e-mail: sltbr@resourcenter.com
overexposure to bright full-spectrum light Web site: www.websciences.org/sltbr
can produce negative side effects, includ- Publishes newsletter on medical research on the
ing eye irritation, headaches, insomnia, use of full-spectrum and colored light.
and agitation. These can be decreased by
reducing exposure time and by sitting far- Universal Light Technologies
ther from the light source. Strobic colored P.O. Box 520
light stimulation can temporarily stimu- Carbondale, CO 81623
late a “healing crisis,” a temporary exacer- Toll-free: (800) 81 LIGHT
bation of old emotional conflicts or Fax: (303) 927-0101
physical difficulties in the process of Web site: www.ulight.com
releasing old traumas. Organization founded by optometrist Dr. Jacob
Each individual’s reaction to light Liberman that offers treatment and education
through the eyes and on the body is with strobic colored light and other modes of light
unique. One in three thousand people therapy.
can experience photosensitive seizures,
brought on by flashing lights such as Winter Depression Program
those found in video games, televisions, Columbia Presbyterian Medical Center
and nightclubs. Individuals with a his- 722 W. 168th Street
tory of severe emotional difficulties or New York, NY 10032
visual pathology should not begin pho- Tel: (212) 960-5714
totherapy without consulting their Web site: www.cet.org/cet1996
licensed health care professional. Clinical program for treatment of SAD headed by
Dr. Michael Terman, pioneer bright light
—Dr. Brian J. Breiling researcher; also provides information and referrals
for light therapy.
Resources:
Further Reading:
College of Syntonic Optometry
Betsy Hancock, DO Breiling, Brian, ed. Light Years Ahead: The Illus-
21 East 5th St. trated Guide to Full Spectrum and Colored Light
Bloomsburg, PA 17815 in Mindbody Healing. Berkeley, CA: Celestial
Tel: (717) 784-2131 Arts Press, 1996.
Organization of optometrists who incorporate syn-
tonic light therapy into their work; offers a referral Liberman, Jacob. Light: Medicine of the Future.
service. Santa Fe, NM: Bear & Co, 1991.
108
Sounding
S
ounding, originally known as ton- drive others in the room crazy. Once we
ing, is a discipline that developed get to school, we are told to sit down, be
from the belief that being heard is quiet, and earn our education. To sit
one of the greatest needs of all people. down and not be able to express our
No matter what our age, it is important thoughts freely with the safety of being
that we are heard. Often we do not have understood and heard is inhibiting to
the right words that allow others to our minds, bodies, and emotions.
understand exactly what we mean. Campbell believes that one of the
Sounding strives to improve how peo- great purposes of education is that we
ple use their own voice and listening learn to express our thoughts. Some-
abilities in order to help them release times our thoughts come out in creative
many things that are not spoken and art forms like music, dance, and paint-
keep us from feeling as if we are in real ing. Other times our expression comes
communication with the world. in writing, and not speech. But it is our
speech that allows the world communi-
ty and our social peers to immediately
Discovering the Power of the Voice know what we are thinking.
Sounding was developed by Don Yet, says Campbell, we are taught
Campbell as a result of nearly fifteen that we do not want the world to know
years of studying voice. Focused on everything we are thinking. And so we
how sound and music affect learning put on a mask, a persona, or a personal-
and health, he created a series of exer- ity that keeps our inner thoughts from
cises meant to improve how people going to the outside world. Yet often
communicate with themselves and the when we do not learn to express our-
world around them. In 1988, he found- selves and sound our minds and bodies,
ed the Institute for Music, Health, and by the time we are finished with college,
Education in Boulder, Colorado, and we spend a life in tension, repression,
served as the Executive Director until and actually harm our body by the
1995. Campbell has written several stress of not releasing our sounds and
books and produced cassette tapes that our inner thoughts.
describe his theories and outline a pro- Learning to speak our mind, to
gram of sounding exercises. He has become aware of our body, and to let our
traveled to forty countries teaching emotions tell the truth is a lifelong educa-
musicians, teachers, physicians, thera- tion. Learning to speak involves learning
pists, and business trainers the basic to listen. Listening is not just hearing. It is
principles and exercises of sounding. the ability to focus on outer information
Sounding is now being used in hospi- and attend and reach out into the world.
tals, schools, and educational centers By improving our own listening to the
throughout the world to release stress. point that we genuinely realize that other
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
people may not have the right words or Sounding is used as a complemen-
the right timing to best communicate tary therapy to a variety of different
with us, we develop a little more patience. physical and emotional therapies.
Because the exercises can be fitted to
the participant’s schedule of treatment,
Sounding: A Complementary Therapy
sounding is often used as a warm-up
Sounding is a way in which you can bring
exercise in schools, clinics, and hospi-
about changes in your vocal production,
tals for other activities or therapies.
self-expression, and listening abilities by
spending just five to eight minutes releas-
ing sounds from your body. It is important Everyone Can Benefit from Sounding
to remember that just a gentle hum while Sounding practitioners believe that one of
driving the car, or even while reading and the strengths of this therapy is that every-
studying, is used to provide an enormous one can use it with just a relaxed jaw.
release of energy. Toning, which actually Whether you are a nurse, doctor, therapist,
means elongating vowel sounds with a or teacher, going back to our primal, nat-
relaxed chin and jaw, relaxes the whole ural sound can tap elegant, natural path-
body and mind. In six weeks of humming ways to enlighten our mind and body.
or toning, Campbell believes that a per- —From an interview with Don Campbell
son can awaken to a new world of inner
massage and vibration.
As a clinician, Campbell has worked Resources:
with thousands of people to release
their voice by toning. As Campbell Mozart Effect Center
states: “The left brain may think this is P.O. Box 4179
overly simple and perhaps trivial. But Boulder, CO 80306
the rest of the brain and the body enjoys Tel: (303) 440-8046
the vibration and expression.” Web site: www.mozarteffect.com
Let’s begin with a simple exercise. Put your hand to your cheek and begin to hum. HMM-
MMMMMMMMMMMM. Now, that does not seem to be a great earth-shaking event.
But, if you close your eyes and put both hands on your cheeks and repeat the same hum
for a long breath, you will realize that both your cheeks are vibrating. If you bring one
hand to the center of your chest and another hand to the top of your head, you are going
to feel different vibrations.
Each vowel has altogether different places where it massages the body. Toning, or
sounding, is literally the only way you can massage your body from the inside out.
Begin to experiment with different vowel sounds. The AH is very relaxing and may make
you groggy or sleepy. The EH is charging and brings your attention to center. The EE is
very sharp and works almost like sonic caffeine upon the body. The HMM is a sound that
allows you to feel your body very effectively. And the OUU is a soothing, cool sound. Pro-
longing these sounds for five to ten minutes with your eyes closed and sitting down
brings your body into alignment. This is not so metaphysical. It is actually quite physio-
logical. Your brain waves balance left and right, your skin temperature increases, your
muscles relax, your breath increases, and your heartbeat stabilizes. It is a very healthy
oasis in the middle of a busy day.
110
Tomatis Method
T
he Tomatis method is a form of Tomatis then developed a new disci-
sound therapy discovered by Dr. pline he called audio-psycho-phonology,
Alfred Tomatis in the early 1950s. or APP. It is a science that acknowledges
The Tomatis method is not a therapy for the connection between ear, voice, and
individuals who are severely hearing- psychology. It deals with the functional,
impaired; instead, it is meant for indi- social, and psychological factors that
viduals who have lost the ability to impact listening, communication, lan-
listen clearly to the world around them. guage, motor control, learning, and
The therapy works to overcome various health.
health problems that can affect an indi- Tomatis has published fourteen
vidual’s ability to listen and communi- books and more than fifty articles that
cate with others, such as childhood ear document his research and the neuro-
infections, stress, accidents or traumas, physiology and psychology of listening.
or major lifestyle disruptions. Consid- Three of his books have been translated
ered listening training, Tomatis therapy into English: The Conscious Ear, The Ear
is accomplished with the aid of an elec- and Language, and Education and
tronic ear, which is a specialized device Dyslexia.
that trains the ear to block out disorder
and static. The Tomatis method is also The Philosophy of the Tomatis
used to improve vocal ability, heighten Method
creativity and concentration, improve The Tomatis method makes a crucial
reading levels, and lessen stress in both distinction between listening and hear-
children and adults. ing. Listening is defined as the active
111
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Paul Madaule, director of the Listening Centre in Toronto, uses the Tomatis method
to help a client adjust his posture to improve listening and speaking abilities.
ability, intention, and desire to focus on difficulty listening to the world around
sounds we want to analyze and to reject him or her, this dysfunction could result
the ones we do not want. Hearing, on from a health problem like childhood
the other hand, is simply the passive ear infections, accident, trauma, a
reception of sound. Listening is a skill major lifestyle disruption, or stress.
that can be both lost and recovered. Our With the help of the electronic ear, the
ability and desire to listen can be poorly ability (or disability) to listen is some-
developed, diminished, or even halted thing that can be identified, improved,
at any stage of our lives. If a person has and/or corrected.
112
Tomatis Method
By training the ear and the mind to based on the listener’s progress. Parents
listen, the Tomatis method is expected report on the changes they observe in
to improve one’s motivation to commu- their children. Adults provide reports on
nicate and learn. changes they observe in their own voices,
listening, stress levels, creativity, atten-
Experiencing the Tomatis Method tion, organization, spatial awareness,
The program begins with an initial posture, ability to tune out distractions,
assessment. That is followed by a con- desire to express themselves, musical
sultation to review the results and the ability, and reading ability. Other struc-
recommendation of a specific program. tured and unstructured behavioral
Once the listening training begins, the observations during the program pro-
individual listens for two hours each vide feedback, as do the reports of any
day. A typical program includes inten- other professionals working with the
sive sessions (one session per day for individual, such as speech pathologists,
fifteen days, eight days, and eight days psychologists, teachers, physicians, and
with breaks of three to six weeks sepa- occupational therapists.
rating the intensives). Longer programs
are recommended when severe or long- The Benefits of the Tomatis Method
standing problems exist. The Tomatis method can be helpful for
The Tomatis method is provided people of all ages and with many types
over an intense but relatively short time of problems, including those involving
span. Sounds are presented through learning, language, social interaction,
special headsets with bone and air con- attention deficit, voice, speech, motor
duction. First, the listener does passive control, dyslexia, balance, posture,
sessions of hearing sounds modified by rhythm, and low motivation. Tomatis
the electronic ear. The types of sounds found that these types of disorders are
used in this phase may include Mozart, almost always affected by sound stimu-
Gregorian chant, and the filtered voice lation.
of the patient’s mother. As soon as the
foundation and desire for language and —Dr. Billie Thompson
learning appear, active sessions of
repeating sounds (humming, words,
phrases, and sentences) and reading Resources:
aloud begin. A microphone connected
to the electronic ear allows the patient Sound Listening and Learning Center (Tomatis
to listen to his or her own voice. While Center)
listening, children and adults are 2701 E. Camelback Rd., Suite 205
encouraged to draw or paint, work puz- Phoenix, AZ 85016
zles, play games, and relax. Tel: (602) 381-0086
Each listener receives a reassessment Fax: (602) 957-6741
and consultation at the start and end of e-mail: drbthmpsn@aol.com
each intensive. These monitor changes Provides information on Tomatis training and
and allow for the program to be adjusted practitioners.
Tomatis in Practice
One of Tomatis’s experiments dealt with children who had learning disabilities. During
these tests, he recreated for these children the sound of a mother’s voice to her unborn
child. One autistic child who hadn’t spoken since he was four began to babble like a ten-
month-old infant. Tomatis realized how important his method was.
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Further Reading:
114
PART VI: SUBTLE ENERGY
PRACTICES
Do-In • Feng Shui • Magnet Therapy • Polarity Therapy • Qigong • Reiki •
SHEN® • Therapeutic Touch
D
o-in is the Japanese name for an minds. These regimens, known as do-
ancient exercise system that in in Japan and tao-yin in China, were
brings the mind and body into then written or told to others. New
concert with the inherent, natural forms developed in response to the
rhythms of human life. This self-help changing needs of the people. Chi
program, which includes self-acupres- kung and t’ai chi ch’üan, which share
sure, massage, breathing techniques, many similarities to the original do-in
and physical exercise, enhances the routines, can be viewed as later forms
flow of vital life energy in the body. Do- of do-in. Many other Asian disciplines,
in, however, is more than just relearn- including yoga, karate, judo, aikido,
ing ancient lessons. It is the art of and kung fu, also make use of basic
unlearning the artificial habits that we theories of do-in.
are taught in modern life and a return Michio Kushi, a leading pioneer of
to an earlier, more instinctual life. the American natural foods move-
ments, first introduced do-in to the
United States. As part of “Macrobi-
The Return to Ancient Habits otics,” Dr. Kushi’s system for practicing
The first mention of do-in appears in
a more natural and balanced lifestyle,
the most famous medical treatise of
do-in exercises are used to comple-
ancient China, The Yellow Emperor’s
ment a natural diet of grains, beans,
Classic, or Nei Ching. This third-centu-
vegetables, and other natural foods.
ry BCE book alludes to a legend in
which men and women lived as gods,
enjoying a healthy, long life with The Theory of Do-In
incredible physical, mental, and spiri- Several years ago, researchers filmed
tual powers. According to the medical the movements of sleepers at night.
sage Chi Po, the people of this time Afterward, when the tapes were sped
lived in a balance typified by the two up, the tossings and turnings of sleep-
complementary energies of life, yin ers in fact resembled a carefully chore-
and yang. Through mental discipline ographed dance. Practitioners of do-in
and careful attention to diet and other describe this “dance” as an instinctual
bodily needs, these people were able to version of do-in, carried out by the
live in harmony with nature and thus subconscious mind during sleep.
attain health and longevity. The movement of humankind
As men and women moved into civ- toward civilization was a movement
ilized communities, these natural ways away from a more natural life. As peo-
of eating and living were forgotten. The ple were forced to live according to a
special powers that do-in exercises “civilized” schedule and ignore their
(which resemble yoga postures, breath- body’s urges to eat, sleep, and exercise
ing, and meditative practices) were at will, the visceral, instinctual nature
believed to have brought—extra-long of people was suppressed and weak-
life and the ability to raise the dead, ened. Natural movements were sup-
walk on water, foresee the future, com- pressed and forgotten. Still,
municate telepathically, and control practitioners of do-in believe that they
the weather, among others—were lost remain in all of us. Thus, do-in move-
as well. ments do not need to be taught so
According to do-in lore, Taoist sages much as released.
in the mountains of India, China, Korea,
and Japan preserved the ancient forgot- Experiencing Do-In
ten movements and practices. These Do-in comprises a regimen of many
sages, or sen-nin, developed systematic different exercises. Do-in practices
118
Feng Shui
F
encouraged to achieve proper tech-
nique and emphasis. eng shui is an ancient Chinese
philosophy and spiritual practice
of arranging environments, based
—John Kozinski on the idea that all living things in the
For the sen-nin, do-in involved eight to ten hours daily of rigorous exercise under the
guidance of an experienced teacher. In order to follow this extreme lifestyle, the sen-nin
lived in the mountain regions, and followed a special diet consisting of wild plants, such
as grains, seeds, fruits and bark. Later, aspects of the practice were incorporated into
Chinese t’ai chi ch’üan, as well as acupuncture and acupressure.
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
universe are affected by the forces of people in China have been hesitant to
nature in their environments. Feng shui accept its principles and practices. The
practitioners believe that by properly suppression of feng shui in China pre-
designing certain environments, they vented it from being integrated with
can direct the energy in all living things, contemporary beliefs and needs, mak-
known as chi, in a way that promotes ing it appear archaic and superstitious.
harmony, prosperity, and good health. However, as a growing number of
designers and architects in Asia and in
The History of Feng Shui the United States discover these tradi-
The practice of feng shui began in tional practices, the popularity of feng
China more than 3,000 years ago. It was shui is being renewed and spread
first used to locate grave sites that worldwide.
would bring good luck for the spirit of
the deceased and descendants who Principles of Feng Shui
believed that their ancestors’ spirits According to traditional Chinese philos-
continued to affect them. Then farmers ophy, the earth emanates an energy
used it to find the best locations to called chi, which if weakened or inter-
plant crops and build homes. They fered with could be devastating to a per-
studied the land to observe how the son or community. According to this
forces of nature, particularly those of philosophy, chi moves through every
wind and water, interacted. By observ- object, creature, and space like the flow
ing the natural properties of the land of blood through the body or a river
and how it was shaped by the forces of through a landscape. Feng shui is used
nature, they tried to discern how the chi to ensure that buildings are placed and
was flowing in that area and how they interior environments are designed in a
could interact with it to achieve favor- way that does not aggravate or disrupt
able results for their crops. Later, vil- this flow of energy.
lages, towns, and cities were built using This view of the relationship
these principles. Europeans first learned between human beings, vital life energy,
about feng shui practices in the nine- and their environments is based pri-
teenth century through British mis- marily on two Chinese concepts: the
sionaries’ accounts of Chinese society Tao and yin and yang. The Tao, which
and beliefs. may be translated as “the path” or “the
In early Chinese societies, feng shui way,” refers to the ever constant pat-
was practiced by experts in astrology, terns of change in the basic elements of
numerology, and supernatural forces. nature, of which human beings are an
These respected individuals came to be intrinsic part. This concept is the core of
known as “geomancers.” When a person Taoism, a religion characterized by its
wanted to build a home, farm, road, reverence for nature. According to Tao-
temple, or find a grave site, a geo- ism, human beings should seek to
mancer was consulted for his under- observe patterns of nature, such as the
standing of feng shui. He would make changing seasons or transitions
important decisions about the proper between night and day, and put their
location and design to ensure the most lives in a harmonious relationship with
beneficial flow of chi. these patterns. Resisting the natural
The social importance of feng shui course of the Tao will only cause
persisted in China until the late 1960s, difficulties and misfortune.
when China began its Cultural Revolu- The movement of the Tao is imaged
tion, which abolished many elements of as a constant dance between yin and
traditional culture, including feng shui. yang, the two basic complementary
Although it has remained popular in energies in nature. Yin energy is charac-
Hong Kong, its practice in China is only terized by its dark, cool, caring, and
recently being restored. However, many receptive properties. Taoists observe
120
Feng Shui
N
Career
Foundation
Water
Ear
Black
Helpful People Knowledge
Travel Culture
Father Spirituality
Head KAN Hand
Gray Blue
CHYAN GEN
Future Health
Creativity Family
W Children
Metal
DWEI JEN Friends
Wood
E
Mouth Foot
White Green
KUEN HSUN
LI
Marriage
Wealth
Relationship
Expansion
Mother
Hip
Organs
Purple
Pink Fame
Rank
Fire
Eye
Red
S
The ba-gua in feng shui.
yin energy in water; soft, flowing fabrics balance of yin and yang energy and
such as silk; and cool colors such as unobstructed pathways for the chi to
blues and purples. Yang energy is char- flow between them. The building will be
acterized by its light, warm, straight, situated in the landscape with respect
and active qualities. Wind, wood, to the flow of wind and water. Interiors
straight objects such as knives or will be created by the careful selection
swords, and vibrant saturated colors and placement of walls, doorways, and
such as reds and yellows exhibit higher windows in order to respect the flow of
degrees of yang energy. chi and the balance of yin and yang in
According to the principles of feng the building materials. Finally, the col-
shui, a healthy environment will ors and materials of the objects in a
acknowledge the Tao by a harmonious room will also be selected with respect
121
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
for the balance, harmony, and flow of by wind chimes, bells, or recorded
the forces of nature. music. Wind chimes are often used
by feng shui to draw good chi from
The Ba-Gua and Feng Shui Cures outside into a home.
To design a home or office properly • Living items—These include plants,
according to the principles of feng shui, trees or flowers (real or realistic),
the design, materials, and function of aquariums, or fishbowls. Plants are
every area should be adjusted to match used to generate chi. Fish symbolize
the occupants’ needs with the ba-gua. money and fishbowls are often used
The ba-gua is an eight-sided “compass” in homes and businesses settings to
that matches a specific color and bring wealth.
human need or desire with each of the • Moving objects—Moving objects are
eight directions according to principles used to stimulate chi. Motion may be
derived from ancient Chinese astrolo- produced by mobiles, fountains,
gy, geometry, and mathematics. The windmills, whirligigs, or windsocks.
ba-gua is used to identify areas where Objects that are naturally powered,
the flow of chi or the balance of yin and such as these, are preferred.
yang creates favorable or unfavorable • Heavy objects—Heavy objects have
conditions. Yang is most concentrated the opposite effect from moving
in the south, and yin is most concen- objects. They are used to introduce
trated in the north. The eight directions stillness in areas where chi moves too
of the ba-gua and the associated colors quickly. These may be large stones,
and human needs are: heavy furniture, or statues.
• Electrically powered objects—The
South (Li ): fame, red
electricity that powers televisions,
Southeast (Hsun): wealth, purple
computers, stereos, or air condition-
East ( Jen): family, green
ers affects the flow of chi. Since the
Northeast (Gen): knowledge, blue
energies may conflict, a space
North (Kan): career, black
designed according to feng shui will
Northwest (Chyan): helpful people/trav-
proportion the use of electricity to
el, gray
balance the two energies. When
West (Dwei): children/future/creativity,
properly distributed, electricity may
white
also stimulate chi.
Southwest (Kuen): marriage/relation-
• Straight lines—These are usually
ship, pink
bamboo flutes but may also include
However, for spaces that do not easily swords, scrolls, and fans. The straight
align with the ba-gua, feng shui details a lines in these objects are used to
set of “cures” to remedy disturbances to direct chi to a desired location. Flutes
the flow of chi. There are eight basic cures: are popular cures because they may
be arranged to resemble the octago-
• Light—In addition to electric lights,
nal shape of the ba-gua.
this category consists of objects
• Colors—Colors are used for their
capable of light reflection and refrac- symbolic value within the ba-gua.
tion, including mirrors, leaded glass, When designing a room, a person
and crystals. Mirrors are frequently may emphasize the colors that corre-
used in rooms designed according to spond to a desired direction.
feng shui. They may be aimed to
deflect the flow of chi away from an
area or used to enhance chi by Practicing Feng Shui
reflecting a pleasing image. Feng shui may be used to develop the
• Sound— Sound is thought to set static proper placement of a building in a
chi in motion. A room is filled with landscape or to design the interior and
sound to radiate the chi throughout exterior walls, doors, and windows of a
the space. Sound may be produced building. It is also often used to design
122
Feng Shui
individual rooms in a way that will go through each of the client’s rooms
benefit the people who use them. The and discuss positioning of important
ba-gua is used to identify the direction objects in the room such as the bed,
that represents a principle, such as desk, couch, artworks, plants, and col-
knowledge or fame, that a person wants ors to create the best possible environ-
to change. Then, feng shui cures are ment to enhance or change the desired
used to stimulate the flow of chi in that aspect.
area. For example, a person who wants
to design a room to benefit his or her Benefits
family will see that “family” is located in Although feng shui can be used simply
the east on the ba-gua. He or she will to bring beauty and serenity to an envi-
see if any barriers are cutting off the ronment, it is also used to bring benefits
flow of chi to the east in the room. The to many aspects of a person’s life. A per-
ba-gua associates the color green with son who wants to improve his or her
the family, so the room will be designed fortune in business, relationships, or
with green objects. A plant may be family may use feng shui to be sure that
placed next to the east wall to further chi is flowing properly in the corre-
stimulate the chi. sponding directions of his or her home
A person may be able to use feng or business environment.
shui without hiring a consultant. There Today, feng shui is used in both per-
are a number of how-to books on feng sonal and professional settings. Several
shui that offer some basic lessons. How- companies in the United States and Asia
ever, a person who wants to employ use feng shui to design office spaces,
more complex aspects of feng shui may hoping to increase their fortune in busi-
consult an expert. When people consult ness. Service industries, like restaurants
feng shui experts to design their homes, and hotels, have used feng shui to make
they may be asked about their lives and clients feel more comfortable and will-
what they would like to enhance or ing to spend more money. As its popu-
change. The practitioner and client will larity grows, feng shui is changing the
According to feng shui, it is very important that furniture and objects are properly
placed in each room. There are specific guidelines for essential parts of a home, includ-
ing the entrance, the bed, and the kitchen.
• Bed—One of the most significant placements in a home designed with feng shui is
the location of a bed. The location of one’s bed is thought to affect one’s health and
marriage. A properly positioned bed will give a person “command” of the bedroom
door. A person is never to have his or her back to the entrance. When a person is in
bed, he or she should face the doorway, but should not be in direct line of it. The ba-
gua is often used to help determine the proper location of a bed.
• Kitchen—Homes designed with feng shui often have kitchens in the southern or
eastern side of the house, since these directions represent fire and wood on the ba-
gua. Small spaces and sharp corners should be avoided since they inhibit the flow of
chi. A proper kitchen will be designed to allow the chef to see the kitchen’s entrance
and be prepared when a person arrives.
123
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
way that many people view the relation- insomnia, and environmental stress. Plac-
ship between a person and his or her ing the magnets directly over the area of
surroundings. pain can help diminish the pain from
these afflictions.
—Marilyn Saltzman
The Development of Magnetic Therapy
Several books have been published over
Resources:
the last few decades, in which the
authors make reference to magnet ther-
Yun Lin Temple
apy being used in times prior even to the
2959 Russell Street
development of acupuncture. If true,
Berkeley, CA 94705
this would make the use of magnets for
Tel: (510) 841-2347
healing purposes one of the very oldest
This organization offers courses in feng shui
of all therapies. Some advocates of mag-
throughout the United States.
net therapy believe that magnets have
been used to treat pain as far back as the
Further Reading: ancient Egyptians, Hebrews, Arabs,
Indians, and Chinese. There are even
Rossbach, Sarah. Feng Shui, the Chinese Art of reports of a natural magnetic material
Placement. London: Century Hutchenson, 1987. called lodestone being ground up and
used as a potion as far back as 100,000
——. Living Color—Master Lin Yun’s Guide to Feng years ago. Whether these modern-day
Shui. New York: Kodansha International, 1994. historical accounts of ancient magnet
therapy are true or not, it does not
Skinner, Stephen. The Living Earth Manual of diminish the fact that, at the present
Feng Shui. London: Arkana, 1989. time, the use of magnets for therapeutic
purposes is enjoying a renewed interest
Spear, William. Feng Shui Made Easy. San Francis- and an increase in popularity.
co: Harper San Francisco, 1995.
The Philosophy of Magnet Therapy
There are many theories about the
mechanism of magnet therapy, but no
one knows for certain how it works.
MAGNET THERAPY Some theorists speculate that the local
application of magnetic fields increases
blood flow through the capillaries,
M
agnet therapy, which is also called which brings more oxygen and nutri-
magnetotherapy, refers to the ents to the tissues. Others have suggest-
practice of applying a magnetic ed that the magnetic fields alter nerve
field to the body for the treatment of phys- function, muting the transmission of
ical and emotional disorders. It can relieve pain impulses from an area of the body
discomfort, pain, or swelling, and it has that hurts. Some practitioners insist
been used to treat both acute injuries, that the biomagnetic north pole, or neg-
such as cuts and burns, and many chronic ative pole of the magnet, somehow
conditions, most notably arthritis. Some changes the acid-base balance of cer-
experts say that magnet therapy is useful tain fluids in the tissues, making the
in treating depression and such mental area under the north pole magnets
disorders as hallucinations and delusions. more alkaline. One expert theorizes that
Experts are not clear about why magnet the “vector potential” and “curl” of the
therapy works, but most agree that it has magnetic field may have important
been used effectively to treat diseases and effects on enzyme function.
ailments such as arthritis, sprains, torn lig- Magnets have both a negative, or
aments, headaches, certain types of north, and a positive, or south, pole.
124
Magnet Therapy
There are two different ways of naming magnetic field of the Earth that causes a
the poles of the magnet. For purposes of compass arrow to point north is about
what some people call biomagnetic ther- half a gauss. In contrast, the magnets
apy, the poles should be named as fol- used in most permanent magnet devices
lows: the north pole of a magnet is the are usually about 700 gauss or more.
one that will attract the arrowhead; the Depending on the condition of the
south pole repels the arrowhead or point- individual, the magnets may be applied
er of a compass. Many magnetothera- several times a day or for days or weeks
pists believe that the negative pole has a at a time. Some people may prefer to
calming effect on the body, whereas the sleep on a magnetic bed or mattress
positive pole causes stress. Being exposed pad. For others, magnet therapy may
to the positive pole for too long can have involve hours of treatment at a magnet-
a deleterious effect upon an individual. ic therapist’s office usually using
Proponents of so-called unipolar mag- pulsed-magnetic fields.
netic therapy believe that it is primarily
the biomagnetic north pole, or negative
pole, that should be oriented to face the Benefits of Magnetic Field Therapy
body, so that the south pole always faces Most people who have tried magnet
away from the body. Other magnet thera- therapy have experienced positive
pists think that bipolar therapy, which results from it, though they agree that
exposes the body to both north and south more research is needed to understand
magnetic poles, arranged in some sort of how magnet therapy works. There have
spatial pattern, helps to heal the body been tens of thousands of anecdotal
better than unipolar magnet therapy. reports that either bipolar or unipolar
magnet therapy has relieved the pain or
discomfort of such conditions as arthri-
Magnet Therapy in Practice tis, fibromyalgia, rheumatism, gout,
The magnetic field can be produced by back pain, shoulder pain, carpal tunnel
permanent magnets, or electromagnets syndrome, bed sores, ulcers, diabetic
utilizing pulsed or alternating electrical neuropathy, trigeminal neuralgia, and
currents going through a coil of wire. The toothaches. In addition, there are thou-
permanent magnet-type devices come in sands of reports of magnetic field thera-
a large variety of shapes and sizes. They py being used for acute injuries such as
can be as simple as a single, large, flat sprains, strains, torn ligaments, and soft
magnet, or as complex as a custom-fitted, tissue injuries, such as a smashed
contoured, cloth-covered pouch contain- thumb, pinched finger, insect bite,
ing many small, flat, circular, or rectangu- burn, scrape, cut, or bruise.
lar magnets. A common method of One of the benefits of magnet thera-
magnetotherapy is simply placing mag- py is that foreign substances are not
nets over, near, under, or on an area of the introduced into the body. In the long
body that hurts. In most types of magnet- run, this form of therapy might prove
ic products, many small, flat, circular or safer than over-the-counter medica-
rectangular magnets are placed so that all tions and other treatments.
the magnets are oriented with the north
pole facing toward the body and the south —Dr. John Zimmerman
pole facing away from the body. (The
north pole is the one that will attract the
arrowhead of the compass.) Resources:
These devices produce a magnetic
field of several dozen to several hundred Bio-Electro-Magnetics Institute (BEMI)
gauss at the surface of the body where Dr. John Zimmerman, President
they are applied. A gauss is a unit of 2490 West Moana Lane
magnetic flux density or magnetic field Reno, NV 89509-7801
strength. For comparison purposes, the Tel: (702) 827-9099 (best time to call is 8:00-10:00
125
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
P
olarity therapy is a holistic method unified into one coherent system of pre-
of healing that acts upon the field cepts and techniques.
of bipolar energy surrounding and The final work of defining the system
animating the body. It assumes that ill- was carried out in Stone’s private prac-
ness is caused by an imbalance or block tice in Chicago and in a writing project
in the field, and through touch, diet, that he started in 1948 and completed in
exercise, and counseling attempts to 1970. Even staunch advocates of polari-
realign balance and recharge the over- ty therapy acknowledge that Health
all level of energy. While the principles Building and Polarity Therapy, Stone’s
126
Polarity Therapy
major treatises, are difficult reading and function. The entire element-chakra
have numerous inconsistencies and series is found acting together in every
ambiguities. This has left his teachings human being, usually in a way that fea-
open to wide interpretation, which tures some imbalance.
results in polarity therapists varying in The imbalance is regarded as the key
their approach to treatment. to unlocking the mysteries of individual
Nonetheless, Stone is recognized as personality and health. If, for example,
an important pioneer in holistic medi- the air-chakra correspondence is domi-
cine. His principles and techniques nant, mental activity is presumed to be
have been a catalyst for research into the person’s great strength and potential
non-Western medicine as well as an weakness. She or he will have unusual
effective therapy in their own right. intellectual powers that pose no problem
polarity therapy is now available so long as efforts to redress the imbalance
throughout the United States and is are made. Otherwise, the excess air ener-
offered by polarity practitioners gy will disrupt the flow of energy and
required to meet standards for practice cause an illness to occur in the upper
established by the American Polarity chest and lungs, where the air-chakra is
Therapy Association in 1987. located.
Microcosmic energy movement is
The Theory of Polarity Therapy the main diagnostic and therapeutic
Stone believed the body is animated by tool of polarity therapy. Through obser-
a three-dimensional field of pulsating vation and touch, the practitioner
energy called chi in Chinese tradition assesses the functioning of the element-
and prana in ayurvedic medicine. When chakra system, then proceeds to correct
the energy flows outward, it is consid- any dangerous disequilibrium. Manual
ered positive and when it contracts pressure is applied on or around the
backward, it is considered negative. chakras in order to balance the energy
There is no moral connotation to the flow, and often a regimen of corrective
distinction, but Stone followed exercises and diet is prescribed.
ayurvedic teaching that maintains that Because the person’s entire being, mind
complex, dynamic interplay of the posi- and body, is at stake, Stone believed
tive and negative currents determine polarity therapy should also address
the particular character of every portion troublesome personality traits.
of the human organism. Further, he
held that the polarized energy pervades Experiencing Polarity Therapy
the cosmos, pulsating in patterns that A polarity therapy session lasts an hour
can be correlated with the patterns it to an hour and a half. It generally begins
assumes in the human body. Like the with a discussion of the patient’s health
ayurvedic masters, Stone approached history, lifestyle, and therapy goals. Dur-
the human being as a microcosm of the ing the course of the interview, the prac-
larger macrocosm, the universe. “As titioner pays close attention to vocal
within, so without,” was one of his changes, gestures, and aspects of pos-
favorite sayings. ture indicative of the patient’s element-
Polarity therapy focuses upon the chakra system. The assessment
connection between the energy struc- continues after the patient, still fully
tures of the five elements distinguished dressed, lies on a treatment table and
in ayurvedic tradition: ether, air, fire, bodywork starts. The practitioner is
water, and earth, and five of the energy trained to use her or his hands as a type
centers in the body known as chakras in of magnetic transmitter of energy.
Eastern thought. Each element-chakra In the opening phase of the body-
unit is associated with a quality of ener- work, the hands cradle the patient’s
gy, an organ of the body, and a bodily head, then move to other sites in the
127
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
body, all the while picking up various the practitioner’s view of Stone’s teach-
qualities of pulsation. After contact, a ings. Some focus primarily upon the
diagnosis is made and the practitioner bodywork, while others emphasize the
uses more touching to harmonize the importance of supporting the bodywork
positive and negative charges of energy with diet, exercise, and psychological
throughout the body. counseling.
A polarity therapy practitioner The diet prescribed is usually vegetar-
always employs both hands for treat- ian and may include a preliminary regi-
ment and draws upon a repertory of men to detoxify and cleanse the body. The
more than twenty movements that exercises, based on yoga routines, involve
include gentle to vigorous holding, squats, stretches, rhythmic movements,
vibrating, and rocking motions. A ses- deep breathing, and utterance of the
sion may include stretch releases of the sound “Ha!” Like the other components
neck and spine, cranial balancing, work in polarity therapy, the counseling is
on reflex points in the ears, hands, and designed to promote freedom and bal-
feet, connective tissue strokes, and ance in the patient’s energy field.
strokes that connect the chakras. Dur-
ing these movements the type of touch The Benefits of Polarity Therapy
may vary from light and balancing to Polarity therapy acts as a tonic that
stimulating to deep and dispersing. No brings relief from specific problems such
two sessions are ever alike because as digestion problems and produces an
ongoing energy assessment of the overall sense of well-being, increased
patient determines the sequence of energy, and serenity in the patient.
movements and type of touch. Though it should not be regarded as a
As the bodywork proceeds, the substitute for medical diagnosis and
patient may become deeply relaxed, see therapy, it can accelerate the effects of
dreamlike images, or feel a release of conventional treatments for major ill-
emotion and the need to talk about past nesses and promote recovery from
traumas and current problems. The surgery. As a holistic system of health
conclusion of the session depends on care, polarity therapy can also provide
Polarity Practitioners
Choosing a polarity practitioner should be based on your personal needs and practi-
tioner qualification. The polarity practitioner you choose should be nationally regis-
tered with APTA. Registered polarity practitioners are required to meet basic standards
after which their training may vary, based on school emphasis, postgraduate training,
and additional degrees/specialties in other fields. Many polarity practitioners are qual-
ified in other disciplines such as medicine; chiropractic, osteopathic, and naturopathic
practice; nursing; massage; psychology; and social work. Many polarity practitioners
work for one hour and charge between $50 and $100 per session. Practitioners with
additional training and degrees may work differently and charge more based on their
expertise.
128
Qigong
guidelines for regulating everyday habits health, increases vitality, and can reduce
so as to strengthen the body’s resistance pain, anxiety, and depression. Qigong
and achieve inner harmony with one’s emphasizes strengthening the immune
sense of self and one’s feelings. system and treating problems when they
are subclinical—that is, before they pro-
—John Beaulieu, ND, Ph.D. duce obvious symptoms. However, qigong
is also a method of disease treatment. It
has been found effective for disorders
Resources: such as hypertension, headaches, bron-
chitis, asthma, ulscers, arthritis, chronic
American Polarity Association pain, and some forms of cancer. The
2888 Bluff Street, Suite 149 patient learns self-healing skills and how
Boulder, CO 80301 to take greater charge of his or her own
Tel: (303) 545-2080 health. Instead of shifting all responsibility
Fax: (303) 545-2161 into the hands of a physician, the qigong
Sets standards for certification in polarity therapy, patient cooperates in the healing process.
maintains a list of certified polarity therapy practi-
tioners, and provides information about the
theory and practice of polarity therapy.
Chinese Energy Medicine
The Chinese word qi, pronounced
“chee,” means “vital breath” or “life
Further Reading: energy.” According to Chinese medi-
cine, health is the result of an abun-
Beaulieu, John. Polarity Therapy Workbook. New dance of clear flowing qi. Disease is
York: BioSonic Enterprises, 1994. caused when the body’s reserves of qi
are depleted through physical, emo-
Stills, Franklyn. The Polarity Process: Energy as a tional, or environmental stress or when
Healing Art. Dorset, England: Element Books, the qi is stuck and unable to flow. Stag-
1990. nant qi, like stagnant water, is a breed-
ing ground for disease. When qi flow is
Stone, Randolph. Health Building: The Conscious blocked, some areas of the body have
Art of Living Well. Sebastopol, CA: CRCS Publi- too much energy or a yang condition,
cations, 1987. creating tension, congestion, and
inflammation. Other areas have too lit-
——. Polarity Therapy. 2 vols. Sebastopol, CA: tle energy or a yin condition, creating
CRCS Publications, 1987. weakness and conditions such as poor
digestion and anemia. When the qi is
completely gone, the body is dead.
Q
igong is the most popular method would lead a dance to cleanse a village
of disease prevention in China. It before the New Year. This developed into
means, literally, “energy cultiva- the philosophy that movement and exer-
tion,” and is an ancient system of exercise, cise could also cleanse and refresh the
breathing techniques, self-massage, and body. According the Chinese doctor Hua
meditation designed to purify, gather, and Tuo (110–207 CE), “A door hinge won’t rust
circulate life energy, called qi. Many stud- as long as it is used.” Similarly, physical
ies in China and the United States have movement stimulates internal movement
shown that practicing qigong improves of the healing energy called qi.
129
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
animals that the exercises imitate (e.g., feels stretched open. Your shoulders are
crane style, five animal frolics, turtle relaxed rather than lifted in an “uptight”
breathing); some describe health posture. The shoulders drop straight
benefits (inner nourishing, tendon down, neither pulled back nor slouched
strengthening, relaxation qigong, forward. The fingers are gently extend-
improving vision); and many are iden- ed, as if water were streaming out the
tified by philosophical principles: wis- fingertips. The mouth is lightly closed.
dom (zhi-neng) qigong, primordial Your eyes are open, gazing softly into
(hun yuan) qigong, inner elixir qigong, the distance. The whole body is as
etc. Most qigong exercises are gentle, relaxed as possible. If you need only five
fluid, and graceful. Some styles, such as ounces of strength to stand, do not use
taiji quan (t’ai chi ch’üan), look like six! The extra ounce is unnecessary
dance, consisting of many postures effort and stress.
linked one to the next, like a flowing While holding this stance for a com-
stream. In the past, many styles were fortable length of time—generally about
taught to only a small, select number of five to ten minutes—observe your
students or to family members. Today, breath. The most natural and healthiest
several qigong schools have millions of way of breathing is to allow the abdomen
followers each, with branches in major to gently expand as you inhale and
Chinese cities. Students generally select retract as you exhale. Think to yourself,
one or two qigong styles according to “My breath is slow, long, deep, smooth,
their interests, health needs, and and even.” Let the breath move at its own
teacher availability. pace. Do not pull the breath in; do not
push it out. Let nature’s wisdom work
The Qigong Posture without interference. As you continue
The foundation of all qigong practices is standing, notice how the fingers begin to
correct posture. Practicing the qigong tingle from improved circulation. You
posture is, of itself, good qigong. Stand may also feel a pleasant sensation of
with the feet parallel, shoulder width warmth, stability, and inner strength.
apart. Your knees should be slightly These are signs that the qi is both gather-
bent. Feel the weight of your body drop- ing and circulating.
ping down through the feet and into the
ground. You are like a tree with deep The Qigong Prescription
roots. The abdomen is relaxed rather It is recommended that qigong be prac-
than unnaturally held in. The chest is ticed daily before breakfast. The morn-
also open and relaxed, neither ing is called the “springtime of the day,”
depressed nor distended. The back is the best time to plant seeds of new
straight. Imagine that your tailbone is growth. The guiding principles in
being pulled slightly down and your qigong are practice, patience, and mod-
head lifted up, as though held like a eration. Qigong is a lifetime discipline.
puppet on a string. The entire spine It is possible to reap benefits after only a
132
Reiki
few lessons or to continue gathering qi Wang, Simon, M.D., Ph.D., and Julius L. Liu, M.D.
for a lifetime. Practice, but not to Qi Gong for Health and Longevity. Tustin, CA:
excess. If there is pain, there is no gain, The East Health Development Group, 1994.
because pain inhibits learning and per-
sonal growth. Qigong students should Qi: The Journal of Traditional Eastern Health &
not seek quick results but rather slow, Fitness. Anaheim Hills, CA: Insight Publishing.
steady progress. The body is an energy 800-787-2600. (Lists many qigong schools).
garden that must be tended and nur-
tured daily. According to the ancient
Chinese philosopher Mencius, you can-
not make wheat grow more quickly by
pulling on the stalks!
REIKI
—Kenneth S. Cohen, M.A.
R
eiki is a mode of healing, based on
Resources: ancient Buddhist teachings, that
uses hands-on touch to strengthen
American Foundation of Traditional Chinese energy on the physical, intellectual,
Medicine emotional, and spiritual planes. Reiki
505 Beach St. (pronounced “ray-key”) combines two
San Francisco, CA 94133 Japanese words, rei referring to the vital
Tel: (415) 776-0502 force that pervades the entire cosmos,
Publishes a quarterly newsletter titled Gateways; and ki, referring to the life force that ani-
offers a referral service and international listing of mates every individual being. In reiki
classes, and sponsors continuing education pro- treatment, universal and individual
grams. energy are aligned and balanced
through the application of gentle
The Qigong Institute hands-on touch to energy pathways of
561 Berkley Ave. the body. Since no medication is ever
Menlo Park, CA 94025 prescribed, reiki is widely regarded as
Promotes education, research, and clinical work. one of the most natural of all holistic
Offers lectures and demonstrations and sponsors a systems of healing. Advocates of reiki
qigong science program. credit it with benefits ranging from
reduction of stress to quantum healing,
The Qigong Research and Practice Center
including recovery from acute, chronic
P.O. Box 1727
conditions. It is often used as an adjunct
Nederland, CO 80466
to medical treatment in order to gain
Tel: (303) 258-0971
relief from the trauma of illness and to
Offers training classes and conducts research into
accelerate healing.
the efficacy of qigong.
The Rediscovery of Reiki
Until recently reiki has been taught as an
Further Reading: oral tradition, making it difficult to be
precise about either the early develop-
Cohen, Kenneth S. The Way of Qigong. New York: ment of reiki or many of its tenets. It may
Ballantine Books, 1997. be the world’s oldest system of healing,
with origins that reach back to the dawn
Eisenberg, David, M.D. Encounters with Qi. New of civilization. There is agreement that
York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1985. after antiquity, knowledge of the original
system was lost until it was rediscovered
Jiao Guorui. Qigong Essentials for Health Promo- in the second half of the nineteenth cen-
tion. Beijing: China Reconstructs Press, 1988. tury by a Japanese man, Mikao Usui.
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Elaine Abrams uses a gentle touch to align and balance subtle energy within a person.
Mikao Usui transcends the cate- nothing about his miraculous powers of
gories Buddhist, Christian, scholar of healing. Though simple, the question
theology, teacher, holy man, and charis- raised fundamental problems about the
matic healer. Oral tradition holds that relationship of body, mind, and spirit in
the path that led him to reiki started at a Western and Eastern religion. To resolve
Christian seminary in Kyoto, sometime the question, Usui resigned his post in
around 1850, when a student asked Kyoto and embarked on a quest that
Usui why he was willing to explain took him to the graduate school of the
Christ’s spiritual teachings but said University of Chicago and eventually
134
Reiki
back to Kyoto to a Zen Buddhist mon- The Philosophy and Methods of Reiki
astery. By this time his research was con- Reiki is based on a belief that the indi-
centrated on the earliest records of vidual is animated by a vital energy
Hindu and Buddhist belief, and at the emanating from the life force of the uni-
monastery he came upon ancient sutras verse and falls ill if the flow of energy is
(Buddhist teachings written in Sanskrit) weakened. Further, it is believed that
that gave him an insight into the princi- everyone is born with the ability to
ples he had been pursuing. access this universal energy. Opening
A deeply spiritual man, Usui knew pathways of healing using universal
that his understanding of the sutras energy is reiki’s central objective. To
would be incomplete so long as it learn the procedures for self-treatment
remained on the intellectual level. After and treating others using the Usui sys-
studying the texts, he ascended the tem, a would-be practitioner must her-
sacred mountain Kuriyama and fasted self or himself receive an “attunement,”
and meditated for twenty-one days. Very in order to become attuned to the ener-
early on the morning of the twenty-first gy-transfer system. This attunement
day, he had a vision in which a brilliant can be given only by an experienced
light struck him between the eyes, reiki master instructor in a ceremony of
exploded into tiny colored bubbles, then initiation. Though no religious dogma is
gave way to a number of gleaming San- involved in reiki, Usui’s teachings
skrit characters. Usui believed that this require that it be administered in a
vision initiated him into the ancient sys- sacred manner. Sanskrit symbols from
tem of reiki and empowered him to Usui’s vision on Mount Kuriyama serve
revive its methods of healing. Upon as the formulaic key to knowledge.
return to Kyoto, he brought about cures Hands-on touch is the key component
that were considered miraculous. He in the opening of an individual’s energy
traveled throughout Japan and attracted transfer ability.
a devoted following. Reiki’s attunements/initiations and
Shortly before Usui’s death he passed symbols may confound rational expla-
the reiki teachings to Chijuro Hayashi, nation, but practitioners and masters
who founded the first reiki clinic. One of are content simply to trust in their
the patients cured in Hayashi’s clinic beneficial workings. Most practitioners
during the 1930s was Hawayo Takata, a and masters emphasize that hands-on
Japanese-American woman. She studied touch of energy pathways in the body
reiki with Hayashi, became his successor has been a means of therapy used
in 1941, and in the 1970s traveled around the world for millennia. They
throughout North America, offering reiki deliver reiki through hand patterns and
treatment and the combination of train- positions that relate to the major
ing and initiation needed to become a organs and systems of the body, assist-
reiki practitioner. Takata is responsible ing the flow of energy through these
for transforming reiki into an interna- systems. It follows that if reiki normal-
tionally known mode of healing with a izes the flow of energy to the entire sys-
network of professional organizations. tem, it would generate profound
Many advanced reiki practitioners are physical and emotional benefits,
now qualified to provide treatment. In improving the entire organism’s resis-
addition, a number of massage thera- tance to stress and disease.
pists, nurses, and other health care pro-
fessionals incorporate aspects of reiki Experiencing Reiki
into their repertory of techniques. Today While reiki treatment may vary, based
many reiki master-instructors are on the practitioner’s level of experience
qualified to provide instruction in the and the recipient’s needs, it generally
Usui system of natural healing as well as takes the form of a bodywork session
offer treatment. that lasts from an hour to an hour and a
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Reiki Training
Reiki instruction has three degrees or levels. In first degree, or level I, training, the par-
ticipant receives attunement from a reiki master. He or she also learns techniques for
administering self-care. In second degree, or level II, training, the participant receives
further attunements of energy from a reiki master. He or she also embarks on study of
the ancient symbols and sounds Dr. Usui recovered from the sutras, learning to apply
them to the healing process. Third degree, or level III, provides the participant with yet
another attunement and final study of the ancient symbols and sounds used in reiki.
Practitoners with third degree training are called reiki masters, and are the only ones
able to offer level I and II instruction.
136
SHEN®
S
HEN®, which stands for specific associated. For example, he realized
human energy nexus, is a relatively that anger and fear, emotions that are
recent approach to body-mind health associated with eating disorders, are
and wellness that is concerned with how the experienced in the same region of the
body deals with repressed emotion. SHEN body that contains the digestive organs.
techniques release trapped emotional trau- This relationship of the emotions being
ma from specific areas by focusing felt in the body where related disorders
energy on the biofield that surrounds and occur is the same for long-term grief
permeates the human body. The release and heart disorders, and for shame,
and resolution of these emotions are meant guilt, and the dysfunctions they pro-
to reestablish normal functioning of the duce. He conceived that the organs in
affected organs and balance emotional and that region of our bodies must be
physical forces in the body. adversely affected by those emotions
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
because they are experienced there. both forms, but most of the time their
Somehow, emotions were controlling hands are in contact with the body
the body. through regular clothing.
The last part of the puzzle fell into
®
place when he noticed that if we felt Typical Session of SHEN
painful emotions, such as fear, grief, During the SHEN session the recipient
and shame, our bodies would clench reclines fully clothed on a hammock-like
around the locations where they are frame or a table similar to a massage
felt. Subsequently, the emotion would table, but with twice as much padding.
be trapped inside that location. He rea- The recipient is encouraged to relax while
soned that the physical tension that the practitioner places his or her hands in
trapped the emotion would interfere a rationally planned sequence of several
with normal flow of blood and other positions around the regions in the body
nutrients and prevent the physical where, according to Pavek’s theories, we
organs in the region from functioning mainly experience or feel the individual
normally. With these principles estab- emotions. These are the heart, the upper
lished, Pavek began developing the abdomen, the lower abdomen, and the
SHEN techniques now being used to groin. The recipient often feels tingles or
release trapped emotional trauma with- warmth as the qi between the practition-
in the recipient’s body. He demonstrat- er’s hands flows through his or her body.
ed that release and resolution of these Often the client drifts into a light sleep
emotions does reestablish normal func- state, similar to what one experiences
tioning of the organs. just before falling fully asleep or just
® before becoming fully awake.
How SHEN Works While in this state, emotionally
SHEN is a unique hands-on process that charged, dreamlike images often emerge.
does not use physical pressure or Sometimes memories of forgotten,
manipulation. Instead, it uses the painful emotional events from earlier por-
biofield that surrounds and permeates tions of one’s life come to the surface and
the human body. This field was first are relived. Whenever emotions come to
identified in ancient times and has been in the surface in a SHEN session they are
use in healing ever since. In some forms of experienced in a different way than we
biofield treatment the qi (pronounced usually experience them. Instead of being
chee; it is the Chinese name for the energy driven to physically respond to, or act out
that makes up the biofield) from the prac- the effects of the emotion, the person
titioner’s hands is applied to the body, strongly feels the emotion in one of the
either in direct contact with the skin or emotion regions. This occurs in a way the
through clothing. In other forms the person can handle and absorb. Very often
hands are placed close to, but not touch- these feelings are understood and
ing, the body. SHEN practitioners use resolved when they are recalled in a SHEN
SHEN Physics
SHEN’s singular techniques are unusually effective because they are based on conven-
tional physics rather than on the metaphysical principles used in the past. Through a
series of careful experiments, Dr. Pavek has been able to show that the biofield is regu-
lated by the same patterns of arrangement that oversee all other moving fields in nature;
electricity, magnetism, oceanic currents, and weather currents. SHEN practitioners
learn to apply the qi between their hands to the recipient according to these patterns in
ways that produce the greatest effect.
138
Therapeutic Touch
T
very successful where more convention- herapeutic touch is an approach to
al methods and approaches have failed healing that assesses and balances
to foster psychological and behavioral the energy field that surrounds and
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
penetrates the body with the goal of sup- this by holding his or her hands a few
porting an individual’s own potential for inches from the receiver’s body, and
self-healing. Therapeutic touch, or TT, as sending energy through the palms to the
it is affectionately known to practitioners receiver until the receiver’s energy field
and devotees, is a contemporary inter- feels as though it has “filled up.”
pretation of a number of very ancient While some people may think that
healing practices, one of which is the lay- therapeutic touch sounds a little like
ing on of hands. hocus-pocus, this practice has, in fact,
been the subject of intense scientific
Finding the Common Denominator scrutiny. One of Dr. Krieger’s most
TT was developed in the 1970s by a important contributions to the field of
nurse healer and research scientist at healing has been her commitment to
New York University, Dolores Krieger, subjecting TT to academic research.
Ph.D., RN, in collaboration with a clair- Therapeutic touch has been the subject
voyant, Dora Kunz. They were interested of no less than 27 doctoral studies, 15
in studying various healers to see if there postdoctoral studies, and innumerable
were any underlying principles that Master’s theses—plus 2 National Insti-
might form a common basis for healing. tutes of Health (NIH) grants and 83 arti-
They also wanted to know if there were cles in 5 countries. TT is taught at more
any basic principles that might be than eighty colleges in the United States
taught to other people for use in healing. and in seventy foreign countries.
They did indeed find certain fundamen- Therapeutic touch is practiced by a
tal principles at work in healing, and large and devoted following, many of
therapeutic touch developed from their whom are nurse healers. As the practice
research. Dr. Krieger maintains that grows, however, many other health pro-
healing is a natural human potential fessionals and laypersons are discover-
that can be learned by virtually anyone. ing the many benefits of TT. It is one
bodywork practice that is very easy for
Clearing Areas of Imbalances laypersons to learn to use with
The practice of TT is based on the family members and friends. In fact, the
assumption that the human being rep- foundational techniques can be learned
resents an open energy system, and that in a one-day workshop. Even children
this system is bilaterally symmetrical. can be taught to do TT.
The practitioner feels for areas of imbal-
ance in the receiver’s field, such as areas Centering
of temperature difference (hot or cold), A typical TT treatment lasts about twenty
pressure, tingling, or other sensations. to thirty minutes. The receiver remains
These sensations are cues that an area is dressed in street clothes, generally seated
out of balance. Once the practitioner on a stool or straight-backed chair, facing
has gained a snapshot “feel” for the sideways, so that the back is exposed for
client’s energy field, he or she then treatment. If this position is uncomfort-
works to rebalance the field. able, or unsuitable because an individual
The therapeutic touch practitioner has difficulty sitting, treatment can be
clears areas of imbalance by gently performed with the receiver lying on a
brushing away any places of congestion, comfortable padded surface.
in a movement known as “unruffling.” The TT practitioner begins treat-
The movement looks almost as though ment by quietly centering, or focusing
the practitioner is using his or her hands his or her thoughts, while requesting
to iron out wrinkles in the space around that the receiver do the same. Centering
the receiver’s body. The practitioner calms the mind, and enables both prac-
then transfers energy to any areas in the titioner and receiver to access deep
receiver’s field that may feel as though inner resources that are powerful forces
they lack energy. The practitioner does in healing. While centered and attuned
140
Therapeutic Touch
141
PART VII: MASSAGE
psychological benefits.
Many different massage
techniques have grown
out of that instinct—
known today under the
Massage is one of the most widely available body-mind therapies.
broad umbrella called mas-
sage therapy.
142
Although touch has been used as a method of folk healing in many cultures, the
development of formal therapeutic massage is strongly rooted in China. Evidence for
this can be found in The Yellow Emperor’s Classic of Internal Medicine, which, accord-
ing to legend, was written by the Yellow Emperor Huang-ti, who died in 2598 BCE. Two
descriptive names were used in China for massage: anmo, meaning press-rub, and
tui-na, meaning push-pull. According to Fundamentals of Therapeutic Massage by
Sandy Fritz (1995), these methods involved kneading and rubbing down the entire
body with the hands and using a gentle pressure and traction on all the joints. Acu-
pressure, the ancient practice of applying hand and finger pressure to specific points
on the body, developed out of Chinese acupuncture—the practice of stimulating cer-
tain points along the body by inserting tiny needles.
Chinese massage techniques spread along trade routes to Japan and other Asian
countries, including India, where they have enjoyed respect for their therapeutic value
to this day. There is evidence in medical literature that massage was used as a respect-
ed element in ancient Egyptian and Persian medical practices. The “laying on of hands”
and “anointing with oils” has been recorded in the writings of the early Hebrews and
Christians; in fact, there is reference to these practices in Isaiah of the Bible.
Massage was considered an integral part of ayurvedic medicine in ancient India.
Alexander the Great (356–323 BCE) was one of those responsible for bringing massage
to the West. When conquering India, his troops were ravaged by fatal snake bites. The
Indian physicians had developed advanced surgical techniques to treat these snake
bites, so Alexander replaced all of his Greek physicians with Indian physicians, and
massage was incorporated into Greek medicine. Tschanpua—eventually known as
shampooing—was a technique initially employed by Alexander’s officers; it survived
until the 1800s. Last used by the British Colonial Army, it was incorporated as a part of
a greater health regimen that also involved bathing and the use of scented oils.
The ancient Greeks built great bathhouses, called thurmae, where exercise, mas-
sage, baths, and scholastic studies were available, much like modern-day health spas.
Citizens visited the thurmae daily as a part of the “duty of health.” Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle were all teachers at thurmae and also received massage there. The Greeks
employed massage especially in conjunction with athletics; for example, an athlete
would be massaged before taking part in the Olympic Games.
Hippocrates, often referred to as the father of modern medicine, lived in ancient
Greece from 460 to 377 BCE. He learned massage and gymnastics and developed his
own method of medicine. He wrote prescriptions for massage and exercise. Many of
his techniques have survived to this day.
The Romans learned massage from the Greeks. Massage and baths were used
extensively throughout the Roman Empire (27 BCE–476 CE), which covered most of
Europe. Cicero wrote about receiving massage and attributed his health to it. Even
Julius Caesar (100–44 BCE) had himself “pinched all over” daily for relief of nerve pain
and to treat epilepsy, a severe nervous disorder.
After the fall of Rome and the barbarian invasions, the rise of monasticism helped to
preserve written accounts of the use of massage in the West. The monks were both
scribes and physicians. Although they were not medically trained as Roman physicians
were, they carried on the practice of massage, exercise, and anointing with oils as a
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
part of folk medicine. Eventually the monks abandoned the practice of medicine as
well as massage, and as a result massage faded in Europe.
During the Middle Ages, invasions and wars caused great political and social
chaos in Europe. Communication among countries was lost. This contributed to
the decline of medicine, massage, and medical advancements. At this time, super-
natural occurrences were often associated with massage, and it has been reported
in some sources that many healers were persecuted by the church for having evil
powers.
Change occurred once again after the Black Plague, which destroyed large popula-
tions in Europe. A time period known as the Renaissance (fourteenth to sixteenth cen-
turies CE) followed. Travel increased and communications were restored. People
started learning about Arabic and Persian culture, where the Greco-Roman traditions
of massage had thrived.
In the late fourteenth century, massage was first used in postsurgical recovery, and
was even considered a noninvasive type of surgery. Formal two-year medical training
programs were established at universities all across Europe, similar to the old Roman
schools. A well-known French physician, Ambroise Paré (1517–1590), began using
massage for postsurgical healing of wounds and joint stiffness. His ideas helped to
make massage better accepted by the medical community of the West and were
passed on to other European physicians.
Massage was finally popularized in the West by the work of a Swede named Per
Henrik Ling (1776–1839). A fencing master and gymnastics instructor, Ling is credited
with the development of Swedish massage. After curing himself of rheumatism in his
arm by the use of massage techniques, he began a study of the art and developed a
system that included massage and exercise. He based his system on the new science
of physiology.
Because of his continual study and dedication, Ling’s method eventually became
accepted and known as “the Ling system” or the “Swedish movement treatment.” In
1813 he established the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, the first college to have
massage a part of the curriculum. It was popular internationally. Even the czar of Rus-
sia sent someone to study at the school. Through the writings and practice of Ling’s
students, his system became well known throughout Europe. Many new forms of
massage are based on this standard form.
From 1813 to 1918 massage became quite popular as a medical treatment. Many
spas were built all over Europe for the rheumatoid “cure.” In the mid-1800s two Ver-
mont physicians, Charles Faytte Taylor and George Henry Taylor brought massage to
the United States from Europe. However, after World War I the popularity of massage
in orthodox Western medicine declined once again with the rise in pharmaceutical
drugs and new medical technologies.
This decline lasted through World War II, and massage did not appear again in
medical literature until the late 1970s. After the reopening of China to the West dur-
ing President Richard Nixon’s administration, American physicians traveled there to
learn acupuncture and returned with the basics of acupressure and other Chinese
massage. Massage began to reappear in American popular culture in the 1960s after
President John Kennedy began to emphasize physical fitness as important to pre-
ventative medicine.
144
Massage was a part of the new age movement that began with the hippies in the
United States, but it was not really taken seriously by the medical community until
the 1980s, when studies were published describing the benefits of Eastern tech-
niques for certain conditions. It gained popularity as a method of managing pain.
On-site massage at the workplace became popular for work-related pain and stress
management.
Sports massage has also flourished with the popularity of athletics. Practitioners
in the twentieth century began to innovate the practice of massage by combining
techniques and adding their own insights. This synthesis of old and new methods
contributed to the resurgence of therapeutic massage in the United States and
throughout the world.
Many modalities, including medical and sports massage, may integrate all three
approaches.
Massage aims to bring the participant’s body, mind, and spirit into balance by
encouraging the body’s own healing potential. The body has the amazing ability to
bring itself back to equilibrium through many built-in balancing mechanisms. For
example, when a harmful microorganism enters the body, one’s temperature rises to
kill the germ and then eventually returns to normal temperature (98.6° F). Using a
mechanical or movement approach, massage therapists determine where imbalances
may lie in the structure of the body (perhaps very tight muscles) and support the
body’s return to a more balanced state (i.e., encouraging the nervous system and mus-
culature to let go of excess tension in overcontracted muscles). This is done by manip-
ulating the soft tissues of the body—mainly muscles, tendons, and ligaments.
Because the body and its systems are quite complex, a certain level of understand-
ing of energy-flow patterns, knowledge of anatomy and physiology, and competence
is required in order to give an effective massage. Thus, many states in the United
States require massage therapists to be licensed professionals who have a certain
number of hours of specialized training in a certified school and abide by certain rules
and ethical guidelines. This ensures the public a safe, quality service and is similar to
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
other professions in the field of health science such as physical therapists, doctors,
and chiropractors, who must also be licensed.
The requirements for licensure vary from state to state in the United States. Some
states do not require a license at all; most states require between 500 and 1,000 hours
of training in anatomy and physiology as well as massage technique. Ontario, Cana-
da, requires very extensive training of 2,200 hours, while British Columbia has a 3,000-
hour curriculum, and massage has become a more recognized profession there, more
integrated into the medical community. Recently in the United States, standards for
national certification have been established to require at least 500 hours of training
and the successful completion of a national exam.
Licensure has also helped to distinguish massage therapy from the business of
prostitution, which sometimes shrouds itself under the veil of “massage.” Therapeu-
tic massage is a nonsexual health practice.
Further Reading:
The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy
Association (AOBTA) Fritz, Sandy. Mosby’s Fundamentals of Therapeu-
Glendale Executive Campus, Ste. 510 tic Massage. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-Year Book,
1000 White Horse Rd. Inc., 1995.
Vorhees, NJ 08043
Tel: (609) 782-1616 Lidell, Lucinda. The Book of Massage. New York:
Fax: (516) 364-5559 Fireside, 1984.
Web site: www.healthy.net/pan/pa/bodywork
The AOBTA is a national organization of body- Tappan, F. M. Healing Massage Techniques: Holis-
workers in eleven different styles. They certify prac- tic, Classic, and Emerging Methods. Norwalk,
titioners, teachers, and schools throughout the CT: Appleton & Lange, 1988.
United States. The organization enforces mini-
mum entry-level standards (500 hours) for all
types of Oriental bodyworkers. Currently repre-
sents about 1,200 members.
BOWEN TECHNIQUE
B
owen technique or Bowtech© is a
system of muscle and connective
tissue movements used to stimu-
late energy flow and restore the body’s
self-healing resources. A Bowtech spe-
cialist uses a series of gently rolling
movements to manipulate a client’s con-
nective tissue, including muscles, ten-
dons, and ligaments. With the goal of
stimulating, balancing, and realigning
the body’s energy flows, the Bowen tech-
CONNECTIVE TISSUE THERAPY SM from the lower back became the means
by which Dicke saved her leg.
After she resumed activity as a phys-
C
onnective Tissue TherapySM is a iotherapist, Dicke began to explore the
form of bodywork, sometimes ramifications of her discovery. She
called binde or bindegewebsmas- noticed, for example, correspondences
sage, that stimulates the tissue between between malfunction in various organs
skin and muscle in order to relieve pain and changes in tension on specific areas
and promote mental, emotional, and of the body’s surface, named “Head
physical well-being. Developed by a zones” after Henry Head, the nine-
German physiotherapist, Elizabeth teenth-century English neurologist who
Dicke, it posits a powerful association first studied them. According to Head,
between particular areas of connective the nerves, organs, and their correlated
tissue and specific paths of the nervous “Head zones” of skin are rooted in the
system and internal organs. Following same segment of the spinal cord. Dicke
Dicke’s teachings, Connective Tissue built on Head’s work, using the “zones”
Therapy plots treatment so as to acti- as a guide for locating pathways of con-
vate relays between areas of tissue and nective tissue that could be manipulat-
different parts of the body. Connective ed to improve organ function.
Tissue Therapy can help restore balance By 1938 Dicke had formulated the
to the neuromuscular and organ sys- system of bodywork she called
tems after illness and has a relaxing bindegewebsmassage, literally connec-
effect beneficial to self-healing and tive tissue massage, and started to
health maintenance. search out ways to introduce it to the
medical community and the general
public. She collaborated with a number
Discovering Bindegewebsmassage
of scientists in publishing the material
Dicke discovered the basic principle of
in article and book form and became
Connective Tissue Therapy in 1929,
active as a teacher.
when she was incapacitated by toxemia
of the right leg so severe that doctors
recommended amputation. While The Theory of Connective Tissue
touching an area of her lower back, she TherapySM
came across abnormally thick, tense Connective Tissue Therapy concentrates
layers of tissue and realized she felt sen- upon the subcutaneous sheaths of tissue,
sations of warmth and tingling in her known as fascia, that are found through-
infected leg whenever she stroked the out the body surrounding, supporting,
area of abnormal tissue in a pulling and connecting the nerves, blood vessels,
manner. Though recovery required muscles, and organs. While distinct from
three months and the help of a physio- muscles, fascia is an important determi-
therapist who followed Dicke’s specific nant of strength and range of motion and
instructions, the transmission of energy in a healthy person is usually robust and
The Elizabeth Dicke Society was founded in 1954 to preserve and expand her legacy.
Bindegewebsmassage is a widely accepted physical therapy in Germany and in many
countries it is regarded as a medical treatment for organ and circulatory disease. In the
United States Connective Tissue Therapy remains less well known than many other types
of bodywork, but it is taught at various massage schools, and the technique is part of the
repertory of many massage therapists.
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Connective Tissue TherapySM
flexible. Conversely, tension in the fascia, done without oils or lotions, the receiv-
evident in a thickening of tissue and loss er sits on a chair or lies flat. The treat-
of ease in movement, is a sign of dys- ment starts at the pelvic area, then
function caused by disease or by an proceeds over the body, using a tech-
imbalance likely to cause disease if it is nique in which the therapist hooks his
not corrected. or her fingers into the skin and upper
Through massage, Connective Tissue layer of fascia while performing a
Therapy attempts to restore suppleness pulling stroke. The strokes cause tem-
and vitality to fascia that has tightened porary marks on the skin and sensa-
and become numbed or painful. It is pos- tions ranging from dull to sharp. As the
tulated that the massage is effective treatment continues the receiver may
because it activates the parasympathetic experience a desire to sleep, excessive
nervous system, which controls relaxation perspiration, deepened breathing, or a
as well as pain relief and healing in the drop in body temperature. Benefits
vital organs and all other parts of the body. from the session may last for months
following a series of treatments.
Experiencing Connective Tissue TherapySM
Length and frequency of sessions in The Benefits of Connective Tissue
Connective Tissue Therapy vary accord- TherapySM
ing to the needs of the receiver. Since Connective Tissue Therapy brings about
the benefits increase with each addi- a relaxation of the fascia that is particu-
tional session, a series of ten to twenty larly helpful in restoring function and
sessions may be recommended for a range of motion and in stimulating bone
receiver with a severe problem or one and muscle repair of damage suffered
interested in learning about the body’s from injuries, arthritis, and other degen-
potential for health. During treatment, erative disorders. It has a tonic effect
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
upon the circulatory and nervous sys- CORE practitioners utilize client-assist-
tems that can aid the elimination of tox- ed movement while applying massage
ins; the healing of wounds in a way that techniques, which brings heightened
prevents the formation of scar tissue; awareness of the body and allows the
promote recovery from kidney and other client to participate in releasing tension
organ malfunction; and lessen stress and and pain. This system was originated by
anxiety. It can also be an effective George P. Kousaleos, founder of the
adjunct to other forms of treatment. CORE Institute School of Massage Ther-
apy and Structural Bodywork.
—Jackie Hand A typical session of CORE structural
integrative therapy includes an analysis
Resources: of the client’s structural alignment and
movement patterns, the application of
Theresa Lamb (CTTSM) full-body or regional bodywork tech-
2140 Lower Smith Gap Rd. niques that stretch and tone the body’s
Kunkletown, PA 18058 myofascial network, and instruction of
Tel: (610) 826-5957 corrective and postural exercises. CORE
Provides training in CTTSM. bodywork techniques vary from moder-
ate to deep pressure, and sessions can
Wholistic Pathway be organized for specific ailments or for
152 North Wellwood Avenue, Suite 5 general benefit.
Lindenurst, NY 11757 CORE structural integrative therapy
Tel: (516) 226-3898 usually involves ten sessions of body-
Offers training in bindegewebsmassage. work, but also includes introductory
and maintenance sessions that support
a lifelong system of improved alignment
Further Reading: and optimal performance. The CORE
system includes CORE myofascial ther-
Dicke, Elizabeth, et al. A Manual of Reflexive Ther- apy, a full-body session that introduces
apy of the Connective Tissue (Connective Tissue the client to the concepts and benefits
Massage) ‘Bindegewebsmassage’. Scarsdale, NY: of structural alignment; CORE extrinsic
Sidney S. Simon, 1978. therapy, a three-session series that
aligns the superficial musculature,
Ebner, Maria. Connective Tissue Massage: Theory which allows for greater freedom of
and Therapeutic Application. Huntington, NY: movement; CORE intrinsic therapy, a
Robert E. Krieger Publishing Co., 1980. four-session series that aligns the deep-
est musculature, which supports the
Tappan, Frances. Healing Massage Techniques: pelvis, spine, and cranium; and CORE
Holistic, Classic, and Emerging Techniques. Nor- integration therapy, the final three-
walk, CT: Appleton & Lang, 1988. session series, which provides integrat-
ed movement patterns throughout the
body.
A person will experience the physical
CORE STRUCTURAL benefits of CORE structural integrative
therapy immediately. Clients may feel a
INTEGRATIVE THERAPY lighter, longer, and looser relationship
of muscles and joints. Some people who
receive CORE therapy often perceive
C
ORE structural integrative therapy that they are using less energy to pro-
is a system of bodywork that seeks duce all physical activities, and that
to improve the structure and func- they sleep and rest at a deeper level.
tion of the musculoskeletal system and Some clients will also experience a
connective tissues of the human body. release of emotional memories and
152
Infant Massage
I
nfant massage is an ancient tradition provides a common language for par-
in many cultures throughout the ent/child communication. Babies com-
world. Since the 1970s this art has municate through many types
been enjoying a renaissance in the West. of nonverbal cues such as rubbing their
Traditional infant massage strokes, like eyes when tired, sucking their hands
those practiced in India, are used in the when hungry, smiling when happy, cry-
United States as a way for parents and ing when hungry, wet, or in need of
other caregivers to communicate their attention. By learning to read the non-
love, caring, and respect for their babies verbal cues that babies use to express a
and children. Studies seem to indicate full range of emotions in response to the
that the positive effects of practicing massage, caregivers develop a tangible
153
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Vimala McClure brought infant massage techniques from India to the United States.
This can be done by rubbing small cir- classes or learned from a book or video
cles around the hairline, holding their are the basic choreography. Once a par-
baby’s hands together, or placing the ent is comfortable with the massage,
baby’s hands on his or her chest and improvisation begins. Parents use the
then waiting for a response from the same strokes that generations of par-
baby. Learning to understand and ents all over the world have used, yet
respect the baby’s answer, which is given each parent and child develop a “duet”
with the same kinds of nonverbal cues, that is their own unique expression of
is part of learning to communicate love.
through appropriate touch. By asking
permission in this way, parents also The Benefits of Infant Massage
teach their children to discern touch The practice of infant massage
that is loving and appropriate. Asking enhances the parent-baby bond, help-
permission is also a way of demonstrat- ing create loving and respectful relation-
ing respect for the baby. By giving the ships among family members. The
baby respect, the caregiver helps the massage time offers parents an opportu-
baby develop self-respect. nity to explore and develop their
Babies are massaged without clothes, responses to the baby’s sounds, move-
using edible oils that are absorbed by ments, and facial expressions. Babies
the skin, such as sunflower or almond are taught that they are aware human
oil, so that the baby will not be harmed if beings who deserve respect, tenderness,
he or she swallows any oil. A massage warmth, and above all, a listening heart.
lasts as long as the baby gives permis- This type of interaction serves as a
sion and the caregiver is available. This model for the child as he or she grows
can be as short as two minutes or as long and for the parent as well, encouraging
as an hour. Most massages are twenty to them to develop respectful, loving rela-
twenty-five minutes long. tionships with an ever-widening circle
Massaging a baby is a tactile expres- of people.
sion of love and security. Experience
and clinical research show that babies —Mindy Zlotnick
enjoy and benefit from firm, confident
touch as opposed to light, feathery
touch. Babies typically move, kick, and
talk throughout the massage. They are Resources:
not quiet recipients like adults. Parents
are encouraged to actively listen to their IAIM (International Association of Infant Massage)
babies’ responses to the touch of the 1720 Willow Creek Circle Suite #516
massage. This type of interaction teach- Eugene, OR 97402
es parents to talk with their hands and Toll-free: (800) 248-5432
listen with their hearts. Fax: (541) 485-7372
Massage is a dance between the par- e-mail: iaimus@aol.com
ent and baby. The techniques taught in Organization that trains and certifies instructors.
IAIM trains and certifies individuals to teach parents and caregivers to massage their
babies. Many CIMIs are branching out to work with special-needs populations, such as
physically challenged infants, infants who are drug-exposed or HIV-positive, medically
fragile infants, as well as teen moms, incarcerated moms, homeless families, and
women recovering from drug and alcohol addiction.
156
Muscular Therapy
M
uscular therapy, also referred to as The third influence was the injury evalua-
the Benjamin system of muscular tion and deep friction treatment devel-
therapy, consists of a series of oped by Dr. Cyriax.
techniques and exercises designed to pro- These three approaches combined
mote physical health and reduce muscular with Benjamin’s original treatment tech-
tension and stress caused by physical niques provide a comprehensive under-
injury. It is also an educational process in standing of the nature and treatment of
which the client learns to understand the physical tension. They enable the practi-
cause of his or her physical symptoms and tioner to determine if an injury has been
what needs to be done to alleviate them. caused primarily by overuse, an align-
Muscular therapy was developed by Dr. ment problem, or by emotional stress.
Ben Benjamin from a synthesis of several Using these techniques, Benjamin was
approaches to working with the body. Dr. able to distinguish between a serious
Benjamin’s interest in the field began in injury, which requires a physician’s
1958, when he sustained a serious injury. attention, and one that is relatively minor
157
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
and could be safely handled with muscu- mild and gentle form of pressure to the
lar therapy techniques. Benjamin’s tech- body in order to relieve tension in the
niques are not designed to treat muscular soft connective tissue called fascia.
tension caused by emotional stress. Myofascial release is the release of the
A therapist works with the client by connective tissue, or fascia. The thera-
performing deep massage, including a pist applies a stretching technique to
variety of area-specific strokes, pressure, the body that exerts a small amount of
and rhythms to reduce chronic tension pressure to the fascia. Myofascial
and pain. In a typical session, therapists release experts have shown that fascia
may educate clients about the causes will soften and begin to release tension
and effects of tension. Clients learn when the pressure is sustained over
techniques designed to prevent the time. It is used to relieve chronic pain,
buildup of new tension. These may especially in areas such as the neck, jaw,
include basic exercises for warming up, and back. With the release of physical
stretching, and building strength. pain, patients report that there is often a
release of emotions that were formerly
—Ben Benjamin, Ph.D., and buried deep in the subconscious. Myo-
Mary Ann di Roberts fascial release uncovers “secrets” stored
in the body.
Resources:
How Myofascial Release Developed
Myofascial release was developed by
Muscular Therapy Institute
John F. Barnes, PT. Barnes graduated
122 Rindge Avenue
from the University of Pennsylvania in
Cambridge, MA 02140
1960 with a degree in physical therapy.
Tel: (617) 576-1300
He started his own practice in 1966.
The Muscular Therapy Institute offers a two-year
Barnes’s first experience with what
training program in massage therapy that empha-
we now know as myofascial release
sizes physical technique, clear professional bound-
began when he was seventeen. He acci-
aries, and good communication skills.
dentally injured his back while lifting
weights. He initially ignored the pain of
Further Reading: this injury but eventually, in his own
work as a therapist, came to the realiza-
Benjamin, Ben E. Are You Tense? The Benjamin tion that he was in worse shape than
System of Muscular Therapy. New York: Pan- most of his patients. The pain grew so
theon, 1978. bad that, from age twenty-five to thirty,
he could not sit for more than two to
———. Exercise Without Injury. New York: Summit three minutes at a time. Finally, Barnes
Books, 1979. went to see a neurologist and an ortho-
pedist, who diagnosed him with a
———.Listen to Your Pain: The Active Person’s Guide crushed disc. They removed the disc,
to Understanding, Identifying and Treating Pain which took the intensity out of his pain
and Injury. New York: Viking/Penguin, 1984. and allowed him to function. However,
he still had problems with his back, and
through his frustration in trying to help
himself before and after his surgery, he
developed techniques that relieved the
MYOFASCIAL RELEASE symptoms. This injury also gave Barnes
an understanding of what it is really like
to be “trapped” in pain.
M
yofascial release is a gentle, Barnes began trying these tech-
hands-on form of therapy that niques on his patients. Despite the fact
involves applying an extremely he did not know why these techniques
158
Myofascial Release
M
subject of myofascial pain. Dr. Travell
yofascial trigger point therapy
died in 1997.
(MTPT) is a physical, therapeu-
In 1979, Bonnie Prudden founded
tic discipline for treating
the Bonnie Prudden School for Physical
myofascial, or muscular and connective
Fitness and Myotherapy, based on the
tissue pain in muscles and joints by
trigger point principles described by Dr.
focusing on trigger points, which are
Travell. The school teaches the treat-
defined as sensitive areas in the muscle
ment of muscle pain through pressure
that are very tender to the touch. MTPT
applied to trigger points.
therapists apply pressure, among other
techniques, to trigger points in order to
release these areas of constriction and Defining Myofascial Trigger Point
pain. It is intended to provide the client Therapy
with a greater awareness of his or her MTPT is a noninvasive therapeutic pro-
body, and to release stress and tension. gram for the relief and control of myofas-
cial pain and dysfunction. The goal of
The History of MTPT treatment is the client’s recovery to a nor-
While many people contributed to the mal or as near normal function as possi-
development and spread of MTPT, the ble with either complete recovery from or
person most responsible for its birth was significant reduction in pain.
Dr. Janet Travell. Born in New York City in This is achieved through a system-
1901, Dr. Travell began practicing medi- atized approach, which consists of
cine in 1926. Her concentration was in the ischemic compression (direct pressure)
areas of internal medicine, cardiovascular applied to trigger points, spray and stretch
160
Myofascial Trigger Point Therapy
Using elbows, knuckles, or fingers, Lori Drummond, master certified Bonnie Prudden myother-
apist, releases a trigger point that causes pain in the lower back.
161
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
162
Reflexology
R
eflexology is both an ancient and foot will result in the stimulation of all
modern “hands-on” therapeutic the body parts relating to that zone. In
technique that activates and facili- this way a practitioner can release
tates the natural healing powers of the blocked energy in any part of the body by
body. This is accomplished by applying applying systematic pressure to the cor-
noninvasive, penetrating pressure to responding reflex point on the feet.
specific reflex points and areas on the Like acupuncture, reflexology is still
feet, hands, and ears. In most instances not completely understood. The feet are
this pressure work is focused on the feet extremely sensitive, with more than
because of the accessibility and larger 7,200 nerves, and no doubt the stimula-
size of the reflex points, the sensitivity of tion of these nerve endings partially
the feet, and their physical and ener- accounts for the beneficial results. How-
getic connection with the earth. ever, there are also less easily discernible
Reflexology has been found to be most energy currents and relationships in the
effective in stimulating and balancing body that also contribute to the healing
the energy flow to specific organs, power of this technique. In addition, the
glands, and other physiological systems skill of the practitioner, enhanced by
of the body that correspond to his or her personal sensitivity, aware-
these reflex points, so that the body can ness, empathy, intention, and integrity,
utilize this energy to begin healing, or to contributes to the effectiveness of
maintain optimal function. reflexology.
163
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
164
Rolfing®
sports injuries. In extreme chronic con- Ingham, Eunice. The Original Works of Eunice P.
ditions, it is best used in conjunction Ingham: Stories the Feet Can Tell Through
with other therapies and under the Reflexology: Stories the Feet Have Told Through
supervision or awareness of a medical Reflexology. With revisions by Dwight C. Byars.
doctor. St. Petersburg, FL: Ingham Publishing, Inc.,
1984.
—Laura Norman
Kunz, Kevin, and Barbara Kunz. The Practitioner’s
Guide to Reflexology. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Resources: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.
American Reflexology Certification Board (ARCB) ——. Hand Reflexology Workbook. Englewood
P.O. Box 620607 Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.
Littleton, CO 80162
Tel: (303) 933-6921 Norman, Laura. Feet First: A Guide to Foot
Web site: www.ns.net/quantum/arcb Reflexology. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1988.
Offers information regarding certification require-
ments and testing, and provides certification for
qualified practitioners.
Further Reading:
The Development of Rolfing®
Rolfing was developed by Dr. Ida P. Rolf,
Grinberg, Avi. Holistic Reflexology. London: Thor-
an American biochemist who studied
sons Publishing, 1989.
the flexibility of proteins in connective
Reflexology
Reflexology has been found to be most effective in stimulating and balancing energy flow
to specific organs, glands, and other physiological systems of the body that correspond to
these reflex points, so that the body can utilize this energy to begin healing, or to main-
tain optimal function. Clients are fully clothed during sessions with only their feet
exposed, and are usually most comfortable reclining on a padded bodywork table or bed.
The practitioner applies pressure to the feet in a systematic fashion to induce deep relax-
ation (one of the hallmarks of reflexology), which facilitates the flow of energy.
165
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Dr. Ida P. Rolf, developer of Rolfing, a seminal method of connective tissue massage.
tissue in the 1930s and 1940s. Dr. Rolf Along with other researchers, Dr. Rolf dis-
was a young research biochemist at the covered that connective tissue is the organ
Rockefeller Institute in New York City of structure of the human body and that its
studying connective tissue (a network of shape, elasticity, even its length, can be
tissue beneath the skin that links other tis- altered with the application of appropriate
sues and forms ligaments, tendons, and pressure. She spent the next fifty or so
aponeuroses), particularly its plasticity, or years traveling widely—studying and
capacity for being molded or altered. eventually teaching a systematic way to go
166
Rolfing®
about organizing human structure. She release the emotional stress that
called her method structural integration, accompanies the physical symptoms.
and eventually, in the late 1960s, it became After many years of searching, Dr.
more widely known as Rolfing. Rolf discovered that Rolfing works best
in a ten-session format. The ten sessions
Basic Principles of Rolfing® are designed to slowly and methodically
Rolfing is based on the following three get the body—probably stuck from
ideas: First, the human body is affected by many years of poor compensation from
gravity, and when the body’s major seg- accidents and injuries and from poor
ments (head, shoulders, chest, pelvis, postural habits, along with a multitude
legs) are properly aligned, gravity works to of other possibilities—to lengthen,
uplift the body rather than pull it down. widen, deepen, or just let go.
Second, connective tissue, or the
myofascial network of the body—a con- Rolfing® in Practice
tinuous bandage that ensheathes the The first session of Rolfing begins after a
whole body and all parts of the body, thorough interview and structural analy-
even individual muscle fibers—can be sis, usually using Polaroid pictures. Rolfers
molded and changed. attempt to identify the main structural
Third, the key to aligning the body in issue in a person’s body, or the reason a
gravity is systematically releasing the person remains stuck and unable to find
connective tissue network. This will the ease or support he or she needs.
allow the muscles to return to a bal- For example, in a person who has
anced relationship with each other. It been slumping with the head forward
will also free the body of many chronic for a number of years, the tissue of the
tensions and aches. upper chest has been responding by get-
“When the body gets working appro- ting shorter; the muscles of the upper
priately,” Ida Rolf said, “the force of back (now assigned the task of holding
gravity can flow through. Rolfers make a the head on) have become more rigid.
life study of relating bodies and their The person is unable to voluntarily get
fields to the earth and its gravity field, his or her head back over the shoulders
and we organize the body so that the where it belongs. The pelvis will very
gravity field can reinforce the body’s likely be tipped forward, unable to pro-
energy field. This is our primary con- vide support for the shoulders and head.
cept.” In turn the pelvis is probably not getting
When a body is properly aligned it the support it needs from having the legs
can release the physical tensions and and feet under it. Rolfing examines the
holding patterns resulting from years of relationships between body parts—left
compensation resulting in impaired and right, back and front, lower and
balance and movement. It can also upper, core and limb.
• Releasing the outer or superficial layer, relieving the body of accumulated stresses
and strains (sessions 1–3);
• Freeing the body of its deeper core issues from which shortness, rotations, and imbal-
ances emanate. This can be done successfully only if the way has been paved by the
first level of sessions (sessions 4–7);
• Integrating the body in gravity and assisting clients to use and enhance the changes
that have occurred in Rolfing in their lives (sessions 8–10).
167
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
During Rolfing sessions the client acute problems. People seeking imme-
either lies on a low table, or occasional- diate pain relief would be better served
ly, sits or stands. The Rolfer begins to by a wide range of body therapies that
release tension from the outer layers of would better address these issues.
the tissue with the application of pres-
sure, using the fingers and hands as pri- —Allan Davidson
mary tools. The first session begins on
the torso to release the outer wrapping
(superficial fascia) and free up the Resources:
breath. The work is done slowly and
with the cooperation of the client, usu- The Rolf Institute
ally through specific feedback to help 205 Canyon Blvd.
the Rolfer relax the fascial tissue. There Boulder, CO 80302
is some pressure—the proper applica- Tel: (800) 530-8875 or (303) 449-5903
tion of pressure is what makes the tissue Web site: www.rolfinst.com
release and change. Founded in 1971, the institute trains Rolfers and
Although some clients find the Rolfing movement integration teachers, conducts
degree of pressure painful, most clients research, and provides information to the public.
find it acceptable, at times even plea-
surable. Rolfers ask their clients to guide Further Reading:
them and to participate in their process
of harmonizing body parts. At various Anson, Briah. Rolfing: Stories of Personal Empow-
times, the client may be asked to stand erment. Kansas City, MO: Heartland Personal
and move about so that the results of Growth Press, 1991.
the work can be felt and assessed by
both the client and the Rolfer. Fahey, Brian. The Power of Balance: A Rolfing View
Sessions are cumulative and work of Health. Portland, OR: Metamorphous Press,
progressively deeper into the body’s 1989.
structural issues. An important goal of
Rolfing is not just to get the body to Feitus, Rosemary, ed. Ida Rolf Talks About Rolfing
change, but to get the whole system to and Physical Reality. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts
incorporate and use that change. Press, 1990.
Rolfing sessions generally last an hour
and are usually spaced about a week Rolf, Ida. Rolfing: Reestablishing the Natural Align-
apart ment. Rochester, VT: Healing Arts Press, 1989.
Benefits and Risks of Rolfing® Schultz, R. Louis, and Rosemary Feitus. The End-
The primary objective of Rolfing is the less Web. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books,
release of the body’s chronic and limit- 1997.
ing holding patterns. After Rolfing ses-
sions, people have reported freer
movement and breathing, increased
flexibility, release of chronic muscular
tension and pain, psychological growth,
and most important, continuous and
ROSEN METHOD
progressive change.
T
Not everybody is an ideal candidate he Rosen method is a form of thera-
for Rolfing. Rolfing is designed to get at peutic bodywork that uses gentle
the underlying roots of chronic body touch and supportive words to
issues or for people who want to feel and bring about a release of muscular and
understand their bodies. In general, breathing constrictions, called “hold-
Rolfing deals with chronic rather than ings,” that limit our physical, emotional,
168
Rosen Method
169
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Marion Rosen developed the gentle techniques of the Rosen method while work-
ing with the patients of the Swiss psychologist Carl Jung.
We usually are not aware that we are the body’s “barriers to self-awareness.” As
restricting our muscles and our breath the practitioner’s touch and verbal
until these holdings create dysfunction encouragement elicit memories from the
and pain. When the body and the breath body, information that had been uncon-
are chronically held, all of our emotions, scious moves into conscious awareness.
whether they be happy or sad, are dimin- This is of great importance, for now the
ished, leaving us with the experience of traumatic memories—events, emotions—
inner deadness or emptiness. can be acknowledged and accepted.
When a Rosen method practitioner Rosen method practitioners believe
attends to these muscular holdings, he or that as participants discover clues to the
she believes that he or she is contacting origin and meaning of their holdings,
170
Rosen Method
The Rosen method of movement involves movement therapy style exercises that can
be used in conjunction with the Rosen method of bodywork.
T
body seems to relax and open to healing he St. John method of neuromuscu-
itself. lar therapy combines bodywork and
A Rosen method practitioner focuses physical rehabilitation techniques
on a muscular tightness until it relaxes. to alleviate chronic pain related to stress
It is a basic premise of the Rosen or injury. Although recently developed,
method that these shifts in the quality of it rests on the assumption, formulated
the breath indicate and mirror changes in a number of much earlier holistic
in the quality of the client’s emotions therapies, that pain can be traced to a
and associated images, memories, and block or distortion in the flow of mes-
thoughts. The Rosen method aims to sages from the nervous system to the
increase the client’s awareness of these rest of the body’s structures.
shifts by asking, “What just happened?” What distinguishes the St. John
“Can you say more about that?” or by method from such forerunners as chiro-
simply saying, “Yes.” Rosen method practic is its hybrid approach to treat-
practitioners do not reinforce thoughts ment. Through massage as well as
and emotions that are not echoed in the analysis of a client’s posture and gait, it
body and the breath. Marion Rosen calls seeks to free the transmission of nerve
this “one’s body supporting the truth of impulses and restore harmony to the
one’s words.” entire organism.
172
The St. John Method of Neuromuscular Therapy
automobile accident. Noticing that firm understood or cured unless the totality
pressure on his neck and shoulders of the organism’s neuromuscular activity
brought temporary relief from the con- is examined.
stant aches caused by his injuries, he Instead of X rays, the St. John
undertook research that started with method directly observes the nervous
massage and led to the disciplines of system’s capacity to maintain the equi-
chiropractic and neurology. librium of the body. These symptoms
By 1978, St. John had cured himself have been codified into the five so-
and put together a method of bodywork called principles of pain: tissue with an
aimed specifically at the problem of insufficient blood supply; imbalance in
persistent pain arising from trauma the muscle and skeletal system; habitu-
rather than disease. Convinced of its al distortion of posture and gait;
efficacy, he set up a clinical practice “trigger points” of pain explicable only
and eventually established an informa- by reference to another region of the
tion and teaching center, the St. John body; and “nerve compression” by soft
Neuromuscular Pain Relief Institute. tissue, cartilage, or bone.
Today, his treatment is widely By means of the five “principles of
acclaimed as an important addition to pain,” the St. John method charts
the repertory of physical and massage chronic pain’s pathway from the ner-
therapists specializing in pain manage- vous system through the bones, mus-
ment. They receive their training in a cles, and blood vessels to soft tissue and
series of four seminars available only the experience of distress. Since the
through the St. John Neuromuscular pain is habitual, successful treatment is
Pain Relief Institute. believed to require bodywork that goes
beyond relaxation to disruption of the
unhealthy pathways and reeducation of
Homeostasis
the neuromuscular system. A type of
While the St. John method incorporates
therapeutic massage that exerts strong
Eastern and Scandinavian techniques
pressure on tissue is accordingly a stan-
of massage, its approach to the diagno-
dard feature of the St. John method.
sis of pain derives from the concept of
homeostasis first popularized by Amer-
ican chiropractic teaching. Homeosta- The St. John Method in Practice
sis (meaning human equilibrium) Treatment with the St. John method is
refers to the belief that the human usually received from a physical or
organism functions perfectly so long as massage therapist who has completed
it exists in a state of ease and harmony, the seminar program of the St. John
free from mental or physical distur- Neuromuscular Pain Relief Institute. A
bance. With this idea as its foundation, first office visit will include a conversa-
the St. John method views chronic pain tion about the patient’s needs and a
as a symptom of a trauma that lingers physical examination based on the five
on in the form of a block or imbalance “principles of pain.”
in the organism’s mechanisms of The patient’s posture, gait, and the tone
response. of body tissue are analyzed through visual
Further, the St. John method posits observation. Additional information
that such old injuries are often neglect- about “trigger points” and thickened,
ed because they manifest themselves in unhealthy areas of tissue is obtained by
an indirect fashion. They may appear palpating the body. Once a diagnosis has
healed yet be the cause of acute pain in been reached, the therapist and patient
another, apparently unrelated part of agree upon a plan of treatment, which
the body. For the St. John method, varies according to individual need but
chronic pain is thus a systemic, not a generally comprises a series of office visits
localized problem and cannot be for therapeutic bodywork.
173
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The form of massage used in the St. to improve blood flow to the heart. The
John method is designed to interrupt combination of these strokes is
dysfunctional responses in the neuro- believed to be an extremely effective
muscular system and stimulate healthy tool to bring about relaxation, stress
blood circulation. Manual pressure is reduction, better circulation, and a
exerted upon selected portions of the general sense of well-being.
patient’s body in a rhythmic series of
eight- to twelve-second applications. How Swedish Massage Developed
Though the therapist will be sensi- Swedish massage has its origins in the
tive to the patient’s condition, the pres- dedicated work of Swedish fencing
sure is supposed to be strong enough to master and gymnastic instructor Per
produce moderate discomfort. The dis- Henrik Ling (1776–1839). Ling suffered
comfort is regarded as crucial evidence from a form of rheumatism that affect-
that the bodywork is affecting receptors ed his fencing arm. As a result, he began
in the nervous system and initiating the to use anatomical and physiological
desired balancing of the body’s struc- principles as a basis of a systematic
tures.
method of massage in order to relieve
his symptoms. His method became
Many Benefits known as the “Ling system.” In 1813,
The St. John method has gained recogni- the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute
tion for its success in relieving soft-tis- of Stockholm introduced the Ling sys-
sue pain without the use of drugs or tem of massage to its curriculum,
costly laboratory tests. Advocates also where it became known as Swedish
claim that it can help rebuild injured tis- massage.
sue; eliminate spasms and hyper con-
tractions, enhance the flow of blood and Basic Techniques of Swedish Massage
lymphatic fluids, restore alignment to There are five stroke techniques used in
posture, and free the individual from the Swedish massage: effleurage, petris-
aftermath of severe stress and trauma. sage, friction, tapotement, and vibra-
tion. As a general rule, the majority of
Resources: strokes in a Swedish massage move
toward the heart in order to facilitate
American Pain Association blood flow back to the heart. For exam-
1615 L Street, NW, Suite 925 ple, an effleurage stroke may begin at
Washington, DC 20036 the foot and travel toward the pelvis.
Tel: (202) 296-9200 The most often used technique of
Provides information about techniques for the these five strokes is effleurage. Effleurage
relief of chronic pain. strokes are long, gliding strokes that may
be deep or superficial. They are used to
initiate the massage in order to disperse a
lubricant over the body part being mas-
saged, to accustom the person to being
massaged to the touch of the therapist,
SWEDISH MASSAGE and to allow the therapist to discover areas
of spasm and tenderness. It is also used as
a transitional stroke interspersed with
S
wedish massage, also known as tradi- other strokes. Deep effleurage may be
tional massage, is a type of used to passively stretch a muscle group.
massage characterized by its use of Petrissage is a kneading stroke that
five distinct stroke techniques. Developed gently lifts the muscle mass and rhyth-
by Per Henrik Ling, these techniques are mically rolls, squeezes, or wrings it. This
applied by Swedish massage therapists stroke has a stimulating effect on the
174
Swedish Massage
muscles, deeper blood vessels, and lym- position, with the part of the body being
phatics. It helps to break down adhe- massaged properly supported. Massage
sions in the soft tissues and relieves the strokes should begin at a moderate
muscles of metabolic wastes while intensity and increase in intensity based
increasing blood supply to the area. on the tolerance of the person being
Friction is most often performed in massaged. The massage should end as
small circular motions with the tips of gently as it was begun.
the fingers or the thumb. It is a deeper
stroke used around the joints, bony Benefits and Cautions
prominences, or scar tissue. This stroke There are many beneficial effects of
should be followed by effleurage to pro- Swedish massage. The most discernible
mote absorption of localized blockages effect is its analgesic, soothing effect
or swelling. upon sensory nerve endings in the skin.
Tapotement, or percussion, is the Depending upon the type of strokes
stereotyped, often misrepresented, used, and the length of the massage
Swedish massage stroke commonly treatment, this may produce a sense of
portrayed in motion pictures. This relaxation, stimulation, or even exhaus-
stroke is done with the hand rapidly tion on the nervous system. These
alternating in hacking, clapping, or effects are useful in eliminating many
cupping movement. Tapotement has a painful muscular, neurological, and
stimulating effect on the muscles as arthritic conditions.
well as on the nerves if done for brief Swedish massage also improves cir-
periods, and a sedating effect on the culation and increases nutrition to the
nerves if prolonged. If, however, a stim- joints and soft tissues while easing the
ulating effect is desired, tapotement demand on the heart by assisting the
renders a slight sense of stimulation heart’s ability to move blood through
and well-being. the circulatory system. Massage
Vibration is performed in a rhythmi- improves nutrition to the tissues of the
cal vibrating motion coming from the body by facilitating a cellular exchange
whole arm, with the elbow, wrist, and of oxygen and nutrients in the blood
fingers kept stiff in a slightly flexed posi- with carbon dioxide and cellular meta-
tion. The pressure applied with this bolic wastes as circulation is increased.
stroke should be very light, to impart a This is essential for people who have
smoothing effect. been incapacitated by injury or disease.
It should be noted, however, that not
How Swedish Massage Is Practiced everyone should be massaged. Massage
Swedish massage begins with the per- enhances circulation, therefore anything
son being massaged lying on his or her that can be spread via the circulatory sys-
back, fully draped with a sheet or towels tem should not be massaged. These
so that only the part being massaged is include cancer, acute febrile conditions,
exposed. A full-body massage follows a jaundice conditions, bacterial infections,
general order of right arm, left arm, pain associated with infections, and
right leg, left leg, chest, abdomen; the areas of acute inflammation. Massage
person then rolls over and the massage should not be given to fracture sites, as
continues with the back of the left leg, it may cause a separation of bony frag-
back of the right leg, and lastly the back. ments.
A typical massage ranges from thirty Hemorrhages, acute phlebitis, throm-
minutes to one hour depending on the bosis, and varicose veins should not be
person’s needs. massaged due to the risk of dislodging a
For maximum comfort of the person clot in the blood vessels. Persons with
being massaged, the room should be cardiovascular problems should be
warm but not stuffy. The person should carefully screened and massaged only
be positioned in a comfortable, relaxed with a physician’s recommendation.
175
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
—Janie McGee
Further Reading:
176
PART VIII: ACUPUNCTURE AND
ASIAN BODYWORK
Acupressure • Acupuncture • Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM •
Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy • Process Acupressure • Shiatsu • Tui Na
flows through canyons and riverbeds, chi travels through the body in channels called
meridians. All the methods described in this section are based on observing and
manipulating the flow of chi through twelve major meridians, each of which corre-
sponds to organs and systems in the physical body.
According to TCM theory, when chi is flowing freely through the meridians, an
individual will be healthy, well-balanced, and able to adapt quickly and easily to
changes in his or her internal and external environment. When the chi is blocked, it
will produce uncomfortable physical and emotional conditions that will eventually
produce debilitating diseases.
A Multitude of Benefits
Acupuncture and the various forms of Asian bodywork have been used by millions
to heal hundreds of physical problems. They are useful for acute muscle and soft tis-
sue problems such as sprains and strains as well as conditions resulting from over-
work. These techniques have also been shown to be effective with many chronic
problems related to stress, such as headaches, insomnia, stomach disorders, asthma,
and arthritis. Other complex chronic problems that combine emotional and physical
attributes, such as alcohol, tobacco, and drug addictions, have been treated success-
fully with these methods. On a physical level, acupuncture and Asian bodywork aid
178
circulation of all body fluids, removing harmful toxins from the system. By clearing
blockages on the physical level, these practices tone and balance the interdependent
organs and systems, opening neurochemical lines of communication in the body. But
it is by clearing away blockages on the energetic level, and by treating every individ-
ual as a unique image of nature that they teach awareness and respect for the inner
and outer needs of each person at each stage of life, providing a means for living a
long, healthy, happy, productive life.
American Association of Acupuncture and Oriental Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage to
Medicine (AAAOM) Get—And How to Make the Most of It. New York:
4101 Lake Boone Trail, Suite 201 William Morrow, 1995.
Raleigh, NC 27607
Tel: (919) 787-5181 Knaster, Mirka. Discovering the Body’s Wisdom.
Offers information about traditional Chinese medi- New York: Bantam Books, 1996.
cine.
179
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A
cupressure is an ancient practice period of at least 2,000 years. It is still
of applying hand and finger pres- practiced in Asia today.
sure to specific points on the body Though traditional Chinese medicine
in order to control the flow of chi, or was overshadowed somewhat during the
vital energy, which, according to tradi- last century by the introduction of West-
tional Chinese medical theory, courses ern medicine, it has now come back into
through the body at all times. It is widespread use. At present both Eastern
believed that doing this helps alleviate and Western medical practices are often
tension, pain, and other discomforting used together in order to provide maxi-
symptoms, and to prevent harmful tox- mum relief to patients. Since the “open-
ins and disease from spreading ing” of China to the West in the 1960s, the
throughout the body. According to principles and methods of traditional
recorded history, acupressure, as a for- Chinese medicine are now being dis-
mal and defined therapeutic practice, seminated throughout the West, in
originated in China more than 2,000 acupuncture, acupressure, and herbal
years ago. Oral tradition suggests that medicine programs where Westerners
the practice is even older than that, up are able to study these ancient methods
to 5,000 years old. with traditional Eastern practitioners.
Acupressure is a part of traditional Training for acupressure specialists
Chinese medicine, the system of holis- begins with a basic 150-hour
tic medicine that relates all of the parts certification program and can range up
of the body to each other through the to 850 hours for advanced training pro-
flow of chi. Further, it relates the health grams.
of the human body to a person’s genetic
background, psychological conditions, Other Forms of Bodywork Based on
and to exterior conditions of nature,
the Acupressure Model
such as climate and the changes of the
Various styles of acupressure were
seasons.
developed over time, although they all
rely on the basic traditional model of
How the Ancient Art of Acupressure energy flow through the meridians, acu-
Developed points, and whole person. Tui na is the
It is hard to know the exact date of acu- Chinese massage method of using acu-
pressure’s origin since it is known to pre- points to regulate energy flow. Amma
date existing written records. It is thought was the name used in Japan for a similar
to derive from the instinctive practice of method. Shiatsu, meaning “finger pres-
people rubbing, holding, or kneading sure” in Japanese, is a vigorous form of
painful places on the body for relief. acupressure that uses firm and rhyth-
Through experimentation and close mic pressure on acupoints over the
observation, early healers developed an whole body for three to ten seconds
understanding of certain places on the each. Jin shin jyutsu is the practice of
body that could assist in the recovery holding two-point combinations at the
from illness and promote wellness. Over same time until a release of energy and
many years of practice and experience tension is felt. It was developed by Jiro
with acupressure, healers came to identi- Murai in Japan in the twentieth century
fy the points on the body, called acu- and has been taught throughout the
points, where stimulation produced world. Contemporary American pro-
maximum effects. They found that stim- gressions from jin shin jyutsu are: Jin
ulation of these points cured numbness, Shin Do®, developed by Iona Marsaa
stiffness, and chills in afflicted areas. The Teeguarden, which combines gentle yet
180
Acupressure
An acupressurist applies pressure to a client’s head and neck to manipulate the flow of chi.
181
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
deep finger pressure on acupoints with primary acupoints today. Through the
simple verbal techniques that heighten centuries more acupoints have been
awareness of the connection between added to the map so that there are now
the body and the mind; and process some 2,000 points in the contemporary
acupressure, developed by Aminah Chinese system.
Raheem, which combines psychological
and spiritual work in consciousness The Importance of Open
with acupressure. In addition, self-acu-
pressure techniques such as acu-yoga,
Communication
In initial meetings with an acupressure
developed by Michael Reed Gach in
therapist, open communication is
America, teach people how to find their
established between patient and thera-
acupoints and to release energy and
pist. A therapist will determine a
relieve tension through self-massage.
patient’s total body symptoms, and
establish a thorough family and child-
Meridians and Acupoints hood history to uncover genetic or envi-
The Chinese holistic system is postulat- ronmental reasons that could cause or
ed on the premise that when the energy contribute to a patient’s disorder. Once
system and the internal organs of the the patient and therapist are satisfied
body are functioning normally, a person that all significant issues have been dis-
will be in good health. Conversely, if cussed, the patient is encouraged to
either the energy or the organs are out of relax and pressure is applied to prede-
balance or distressed, illness will eventu- termined pressure points. During the
ally occur. Therefore, the therapeutic session, acupressure should result in
approach is to locate any site of conges- lessened muscle tension, increased
tion, tension, or imbalance, in either blood circulation, as well as a release of
energy or organs, and then to apply the endorphins and subsequent pain relief.
method that will release this obstruction, Toxins are also released and purged
thereby returning the body to its own from the body. Length and frequency of
internal regulation processes and health. the sessions are determined by the ther-
The energy system of the body was apist and patient and depend on the
mapped during ancient times. It is severity of the problem.
defined by explicit energy pathways
(called meridians) that flow up and A Powerful Tool
down the body, from head to toe. Twelve Acupressure is particularly beneficial
of these pathways are linked to internal for those who suffer with severe back
organs and are said to help regulate the pain, arthritis, nonarticular rheuma-
health of these organs. The pathways tism, or chronic muscle aches. It can aid
are accessed by acupoints, or “win- in relieving the pain of headaches. It is
dows,” into the pathways, which can be also credited with balancing the differ-
stimulated to affect energy flow. Origi- ent systems of the body and eliminating
nally 361 acupoints were located on the harmful toxins. In this sense it is consid-
surface of the body. These are still the ered a powerful preventive tool against
182
Acupuncture
the onslaught of illness and disease as it (Available from author at Process Acupressure
purifies and strengthens the body’s Unlimited, P.O. Box 1096, Capitola, CA 95010.)
resistance, resulting in a healthy, vital
existence. Serizawa, Katsusuke. Tsubo: Vital Points for Orien-
As a caution, self-acupressure re- tal Therapy. Tokyo: Japan Publications, Inc.,
quires no special tools but instruction is 1976.
encouraged in order to effectively deter-
mine pressure points. Steinfeld, Alan. Careers in Alternative Medicine.
New York: Rosen Publishing, 1997.
—Aminah Raheem, Ph.D.
Teeguarden, Iona Marsaa. Acupressure Way of
Health: Jin Shin Do. Tokyo: Japan Publications,
Resources: Inc., 1978.
A
Glendale Executive Campus, Ste. 510 cupuncture is one of the ancient
1000 White Horse Rd. healing practices recommended
Vorhees, NJ 08043 by traditional Chinese medicine to
Tel: (609) 782-1616 cure disease, relieve pain, and maintain
Fax: (516) 364-5559 health. Acupuncture is a holistic medi-
Web site: www.healthy.net/pan/pa/bodywork cine, that is, it stresses the interconnect-
A professional organization that has determined edness of one’s body, mind, and spirit. An
and enforces minimum entry-level standards (500 acupuncturist understands that physical
hours) for all types of Oriental bodywork. Current- ailments can affect one’s emotional or
ly represents about 1,200 members. psychological state and equally, emo-
tional, spiritual, or psychological
Jin Shin Do Foundation for Bodymind Acupressure difficulties can lead to disease. According
366 California Avenue, Ste. 16 to Chinese philosophy, energy—called
Palo Alto, CA 94306 chi or qi (pronounced chee or key)—cir-
Tel: (408) 763-7702 culates through all things, including our
Provides a myriad of information on Jin Shin Do bodies. The proper flow of chi is essential
acupressure, including a list of registered practi- to good health. The practice of acupunc-
tioners, newsletters, books, videotapes, and train- ture involves placing needles into
ing courses. specific points on the body in order to
control the flow of this energy.
Further Reading:
Origins and Development of
The Academy of Traditional Chinese Medicine. An Acupuncture
Outline of Chinese Acupuncture. Peking: For- There is evidence suggesting that
eign Languages Press, 1975. acupuncture has been practiced for more
than 5,000 years. It is mentioned in one of
Raheem, Aminah. Soul Return: Integrating Body, the first written records of traditional
Psyche and Spirit. Santa Cruz: Aslan, 1991. Chinese medicine practices, called the
183
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A practitioner of traditional Chinese medicine works with herbs and oils to administer acupuncture.
Here she removes the needles used in acupuncture.
Huang-ti Nei Ching (The Yellow Emperor’s integrated aspects of our being. They
Classic of Internal Medicine). This text was cannot be separated from one another.
compiled sometime between 213 BCE and They must be balanced in order for us to
240 CE, and is reputed to document prac- be healthy. Chi is the energy of our lives,
tices used during the legendary reign of what motivates us, our life essence—it
the Yellow Emperor in China (2697–2595 affects our whole being. It is believed that
BCE). Acupuncture started spreading when the energy flows we feel generally
throughout Asia around 1000 CE and well, and when it is impeded we feel out of
reached Europe by around 1700 CE. balance and begin to develop the symp-
Until recently in the United States, toms of disease. Chi is thought to travel in
acupuncture has been used mostly for channels, called meridians, deep inside
anesthesia and for the treatment of alco- the body. Acupuncture points are the
hol, tobacco, and drug addictions. These places where these meridians come close
are very limited uses of acupuncture to the surface and where the chi can then
that may be of help in some situations be influenced.
but do not embrace the underlying Acupuncture, like all aspects of tra-
holistic philosophy of acupuncture. As ditional Chinese medicine, is firmly
more studies reinforce the benefits of rooted in Chinese philosophy. The Tao,
acupuncture, its use as a method of yin and yang, the five elements, and the
health care and health maintenance twelve meridians or officials provide the
seems to be increasing in the West. foundations for acupuncture’s origin,
development, and procedures.
The Philosophy of Acupuncture Tao. The principle of the Tao comes
Acupuncture is based on the belief that from the book Tao Teh Ching (Book of the
our body, mind, and spirit are fully Way of Life), written by the philosopher
184
Acupuncture
Further Reading:
Theories from the Western Perspective
From a Western perspective, two theories Mann, Felix. Acupuncture: The Ancient Chinese Art
as to how acupuncture works have been of Healing. Magnolia, MA: Peter Smith, 1990.
put forth. One by researchers Melzack
and Wall is called the double gate theory ——. Acupuncture: Cure of Many Diseases. Second
of pain. This theory suggests that Edition. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann
acupuncture stimulates certain nerves Ltd., 1992.
that close a neurological “gate” in the
spinal column, inhibiting pain fibers Melzack, Ronald. The Puzzle of Pain. New York:
from ascending to higher cognitive levels. Basic Books, Inc., 1973.
The other theory, suggested by the stud-
ies of several different researchers, sug- Mitchell, Ellinor R. Plain Talk About Acupuncture.
gests that acupuncture stimulates New York: Whalehall, Inc., 1987.
opiate-like substances called endorphins
and enkephalins that account for its Worsley, J.R. Traditional Acupuncture, Volume II.
pain-relieving effects. These theories are Warwickshire, U.K.: College of Traditional
enlightening but, acupuncturists con- Acupuncture, U.K., 1990.
tend, do not account fully for the far-
reaching and long-lasting effects that
acupuncture can have on a patient’s
body, mind, and spirit.
Resources:
J
in Shin Do® Bodymind Acupres-
American Association of Acupuncture and Orien- sureTM is a form of Asian bodywork
tal Medicine that was developed by Iona Marsaa
4101 Lake Boone Trail, 201 Teeguarden. It combines gentle yet deep
Raleigh, NC 27607 finger pressure on specific points on the
Tel: (919) 787-5181 the body (acupoints) with simple verbal
Works to improve awareness and acceptance of techniques to release tension and
acupuncture as a form of complementary medicine. heighten the connection between body
and mind. Jin Shin Do is effective in
National Acupuncture and Oriental Medicine helping to relieve muscular pain and
Alliance (NAOMA) stress-related problems such as
638 Prospect Ave. headaches, backaches, anxiety, fatigue,
187
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Iona Marsaa Teeguarden, developer of Jin Shin Do® Bodymind AcupressureTM, combined tradition-
al Asian bodywork practices with the theories of body-oriented psychotherapist Wilhelm Reich.
and emotional tension, and so is named Jin Shin Do training program. An international
“The Way of the Compassionate Spirit.” directory is also available.
In the hands of a trained psychothera-
pist, it appears to help ease the effects Further Reading:
of childhood abuse and other trauma
trapped by the body in the form of Teeguarden, Iona Marsaa. The Acupressure Way of
physical tension. Treatment can have Health: Jin Shin Do. New York: Japan Publica-
the intensity of catharsis, but is gener- tion, 1978.
ally characterized by gentleness. JSD
acupressurists avoid pressing on open ——. Color-Coded Strange Flows Chart. Wat-
sores and rashes, and pressing too hard sonville, CA: Jin Shin Do Foundation, 1981.
in cases of phlebitis (inflammation of a
vein), varicosities (swollen veins), bro- ——. A Complete Guide to Acupressure. New York:
ken blood vessels, or extensive bruis- Japan Publication, 1996.
ing. Certain points are forbidden
during pregnancy. Of course, clients ——. Fundamentals of Self-Acupressure. Wat-
should first consult their medical doc- sonville, CA: Jin Shin Do Foundation, 1989.
tor, particularly in the case of chronic
or acute conditions. ——. The Joy of Feeling: Bodymind Acupressure.
New York: Japan Publication, 1987.
—Iona Marsaa Teeguarden
Resources:
J
Fax: (609) 782-1653
Founded in 1984, this organization represents
in Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy is
practitioners and teachers of all types of Oriental
an ancient art that uses the hands on
bodywork, including acupressure, shiatsu, and
specific areas of the body to harmo-
AMMA. The American Oriental Bodywork Therapy
nize the flow of life-giving energy through-
Association Council of Schools and Programs
out the body. It can be utilized either as a
includes the JSDF among its members.
“self-help” tool or received from a practi-
tioner. Jin Shin Jyutsu provides the body
Jin Shin Do Foundation for Bodymind Acupres-
with an excellent opportunity to restore
sure (JSDF)
and maintain healthy physical, mental,
P.O. Box 1097
emotional, and spiritual well-being.
Felton, CA 95018
or An Ancient Discipline
1084G San Miguel Canyon Rd. According to records in the Imperial
Watsonville, CA 95076 Archives of Japan, the principles of Jin Shin
Tel: (408) 763-7702 Jyutsu date back to ancient times. This
Fax: (408) 763-1551 understanding was passed down in the
Founded in 1982, the Jin Shin Do Foundation is a oral tradition from generation to genera-
network of Jin Shin Do teachers and acupressurists tion, until many of the principles became
throughout the United States, Canada, Europe, distorted and the art was nearly lost.
and elsewhere. Write for a free newsletter, which Near the turn of the twentieth century
includes a list of books, charts, and audio and this art was rediscovered by Master Jiro
video tapes available as well as a description of the Murai, the second son born into a family
190
Jin Shin Jyutsu® Physio-Philosophy
of medical professionals. Faced with a States and western Europe. Mary has
life-threatening illness, considered termi- since selected eight instructors whom
nal by traditional medicine, Jiro Murai she has certified to continue her teach-
turned to the wisdom of the great sages ings and those of Jiro Murai.
for his salvation. Jiro healed himself
through the application of hand mudras
and through breathing exercises. Safety-Energy Locks
Upon his healing, Master Murai Jin Shin Jyutsu employs twenty-six safety-
vowed to dedicate his life to the study energy locks throughout the body. These
and development of the art he eventual- are found along the various pathways
ly named Jin Shin Jyutsu, which trans- through which the universal energy trav-
lates as “the art of the Creator through els. This energy flow creates and supports
man of compassion and knowing.” life, and all the functions of the body,
In the late 1940s, Jiro met Mary including organ function. For many rea-
Burmeister, an American-born Japanese, sons—hereditary, character, stress, acci-
working in the U.S. diplomatic corps. dents, tension of daily lifestyle, etc.—these
Upon their first meeting, Jiro asked Mary pathways may become blocked, causing
if she would like to bring a gift from symptoms and illnesses. By placing our
Japan back to America. Without knowing hands (jumper cables) on these safety-
what Jiro was referring to, Mary accepted energy locks in specific sequences (flows),
his offer, and became Jiro’s first student. practitioners can unlock these areas to
Mary studied with him for the next six restore harmony, balance, and the proper
years, and then for another six years of functioning of the body. There are many
correspondence after she returned to the different sequences that can be used, and
United States until Jiro’s death. these sequences are determined by listen-
Mary spent the next several years ing to the pulse and reading the confor-
deepening her understanding of the art mation of the body. These show where
of Jin Shin Jyutsu. It wasn’t until the attention is required.
early 1960s that Mary was approached To apply Jin Shin Jyutsu, the hands
by the doctor of a neighbor she had are placed on a clothed body. There is no
been helping. Having noted positive massage or manipulation. Practitioners
change in the neighbor, this doctor only wait to feel the rhythmic pulsation
wanted to learn more about what had in the safety-energy lock to know that
helped so much and became Mary’s first area is in harmony with the universal
student. Mary continued to teach until energy. Then they move on to the next
1990, sharing her awareness and under- area of the sequence. Upon completion
standing of this profound art with thou- of this sequence, they will have become
sands of students across the United aware of the harmony restored to this
For those interested in studying Jin Shin Jyutsu, the basic five-day course is offered in
the United States, Canada, Brazil, and throughout Europe. The number of locations
expands each year as interest grows. At this point, there are only eight instructors autho-
rized by Jin Shin Jyutsu®, Inc., the sole organization offering instruction in this disci-
pline. The class includes lecture, material, and a good deal of hands-on experience. It is
broken down into two parts. Part I is the first three days and covers the safety-energy
locks. Part II is the remaining two days, and covers the seventeen “individualized” body
function energy flows. Anyone is welcome to attend, and there is no prerequisite.
191
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
particular flow of energy. Symptoms will session will continue for eight hours, as
disappear over time or, in some cases, the circulation pattern is completed.
immediately.
These sequences can be applied by a —Ian Kraut
practitioner to another person, or by an
individual utilizing them for self-help.
This self-help is an important aspect of Resources:
Jin Shin Jyutsu as self-awareness, or
“now know myself,” helps us to main- Jin Shin Jyutsu®, Inc.
tain balance and harmony, or to simply 8719 E. San Alberto
feel relaxed and peaceful. In order to Scottsdale, AZ 85257
find the proper techniques and Tel: (602) 998-9331
sequences for self-help, people can Fax: (602) 998-9335
consult their practitioner or self-help Web site: www.inficad.com/*.010jsjinc
books. Offers information on seminars, books and mate-
Jin Shin Jyutsu is an art, not merely a rials, and practitioner referrals.
technique. A technique is a mechanical
application whereas an art is a skillful
creation. This art is supported strongly Further Reading:
by its underlying philosophy, which
emphasizes an awareness of ourselves Burmeister, Alice. The Touch of Healing: Energiz-
and of our connection to the universal ing Body, Mind, and Spirit with the Art of Jin
energy. By maintaining this, we remain Shin Jyutsu. New York: Bantam Books, 1997.
in harmony—happy and healthy. When
we forget the philosophy, we can utilize
our “jumper cables” to recharge our bat-
teries and restore the proper function-
ing of our body. As Mary has said,
“Philosophy is the richness of Jin Shin
PROCESS ACUPRESSURE
Jyutsu, and the technique is for when we
P
don’t live the philosophy. It’s a tool to get rocess acupressure (PA) was devel-
us out of trouble.” oped as a single modality for
addressing and supporting all parts
Achieving Harmony of an individual. According to PA, touch is
A Jin Shin Jyutsu session lasts about an able to release tension stored in a person’s
hour. The recipient lies face-up on a body, allowing him or her to develop
table or any available comfortable sur- more balance, strength, and clarity to
face. The practitioner will “listen” to the understand and handle problems better.
pulse not for diagnosis, but to deter- As in traditional acupressure, gentle pres-
mine which energy function flows sure is applied to the body to strengthen,
might be utilized to bring the body to its release, and balance the body’s energy
natural state of harmony. At this point, systems. PA also is concerned with reveal-
the practitioner uses the hands in ing a person’s soul, or inner wisdom. This
specific sequences to restore energy deep inner knowing is accessed as a guid-
flow. By the end of the session, the pulse ing influence over one’s healing and
should be even and balanced. development.
The practitioner often provides PA grew out of Dr. Aminah Raheem’s
information during or after the session. search for ways to support a person’s
The actual experience and results may wellness and growth in body, mind, emo-
vary from person to person. The recipi- tions, and soul simultaneously. In PA, she
ent may feel a sense of relaxation and combined traditional acupressure meth-
deeper breathing as the energy flow is ods with the unique touch of Zero Bal-
restored. The immediate effects of the ancing®. It also uses skills developed from
192
Process Acupressure
memories or traumas from the past arise experience, and examination. PA does not give licen-
during the bodywork, the PA practitioner sure, therefore practitioners must be licensed in a
knows how to help a person bring feel- professional health care modality, such as massage,
ings and images to consciousness, allow- medicine, or osteopathy; or in a psychological field,
ing him or her to reach a resolution. Or if such as marriage and family counseling, psychology,
feelings, images, or issues come to mind or psychiatry, before they can be certified in PA.
during the bodywork they can be
explored and furthered in consciousness
for the client’s health and well-being. Further Reading:
Typically a PA session takes from one
to one and one-half hours. In a typical Raheem, Aminah. Process Acupressure I. Palm
PA session the client lies on a massage Beach Gardens, FL: The Upledger Institute,
table, fully clothed, and relaxes deeply Inc., 1994.
while the practitioner applies custom-
designed acupressure techniques. Phys- ——. Process Acupressure II: Releases for the Whole
ical, psychological, or spiritual issues Being. Palm Beach Gardens, FL: The Upledger
are addressed in a team approach by Institute, Inc., 1994.
both practitioner and client. In some
cases a problem is clarified and resolved ——. Process Acupressure III: The Hologram.
in one session. More commonly, several Aptos, CA: Process Acupressure Association,
sessions are required to resolve a condi- 1996.
tion and prevent recurrence.
PA has been used to address a variety ——. Soul Return: Integrating Body, Psyche and
of physical symptoms, including back Spirit. Santa Rosa, CA: Aslan Publishing, 1991.
problems, headaches, respiratory,
digestive, and systemic problems as
well as colds, flus, allergies, and healing
from injuries. Advocates also recom-
mend PA to help relieve stress-related SHIATSU
conditions, including post-traumatic
S
stress. PA is promoted as a method of
furthering and empowering develop- hiatsu is a method of Japanese body-
ment in the well person who wishes to work derived from ancient healing
grow toward his or her full potential. practices. In shiatsu, practitioners
PA should not be used to treat severe apply pressure using the fingers, palms,
medical problems and does not sup- elbows, forearms, knees, and even feet, to
plant medical care. It should not be pressure points (called tsubos in Japan-
used for psychotics or people during ese) along a receiver’s body. This practice
severe psychotic episodes because it encourages the proper flow of qi, or life
uncovers and releases unconscious energy, which, according to traditional
material that may be overwhelming for Chinese medicine, is necessary for the
a person in a weakened ego state. optimum health of one’s body and mind.
Primarily, shiatsu is recommended as a
—Aminah Raheem preventative technique, that is, to be
practiced even when you are healthy in
order to maintain good health. It is also
Resources: practiced for the relief of pain, to improve
mental functioning, and to relieve a vari-
Process Acupressure Unlimited ety of ailments, including chronic stress,
P.O. Box 1096 digestive problems, and lower back pain.
Capitola, CA 95010
Certifies health care professionals as PA practition- Shiatsu: A Practice with Ancient Roots
ers after progressive levels of training, supervised The use of bodywork and massage for
194
Shiatsu
curing disease and improving health has channels of energy in order to balance a
ancient origins in China. Massage is one receiver’s energy. According to the tradi-
of the treatment principles of traditional tional Asian worldview, illness or disease
Chinese medicine, the basic tenets of (including emotional and psychological
which are thought to date back to the problems) is the result of an imbalance
legendary reign of the Yellow Emperor in in the flow of qi. By balancing and forti-
China from 2697–2595 BCE. Although the fying vital life energy, the shiatsu thera-
principles of traditional Chinese medi- pist can help a client maintain and
cine were not written down until some improve his or her health. Shiatsu is
time between 213 BCE and 240 CE, people thought to help prevent the onset of ill-
believe that the practices had been ness. If illness or disease has already set
passed from generation to generation in, shiatsu is used to encourage the
for thousands of years before that. body’s healing process.
The various practices of traditional
Chinese medicine spread throughout Experiencing Shiatsu Massage
Asia, making their way to Japan in about Shiatsu emphasizes the physical manipu-
500 to 600 CE. In Japan, massage became lation of the body. It aims to work with
known as amma, which literally means both the physical body and the energy that
rubdown. By the early 1900s amma was surrounds and interpenetrates it. As the
still being practiced in Japan but had number of practitioners grows, the variety
earned a reputation as folk medicine and of styles of shiatsu also grows. A shiatsu
became associated more with pleasure, session may be a vigorous massage or it
relaxation, and sensuality than with medi- may employ only gentle touch, depending
cine. As a result, some practitioners who on the practitioner. Some people find the
wanted to continue practicing therapeutic more vigorous method painful. One
massage began calling their practice shiat- should seek a shiatsu therapist that best
su. These practitioners worked to raise meets his or her own personal needs.
public awareness of the healing aspects of Increasingly, Western shiatsu practice is
massage. Today shiatsu is one of the most gentle and less invasive than the tradition-
popular forms of massage in Japan. al Japanese approach. The most well
known and representative form of this
Balancing and Fortifying Life Energy
®
style of shiatsu is Ohashiatsu . Ohashiat-
Shiatsu is a holistic form of bodywork. su® was developed by a Japanese man
This means that the body and mind are named Wataru Ohashi. Ohashi probably
viewed as connected to each other, as did more than any other person to intro-
well as to the external environment. duce and popularize shiatsu in the West.
Practitioners of shiatsu believe that a Ohashi’s style of shiatsu is taught and
vital life energy, called qi, surrounds and practiced at the Ohashi Institute.
interpenetrates the physical body. Qi Traditionally, someone receiving shiat-
flows through the body through invisible su dresses in loose, comfortable clothing
channels called meridians. Practitioners and lies on a comfortable futon—a kind of
of shiatsu are trained to manipulate Japanese mattress—or cushioned space
pressure points that lie along these on the floor. The practitioner kneels and
195
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
crawls around the person he or she is mas- anyone. However, there are some
saging. Because there are different instances in which it should be avoided, or
approaches to shiatsu, however, some caution should be exercised in its use. You
practitioners have receivers disrobe to should not receive shiatsu if you have can-
their level of comfort and lie on a padded cer. It should also be avoided if you suffer
massage table rather than on the floor. A from brittle bones or are on cortisone
typical shiatsu session lasts from a half treatment, which weakens the bones. Shi-
hour to an hour and a half. Pressure can be atsu should not be practiced under the
light or deep depending upon the style of influence of alcohol or by anyone with a
shiatsu practiced and what is best for the fever or contagious disease. If you have
receiver. high blood pressure, you should not
Practitioners may also gently stretch receive shiatsu to the abdomen; pregnant
the receiver’s body. They may also act as a women should consult with their
kind of coach or teacher to the receiver in doctor before treatment.
order to help him or her achieve better
energy balance. For instance, a shiatsu —Thomas Claire
therapist might recommend a more nutri-
tional diet, getting more exercise, or other
helpful suggestions regarding lifestyle. Resources:
The oldest mention of bodywork in Chinese texts is more than 4,000 years old and looks like this.
Connelly, Dianne M., Ph.D., MAc. Traditional relieve pain. It is one of several methods
Acupuncture: The Law of the Five Elements. recommended by traditional Chinese
Columbia, MD: The Centre for Traditional medical philosophy, now commonly
Acupuncture, 1989. referred to as traditional Chinese medi-
cine. The philosophy of traditional Chi-
Haas, Elson M., M.D. Staying Healthy with the nese medicine and the methods that it
Seasons. Berkeley, CA: Celestial Arts, 1981. recommends are holistic in nature,
viewing the health of an individual as
Ohashi, Wataru. Do-It-Yourself Shiatsu: How to Per- affected by three equally important and
form the Ancient Japanese Art of “Acupuncture interconnected aspects of our being:
Without Needles.” New York: E. P. Dutton, 1976. body, mind, and spirit. Practitioners of
tui na manipulate the physical body by
Ohashi, Wataru, with Tom Monte. Reading the pushing, pulling, pinching, and tapping
Body: Ohashi’s Book of Oriental Diagnosis. New on it. The goal is to affect the flow and
York: Arkana, 1991. balance of the vital energy called qi,
which according to Chinese philosophy
flows through our bodies and affects the
health of mind, body, and spirit.
T
ui na is an ancient form of massage have discovered an early form of Chi-
used for maintaining and improv- nese writing dating to this time that
ing health, to cure disease, and to looks more like pictograms than the
197
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
198
Tui Na
199
PART IX: MOVEMENT THERAPY
METHODS
Alexander Technique • Aston-Patterning® • Bartenieff Fundamentals •
Body-Mind Centering® • Feldenkrais Method® • Hanna Somatic Education®
• Hellerwork • Ideokinesis • Kinetic Awareness • Meir Schneider Self-Heal-
ing Method • Sensory Awareness • Soma Neuromuscular Integration •
Somato Respiratory Integration • Trager Psychophysical Integration
200
in the West in the twentieth century. Many of the originators of these disciplines were
driven by the urgent need to solve their own physical health problems. In doing so
they each recognized a lack of mental awareness of body movement patterns as a root
cause of their symptoms. Eventually each found a way to teach his or her unique path
of discovery to others.
201
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
this discipline). For example, Joseph Heller, the founder of Hellerwork, and Drs. Bill
and Ellen Williams, the founders of soma neuromuscular integration, combined Rolf’s
methods with movement exercises and psychological processing techniques to bring
greater levels of body-mind integration to the process of healing and maintaining
health through movement.
In the late 1990s many of the organizations that support the teaching and profes-
sional activities of the various methods described in this section banded together
under the umbrella of the International Somatic Movement Therapy and Education
Association (ISMTEA). ISMTEA aims to increase public awareness of the value of
movement therapy in health and education and to insure quality among movement
therapists. Recently ISMTEA petitioned and won the right from the U.S. government
to include the title Registered Movement Therapist® among the official U.S. Depart-
ment of Labor occupational titles. This step integrates movement therapy methods
further into the mainstream of American health care practices.
202
increased awareness of the second stage of the movement therapy education process,
different methods will approach this stage of movement education in different ways.
Some methods, like sensory awareness, believe that solely developing consciousness
of your physical sensations without taking any subsequent action will stimulate the
self-correcting mechanisms. Most methods, however, teach that a conscious control
over movement patterns is necessary to achieve a complete change and healing. In
most methods it is believed that this conscious control will eventually function on an
unconscious level. This occurs through a repatterning of the messages your brain
sends to your muscles via your nervous system.
The third level of learning in the movement therapy model is to be able to express
these new movement patterns in all your daily activities. To help you do this, move-
ment therapists might recommend certain exercises that you practice at home. They
might help you find visual images that will help you perform particular movements
more efficiently. They may help you evaluate lifestyle practices such as the kind of
shoes you wear, or the arrangement of your study area, which could also be negative-
ly affecting your performance.
Finally it is the goal of all movement therapists to help you learn to be self-reliant
so that you can continue developing without their help. Mastering the three preced-
ing levels of learning can help you develop new physical and mental awareness, along
with newly ingrained neuromuscular reflex patterns that allow you greater freedom,
ease, and pleasure living in your moving body.
International Somatic Movement Education and Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage
Therapy Association to Get—And How to Make the Most of It. New
148 W. 23rd Street, #1H York: William Morrow, 1995.
New York, NY 10011
Tel: (212) 229-7666 Knaster, Mirka. Discovering the Body’s Wisdom.
New York: Bantam Books, 1996.
The Somatics Society
1516 Grant Avenue, Suite 212
Novato, CA 94945
Tel: (415) 892-0617
Fax: (415) 892-4388
Organization offering seminars and information
for all movement therapy educators. Publishes the
biannual magazine-journal Somatics.
203
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
he Alexander technique is a method his life, Alexander taught his technique in
used to help people illuminate their England. Today there are more than 3,000
unconscious patterns of body ten- certified Alexander teachers worldwide,
sion and correct habits that cause physi- teaching privately or in schools, institu-
cal and emotional problems. It is used to tions, and corporations.
allow a person to pattern his or her body’s
movement, inhibiting habits that cause The Theory of the Alexander Technique
tension or pain and replacing them with Alexander believed that the alignment of
those that help his or her body to function the head, neck, and spine was the most
more efficiently. Teachers of the Alexan- important relationship within the body,
der technique believe that people can affecting the functioning of the entire
gain greater control over the way they use body and mind. He called the relation-
their bodies once these habitual move- ship of head to neck the “primary con-
ments are brought to consciousness. An trol” and found it to be the integrating
individual may then apply new and force for all movement. Alexander
healthier ways of using his or her body to believed that from an early age constant
improve the performance of activities in stress and accommodation to both phys-
his or her life. For almost a century this ical and emotional environments caused
technique has been used to help people people to distrust the natural alignment
find relief from many chronic painful and integration of the head and neck.
conditions and to help performing artists According to Alexander’s theories, by the
and athletes expand their potential. time a person is fully grown he or she
establishes patterns of postural and
The History of the Alexander Technique muscular-skeletal distortion that give
The Alexander technique was developed him or her uniquely identifiable move-
by Frederick Matthias Alexander ment characteristics, but also contribute
(1869–1955), an Australian actor who greatly to his or her individual physical
experienced a recurring loss of his voice. and emotional problems.
Through ten years of self-observation Through his extensive self-examina-
and experimentation with the aid of a tion process, Alexander found that prop-
three-way mirror, he observed that the er positioning of the head creates a
manner in which he was breathing and reflexive lengthening of the spine, which
holding his head was the source of his stimulates a gentle upward release,
difficulties. He was able to correct his relieving forces of compression through-
voice problems by altering his posture, out the entire body. Compression can be
muscular reaction patterns, and behav- responsible for tight muscles, poor
ior. In addition, he observed that these breathing, tightness or constriction
changes improved his physical health, around the joints, and for poor
emotional outlook, and the balance communication throughout the nervous
throughout his body. Pursuing his system. Because the nervous system,
findings further, Alexander began to which consists of the brain, the spinal
study the way the body functioned dur- cord, and the nerves, is the communica-
ing various activities, looking for signs of tion system for the whole self, poor com-
misalignment or misuse of his own mus- munication can lead to disorders
cular-skeletal system. He discerned that including headaches, backaches, stom-
mental and physical habits, acquired achaches, and even low self-esteem.
early in life, often control one’s everyday Alexander believed that all people
movements. Over time, Alexander devel- could develop conscious awareness of
oped a technique for breaking inefficient their distorted muscular-skeletal patterns.
204
Alexander Technique
The Alexander technique focuses on the relationship of the head to the spine.
205
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The Benefits of the Alexander Technique —–. The Alexander Technique: The Essential Writ-
The result of Alexander lessons is often ings of F. Matthias Alexander, ed. Edward
a sense of greater lightness, vitality, and Maisel. New York: Lyle Stuart, 1990.
A session in the Alexander technique generally lasts from thirty minutes to an hour. A
series of twenty to thirty sessions, conducted once or twice a week, is typically recom-
mended. People who have a poorly developed kinesthetic sense, or sense of movement,
may take a longer time to become aware of their body movement.
206
Aston-Patterning®
A
lungs), each has its own shape and size.
ston-Patterning® (A-P) is an edu- Therefore, A-P practitioners believe that
cational system developed by since we are naturally asymmetrical,
Judith Aston based on more than movement needs to be slightly asymmet-
thirty years of teaching and life experi- rical in response to this internal design.
ence. The Aston process combines A-P practitioners use this information to
bodywork, movement education, help individuals find their body’s natural
fitness, and ergonomics. Ergonomics is alignment and to recommend efficient,
a method of arranging living and work tension-free ways to move.
areas so that they are used most
efficiently and safely. A-P may be used
as a rehabilitative process for those What Happens in an
seeking relief from acute or chronic Aston-Patterning® Session?
pain, and it is also used to assist people Aston-Patterning sessions are cus-
who wish to improve posture, athletic tomized to individuals’ interests, taking
performance, or overall efficiency in into account their own unique patterns
daily living activities. created by their histories. This method
requires that each client take an active
The Theory of Aston-Patterning® role in his or her process of change.
Aston-Patterning practitioners look at the Throughout a session, one wears com-
alignment of your body, the ways that you fortable clothing and may be asked to
move, and areas of tension and discom- perform a variety of movements—sit-
fort in your movements. They believe that ting, standing, or lying down—as the A-P
everyday activities—at work, school, and practitioner assesses his or her three-
home—athletics, injuries, and emotional dimensional body shape, movement,
history all work together to develop pat- and muscular tensions. This information
terns of movement in your body. Some of is used to design a program of therapy to
these patterns are easy on the body and release the muscular tension and reedu-
some are not. They may be caused by cate the body for a new, efficient move-
reactions to injuries, by physical reac- ment pattern. These new patterns are
tions to emotional distress, or by physical practiced, and once learned, are applied
environments that are improperly to the person’s goals and interests.
designed. By understanding individual Each well-rounded session includes a
patterns, A-P practitioners provide ses- blend of pain-free bodywork, movement
sions that are highly individualized and coaching, fitness training, and ergonom-
produce positive changes in posture and ics. Massage tables, padded stools, and
movement habits that are long-lasting. lotions are used for releasing patterns of
207
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Through touch, Judith Aston teaches the bodywork techniques used in Aston-
Patterning.
muscle tension. Stools, stretch cords, modify their environment (car seat
toning platforms, and exercise and backs, office chairs, etc.) to support the
ergonomic equipment are used to help new, more efficient alignment.
clients be more aware of where their Private A-P sessions are normally
body is in space. This equipment is also one and a half to two hours long.
used to improve alignment and body Though sessions are most effective
mechanics and increase overall fitness. when offered as a series, they may also
Mirrors and skeleton models play a part be beneficial on a one-time basis. Group
in the visual education and explanation lessons or clinics are also available,
during a client session. Special foam offered for a wide variety of applications
wedges (designed by Aston) help clients from athletics to daily activities.
208
Aston-Patterning®
209
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
offered every two years. Also offers information the mind and body as the body moves.
about A-P practitioners or classes in specific areas The Fundamentals were developed by
of the country. Irmgard Bartenieff, a German dancer,
choreographer, and physical therapist.
A person trained in Bartenieff Funda-
Further Reading:
mentals is able to observe an individ-
ual’s movement style and diagnose
Aston, Judith. “Your Ideal Body.” Physical Therapy
what makes that individual struggle or
Today, Summer 1991, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 30, 32,
succeed with certain movements.
34, 36.
Fundamentals are used by people who
Aston, Judith, and Jeff Low.“Your Three-Dimen- are recovering from injuries or coping
sional Body: The Aston System of Body Usage, with physical limitations caused by ill-
Movement, and Fitness.” Physical Therapy ness. Athletes, dancers, and people
Today, Fall 1993, Vol. 16, No. 3, pp. 50–59. involved in fitness training use the Fun-
damentals to improve their coordina-
Brody, Liz. “Axling: A New Spin on Fitness.” Shape, tion and overall performance.
April 1993, Vol. 12, No. 8, pp. 80–84.
SM
Calvert, Robert. “Exclusive Interview with Judith The History of Bartenieff Fundamentals
Aston, Developer of Aston-Patterning Body- Bartenieff (1900–1981) studied biology,
work.” Massage. Issue 16, October-November, art, and dance before beginning her
1988, pp. 12–13, 15, 17–19. diploma studies in Berlin with Rudolf
Laban in 1925. Laban was a Hungarian
Cook, Jennifer. “Body Ease.” Self. December 1985,
movement theorist, choreographer, and
p. 146.
teacher responsible for introducing sev-
Low, Jeffrey. “The Modern Body Therapies.” Mas- eral influential theories about the
sage , Issue 16, October-November, 1988, pp. nature of movement. Laban created a
48–50, 52, 54–55. system to observe, record, and analyze
all types of movement including dance,
Richardson, Nancy, R.P.T. “Aston-Patterning,” the martial arts, and everyday actions.
Physical Therapy Forum, October 28, 1987, Vol. Bartenieff emigrated to America in 1936
VI, No. 43, pp. 1, 3. and began applying her knowledge of
human movement to help the ill and
Servid, Laura. “Aston-Patterning: Accessing the
the injured. She studied physical thera-
Power of the Ground.” P.T. and O.T. Today, July
py at New York University and began
21, 1997, pp. 18–22.
working in that field. She also explored
Woods, Jenna. “Forces of Nature in the Aston Para- the therapeutic possibilities of dance,
digm: Key Concepts of Aston-Patterning.” Mas- helping to found the field of dance ther-
sage and Bodywork , Spring 1997, pp. 123–25. apy.
Bartenieff is known for the innova-
——. “A Patterns Tale: Moving into Aston-Pattern- tions in physical therapy she developed
ing.” Massage and Bodywork , Fall, 1996, pp. in the 1940s and 1950s while she
95–97. worked as chief physical therapist for
the Polio Service of New York City at
Willard Parker Hospital and later at
an orthopedic hospital for children. An
SM epidemic of polio had swept America,
BARTENIEFF FUNDAMENTALS crippling many children and adults. To
help these physically challenged indi-
viduals, Bartenieff drew from her
B
artenieff FundamentalsSM are a set knowledge of physical therapy and
of movements that reinforce what she had learned from Laban about
efficient communication between the dynamics of movement and how the
210
SM
Bartenieff Fundamentals
take place in a studio with a wooden actors, and musicians have found that
floor. Participants should wear clothing practice of the Fundamentals brings
that allows freedom of movement. The greater clarity and expression to their
Fundamentals are usually done lying performances. People rehabilitating
on the floor. There the individual more from injuries and other conditions that
easily becomes aware of the body’s limit mobility have used the Funda-
parts, the center of weight, and how it mentals to regain functional and
relates to the initiation of action. With- expressive movements. Others practice
out the struggle against gravity or inter- the Fundamentals simply for the joy
action with the environment or other they experience from moving more
people, the individual can focus men- fluidly and with greater ease.
tally on what is going on in the body. In
addition to demonstrating the move-
ment sequences clearly, CMAs often —Janet Hamburg, CMA
use imagery to help students under-
stand movement qualities or to sense
Resources:
more readily how the movement
should flow through the body. Using a
Laban/Bartenieff Institute of Movement Studies
hands-on technique, CMAs also guide
234 Fifth Avenue
students in performing the movement
New York, NY 10001
sequences correctly, drawing attention
Tel: (212) 477-4299
to where in the body the movement
Offers classes in Bartenieff Fundamentals and
begins.
certification programs in Laban movement analysis.
Although there are many variations
of Bartenieff Fundamentals, the most
commonly known are “the basic six.” Further Reading:
They are thigh lift (hip flexion), pelvic
forward shift, pelvic lateral shift, verti- Bartenieff, Irmgard, and Dori Lewis. Body Move-
cal body half, knee drop, and arm circle. ment: Coping with the Environment. New York:
All practitioners use these six sequences Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, Inc.,
to analyze movement. They also devel- 1980.
op variations based on the principles of
Bartenieff Fundamentals to address Laban, Rudolf. The Mastery of Movement. Rev.
specific problems. Because the Funda- and enlarged by Lisa Ullman. Boston: Plays,
mentals provide the foundation for so Inc., 1971.
many other actions, they look simple.
However, once people begin to study ——. The Language of Movement: A Guidebook to
them, they find that moving from the Choreutics. Lisa Ullman, ed. Boston: Plays, Inc.,
core of the body without excess tension 1974.
is not easy. Most people tend to move
inefficiently. Often they don’t notice
their inefficient habit until a teacher, a
coach, or an injury brings it to their
attention.
Benefits
BODY-MIND CENTERING®
Studying Bartenieff Fundamentals helps
B
an individual learn to move more easily ody-Mind Centering® is a thera-
and more expressively. Athletes from peutic and educational system
many sports have improved their per- combining movement, vocal, per-
formance and reduced the risk of injury ceptual, and hands-on work with the
after incorporating Bartenieff Funda- study of life’s physiological, psychologi-
mentals into their training. Dancers, cal, and developmental processes.
212
®
Body-Mind Centering
stress and interact with the world in sat- around the specific concerns and goals of
isfying ways. Conversely, skipped or the participants, or they may present
unintegrated patterns can lead to align- principles of the work for exploration. A
ment/movement problems, systems typical class may involve movement or
imbalance, and problems in perception, hands-on bodywork to heighten the stu-
organization, memory, and creativity. dent’s awareness of a specific system or
Body-Mind Centering developmental area of his or her body.
movement sessions can help infants, chil- The class may also include “repat-
dren, or adults identify developmental terning” exercises, study of anatomical
gaps and facilitate the learning of any illustrations and models, and experien-
absent patterns, allowing them to realize tial explorations to increase sensory
new potential. These “repatterning” awareness and integrate that awareness
sequences involve exploring the anatomi- with one’s intention and action. The
cal and psychological ramifications of number and frequency of private ses-
basic movements, such as breathing, sions are determined by the client in
pushing the hands against a surface, or consultation with the practitioner. The
reaching out for what one desires. work is designed to supply insights and
skills that can be incorporated into
A Class in Body-Mind Centering ®
daily experiences.
Group classes or private sessions in
Body-Mind Centering are directed The Benefits of Body-Mind Centering ®
toward the individual’s self-discovery and By creating new options for how one
transformation. They may be organized senses, feels, and acts in the world,
214
Feldenkrais Method®
Body-Mind Centering can help individu- Centering.® Northampton, MA: Contact Edi-
als change limiting patterns or attitudes. tions, 1993.
It can be used to address problems such
as headaches, chronic pain, sports Grossinger, Richard. Planet Medicine. (2 Vols.).
injuries, hypertension, eating disorders, Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1995.
and perceptual and learning difficulties. It
can also be used as a means to improving Hartley, Linda. The Wisdom of the Body Moving:
flexibility, coordination, creative expres- An Introduction to BodyMind Centering®. Barry-
sion, communication, and sense of self- town, NY: Station Hill Press, 1993.
identity and well-being.
Johnson, Don Hanlon. Body, Spirit and Democra-
—Vera Orlock cy. Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1993.
FELDENKRAIS METHOD®
(Set of two videos on the foot and the pelvis
with an accompanying text. Available from
SBMC, 189 Pondview Dr., Amherst, MA, 01002.)
T
Stokes, Beverly. (1995). “Amazing Babies: Moving
he Feldenkrais Method ® is an
in the First Year.” (Available from Beverly
approach for improving both
Stokes, 418 St. Claire Ave., E. Toronto, ON,
physical and mental functioning
Canada M47 1P5.)
through the exploration of body move-
ment patterns and the use of attention.
It is based on the brain’s innate capaci-
Further Reading: ty for learning and the potential for
lifelong development and growth.
Bainbridge Cohen, B. Sensing, Feeling and Action: Movement is used as the medium
The Experiential Anatomy of Body-Mind toward understanding our habits and
Body-Mind Centering® strives to give the individual access to the totality of his or her
development by enabling him or her to explore the body’s structure through movement,
sensory awareness, and imagery. First the cells, next the systems of the body, then move-
ment and action in the world are examined as elements in a progressive formation of
self. Participation in this review enables the individual to bring consciousness to bear on
strengthening and focusing his or her own body-mind interaction.
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
identifying, learning, and acquiring no idea what those parts are doing.”
alternatives that promote ease and This answer indicates that we give little
well-being. The applications of the or no attention to certain parts of our-
Feldenkrais Method range from reduc- selves or we tend to notice the same
ing pain, improving neurologically parts habitually. The fact is our whole
based difficulties and learning disabili- self is involved in everything we do, but
ties, and increasing mobility to enhanc- we sense only certain parts of ourselves
ing performance of professional in our actions and it generally tends to
athletes, dancers, musicians, and be the same parts. Through a more
actors. People who come to do complete self-image in our actions and
Feldenkrais are referred to as students, a more even distribution of effort and
rather than patients, because learning force throughout our whole self, an
underlies the basis of the method. overall enhancement of movement,
action, and thought results.
The practitioner might continue,
Origins and Development of the
“While seated, without changing the
Feldenkrais Method® placement of your feet, notice where you
The Feldenkrais Method was developed have placed your feet. Slowly come to
by Dr. Moshe Feldenkrais. Born in Rus- standing. (You may find that it is impos-
sia, Feldenkrais emigrated to Israel at sible to get up without changing where
the age of thirteen. After receiving your feet are placed.) Sit again, move
degrees in mechanical and electrical your feet an inch closer together and
engineering, he earned his D.Sc. in come to standing. Move your feet back to
physics at the Sorbonne in Paris. He where you started and then move them
subsequently worked for a number of an inch further apart and come to stand-
years in the French nuclear research ing. Can you observe that a different
program. Physically active, Feldenkrais placement of your feet influences your
played soccer and practiced the martial ability to come to standing? You may
arts. He studied with Kano Jigoro, the notice the effects of this in your breath-
originator of judo, and in 1936 became ing, your jaw, your neck, your balance, or
one of the first Europeans to earn a in the amount of effort required in each
black belt in that discipline. A chronic action. Slowly get up to standing as you
knee injury prompted him to apply his look down. As you slowly get up, look up.
knowledge of physics, body mechanics, Then get up looking right. Next get up
neurology, learning theory, and psy- looking left. Can you sense that the dif-
chology to the body and mind. His ferent placement of your eyes affects how
investigations resulted in the formula- you come to standing?” This process
tion of a unique synthesis of science would continue with more variations in
and aesthetics, known as the order to help the student clarify, inform,
Feldenkrais Method. and understand how one goes from sit-
ting to standing.
The Process of Movement The foundation of this kind of explo-
A lesson could begin with a practitioner ration is not the kind of learning based
saying, “As you’re sitting, what are you solely on information; rather it involves
aware of about your sitting? Perhaps it’s learning that can lead to a change in
your back against the chair, or your feet action, a change in thinking and feeling.
on the floor, or your buttocks on the The introduction of new variations awak-
seat. Now bring your attention to what ens curiosity and teaches adaptation for
the back of your neck is doing; to what continually altering circumstances.
your chest is doing; to what your shins Rather than attempting to learn the “right
are doing.” way” of doing something, or “correcting”
A student’s reply might be, “It is or “fixing,” a student can explore choic-
doing this.” Yet most often, it is “I have es, options, and different ways of using
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Feldenkrais Method®
himself. Thus, he can act more effectively evoke a more synergistic use of oneself,
and efficiently depending on the context the lessons establish new patterns of
and the intention in that moment. movement. As the lessons progress, par-
The Feldenkrais Method utilizes ticipants become more aware of their
attention in a learning environment movement habits, affording new pat-
that is safe, easy, and geared toward an terns of behavior. There are more than a
appropriate degree of challenge. In this thousand different lessons with move-
context, he can discover and shift ments ranging from developmentally
habitual patterns that interfere with based patterns to innovative configura-
functioning. He becomes his own labo- tions. The movements are usually done
ratory for developing understanding lying down or sitting, and in a manner
and awareness of his daily actions. that recognizes each participant’s own
pace and range of motion. Comfort, ease,
and the quality of movement are the
The Two Modalities of the main criteria used as one is developing
Feldenkrais Method® more inner authority.
There are two main modalities of learn- The other modality, Functional Inte-
ing in the Feldenkrais Method: Aware- gration, is a one-to-one, hands-on inter-
ness Through Movement® and action specifically designed to meet the
Functional Integration®. Awareness needs of an individual. Practitioners,
Through Movement lessons are group primarily through the use of their hands,
sessions. Participants are verbally led guide students to a new and more varied
through a series of structured movement use of themselves. The quality of touch
sequences that utilize attention, percep- is noninvasive, informative, and interac-
tion, and imagination. Designed to tive in nature. Students usually lie or sit
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
H
Feldenkrais Resources anna Somatic Education® is a
830 Bancroft Way, Suite 112 method in which people learn how
Berkeley, CA 94710 to relax chronically tensed muscles
Tel: (800) 765-1907 and to regain control of various muscle
Each individual, Feldenkrais believed, possesses an inner body wisdom that when
allowed will choose the most comfortable and efficient movement patterns for itself. As
the individual develops greater awareness of movement patterns and feels the ease and
comfort of new choices, a stronger self-image is formed, which directs new, healthy
modes of thinking, feeling, and acting.
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Hanna Somatic Education®
groups and movement patterns. It seeks Hanna was a director. He continued his
to change the body by working with a study with Feldenkrais for many years at
person’s “soma,” or internal first-person the Novato Institute for Somatic
view of him- or herself. A soma includes a Research and Training, an institution
person’s internal feelings, movements, that he founded in 1975.
and intentions. Hanna Somatic Educa- As he practiced the Feldenkrais
tion seeks to bring all these internal Method, Hanna observed characteristic
aspects to conscious awareness and postural difficulties in people of all ages
combine them with scientific knowledge and walks of life. He also noticed that
of how muscles work, thereby helping certain techniques were extremely
patients to reeducate their bodies to effective in helping clients regain con-
move freely and without pain. trol of the muscles that were holding
them in these postures and restricting
The History of Hanna Somatic their movements. These techniques
became known as Hanna Somatic Edu-
Education® cation.
Hanna Somatic Education (HSE), also
called Hanna Somatics, was developed
by Thomas Hanna. A philosopher and The Basic Principles of Hanna
former chair of the Philosophy Depart- Somatic Education®
ment at the University of Florida, Hanna Somatic educators believe that
Hanna wrote about the philosophy of people stand in characteristic postures
the body in his book Bodies in Revolt: A because chronically contracted muscles
Primer in Somatic Thinking. Hanna first hold them there. When muscles are bal-
coined the term “somatics” in 1976 in anced in their tonicity—front, back, and
order to describe a kind of training that sides—people stand up against gravity
addresses the unification of mind and in a comfortable, upright posture. When
body. Hanna began with the concept of the muscles are more contracted on one
the “soma,” which is the body experi- side or another, people are pulled in
enced from within. Soma is the Greek that direction.
word for “body.” Historically, somatol- Muscles become contracted because
ogy referred to the field that eventually the nervous system sends messages,
divided into anatomy and physiology. instructing them to shorten their muscle
This division separated the study of the fibers. When this message is sent contin-
structure of the body from the study of ually the muscle becomes chronically
its functions. contracted. The message to contract has
From Hanna’s perspective, there was become a habitual pattern that the per-
no division between body and mind. He son doesn’t control consciously.
used “soma” to describe a first-person In his work with clients, Thomas
view of the body in which a person is Hanna identified three reflexes: the red
fully aware of his or her own internal light reflex, green light reflex, and trau-
feelings, behaviors, and intentions. This ma reflex. The red light reflex is also
first-person perspective is an integral referred to as the startle response or the
part of Hanna Somatic Education. escape response.
In the early 1970s, Hanna met Moshe The green light reflex refers to the
Feldenkrais, an Israeli physicist and postural reflex that begins at around six
body educator, whose Feldenkrais months of age, when an infant first con-
Method was compatible with Hanna’s tracts the back extensor muscles. Also
somatic philosophy. Hanna created the called the Landau reflex, it includes the
first Feldenkrais training program in the arched back, extended neck, arms, and
United States, under the sponsorship of legs. It enables the infant to sit up, then
the Humanistic Psychology Institute stand in preparation for walking. It is the
(now the Saybrook Institute), where activation of our antigravity muscles.
219
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Philosopher Thomas Hanna uses techniques he developed to help people gain a greater awareness of
their own physical sensations.
220
Hanna Somatic Education®
How to Practice Hanna Somatics Novato Institute for Somatic Research and Training
There are two approaches to HSE: 1516 Grant Ave., Suite 212
hands-on table lessons, guided by the Novato, CA 94945
Hanna Somatic educator, and Somatic Tel: (415) 892-0617
Exercises™, developed by Thomas Fax: (415) 892-4388
221
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
H
ellerwork combines hands-on training from Dr. Rolf and from Dr.
bodywork movement education Brugh Joy, a noted physician, author,
and dialogue to release the accu- and innovator in the field of preventive
mulated stress and trauma that cause medicine and the use of energy as a
The Novato Institute of Somatic Education and Training is the only place to find training
in Hanna Somatics. It is a certified training program that began in 1990. The Institute
also provides seminars, books, audiotapes, and videotapes through Somatics Educa-
tional Resources. Practitioners can also join the Somatics Society, an organization for
bodywork professionals.
222
Hellerwork
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
practitioner restores fluidity to those tis- In addition to being trained to deliver the
sues and rearranges the parts so that they Hellerwork series, they have received
fit better in their alignment with gravity. extensive training in anatomy, move-
When the structural work is done the ment, psychology, and energy systems.
practitioner works with the client in
establishing a new movement pattern —Sandy Sullivan
that supports the new alignment. During for Hellerwork International
the session, the practitioner talks with
the client, highlighting the more com-
mon attitudes and emotions associated Resources:
with the areas of the body that have been
worked with in that session. As the client Hellerwork International, LLC
becomes aware of these emotions he or 406 Berry Street
she has the opportunity to become more Mount Shasta, CA 96067
responsive to them, so he or she is less Phone: (916) 926-2500 and (800) 392-3900
likely to limit self-expression. When the Fax: (916) 926-6839
client has integrated the changes in his or e-mail: Hellerwork@aol.com
her structure with new movement pat- Web site: www.hellerwork.com
terns and attitudes the series is complete. Offers a list of Hellerwork practitioners. Also pro-
vides information about the discipline, as well as
The Benefits and Risks of Hellerwork training opportunities.
The reported benefits of Hellerwork
include increased flexibility and adapt-
ability, increased energy levels, and a Further Reading:
sense of wholeness and well-being.
Although not a treatment for any Heller, Joseph, and William Henkin. Bodywise:
specific condition, Hellerwork is said to Regaining Your Natural Flexibility and Vitality
reduce and even eliminate musculo- for Maximum Well-being. Oakland, CT: Wing-
skeletal pain from trauma and stress. bow Press, 1986.
Hellerwork is particularly effective as
first aid after trauma to the musculo-
skeletal tissues. It is not a treatment for
any disease, conditions of organs, or
symptoms of the nervous system. Use of
Hellerwork is not advisable when pressure
IDEOKINESIS
on the soft tissues cannot be tolerated.
I
All certified Hellerwork practitioners deokinesis is a method of movement
have completed the training program therapy that utilizes the capacity of the
offered by Hellerwork International, LLC. nervous system to correct awkward or
In Hellerwork, practitioners use verbal dialogue with their clients to discuss the rela-
tionship between their client’s body sensations, emotions, and thinking.
During the bodywork session, the practitioner highlights the more common attitudes
and emotions associated with the affected area of the body. As the client becomes aware
of these emotions, they become easier to recognize and deal with, resulting in a dis-
cernible change in movement and mental outlook. When the client has integrated the
changes in his or her structure with new movement patterns and attitudes, the session
is complete.
224
Ideokinesis
inefficient movement. The term ideoki- ideokinesis is not well known to the gen-
nesis derives from two Greek words, ideo, eral public and has no national profes-
meaning “idea,” and kinesis, meaning sional organization or certification
“movement.” Ideokinesis views the neu- procedure, it is studied and used by a
rological system as the messenger of network of private practitioners
ideas or patterns of movement that stim- throughout the United States. Many
ulate and organize muscular and skeletal practitioners combine it with dance,
activity. Through anatomy lessons, exer- Rolfing, or physical therapy.
cises, and guided imagery, ideokinesis
imparts healthy patterns of movement to The Theory of Ideokinesis
the nerves and ultimately to the whole Ideokinesis is based on the idea that
muscular and skeletal structure of the movement is an event in which each of
body. Either on its own or combined with three systems of the organism—neuro-
other movement training, ideokinesis logical, muscular, and skeletal—plays a
can aid in overcoming physical impair- specific and integrated role. The event
ment caused by illness or injury. It is also starts when the neurological system
considered a means of learning patterns acts as a messenger and transmits
of movement that enhance coordina- impulses from the brain to the muscular
tion, reduce tension, and promote a gen- system. The muscular system, in turn,
eral sense of well-being. acts as a motor, responding to the
impulses. It moves the third component
The History of Ideokinesis in the event, the skeletal system or
Ideokinesis is an outgrowth of tech- framework.
niques Mabel Elsworth Todd discovered The particular focus of ideokinesis is
when, as a teenager in upstate New York, the subcortical level of nervous activity.
she struggled to cure herself after suffer- Todd described the delicate subcortical
ing a back injury. Once she had com- nerves as “the hidden you,” since it is
pletely recovered, Todd developed her through these nerves that ideas and
techniques into a form of movement images about the totality of the body are
therapy that she practiced first in Boston, realized. If thoughts about the body are
then in New York City. By the late 1920s habitually faulty or weak, then the sub-
she was attracting a steady stream of cortical nerves will transmit debilitating
patients to her private clinic and lectur- messages to the rest of the body and
ing on her method at Columbia Universi- movement will be impaired. To improve
ty and the New School for Social movement, ideokinesis accordingly
Research. Todd’s books, The Thinking concentrates not on increasing flexibili-
Body (1937) and The Hidden You (1953), ty or muscular strength, though these
record the substance of her teachings often occur, but on changing the neuro-
and remain essential to the study of logical system’s coding of movement.
ideokinesis. But Todd’s method might This is accomplished through exercises
have been forgotten without the efforts and guided imagery, which modify both
of a former student, Lulu Sweigard, and a conscious and unconscious thought
former patient, Barbara Clark. They about body movements and positions.
introduced her method into the curricu-
lum of New York University and the Juil- Experiencing Ideokinesis
liard School of Dance, ensuring that her A class in ideokinesis generally opens
legacy would be passed on to students in with a discussion of anatomy, physiolo-
the 1950s and 1960s. Human Movement gy, and body mechanics, which furnish-
Potential, published shortly after es some of the mental images used in
Sweigard’s death in 1974, is an important the positions and movements to follow.
updating of Todd’s original practice and Beginning-level work often centers
gave it the name ideokinesis. While upon the constructive rest position, a
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
K
class. Participants work in pairs, with one inetic awareness is a discipline
participant executing the movement, that aims to increase knowledge of
while the other touches her or him lightly the human body on both physical
to clarify the initiation point and pathway and emotional levels. It aims to improve
of the movement. the individual’s mental image of his or
By contrast, the experience of ideoki- her body while also revealing ways that
nesis done on a one-to-one basis will vary physical tension affects health, attitude,
from person to person, depending on the and emotional well-being. Practitioners
specific methods of the practitioner and of kinetic awareness believe that
the needs of the client. Instruction in the through the careful exploration of the
biomechanics of movement might be body’s responses to concentrated phys-
omitted and attention given over to diag- ical pressure, people can gain a height-
nosis of difficulties and the establishment ened sensitivity to posture and
of a regimen of remedial exercises. movement, both in daily life and in spe-
cialized activities such as sports, dance,
The Benefits of Ideokinesis and martial arts.
When practiced consistently, ideokine-
sis can help restore range of motion and How Kinetic Awareness Developed
improve the integration of sensory and Kinetic awareness was developed by
motor skills. Further, it is credited with dancer/choreographer Elaine Summers
producing or restoring homeostasis, a in the 1960s. Her dance career was
condition in which all the systems and interrupted at an early age when she
subsystems of the organism function began to experience symptoms of
harmoniously. In a state of homeosta- osteoarthritis, a potentially crippling
sis, the individual experiences disease of the joints. Doctors told her
enhanced freedom of movement, that within five years she would be
release from tension and fatigue, unable to walk. Eventually, through her
increased vitality, and a sense of well- own determination, she was able to
being that often leads to the discovery resume her dance career. During the
of unexpected inner potential. period of her recovery, she studied with
Carola Speads, whose system of physi-
—Andre Bernard cal reeducation evolved from the work
226
Kinetic Awareness
of Elsa Gindler, a bodywork innovator. how they move, and that it is possible to
Summers’s method of bodywork grew let go of habits and images of the body
out of these studies and her own search that restrict them. Moving with aware-
for treatment of her physical condition, ness is a profound way to reconnect the
and upon experiencing positive results, mind and the body.
she began to teach it to others.
Practicing Kinetic Awareness
Rubber Balls and Kinetic Awareness Kinetic awareness can be taught both
Through experimentation, Summers in classes and private sessions. People
developed an extensive system of tech- will often experience benefits such as
niques to increase physical awareness relief of pain or greater range of move-
and release muscular tension. A special ment after one or two sessions, but
feature of this method is the use of rub- kinetic awareness can be practiced on
ber balls of various sizes to highlight an ongoing basis—many dancers and
body parts in isolation. performers incorporate it into their
When an individual rests his or her training.
body on a ball, the ball provides a focal A typical class begins with an evalua-
point of attention; the individual natural- tion of body sensations while the partic-
ly concentrates on the muscles and body ipant lies quietly on the floor. Close
part directly above the ball, where pres- attention is paid to breathing and slow
sure on the body is greatest. It both sup- movement explorations, with or with-
ports and stretches the body. Muscular out rubber balls. The individual focuses
tension dissipates because of the pres- on one body part at a time, moving
sure of the ball and the intentional move- slowly through its full range of motion
ment of the body as the individual slowly while noting any sensations. A person
shifts his or her position over the ball. might become aware, for example, that
As an individual moves, the ball tests certain parts of the body are dull and
the elasticity and responsiveness of the have little sensation, while others are
muscles and joints. The intensity of the hypersensitive. He or she also begins to
pressure created by the ball is a direct discover that tension can exist in very
result of the size and firmness or soft- specific, concentrated locations in the
ness of the ball and, therefore, can be body. Practitioners of kinetic awareness
controlled. People often feel a pleasur- assert that each person has preferred
able ease and warmth in the part of the ways of moving, and that these favored
body where the ball has been and an modes naturally exclude other possibil-
alert quietness in the mind from the ities for movement. Summers believes
focused attention and overall relaxation that moving every part of the body
that occurs from this. through its potential range, often and
As practitioners work, they release without pain, encourages the body to
the unnecessary tension that causes attain physiological balance.
many individual aches and pains. The After the initial warm-up is com-
work helps to prevent future injuries by plete, the teacher will suggest an exer-
revealing the body’s warning signs. cise that enables the students to work
Practitioners also see how the mind and at their own pace on the part of the
emotions manifest themselves in the body that is chosen as a focus.
body. For example, anger, sadness, or Throughout the session, the teacher
joy can each create a particular physical will invite the students to share their
response in the body. Similarly, how feelings and observations. The process
people feel physically can create a cer- may include some explanation of
tain mood, which then affects behavior. anatomy to further an understanding of
Through kinetic awareness individuals the musculoskeletal system and how it
discover that they have choices about works. After the first phase of kinetic
227
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
awareness, a person is able to create a feel- he Meir Schneider self-healing
ing of well-being that will affect behavior. method (“self-healing”) combines
Through this practice, then, individuals massage, movement exercise, and
reportedly discover that they have the other methods, including vision
capacity to choose how they move and improvement exercises for those who
they can enjoy more freedom and self- need them, into a comprehensive reha-
expression through movement. bilitation system. It focuses on estab-
lishing communication between the
—Ellen Saltonstall, J. Robin Powell, mind and the body, and understanding
Ph.D, and Michelle Berne the needs of the body as it strives to
heal itself.
Resources:
How Self-Healing Developed
The Kinetic Awareness Center Meir Schneider, Ph.D., LMT, was born
1622 Laurel Street in Ukraine in 1954. He was blind at
Sarasota, FL 34236 birth, with cataracts and other serious
Provides information about kinetic awareness as vision problems. Shortly after he was
well as referrals to qualified teachers. born, the family emigrated to Israel. By
the time he was six years old, five
The Kinetic Awareness Center unsuccessful surgeries had left his lens-
P.O. Box 1050 es shattered, which resulted in admit-
Cooper Station ting less than 1 percent of light in one
Alleviating Stress
Kinetic awareness encourages the individual to experience the pleasure of movement for
its own sake. Practitioners of kinetic awareness maintain that a strong link exists
between a person’s mental state and the level of muscular tension in the body. This dis-
cipline seeks not only to relieve muscular tension resulting from daily stress and agitat-
ed emotional states, but also to achieve a corresponding enhancement of psychological
well-being through holistic treatment of the human being.
228
Meir Schneider Self-Healing Method
eye and 5 percent in the other. Doctors dows. Within eighteen months he could
said that nothing further could be read print without glasses. After years
done. Meir was given a certificate of of effort, he learned to see well enough
legal blindness and taught to do his to earn an unrestricted driver’s license.
schoolwork in Braille. He refused to use With the Bates exercises, he relaxed
a cane or guide dog, and insisted on his eyes, adjusted them to varying lev-
doing everything a sighted child could els of light, and trained his brain to use
do, even riding a bicycle, although he his eyes in different, more effective
sometimes ran into walls. He was ways. But he also needed self-massage
confident that he would gain function- to improve circulation and relieve the
al eyesight one day. underlying strain of his face and upper
At age sixteen, he learned about the body. Movement exercises helped to
Bates method of vision improvement, balance his vision. Through all of this
as well as massage. He began to devel- experience, Schneider discovered how
op his own theories and insights about deeply the function of any one organ or
movement and the body. He practiced area of the body is related to that of the
eye exercises, self-massage, and move- whole body.
ment exercises up to thirteen hours a While still working to gain functional
day. Worried about false hopes, his fam- vision, he began to work with clients
ily and friends told him he was wasting who experienced chronic pain, multiple
his time. At first he saw lights and shad- sclerosis, and other problems. The mas-
ows only in a blur, but soon he began to sage and movement techniques he had
distinguish some of the shapes as win- developed from his own experience
229
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
resulted in improvement in his early aggravates the course of the disease and
clients. He opened his first clinic with inhibits the body’s natural tendency to
two of these clients, a youth with mus- repair itself.
cular dystrophy and a young woman Schneider believes that these prob-
with polio. His clinic and work gained lems stem from a lack of communica-
national attention in Israel. In 1977 he tion between the body and mind. For
founded the Center for Self-Healing in many of us, so much of our attention is
San Francisco. A few years later, he directed away from ourselves—to other
opened the School for Self-Healing. people, work, the constant barrage of
Today, Schneider’s work with muscu- external stimulation—that sensations
lar dystrophy is the subject of scientific within go unnoticed. In our culture, we
studies. An internationally known thera- tend to listen to our bodies only in
pist and educator, he is the author of times of extreme crisis. By developing
Self-Healing: My Life and Vision, and an intuitive sense of the body’s needs
Meir Schneider’s Miracle Eyesight we can overcome serious health prob-
Method, a recently published vision lems and increase health and vitality.
seminar on tape, and coauthor of The This is the goal of self-healing therapy.
Handbook of Self-Healing. The School for Self-Healing offers
training in the Meir Schneider self-
healing method. Level one graduates
Philosophy of Self-Healing are eligible in some places for massage
Schneider believes that the body has a therapy certification. Graduates of the
powerful, innate ability to heal itself. full 760-hour program are recognized
Using the body only as a tool to accom- as self-healing practitioner/educators.
plish our everyday goals, most of us lose Many students enroll in the beginning
touch with this ability. and intermediate stages of training in
For many people, the body is unex- order to work with their own or a fami-
plored territory. Only a fraction of the ly member’s health problem. Some stu-
total capacity of muscles, lungs, and dents are already health care
brain are regularly called upon. For professionals or bodyworkers, while
example, we overuse about 50 of the others are newly entering the massage-
body’s approximately 600 muscles, and bodywork field.
underuse the rest. Stress-related tension
is a major cause of this problem. It cre-
ates “frozen” areas where muscular ten- Self-Healing Therapy
sion restricts movement, feeling, and A self-healing therapy session is usually
circulation. People respond to stress about one and a half hours long. The
with shallow breathing, eventually client wears underwear or a swimsuit.
impairing lung and heart function. With the therapist’s guidance, the client
Chronic stress exacerbates disease. For explores the body-mind link by experi-
people with serious health problems, it encing a combination of many different
230
Sensory Awareness
S
eye exercises when appropriate. The ensory awareness is a practice in
session often begins with a movement freeing ourselves from conditioned
that is problematic, difficult, stiff, or habits, fears, and tensions that keep
uneven. It is repeated at times as a us from being what we really want to be
checkpoint to see if there is any and doing what we really want to do. The
improvement. The methods that prove process promotes direct awareness of
most successful during the session are our sensations: sight, hearing, touch,
incorporated into a home exercise pro- taste, smell, and especially the subtle
gram. In this way, deeply ingrained, kinesthetic sense of body movement. In
harmful movement patterns, such as practicing this kind of awareness, we
the habit of tensing up in order to experience how we relate to ourselves,
move, can be reprogrammed. other people, and the world around us.
For example, a bodybuilding cham- We begin to be present for what is hap-
pion came to Schneider with constant pening from moment to moment—to be
pain in her shoulders, neck, and knees, here, now—with greater interest and joy,
which resulted in diminished perfor- and more creative responsiveness to
mance. “Many bodybuilders have such things as they are.
tight muscles and joints, they can’t pull
a T-shirt on, and they’re in constant
pain,” she told him. Athletes often The Development of Sensory Awareness
exhibit this kind of harmful use of the In Germany, at the beginning of the
body, which eventually jeopardizes twentieth century, a young woman
their performance. He taught her to named Elsa Gindler contracted tuber-
isolate specific movements, to use only culosis, for which, at that time, there
the correct muscles for a specific action was no known cure. Her doctor asked,
without compensating with the others, “What have you done to yourself?” and
to stay soft, and to move through a she took this question literally. From
sense of relaxation. Her muscles that moment on she began giving full
became longer and fuller, the pain dis- attention to how she behaved and what
appeared, and her weight-lifting per- happened inside her body, from the
formance improved. time she awoke in the morning until
going to sleep at night. In so doing, her
lungs began to function normally and
Benefits of Self-Healing she recovered her health.
The Meir Schneider self-healing method Sensory awareness is the name now
has helped athletes and musicians given to such “restorative observa-
improve their performance. It prevents tion”—this interested, nonjudgmental
and alleviates the occupational health attention to the sensations of tension
hazards of computer work and other and release felt throughout the body as
detailed eye-hand tasks. It has been suc- one moves in response to life’s continu-
cessful with breathing, neuromuscular, ally changing events. Through such
joint, heart/circulatory, digestive, pos- attention, Gindler became aware of nat-
ture and spine problems, injuries, ural processes and learned to work with
chronic pain syndromes, poor vision them instead of against them, particu-
from nearsightedness, farsightedness, larly in regard to breathing and interac-
astigmatism, lazy eye, a wide variety of tion with the pull of gravity, which
eye diseases, and many other health attracts us to the earth at every moment.
problems. Gindler not only cured herself of TB,
but discovered that awareness of what is
—Carol Gallup happening in the “physical” body can
231
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Pioneers in movement therapy, Elsa Gindler and Heinrich Jacoby in Zurich, 1957.
bring about liberation from “mental” anx- riencing, and creating. He demonstrat-
iety. This practice brought about a state ed with thousands of people that there is
where she was no longer disturbed by her an unrealized human potential for
own thoughts and worries. She came to receiving impressions and allowing
understand that calm in the physical field expression in every mode that can con-
is equivalent to trust in the psychic field. tinue to unfold throughout our lives—if
At about the same time, a young we are not blocked by our own limiting
musician named Heinrich Jacoby was mental attitudes.
asking himself why some of the singers When these two people came togeth-
on the operatic stage had beautiful er, they found in each other’s discoveries
voices but were blocked musically, and the missing part of their own work. Jaco-
others could master the music, but not by was a highly educated “intellectual,”
move with it. He came to see how “tal- while Elsa Gindler had no formal educa-
ent” and “lack of talent” were mainly tion beyond public school, and taught a
results of conditioning. A person was bodywork called “gymnastik”—through
talented or untalented depending on which she had already recognized that
the imposed ideas of family, teachers, one’s attitudes are not just abstract
society, culture, rather than on inherent thoughts, but tensions embedded in the
capacities. physical tissue. When Gindler and Jacoby
His thesis was that every human became colleagues, “mind” and “body”
being born without physical defects came together. In their classes students
has the biological equipment for every might consciously experience a state of
natural function, and that these include balance that was not “physical” or “men-
all possibilities of living, moving, expe- tal,” but both—not only new ways of
232
Sensory Awareness
Charlotte Selver brought the movement therapy work of Elsa Gindler and Heinrich Jacoby to the United
States and named it “sensory awareness.”
233
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
moving, but new ways of seeing and work “of great significance for the full
hearing, of thinking and relating, of being unfolding of the personality.” Fritz Perls
creative in many ways. incorporated much of what he learned
Students of Gindler and Jacoby have from her into his gestalt therapy, while
carried their work around the world: to Alan Watts, who presented many joint
Germany, Switzerland, England, Israel, seminars with Selver, called this practice
Spain, the United States, Mexico, Canada, “the living Zen.”
and Japan. Sometimes it is the practice as
such that is offered, sometimes the prac- Typical Session of Sensory Awareness
tice offers a transforming approach to var- Sensory awareness sessions are simply
ious professions such as musical an inquiry into what it feels like to be a
performance, dance, child care, or psy- living human being—when you are
chotherapy. Dr. Lily Ehrenfried took the aware of what you are feeling and how
work of Gindler and Jacoby to France, you are living. There are no set “exercis-
where she established a new kind of phys- es.” Experiments inspired by the felt
ical therapy, called gymnastique holis- needs of the student or students at that
tique. The AEDE (Association des Eleves moment are outlined by the leader.
de Dr. Ehrenfried et des Practiciens en Afterward, there is reporting as to what
Gymnastique Holistique) was formed in a student might have discovered. There
1986, and now has practitioners in ten are no preconceptions as to what ought
countries in Europe and the Americas. to happen or be felt; what is felt is nei-
The Gindler/Jacoby theories and ther “right” nor “wrong”; it just is.
practice were brought to the United All living is movement, and these
States in the 1930s by several of their stu- experiments are not only large move-
dents, including Else Henscke Durham; ments, such as walking, running, danc-
Clare Fenichel; Carola Speads (who ing, stretching, etc., but the most subtle:
called the work physical reeducation); inhalation and exhalation, the pulsing in
and Charlotte Selver. Each offered the a wrist, the vibration of the vocal cords in
practice in her own way. the throat as a person speaks or sings, the
Selver coined the name “sensory resting of a hand on a cheek, or on a
awareness,” presenting the first classes shoulder, the lifting of a partner’s arm, or
in “body awareness” and “nonverbal having one’s arm lifted. In just noticing
experience” ever given at the New how these movements feel as they take
School for Social Research in New York place, the habitual tensional patterns
and Esalen Institute in California. The that produce inappropriate and painful
Charlotte Selver Foundation, now the movements of the body can change.
Sensory Awareness Foundation, was Sensory awareness is offered private-
established in 1971 to support her work. ly, in regular group sessions, and in work-
The psychologist Erich Fromm studied shops. There are no formal training
extensively with Selver and found the courses for leaders; leaders and students
This work makes possible a way of being that is full of life, more security, and more courage
to dare something new. The wonder is the blessed feeling that comes when I can be more
fully, as if each cell in me were happy to exist.
234
Soma Neuromuscular Integration
S
As sensory awareness experiments are oma neuromuscular integration, or
followed over a period of time, muscles “soma bodywork,” utilizes ten indi-
may become more elastic, aches and vidual sessions that address partic-
pains fade, illnesses subside. Fear may ular and progressive soft-tissue
be replaced by self-confidence. Move- manipulation, primarily through work-
ment and thinking may become more ing with the fascia, or connective tissue.
spontaneous and creative. There may be Developed by Dr. Bill Williams and Dr.
less effort and greater joy in relating to Ellen Gregory Williams in 1978, Soma
others and taking part in private or pro- was developed, and continues to be
fessional activities. But the fundamental taught, as a way of enabling people to
aim is just to wake up—to experience function more optimally by providing
life in every bit of us and be happy to greater access to the body-mind. People
exist at this moment. who inhabit their whole and integrated
It is recommended that one study with body-mind frequently experience
an experienced sensory awareness leader, greater levels of emotional openness,
to help you begin to explore this unique creativity, and self-reliance.
practice of making friends with your body,
of discovering all of the possibilities that Importance of Body and Mind
can unfold when you learn to trust in the Soma neuromuscular integration was
innate wisdom of the body-mind. developed by Bill M. Williams, Ph.D.,
and Ellen Gregory Williams, Ph.D. Dr.
—Mary Alice Roche Bill Williams taught and collaborated
with Ida Rolf in the early development
of her well-known ten-session work in
Resources: fascia manipulation. He was a member
of the founding board of directors that
Sensory Awareness Foundation
established the institute teaching Dr.
c/o Sara Gordon
Rolf’s methods. Dr. Ellen Williams is a
955 Vernal Ave.
psychologist who after many years of
Mill Valley, CA 94941
talk therapy realized that there must be
Tel: (707) 794-8496
an involvement with the body to effect
Distributes various publications concerning the
deep and lasting psychological change.
practice of sensory awareness.
In his early years as a Rolfer he contin-
ued to be aware of the interaction of the
Sensory Awareness Leaders Guild
body and the mind and wanted to
c/o Louise Boedeker
develop a training program that would
411 West 22nd Street
more effectively address and work with
New York, NY 10011
integrating the whole person. Dr.
Tel: (212) 675-5730
Williams was one of the first to develop a
Recommends qualified sensory awareness leaders
hands-on training to combine the phys-
in the United States and abroad.
iological and psychological approaches
to healing.
Further Reading:
The Three-Brain Model
Brooks, Charles V. W. Sensory Awareness: Rediscov- Fascia is the tissue that wraps muscles and
ery of Experiencing Through the Workshops of gives them their shape. Ideally, muscles
Charlotte Selver. New York: Viking Press, 1974. should be able to move independently
235
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
L/H R/H
Core
Physical activity
Feelings/behavior
Antithesis
Momentum
Thrust
Answers question: How?
Powerplant of person
Computer: Central Processing Unit
Power: 500,000 to 1,000,000 bits
per second
and slide over each other, but often as a structural relationship with the fascia.
result of age, injury, or physical or emo- As a result, one stands taller with less
tional stress, the fascia that wraps the effort, and moves with greater ease and
individual muscles glues together, caus- comfort. In addition, chronic muscle or
ing the fascia and the muscles to lose joint pain is almost always reduced or
functional and structural differentia- eliminated as muscles have the oppor-
tion. Someone who has experienced a tunity to lengthen and assume optimal
serious neck injury may attempt to turn relationships with surrounding fascia.
his or her head from side to side, but Neural tissue is embedded within the
instead of using only the muscles nec- myofascial system. In the process of free-
essary to accomplish the rotation, the ing restricted and adhered fascia, soma
muscles of the neck and shoulders act practitioners work directly with the ner-
as one, and turning the head ends up vous system, sending sensory information
requiring rotation of the entire upper to the brain that allows the body new
torso. Such gluing is a restriction in options to organize itself in more comfort-
movement that is expensive in terms of able, more energy efficient, more satisfy-
energy output and general vitality. ing ways. Practitioners believe that soma
By working directly on the fascia, the bodywork teaches the body to self-correct
soma practitioner frees the musculature, and continuously reprogram itself to
allowing it to assume a more effective greater levels of ease and freedom.
236
Soma Neuromuscular Integration
Training
The soma training is designed to be a unique, experiential, nonlinear training using Dr.
Williams’s three-brain model as the underlying principle of integrating the body and
mind. The soma training was first held in 1978 in Gainesville, Florida. In 1986 Marcia W.
Nolte, LMP, and Karen L. Bolesky, M.A., CMHC, LPM, became co-directors of the Soma
Institute. In 1987 the Soma Institute moved to Washington State and continued to
expand and develop.
237
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Dr. Donald Epstein uses the techniques of touch and breath awareness, which form the basis of
somato respiratory integration.
Resource:
SOMATO RESPIRATORY
Soma Institute
730 Klink
INTEGRATION
Buckley, WA 98321
S
Tel: (360) 829-1025 omato respiratory integration (SRI)
Fax: (360) 829-2805 is a system of breathing and touch
Web: www.soma-institute.com that is used to allow a person to
Provides the professional licensing program and heal himself or herself. While it is not
the certification program in soma neuromuscular used to remedy a specific ailment, SRI
integration and somassage. Trainings are held in invites participants to access the body’s
Washington state. The Soma Institute is licensed inner rhythms and experience the pre-
by the Washington Workforce Training and Educa- sent moment more fully. The body’s
tion Coordinating Board, and the Washington rhythms are charted in a twelve-stage
State Board of Massage. It also lists soma body- process, through which a person expe-
work practitioners. riencing SRI will progress.
238
Trager Psychophysical Integration
Over nearly two decades Dr. Donald SRI does not attempt to force any
Epstein developed network chiropractic particular outcome or catharsis. The
and network spinal analysis. He noticed intent is to acknowledge and accept the
specific patterns of breath, movement, body’s rhythms without changing them.
and self-touch that spontaneously By observing the way a person moves,
occurred in his clients after receiving touches, and breathes, SRI is used to
network care. Eventually he categorized increase a person’s self-awareness and
these expressions into twelve stages of respect for his or her own healing
consciousness, each with its own pat- process.
tern of breath, touch, and movement. The SRI exercises are best learned
The stages are suffering, polarities and under the guidance of a trained SRI facil-
rhythms, being stuck in a single per- itator. SRI is not intended as a replace-
spective, reclaiming power, merging ment for any form of therapy, nor as a
with an illusion, preparing for resolu- treatment for specific health conditions.
tion, resolution, readiness in emptiness, It is ultimately intended as a self-care
light beyond form, ascent, descent, and system that may be used in conjunction
community. with other healing modalities.
Most of the exercises are done while
lying down or seated. At the start of an —Donald Epstein
SRI session, participants are instructed
to breathe gently while using their hand
Resources:
to feel the rise and fall of their chest and
abdomen. The breathing patterns may
Innate Intelligence Inc.
involve various combinations of nose
444 N. Main Street
and mouth breathing. This exercise is
Longmont, CO 80501
used to transfer a peaceful rhythm to
Tel: (303) 678-8086
the person’s hand, equipping it to heal
Provides information about SRI workshops and a
other regions of the body. The individ- list of those who have taken the SRI programs.
ual then places his or her hands on var-
ious areas of the body to allow them to
move in alignment with the rhythms. Further Reading:
The exercises are used to find the most
peaceful areas of the body and spread Epstein, Donald, and Nathaniel Altman. The
these areas of peace to other regions. Twelve Stages of Healing. Novato, CA: New
They are a tool used to help an individ- World Library, 1994.
ual pay attention to him- or herself in a
meaningful way.
A practitioner intends to educate the
client in each of the twelve possible
rhythms of healing. An entire SRI ses-
sion may involve connecting with up to
TRAGER PSYCHOPHYSICAL
four rhythms. The time it takes to trans-
fer a rhythm will vary with a person’s
INTEGRATION
experience. This technique is valued for
T
being simple and effortless. The body rager psychophysical integration is
becomes increasingly able to dissipate a type of bodywork that uses the
stored tension or energy. The benefits of human ability to feel pleasure and
SRI will occur progressively over the other sensations as the basis for devel-
twelve distinct stages of the healing oping and maintaining a healthy body.
process. With each session, the natural According to Trager theory, a healthy
movement of the body overtakes the body is both the container for and a
thinking mind. reflection of a healthy mind and spirit.
239
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Practicing the Trager approach can approach in the past had been unsuc-
result in relief from pain and greater cessful. This time he first had the thera-
freedom of motion. It can also assist in pist place his hands over Trager’s own
correcting long-standing patterns of hands as he worked. Then he had the
posture and movement that cause dis- therapist place his hands on the patient
comfort, unhappiness, and unfulfilled while Trager worked on top of them.
life potential. Finally, he let the therapist work alone.
Trager knew he was successful when the
History of the Trager Approach patient exclaimed, “That’s it, Doctor,
Trager psychophysical integration was he’s got it! It almost feels like you are
developed by Milton Trager, M.D. As a doing it!”
young man Trager was an aspiring In 1973 Trager gave the first public
boxer. At the gym, the trainers and box- demonstrations of his approach at the
ers used bodywork to alleviate muscular Esalen Institute in California. There he
pain after rough workouts. One day met Betty Fuller and found that he could
Trager gave his trainer a rubdown and teach her in the same fashion that he had
discovered that he had a gift for body- taught the therapist. Fuller immediately
work. Shortly thereafter Trager quit box- recognized the significance of Trager’s
ing and began to practice his own work and persuaded him to let her form
intuitive form of bodywork on family, an organization that would allow others to
friends, and clients in his Miami neigh- study it. The Trager Institute was founded
borhood. He experienced success in in 1980 with Fuller as director.
cases of sciatica, polio, and many other By 1977 Trager had closed his private
conditions from which people had practice in Hawaii to devote all of his time
found no relief through conventional to his growing number of students. At
medicine. present there are more than 900 students
After eight years of private informal throughout the world, more than 1,000
practice, Trager sought out more formal certified practitioners, and fifteeen
training and certification. At age forty- certified instructors.
one, Trager entered the Universite
Autonoma de Guadalajara in Mexico, The Principles of the Trager Approach
where he studied medicine. While there, Trager believes that human beings are the
he impressed the doctors, professors, sum total of all the experiences of their
and Catholic nuns with his work with a lives. These experiences are ingrained in
four-year-old polio victim. After work- both the body and the mind. Changes in
ing with her for just forty minutes, the reflex responses, tissue condition, and
girl, who had been paralyzed from the behavior are possible, he believes,
waist down for two years, could move because of the deep neurological associa-
her foot in four directions. The demon- tions between sensory stimulations, emo-
stration caused the university to orga- tional feelings, attitudes, and concepts, as
nize a clinic for Trager, where he well as the body’s motor response to all of
continued to treat polio victims them. He believes that clients should
throughout his years of study. come to him ready to learn more about
In 1959, Trager opened a private their bodies and minds rather than sim-
practice in general medicine and physi- ply to receive treatment.
cal rehabilitation in Waikiki, Hawaii. In Trager’s method of manipulating the
1974, while visiting Los Angeles, he body is actually a form of movement
worked on a patient with muscular dys- reeducation. The Trager practitioner is
trophy. At the patient’s request Dr. not concerned with moving particular
Trager agreed to try to teach his muscles or joints. Instead, he or she
approach to the patient’s regular thera- uses motion in muscles and joints to
pist. Trager’s attempts to teach his produce pleasurable feelings. These
240
Trager Psychophysical Integration
A Trager practitioner, in a relaxed state of consciousness called “hook-up,” transmits pleasurable sensa-
tions to a client.
241
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
enter the central nervous system and release into a lighter and freer physical
begin to trigger tissue changes by state. When the Trager practitioner
means of the many motor-sensory feed- encounters stiffened limbs or hardened
back loops between the mind and the muscles, his or her response is to apply
muscles. The Trager practitioner does gentle pressure to release tight, painful
not change the condition of tissue with tissue and restore it to a deeply relaxed
his or her hands. He or she uses the physical state. After getting up from the
hands to remind the nervous system table, the client is given some instruc-
how it can feel. This feeling elicits tissue tion in the use of mentastics, a system of
response within the client to achieve simple, effortless movement sequences
this relief and pleasure again. Over the developed by Trager to maintain and
course of many sessions a client learns enhance the feeling of balance, free-
how to move and hold one’s body in a dom, and flexibility that was instilled by
healthier, more beneficial manner. the table work. Clients can also take
classes in the exercise of mentastics.
A Typical Session These are run in a workshop format.
A Trager psychophysical integration
session takes from one to one and a half Benefits and Cautions
hours. No oils or lotions are used. The For most clients, the effects of a Trager ses-
client wears a bathing suit or under- sion appear to penetrate below the level of
clothing and lies on a well-padded table conscious awareness and continue to pro-
in a warm, comfortable environment. duce results long after the session itself.
The practitioner gently and rhythmical- Benefits include the disappearance of
ly moves the body of the client, first as a specific symptoms, such as discomfort or
whole and then by moving individual pain; heightened levels of energy and vita-
limbs and parts, in such a way that the lity; better posture and carriage with less
client feels the sensation of free, effort- effort; greater joint mobility; a deep relax-
less, and graceful movement. ation of the body and mind; and a new
In order to facilitate a successful ease in daily activities.
bodywork session the practitioner Although the Trager session involves
enters a relaxed state of consciousness gentle and light movement and body-
known as “hook-up,” in which he or she work, it is not advisable for those suffer-
physically remembers pleasurable sen- ing from joint, bone, and disk disorders;
sations. The practitioner transmits complicated or high-risk pregnancies;
these pleasurable sensations through broken bones, or blood clots.
his or her hands directly to the client’s
body tissue, encouraging the tissue to —Nancy Allison, CMA, with Deane Juhan
242
Trager Psychophysical Integration
243
PART X: SOMATIC PRACTICES
History
Throughout history, various cultures have used movement to impart mental, emo-
tional, or spiritual lessons. T’ai chi ch’üan, one of the oldest extant methods, was
developed in China between the years 2205 BCE and 1100 CE, although its sources can
be found in the even more ancient practices of qigong. Called “great dances” by
244
Emperor Yü, one of its earliest developers, t’ai chi’s sequence of movements was
developed collectively by many generations of philosophers, healers, and artists. They
were all influenced by Taoism, an ancient Chinese religion that encourages a keen
observation of the patterns of movement and change in nature as a means to help
human beings understand the physical, mental, and emotional changes that occur
during the course of human existence.
Many ancient Western educational and spiritual traditions also developed move-
ment practices. Most of these, including those believed to have been developed by the
Greek philosopher and father of geometry Pythagoras and those developed by Jewish
and Christian esoteric sects, have been lost to us. They were often practiced in secret
and generally frowned upon by the dominant sects of the Judeo-Christian tradition,
which condemned the body and its sensations.
For hundreds of years most Western culture, including educational methods and
spiritual practices, maintained a separation of spirit and flesh, mind and body. In
the latter part of the nineteenth century, however, some philosophers began to reex-
amine the possibility of using physical exercises to promote healthy mental and
emotional functioning. One of the best-known explorers of this period was the
Armenian philosopher George Gurdjieff (1866–1949), whose “movements for edu-
cating the whole person” were inspired by “sacred dances” he observed in a remote
part of Central Asia.
As the twentieth century dawned, the concept of learning mental, emotional,
and spiritual lessons through body movements began to echo in many quarters. In
1919 the Austrian philosopher Rudolph Steiner (1861–1925) opened the Waldorf
Schools to teach eurythmy, his movement practice to promote spiritual growth
based on sound vibrations. Working from a different perspective, the German phys-
ical culturist Joseph Pilates (1880–1965) developed contrology, now known as the
Pilates Method of Body Conditioning®, to free people from the stress and mecha-
nization of living in the industrialized world. Pilates’ sequence of exercises borrows
heavily from the physical postures and concepts of the practice of hatha yoga.
In recent times, the concept of enhancing one’s experience of life through move-
ment practices has been embraced by innovators in many other professions. Edu-
TM
cational theorists Paul and Gail Dennison developed Brain Gym as a corollary to
contemporary educational practices. Dancers/choreographers Steve Paxton, Emilie
Conrad-Da’oud, and Joan Skinner developed contact improvisation, continuum,
and Skinner release technique, respectively, from their own creative explorations of
movement. Occupational therapists, such as Diane Harlowe—one of the originators
of ROM dance—and clinical psychologists, such as Jaimen McMillan—the origina-
tor of Spatial DynamicsSM—have created new movement sequences that also have
become popular in many contexts outside their original healing work.
learning to experience how those laws of movement are reflected in our own bodies,
we improve our physical condition. We also develop an intuitive understanding of
how these physical principles affect our everyday experience. These physical laws
become metaphors for ways of thinking, feeling, and living.
Somatic practices help participants focus on the messages they receive from their
bodies and become more aware of their physical sensations in the present moment.
Each method begins by teaching a person a physical skill. In some practices, such as
t’ai chi ch’üan, Pilates Method, or Spatial Dynamics, the movement patterns are
extremely specific and must be precisely replicated. In others, such as contact impro-
visation, continuum, or Skinner release technique, the form of the movement is spon-
taneously created by exploring a particular concept of movement. Whether the form
is set, like an ancient spatial architecture, or improvised, like a free jazz tune, the
process used develops one’s sensitivity to subtle changes in the body and its relation
to its spatial environment. By developing heightened physical sensitivity, a person can
experience freer, more graceful, original, or daring movements, creating a sense of
pleasure, accomplishment, or calm.
International Somatic Movement Education and Arnheim, Rudolf. Visual Thinking. Berkeley: Uni-
Therapy Association versity of California Press, 1969.
148 West 23rd Street, 1H
New York, NY 10011 Gardner, Howard. Frames of Mind: The Theory of
Tel: (212) 229-7666 Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books,
1985.
The Somatics Society
1516 Grant Avenue, Suite 212 Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. New York:
Novato, CA 94945 Doubleday & Co., 1966.
Tel: (415) 892-0617
Fax: (415) 892-4388 Schneider, Michael S. A Beginner’s Guide to Con-
Organization offering seminars and information structing the Universe. New York: Harper-
on many somatic practices. Publishes the bi-annu- Collins, 1994.
al magazine-journal Somatics.
246
®
Brain Gym
B
rain Gym®* is a system of exercises on Innovative Learning’s 1989 Action
that joins physical and mental Plan, the NLF’s mission is to make the
development in ways designed to most effective innovations in education
improve the person’s ability to learn and available nationwide.
perform in all areas of endeavor. The
training focuses on linked brain and Whole Brain Learning
motor skills but also includes exercises Brain Gym is based on theories about
for the release of stress, now considered the connection of mind and body in the
a major factor in children and adults formation of dynamic, balanced intelli-
with learning differences. Practice in gence. The human brain has two hemi-
Brain Gym has been shown to accelerate spheres, each in control of one half of
progress at school for students of all ages the body and a distinct type of mental
and skill levels, and to enhance success function. The left hemisphere is in
at work and in recreational pursuits. charge of the body’s right side and
carries out analytic processes, while the
Coping with Challenging Situations right hemisphere activates the left side
Brain Gym was developed by Paul E. and works with visual and spatial per-
Dennison, Ph.D., in the late 1960s. The ception. Though the right “gestalt”
director of several learning clinics in the hemisphere can absorb large amounts
Los Angeles area, Dennison was dis- of sensory information simultaneously,
couraged by inconsistent results in it cannot easily express the material
some of his patients. He researched without the participation of the left
techniques and information from early “analytic” hemisphere. According to the
childhood developmental theory, brain Dennisons, modern educational sys-
research, developmental optometry, tems are themselves imbalanced since
applied kinesiology, language acquisi- they emphasize left-brain, logic-orient-
tion theory, dance and movement ther- ed skills at the expense of the compre-
apy, and his own field of learning theory hension and creativity of whole-brain
to formulate a way to improve the skills learning.
of his patients. Dennison coined the Stress impedes whole-brain learning
term “Brain Gym” to describe the move- by stimulating the “fight-or-flight” reac-
ment activities he developed, which tion in which there are profound physi-
were simple enough for anyone, of any cal changes. These changes include
age, to do, while effective enough that elevated pulse and blood pressure, an
anyone could benefit. increased breathing rate, slowed diges-
After the initial success of Brain Gym, tion, and unfocused vision—all normal,
Dennison collaborated with his wife, healthy responses to threat, and useful to
Gail, in exploring its potential as a self- mobilize energy to escape from or over-
help tool of broad application in busi- come the threat. However, these
ness, sports, and the arts. In 1987 they responses can make learning difficult at
established a research-and-information best and, if prolonged, can lead to illness.
center on body-mind development, the Using movement to activate the parts of
Educational Kinesiology Foundation, the brain where logical, rational thinking
that oversees the training of Brain Gym takes place, Brain Gym helps the brain to
instructors and coordinates the interna- recover from the fight-or-flight response,
tional network of Foundation faculty and evaluate the nature of the threat, and
Brain Gym instructors. respond appropriately. As the brain
In 1991, Brain Gym was recognized responds, the overall stress level drops,
by the National Learning Foundation and competence increases. In the case of
247
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
children, this is crucial to their entire of schools in the United States, Canada,
process of growth and change since Europe, Australia, New Zealand, Africa,
stress disturbs the organism at every and Russia. Improvements are reported
level of its relationship to the world. in all areas of academic skills, including
self-esteem, memory, recall, test-taking,
Brain Gym® Exercises listening and attention, technical and
There are several ways to use Brain creative writing, reading speed and
Gym. A series of individual sessions comprehension, oral reading and self-
with a certified instructor usually gets expression. People with learning difficul-
the quickest results. Each sixty- to nine- ties such as dyslexia, ADD, and ADHD
ty-minute session is focused on a report improved focus, comprehension,
specific goal, and starts with PACE (pos- and physical coordination with Brain
itive, active, clear, and energetic), a Gym. Reports indicate, students get
series of steps that prepare the partici- more out of other methods when Brain
pant for the work ahead. Gym is added.
Then the instructor and the student
go through a process called a “balance.” —Lark Carroll
Together they identify where the brain is
working smoothly, and where it’s
* Brain Gym® is a registered trademark of the Edu-
responding less efficiently. The instruc-
cational Kinesiology Foundation.
tor guides the student through basic
Brain Gym or in-depth edu-k move-
ments, to help the brain make those Resources:
connections more effectively. Whole-
body activities, exercises to activate eye- The Educational Kinesiology Foundation
hand coordination, movements for fine P.O. Box 3396
motor coordination, and others may be Ventura, CA 93006-3396
used, depending on each individual’s Tel: (800) 356-2109
needs. Web site: www.braingym.com
By the end of the balance, the stu- Lists Brain Gym instructors in your area, provides
dent notices positive changes in atti- copies of the newsletters Brain Gym Journal and
tude, posture, and skills. The student is Edu-K Update, and offers schedules of courses.
assigned exercises to do daily at home.
These exercises, called “homeplay,”
support and stabilize the cumulative Further Reading:
benefits of the balance. Parents are
encouraged to do exercises at home Dennison, Gail E., and Paul E.Dennison, Ph.D.
with their children, and often the whole Brain Gym. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc.,
family will do Brain Gym together. 1986.
Benefits of Brain Gym® ——. Brain Gym: Teacher’s Edition, Revised edi-
Today, Brain Gym is used in thousands tion. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc., 1994.
In 1991 the White House Task Force on Innovative Learning acclaimed Brain Gym as one
of twelve “successful learning innovations” because of its effectiveness in improving
basic math, reading, and writing skills. Its reputation is now international, and schools
in countries such as New Zealand have incorporated Brain Gym into their curricula.
248
Contact Improvisation
——. Edu-K for Kids. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthet- The Development of Contact
ics, Inc., 1987.
Improvisation
Although contact improvisation is now
——. Personalized Whole Brain Integration. Ventu-
included in many dancers’ repertory of
ra, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc., 1985.
techniques, it originated in the 1960s
amid a wave of experiments that chal-
Dennison, Gail E., Paul E. Dennison, Ph.D., and
lenged the traditions governing the con-
Jerry V. Teplitz, J.D., Ph.D. Brain Gym for Busi-
ception and presentation of dance.
ness. Ventura, CA: Edu-Kinesthetics, Inc., 1995.
Stylized movement, mythic narrative,
and stage spectacle were jettisoned in an
Hannaford, Carla, Ph.D. Smart Moves. Why Learn-
effort, led first by the Merce Cunning-
ing Is Not All in Your Head. Arlington, VA: Great
ham and then the Judson Church Group,
Ocean Publishers, 1995.
to find ways to connect dance to the
realities of contemporary life. Judson
Church productions featured movement
taken from work, sports, and the martial
arts and often investigated ordinary
CONTACT IMPROVISATION activity, such as sweeping a floor. What
was eventually called contact improvisa-
tion first appeared in 1972 in “Magne-
C
ontact improvisation is a form of sium,” a piece presented by Steve
dance that explores the relation- Paxton, a choreographer and dancer
ship of mind and body during the who had been a member of both the
experience of interactive touch and Cunningham Company and the Judson
improvised movement. While it is gener- Church Group. The dancers of “Magne-
ally performed in group classes and jam sium” did not attempt to “perform” any-
sessions, and involves ensemble exercis- thing; they instead reacted to one
es, training focuses on the skills and the another, improvising their movements
attitudes required to create a duet with- and going with the flow of the experi-
out cues from a choreographed scenario ence. Later in 1972, Paxton presented a
or speech. In fact music is often not used performance evolved from “Magne-
in contact improvisation. The process sium.” It retained the use of a group of
starts by tuning the partners’ capacity to improvising dancers but focused on the
“listen” and respond to touch and leads interaction of mixed- and same-sex
to dancing that ranges freely from gentle partners and became the prototype for
gestures to acrobatic movements. In a his subsequent work with contact
typical dance, the partners lean, roll, improvisation.
and fall on and with each other; they Assisted by teachers such as Nancy
may also lift or invert the other. At any Stark Smith and Daniel Lepkoff, Paxton
level of expertise, the dancing builds a started to offer workshops and perfor-
momentum that encourages trust, risk- mances in contact improvisation. By the
taking, and physical dialogue from par- late 1970s, it had its own publication, the
ticipants. Contact improvisation Contact Newsletter, later renamed the
continues to be best known as a compo- Contact Quarterly, and was becoming a
nent of professional dance, but aware- major force in the development of post-
ness of its psychological and physical modern dance. Dance companies that
benefits has won it growing popularity based their work on contact improvisa-
as an “art sport” for amateurs. During tion were mushrooming in the United
the past few years, it has also been States, and by the early 1980s, dancers in
approached as a mode of mind/body cultural centers throughout the world,
healing and as an adjunct to the martial especially Amsterdam, Berlin, and Lon-
arts of Asia. don, were adapting its principles.
249
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Nancy Stark Smith and Steve Paxton, developers of contact improvisation, a dance-like somatic practice.
250
Contact Improvisation
dancers focus on the physical sensations More complex duet and group
of touching, leaning, supporting, and improvisation is the focus of classes at
falling with one another. Awkwardness the intermediate and advanced levels.
matters only if it is a symptom of one Mastery of an exercise known as “flying”
dancer’s lack of focus and withdrawal is often the last skill to be taught. The
from the spontaneous release into the dancers vault in the air, are caught by
here-and-now of physical experience. their partners, and perch momentarily
The emphasis on being present in the over the head of their partner. Gender
moment links contact improvisation to equality is valued at this as at all levels
the martial arts, yoga, and meditation. of training: men lift women and vice
All these disciplines encourage the indi- versa.
vidual to let go of blocks that prevent A portion of each class is generally
him from apprehending the energy that reserved for free-form dancing by stu-
constantly courses between mind and dents. The action is likely to begin in a
body. “round robin.” Some members of the
group improvise while the others form a
circle around them. As the dancing pro-
Experiencing Contact Improvisation ceeds, the organization of the “round
Students work with one another, learn-
robin” becomes increasingly fluid. Peo-
ing to establish connection through
ple join and leave the dancing at will,
light physical touch and to move
improvise with various partners, or
together in a shared kinesphere. A kine-
dance alone.
sphere may be pictured as a bubble of
space in which the body moves. It is
usually envisioned as the 360 degrees of The Risks and Benefits of Contact
space encircling an individual, but in Improvisation
contact improvisation the kinesphere is Though injuries are rare in contact
the joint creation of dancers who improvisation, it is a strenuous activity
become adept at falling and rolling and many participants take the precau-
together, sliding off each other, spiral- tion of wearing kneepads. It is also
ing around, and leaning into each advisable to review one’s personal
other. They learn to find “tables” or boundaries before taking up contact
body surfaces on one partner that can improvisation. Those with a history of
support the balanced weight of the trauma or abuse may find it disturbing.
other. Advocates regard contact improvisa-
The structure of a class in contact tion as a unique blend of sport, art, and
improvisation depends on the teacher’s meditation and credit it with numerous
particular interests and on the needs health benefits. It can release tension,
and abilities of individual students. promote an overall sense of well-being
Beginning-level classes concentrate on and ease, boost vitality, and aid con-
the basic skills for performing duet and centration. Further, as a non-sexual
group improvisation. Exercises in touch form of intimacy, it affords a safe way to
increase the skin’s ability to register sort through volatile issues of gender,
information about the speed and angle trust, bonding, control, and spontane-
of movement. Other exercises help the ity in human relationships. Some pro-
body to release and become receptive. ponents would add that contact
Students learn to roll and slide on the improvisation is most effective and
floor and on each other with ease; to complete when experienced as a
use the body’s surfaces for support; to metaphor for the movement and
flow with the momentum of move- change pervading all aspects of late
ment; to reverse and invert the body’s twentieth-century life.
orientation; and to circle and spiral in
space. —Paul Langland
251
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
C
age our body’s capacity to innovate
ontinuum, a movement program when faced with injury or illness.
developed by Emilie Conrad- Many movement education programs
Da’oud in 1967, encourages partici- deal with the body as an object while
pants to resonate with the motions and continuum presents it as a process. In
rhythms of our primordial origins, which other words, continuum explores the
are subtle, undulating movements pulsing body on a fluid and cellular level, believ-
in the fluids of our bodies. One of the ing the body is not bounded by form;
benefits of this practice is to facilitate the there is a constant exchange in our fluids
release of mental and physical illness from and cells with those of the environment,
the body and promote health through and we are in continual participation
engagement on a biological level. with the planetary process.
These ideas have influenced the
Origins of Continuum fields of dance, physical therapy, deep
Continuum springs from the work of tissue therapy, as well as disciplines
one woman, Emilie Conrad-Da’oud, such as chiropractic, physical fitness,
252
Continuum
and somatics. People from many differ- breath. All movement begins with inhal-
ent disciplines in the alternative health ing and exhaling. By invoking a soften-
community explore continuum and ing of the breath, participants of
apply to their own practices the idea of continuum disrupt habitual patterns
the human being as a fluid, innovative, and encourage an increased mobility of
boundless being, with movement inher- breath to access greater flexibility and
ent to our very selves. adaptability. This new dexterity of
breath invigorates nerve fibers and con-
Theory of Continuum nective tissues that have become
The continuum program represents entrenched in the old patterns. Ulti-
Conrad-Da’oud’s distillation of Dambal- mately, these breathing exercises
lah’s wavelike motions with our own increase our capacity to receive cellular
human biology. A human’s first environ- nourishment and bring about a healing
ment, in the uterus, is liquid. According environment to areas that have become
to Conrad-Da’oud, our fluid origin is barren and atrophied.
inseparable from our surrounding envi- Physical and emotional trauma and
ronment. In other words, the fluids of genetic deformities sometimes leave
the biosphere resonate with the fluid of the body with limited functionality.
our bodies and we are in concert with Among the paralyzed, for example, the
our world. For these reasons, continuum traditional neural pathways have been
holds that human beings are primarily injured. By breathing in a manner that
aquatic and become terrestrial. creates a wavelike motion, we can cause
Conrad-Da’oud also sees human micro-movements to spread into dor-
beings as “biomorphic,” which means mant areas, often returning function to
that we include all life-forms. We are all areas that traditional medicine cannot
part of a larger process, along with other affect.
animals, plants, and Earth itself. Conrad- Continuum, more than anything else,
Da’oud emphasizes that the human body provides a context for questioning and
emerges from the matings of earlier life, comprehending not just physical move-
from protozoa to mammals, the vestiges ment but all aspects of our functioning.
of which lie within us, along with the Our whole thinking-feeling-moving-elec-
vastness of biological intelligence. trochemical-electromagnetic organism
Continuum encourages participants to participating within its biological and cul-
explore themselves as biomorphic beings tural environment can be lived as one
and to establish a mental and physical unbroken movement. Participants come
rapport with the various life-forms within to understand that our responsibilities,
them. Participants allow their primordial the significance and meanings we give
movements—which curve, arc, and spi- our world, can be seen as one process of
ral—to emerge. Through rapport with our flowing movement.
biological heritage, Conrad-Da’oud has
found that our complex fluidity can pro-
—Compiled in consultation with
vide an environment for creativity and
Emilie Conrad-Da’oud
innovation to occur. In relation to “heal-
ing,” the suggestion is made that innova-
tion can create neural pathways that can
bypass trauma, allowing life to move on in Resources:
new and surprising ways.
Continuum Studio
1629 18th Street 7
The Experience and Health Benefits Santa Monica, CA 90404
of Continuum Tel: (310) 453-4402
Conrad-Da’oud’s work involves a great Fax: (310) 453-8775
deal of attention to the movement of Offers workshops in Continuum.
253
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
E
urythmy is a movement art that guage are often used as the basis for
translates verbal and musical movement. Human sound can be
sounds into movement of the thought of as carrying all of life within
human body. According to eurythmy, it. The name of a thing, a person, or an
there are three most basic ways in experience can be seen as more than
which life expresses itself. They are just a separate description. The sounds
movement, form, and language. By chosen to represent something can be
integrating these elemental expressions seen as a reenactment of the unique
of life and creating a harmonious spiritual and physical qualities of the
expression of them, eurythmy is thing in question, as holding the essen-
believed to reach the spiritual nature tial qualities of the thing itself. And so
behind all living things, giving this spir- when eurythmy is performed, the ges-
itual nature a clear voice and a tures are not symbols, they are expres-
visible reality. sions of the essence of the thing itself.
The human voice is a remarkable
The Origin of Eurythmy instrument, capable of transforming
Eurythmy was conceived in 1912 by our inner experiences into another
Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian-born medium—sound. When the sounds of
founder of the spiritual movement language and song are intoned, they set
known as Anthroposophy. Eurythmy is into motion unique yet invisible waves
a Greek term meaning “harmonious or gestures through the air. In eurythmy
rhythm” and was chosen because these gestures are artistically expressed
Steiner saw rhythm as the very basis to reveal the outer forms belonging to
and center of life. Around the time that each consonant or vowel, each
he began to consider the notion of musical tone or interval.
eurythmy, Steiner founded the Anthro-
posophical Society, a movement The Philosophy of Eurythmy
intended to help further his teachings, For Steiner, eurythmy was not a physical
particularly his belief in the existence illustration or interpretation of language
of a spiritual realm that can be per- and music, but instead a true expression
ceived by people with highly developed of sound through the body. Claiming to
mental faculties. see a shifting field of energy around
A philosopher and visionary, Steiner each human being, Steiner identified a
asserted that all human beings—with system of body movements that corre-
proper training and preparation—have spond to the shapes of the energy field
the potential to participate in the spiri- as it responds to each spoken word and
tual world. To this end, he devised a sys- musical sound. To an uninformed mem-
tem of education called the Waldorf ber of the audience, eurythmy may
School movement, which uses such dis- seem to be a mix of mime, dance, and
ciplines as eurythmy to teach individu- sign language performed to music,
als from the earliest age about their singing, or spoken word. Steiner, howev-
inner spirituality and their relationship er, declared that eurythmic movements
to the world around them. Eurythmy are equivalent to sound, not artistic rep-
also can be performed on stages before resentations of it. To him, eurythmy is
audiences or employed as a therapy for one means of assisting humankind in
treating various types of illness. There returning to an earlier state in which
are currently more than thirty eurythmy people were more aware of their inner
training centers located throughout the being and the invisible processes of the
world. world. In the Introduction to Eurythmy,
254
Eurythmy
Steiner stated: “The seeds of movement movements are acted out in silence, and
are manifest in the human larynx and later they are performed in collabora-
its neighboring organs when someone tion with live music or spoken words. In
speaks . . . or when he produces musi- a speech eurythmy class, students
cal sounds. If one had some artificial examine the elements of language
device by which one could see at such a Steiner felt appeared in poetry, drama,
moment how the air mass is stirred to and fiction. In a tone eurythmy class,
rhythmic vibration by the incipient they study the gestures Steiner believed
movements of the larynx and its neigh- were inherent in music. Performance of
boring organs, he would realize . . . how eurythmy on a stage can incorporate
the entire man is revealed through it.” colorful costumes and dramatic light-
ing, which heighten the mood created
Eurythmy in Practice by the actors and musicians.
In studying eurythmy, a person learns
about the different qualities found in Benefits of Eurythmy
the sounds of language and tones of Students who have studied eurythmy at
music. Eurythmy classes begin with Waldorf schools reportedly benefit from
movement exercises that help students improved coordination, agility, and
better understand and be more com- flexibility, and a greater sense of physical
fortable with space, with people around well-being; for these reasons, eurythmy
them, and with their own movements. is also commonly used as therapy.
Subsequently, one is taught specific Group practice of eurythmy creates a
movements or gestures that correspond strong sense of teamwork, as individuals
to each letter of the alphabet. Initially, jointly overcome their reluctance to use
255
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Resources:
Anthroposophic Press
RR 4 Box 94 A-1
GURDJIEFF MOVEMENTS
Hudson, NY 2534
T
Tel: (518) 851-2054 he Gurdjieff movements were
Fax: (518) 851-2047 developed by the Armenian
Publishes many Rudolf Steiner texts, including sev- teacher George Ivanovitch Gurdji-
eral on eurythmy. A catalog is available upon eff as the way for his pupils to experi-
request. ence in movement the reality of his
teaching. Practice of the Gurdjieff
Eurythmy Association of North America movements has meaning only when
13726 23rd Avenue NE undertaken in the context of an entire
Seattle, WA 98125 program of activities and studies of the
Tel: (206) 361-6113 system of Gurdjieff’s ideas. The aim of
the movements is to bring together the
Eurythmy Spring Valley
mind, body, and feelings through the
285 Hungry Hollow Road
performance of different kinds of exer-
Chestnut Ridge, NY 0977
cises, rhythmic sequences, series of
Tel: (914) 352-5020
postures, and dances.
Fax: (914) 352-5071
e-mail: bdeury@aol.com George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff
Provides a professional training program accredit- George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff was born
ed by the Association of Eurythmy in Dornach, in 1866 in Alexandropol, now known as
Switzerland. Weekly courses and summer work- Gumri, in what is now Armenia. He was
shops are also offered for those interested in experi- raised and educated in Russian Arme-
encing eurythmy for refreshment and nia at a time and place in which there
self-development. was a confluence of new technologies
and scientific ideas of the West with the
Waldorf Schools in North America Director of traditions, thought, and religions of the
Schools East.
Web site: www.io.com/user/karisch/ In his autobiographical account,
waldir.html Meetings with Remarkable Men (pub-
Waldorf schools, many of which offer eurythmy class- lished posthumously in 1963), he writes
es for children, teens, and adults, are located through- of his father, a well-known ashokh, or
out the United States and Canada. bard, who was part of an oral tradition
256
Gurdjieff Movements
The Armenian teacher George Ivanovitch Gurdjieff was influenced by both science and
religion.
stretching back to the distant past. The several close escapes from death as well
legends that he heard from his father as encounters with “magic” and other
left a mark on his whole life. His tutors, manifestations of realities beyond the
men of science and religion, trained explanations of science and logic. As he
him for both the priesthood and medi- came of age in the midst of these
cine, and he pursued his studies with unfathomable mysteries and inexplica-
burning interest. In Meetings with ble events, Gurdjieff felt dissatisfied
Remarkable Men, Gurdjieff describes with the answers of contemporary
257
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
through which students are able to to stretch the attention beyond its usual
experience the power that mechanical limits. Practicing these exercises, one
habits such as posture, tension, facial finds it possible to truly inhabit the
expression, etc., have over their inner body; from there, one may then open to
states. The practice of experiencing the transformative power that a better
one’s actual way of being, or self-study, quality of attention can bring.
according to Gurdjieff, is the beginning The music used to accompany the
of self-knowledge and inner freedom. sacred dances comes from various
Practice of the movements offers the sources. Gurdjieff had a keen sensitivity
opportunity for such study and the to and memory for the music he had
foretaste of such a liberating knowl- heard since his early childhood and
edge. during his travels in Asia. Between 1919
The task of the dancers is to learn to and 1924, he began to write music for
participate with the whole of them- the sacred dances in close collaboration
selves. What is seen is the movement with the composer Thomas de Hart-
itself, as if the series of postures were mann. Later, de Hartmann and others
the outer image of an inner and more expanded this literature, and pianists
subtle energy. Understood in this way, accompanying today’s movements
one realizes that the aim of the move- classes play these earlier compositions
ments is not to create a psychic state of as well as improvise music based on
some kind, but to develop a specific similar scales and harmonies. The task
attention leading to an immediate and of the pianist, like the pupils working in
practical experience of the inner struc- the class, is to seek to understand the
ture of the human being and of the cos- meaning of each exercise as it is being
mological order to which humanity practiced.
belongs.
Movements classes are composed of
A New Potential
students working together in a group,
The study of the Gurdjieff movements,
with more experienced pupils directing
when undertaken in conjunction with
and guiding the course of each class.
the study of his system of ideas, offers
There are exercises of different quali-
the means for inner discovery and
ties, including movements of forceful
development. Through this practice, the
dynamism and quiet prayer, men’s and mind and the feelings are able to com-
women’s dances, and exercises that bine with the movements of the body to
demonstrate the cyclic movements of express the potential of the whole
mathematical laws. Each dance or exer- human being.
cise is composed of sequences of fixed
postures executed in specific rhythms
and tempos in which a demand is made —The Gurdjieff Foundation of New York
During his youth, Gurdjieff traveled to regions of Central Asia in search of answers to the
questions that tormented him. In remote monasteries, he first witnessed certain sacred
dances that made a lasting impression on him. This is dramatized in Peter Brook’s film,
Meetings with Remarkable Men, when the young Gurdjieff asks, “What is the meaning of
these movements?” An older pupil answers, “They tell us of two qualities of energy mov-
ing without interruption through the body. As long as the dancer can keep in balance
these two energies, he has a force that nothing else can give. . .”
259
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
he Pilates Method of Body Condi- For many years the Pilates Method
tioning®* consists of a series of exer- was extremely popular among dancers
cises designed to develop a and professional performers in New York
complete and balanced individual by City, while it remained virtually
strengthening and stretching the body unknown elsewhere. Dancers embrace
while fully engaging the mind. Founded the method for its ability to fine-tune the
more than seventy years ago by Joseph body, giving the dancer great strength
Pilates, this method has been quite pop- and energy while maintaining long, lean
ular among dancers and professional muscles with tremendous flexibility. In
260
Pilates Method of Body Conditioning®
more recent years this system’s populari- he called “playing,” spending quality
ty has grown to encompass people of all time with family and friends, enjoying a
ages and all stages of fitness. Today, such movie or a play, or reading a book.
medical professionals as physical thera- Pilates believed that having increased
pists and chiropractors are recommend- energy for such activities would
ing and adopting Pilates as a means of undoubtedly have a positive effect on
rehabilitation and preventative medi- one’s mind and spirit.
cine, and certified studios now can be
found throughout the world. Control, Centering, Precision, Flow-
ing Movement
Pilates’ Philosophy of Body/Mind These are the key principles of the Pilates
Development Method. Throughout a session, one con-
Joseph Pilates believed that fitness centrates on all of these aspects. To be
required more than just physical educa- effective the movements have to be per-
tion. He believed in the development of formed correctly, according to precise
the whole person—body, mind, and standards. For this reason, concentration
spirit. Pilates referred to his unique sys- is considered as important as the physi-
tem of exercise as the “art of controlo- cal movements. The mind focuses on
gy.” In his book Return to Life, he states, controlling all aspects of the movement:
“Contrology develops the body uni- maintaining body alignment, doing exer-
formly, corrects wrong postures, cises exactly as indicated by the instruc-
restores physical vitality, invigorates the tor, using graceful, flowing movements,
mind, and elevates the spirit.” Pilates and keeping the breath flowing. An
felt that with improved physical func- essential element of the Pilates Method is
tioning, one’s endurance improves, the concept of the body’s “center,”
allowing more time and energy for what referred to as the “powerhouse of the
261
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
anatomy.” This circular “belt” around engage lower abdominal muscles, how
the body encompasses the lower back to roll through the spinal column evenly
and abdominals; an immediate benefit and smoothly and how to maintain cor-
one feels as a result of practicing Pilates rect body posture and alignment.
is strength in the abdominal muscles While there is a specific sequence to
and relief of chronic lower back discom- the system, lessons are customized to
fort. suit the individual, with special prob-
lems taken into account. Each person
does a complete series of exercises on
The Pilates® Studio and Classes specialized equipment and on a flat
Today these studios often look strange
cushioned mat; in Pilates, the apparatus
yet elegant with equipment, mats, and
work and mat work are of equal impor-
various apparatus, all built to Joseph
tance. Within each exercise, repetitions
Pilates’ specifications. While there are
are kept to a minimum, focusing on
several machines used, the main piece of
quality rather than quantity. This allows
equipment is known as the universal
for a very high level of concentration
reformer. It looks similar to the frame of a
and precise, careful movements and
single bed with a sliding carriage
insures that muscles are never worked
attached to four springs. After adjusting
to exhaustion. The instructor often sets
the number of springs to regulate the
the rhythm, keeping the workout
resistance, the student pushes or pulls
dynamic and energetic, yet always gen-
against a metal bar or straps. The exercis-
tle and never hurried. One rarely hears
es are done sitting, lying down, kneeling,
music or chatting because students are
and standing. Emphasis is not on maxi-
encouraged to concentrate fully on the
mum resistance but on the student’s abil-
exercises and on their breathing. Many
ity to work with and control the springs.
studios offer small group classes with
The springs help with a stretching and
rarely more than four students per
contracting action in the muscles.
instructor. Once a student has learned
Individuals may begin practicing
to perform the basic exercises correctly
Pilates at any level of fitness. The exer-
and confidently he or she can choose to
cises are learned slowly, and strength is
supplement studio time with work done
built gradually. Students are encour-
at home on a cushioned mat. Students
aged to progress at their own rate. Once
can generally expect results after
fundamental exercises have been mas-
approximately ten consistent lessons,
tered, new and more challenging ones
although some react more quickly.
are introduced, each in a very particular
The Pilates Method always considers
order, thus building up a repertoire of
the body as a whole rather than separate
exercises. There are hundreds of
body parts. Every exercise will engage
various exercises and, depending on the
the entire body while paying particular
individual’s progress, as many of these
attention to one main muscle group. At
will be taught as deemed necessary by
the end of each session the whole body is
the instructor.
stretched and strengthened equally.
At the initial session, the client’s
Although a person’s heart rate may
physical history is discussed, a certified
increase, the Pilates Method is comple-
instructor takes the student through the
mentary to rather than a replacement for
initial series of exercises from beginning
aerobic exercise.
to end. An experienced certified instruc-
tor will be able to assess a person’s par-
ticular strengths and weaknesses Benefits of The Pilates Method®
quickly and gauge what exercises are to Depending on the individual, benefits of
be included in, or omitted from, the per- using Pilates exercises may include
sonal routine. From the beginning, basic improved posture, longer, leaner muscles,
principles are taught, including how to improved all-over strength (especially
262
ROM Dance
in the abdominal region), greater flexi- limitations. ROM is the acronym used in
bility, general ease of movement, relief physical therapy to describe the range
of chronic aches, more energy and of motion as flexibility of joints. These
endurance, and a higher level of con- exercises, recommended by doctors and
centration and focus in all aspects of therapists, are combined with the basic
one’s life. A added benefit is that stu- principles of t’ai chi ch’üan, an ancient
dents invariably leave a Pilates studio Chinese exercise practiced for health
feeling invigorated. and longevity. T’ai chi ch’üan trains the
participant to be calm while alert, both
—Leah Chaback, strong and flexible, and to relax in the
certified instructor and teacher trainer midst of activity. These elements are
applied to ROM dancing, teaching the
*Pilates® and the Pilates Method of participant to move gently and slowly in
Body Conditioning® are registered order to maintain the ability to move in
trademarks. spite of pain. It also allows the partici-
pant to develop sensitivity to subtle
Resources: changes in the body that may eventual-
ly reduce pain and limitations. Through
The Movement Center
regular practice, this slow, fluid exercise
39 Broadway
is purported to enhance mental focus,
Kingston, NY 12401
body awareness, and imagination.
Tel: (914) 331-0986
A certified, fully equipped Pilates studio that offers The History of ROM Dance
private, semiprivate, and group lessons. ROM dance was created in 1981 by Diane
Harlowe, M.S., an occupational therapist
The Pilates Studio and researcher, and Tricia Yu, M.A., a t’ai
2121 Broadway chi instructor and health educator, at St.
New York, NY 10023 Mary’s Hospital in Madison, Wisconsin.
Tel: (800) 4-PILATES Patients had complained that their exer-
e-mail: mrpilates@aol.com cises were boring and monotonous. Har-
Web site: www.pilates-studio.com lowe and Yu designed this unique
A certified, fully equipped Pilates studio. routine of stretches and movements,
which take about seven minutes to com-
Further Reading: plete, to encourage their patients to keep
moving everyday.
Friedman, Philip, and Gail Eisen. The Pilates The program had the following
Method of Physical and Method Conditioning objectives: assisting and inspiring the
New York: Warner Books, 1981. participants in following any medical
recommendations for involvement in
Pilates, Joseph, and William John Miller. Return to daily exercise/rest routines; increasing
Life Through Contrology. Boston: Christopher frequency, enjoyment and perceived
Publishing House, 1960. benefit of involvement in daily exercise
and rest; enhancing the ability to cope
with stress and pain through use of
relaxation techniques; improving body
awareness; and promoting a general
ROM DANCE sense of well-being.
Originally designed as an eight-week
community health education program, it
R
OM dance is an exercise and relax- is now taught by physical and occupation-
ation program created for people al therapists, nurses, dance and recreation
with chronic pain and other physical therapists, and t’ai chi ch’üan instructors
263
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
in hospitals, senior centers, nursing of motion and cope with stress and
homes, outpatient clinics, patients’ pain. It can also be used as the warm-up
homes, and rehabilitation clinics. and cool-down phases of more exten-
sive exercise programs.
The Principles of ROM Dance ROM dance is based on movements
The seven major ROM dance principles usually recommended for rheumatoid
are adapted from the ancient body-mind arthritis. It has also been successfully
principles of t’ai chi ch’üan. Attention to used in the following areas: fibromyal-
the present awakens all the senses of the gia; hand therapy; psychiatry; geri-
ROM dance practitioner as he or she is atrics; oncology (cancer); Parkinson’s
guided to look, listen, smell, or feel all disease; stress management; pain man-
the physical sensations coming to and agement; lupus; and the practice of
from the body-mind. Diaphragmatic neurology.
breathing and postural alignment help Those interested in learning and
relax and nourish the body and mind. As practicing ROM dance should be
a result, the respiratory and muscu- advised that it is not a substitute for
loskeletal systems function more fully medically recommended exercise ther-
and easily. Moving more slowly than nor- apy unless approved or modified by a
mal enhances awareness of movement physician or therapist. Also, the follow-
sensation and builds strength as well as ing risks should be noted: people with
sensitivity in the body and the mind. severe neck problems or hip replace-
Avoiding unnecessary tension or force ments should check with their doctors
creates relaxed movement which encour- before attempting the movements;
ages healthy functioning of the circula- dancers should avoid straining or forc-
tory and nervous systems. Exercising the ing any movements and should person-
imagination by reciting poetic images ally modify them when necessary; and
from nature while doing the ROM dance those using this dance program should
seems to evoke soothing, nurturing, always apply proper body mechanics
healing feelings of warmth and a sense of when standing and sitting.
personal involvement and well-being. Because the movements of ROM
dance are gentle and take only a few
minutes a day to perform, nearly every-
ROM Dance in Practice one—including individuals in wheel-
ROM dance, which takes about seven
chairs—can do them. The program may
minutes to complete, can be performed
improve flexibility and mobility while
both sitting and standing. It incorporates
promoting a general sense of relaxation
movement in all ranges for the large
in a safe, slow, and gentle manner.
joints, and includes a special exercise
routine for the small joints of the hands.
The program includes instruction in
—Patricia Yu, M.A.
both exercise and relaxation. It is
designed to be practiced as a daily rou-
tine to help maintain flexibility. The Resources:
relaxation and pain management train-
ing provides participants with strategies
The ROM Dance Network
for relaxing both during periods of rest
P.O. Box 3332
and when dealing with stress or pain in
Madison, WI 53704-0332
the middle of daily activities.
Tel: (608) 242-9133
Fax: (608) 242-9140
The Benefits and Risks of the ROM Links practitioners and professionals, disseminates
Dance Program information and instructional materials, and
The program can help people with a organizes seminars and training workshops. Pro-
variety of disabilities maintain a range vides the ROM Dance Multimedia Instructional
264
Skinner Releasing Technique
Kit, which is available to both professionals and how their bodies move and to visualize
individuals for personal home practice. It includes how their bodies can function without
videos for both standing and wheelchair exercise, discomfort.
guided relaxation and music audiotapes, as well
as a text for instructors.
The Development of the Skinner
Releasing Technique
Joan Skinner was dancing in the compa-
nies of Martha Graham and Merce Cun-
ningham during the late forties and
SKINNER RELEASING early fifties. Between her ballet class in
the morning and her modern class in the
TECHNIQUE afternoon she began to explore dance
technique in her apartment in Green-
wich Village, New York. She found an old
T
he Skinner releasing technique banister that she used for a barre and set
(SRT) is a movement discipline up mirrors so that she could see herself
used to alleviate physical pain and at the 3/4 angle from the front and back
tension. Based on the philosophy that simultaneously. She kept a notebook in
all human beings have the potential to which she posed questions about the
move with natural grace, SRT taps into techniques she was learning in her
intrinsic, primal coordination and the dance classes. Teachers at that time used
experience of movement at a deep the terms “pull up—grip—hold on,” and
kinesthetic level by using movement she wondered how one could breathe as
along with poetry, music, and imagery. nature intended while gripping and
It encourages people to understand holding. Then she suffered a back injury
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
that would not heal, and she was advised releasing of fixed tension patterns in the
to consult an instructor who specialized shoulders, back, or legs. Almost everyone
in the Alexander technique—one of only has acquired patterns of tension, some-
three such instructors in the country at times hidden, in the body during the
that time. The Alexander technique made process of growing up under numerous
sense to Joan because it did not compress stresses. Trained dancers often find these
the body with gripping but opened and tension patterns in the body underneath
extended it in a multidirectional way. It their training. The tensions are blocks—
facilitated natural breathing, and it took distortions of the alignment of the natur-
the pressure off the injury so that it could al body. Releasing these blocks allows for
heal. realignment of the body. This makes it
After leaving New York, Joan spent possible to move with greater flexibility,
three years working alone to develop range, speed, and strength.
what is now known as SRT. She began by A unique aspect of SRT is its integra-
applying the Alexander principles to bal- tion of technique with creative process
let barre movements. In searching for that through the use of imagery. For exam-
multidirectional balance, the barre exer- ple, if an instructor wants to focus a
cises broke down to where she spent time class on the concept of “autonomy of the
balancing on one leg—without gripping limbs” he or she might begin with a tac-
and holding the balance. In the beginning tile study focusing on the hip joint. The
this meant wobbling and losing balance instructor guides student partners to
and then getting back on the leg. The gain a physical experience of more free-
work then became kinesthetic—that is, dom of movement at the hip by instruct-
she began perceiving movement at a sub- ing one partner to rotate and extend his
tle level of the muscular sensation. or her partner’s leg while the partner is
When she went to the University of Illi- passive, relinquishing control of his or
nois in 1966 to teach a traditional modern her leg. Eventually the active partner is
dance class, she introduced some of her instructed to let go of the leg, allowing
new knowledge and techniques to her stu- the passive partner to continue the
dents. She used images and metaphors for movements alone. Later in the class, the
kinesthetic experiences she wanted her same concept is developed through the
students to have. They responded power- use of a metaphor, a poetic image given
fully to the imagery and would drop the by the teacher that stimulates an impro-
structure of the class to stay with an vised exploration. To begin this creative
image. Joan realized that something process, students lie on the floor while
important was happening to them, so she the teacher, using a procedure similar to
allowed the class to become less struc- relaxation technique, verbally guides
tured, a concept that formed the founda- students into a state just under con-
tion of the Skinner releasing technique. scious control. This state is free of anxi-
eties, and sensory perception is
SRT in Practice sharpened. In this state, one can be
A typical class in the Skinner releasing physically transformed by a mental
technique includes three parts: tactile image. Propelled by the image, students
studies; floor work with guided imagery; begin to move up from the floor, to
and movement studies for the group, improvise from the image of freeing the
guided by the instructor. Music and legs, and eventually to dance as the con-
sounds are interwoven throughout the cept of “autonomy of the limbs” plays
session. The SRT pedagogy progresses through the body-mind.
from introductory work through ongo-
ing levels to the advanced. How SRT Works
The tactile studies in SRT help stu- The objectives of the technique are
dents experience kinesthetically the similar to traditional dance techniques:
266
Skinner Releasing Technique
267
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
S
patial DynamicsSM is a discipline ences with those of others who had
that concerns itself with the human achieved success in their fields, he con-
being’s movement and interaction sidered a common factor largely over-
with space through spatially oriented looked in the study of sport, physical
movement activities. Focus on how the education, therapy, and movement in
body moves through space is used as a general: the concept of enlivened space.
catalyst for developing awareness of the His inclination to experience and
potential of the body. It is a core understand enlivened space led him to
premise of Spatial Dynamics that this begin rigorous training in various disci-
awareness influences psychological, plines, including two ancient martial
emotional, intellectual, and spiritual arts and yoga, which incorporated East-
development. ern philosophies that allowed him to
develop mental power and experience
the effects of concentrated space. He
How Spatial DynamicsSM Developed also studied water, sound, sculpture,
In the mid-1970s a young clinical psy-
projective geometry, and eurythmy,
chology student named Jaimen McMil-
which helped him learn about fluidity
lan was struck by the disconcerting
of movement and the processes of
similarity in the postures and movement
change through movement.
patterns of patients suffering from simi-
McMillan was also influenced by the
lar complaints. In the case of autistic
work of such revolutionary twentieth-
children, for example, where it could be
century thinkers as Albert Einstein and
determined that they had never been
anthropologist Edward T. Hall, in partic-
exposed to others with the same disor-
ular their concepts of time and space.
der, their movement repertories were so
From Rudolf Steiner came the concepts
similar as to appear almost rehearsed. It
of the evolution of space, and the con-
was clear that a particular condition
nections between the human soul and
affected the movement patterns of the
the dimensions of space. These con-
patient. McMillan wondered if one
cepts contributed to the development
could possibly work in the opposite
of Spatial Dynamics.
direction. If, indeed, the disorder had a
McMillan worked, traveled, and
negative effect on a patient’s movement
studied in Europe for the next ten years.
patterns, could practicing more whole-
He went on to receive diplomas in phys-
some movement patterns have a posi-
iotherapy, massage, movement therapy,
tive effect on the person’s disorder?
and Bothmer gymnastics. He continued
McMillan’s initial attempts in this direc-
to collect and develop suitable move-
tion yielded encouraging results.
ment activities that aid the processes of
It became clear to him that in order to
growth, health, and integration. This
use spatial movement therapeutically in
body of exercises has come to be known
an appropriate and scientific way, one’s
as Spatial Dynamics.
own movements had to be worthy of
imitation, one had to develop new con- SM
cepts of space and new ways of perceiv- Philosophy of Spatial Dynamics
ing movement, one had to know which In Spatial Dynamics, space is perceived
effects a given movement elicited, and as a vibrant medium and movement as
one had to work from a holistic move- a dynamic force that is at our disposal
ment picture of the balanced individual. to span distances psychologically as
Attracted by the artistry and upright- well as physically. The concept of space
ness of the discipline of fencing, McMil- is further differentiated to designate an
lan began his movement research ever-widening range of possibilities for
268
Spatial DynamicsSM
self-knowledge and interaction with and lifts toward the periphery, toward
others. Working first from the “body- infinity. This force is called levity. A third
space” in Spatial Dynamics exercises, force, rhythm, is born out of the interac-
practitioners can explore moving tion between these two.
through the “personal,” or surrounding The concept of enlivened space has
space; the “interpersonal,” or meeting educational, artistic, and athletic appli-
and exchange space; to the “public,” or cations. A movement artist can learn to
social space; and finally to the “supra- create consciously by bringing the three
personal,” or macrocosmic space. above-mentioned forces (gravity, levity,
Out of the totality of spatial work, rhythm) into play through deliberate
many exercises and games that aid in differentiation. An observer perceives
balance, orientation, and spatial differ- an athlete or dancer who orchestrates
entiation have been developed and these forces successfully as graceful. An
brought together. Many of the exercises actor may employ these techniques to
are taught in slow motion so that one transcend his or her own personality
can learn to follow, distinguish, and and represent the forces called for in
control the quality of the movement. At whatever role is being played. A child
no time, even when performed more who has a learning block may move to
rapidly, are they done automatically. the next step in the learning process if
Great emphasis is placed on the individ- the correct movement experiences that
ual’s need for awareness and freedom. are missing in his or her development
The exercises incorporate a develop- are given.
mental sequence that spans the years of
movement development, correspond- Practicing Spatial DynamicsSM
ing to the unique spatial need of any One of the goals of Spatial Dynamics is to
given age and stage of development. For enable people to experience, and effec-
young children, they have the quality of tively enliven and employ, their spheres of
playful imagination and joyfulness, activity in daily life. As a discipline it can
whereas for adults they bring calm and be practiced alone, even subtly during the
enable one not merely to change but to course of the day, pursued one-on-one
choose one’s own habits. with a teacher, or carried out in larger
Perhaps the most distinctive charac- groups. Another important aspect of Spa-
teristic of Spatial Dynamics is the con- tial Dynamics is its unique approach to
scious interplay between the opposing posture as a spatial process rather than as
forces of gravity and levity. The earth a set position or “pose.” The social aspect
represents a force that pulls everything of the exercises is visible in group work, in
toward one point, which is called gravi- which the extensions of each individual’s
ty. For Spatial Dynamics practitioners, movements create weavings of geometri-
the sun represents a force that draws cal patterns with others.
The Bothmer exercises are spatial gems, developed to augment the Waldorf School cur-
riculum for grades three through twelve. (The Waldorf School was a special institution
set up by Rudolf Steiner in 1919.)
Spatial Dynamics makes use of the Bothmer exercises and in addition has expanded
the range of its spatially oriented movement activities to touch the whole spectrum of
life, from a unique approach to childbirth preparation all the way to working with the
elderly, including preparation for death and dying.
269
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
psychosomatic illness, most notably ’ai chi ch’üan is an ancient Chinese
with eating-related disorders such as exercise art, a system of activating
anorexia and bulimia, with space-relat- the body for the simultaneous
ed phobias such as claustrophobia and development of physical, emotional,
agoraphobia, and with problems involv- and mental well-being. Composed of a
ing nervousness, lack of awareness, and slow, continuous series of circular
lack of “presence.” Movement thera- movements, it is said to develop bal-
pists, physical therapists, chiropractors, ance, stamina, and grace. It is one of the
and orthopedic doctors have imple- oldest exercise arts, going back to about
mented Spatial Dynamics principles 2205 BCE, but it wasn’t fully established
successfully in the area of physical med- as a body-mind technique for increas-
icine. ing the span of a healthy life until 1100
CE . From the Chinese viewpoint a
healthy life includes emotional stability
—Jaimen McMillan and a high degree of mental efficiency
as well as physical stamina.
270
T’ai Chi Ch’üan
A Chinese man practices t'ai chi ch’üan in the Forbidden City, Beijing, China.
271
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The symbol for t’ai chi ch’üan is a circle divided by a flowing line that represents the
movement of a wave. Filling the circumference of the circle are two curved shapes of
equal size, one white, representing yin, and one black, representing yang. There is a
small dot of the opposite color in each shape, showing the sympathetic character of each
to the other. The dynamic flow within the symbol represents movement and the conti-
nuity of the life force.
272
T’ai Chi Ch’üan
The Chinese masters recognized and seem to evaporate. Other people report
worked with the mind’s desire for diver- that t’ai chi has helped them become
sity. The form was designed to engage more mentally and physically proficient
what the Chinese believe to be the two and limber. With quickened physical
vital energies of life, which they call yin reflexes comes an easier acceptance of
and yang. Yin represents all things new ideas and a quickened capacity to
receptive and quiet. Yang represents all discard old habits. Emotionally, self-con-
things assertive and active. The many sciousness is diminished and self-assur-
ways in which yin and yang are con- ance awakened. Many practitioners
trasted within the form add to the assert that practicing the form has helped
development of good coordination and them develop patience, awareness, and
heightened perception as well as mem- endurance.
ory. With the mind satisfied and the
body exercised, a sense of total relax- —Sophia Delza
ation and well-being results.
Resources:
A Lifelong Practice
T’ai chi ch’üan is generally taught in
T’ai Chi Chüan/Shaolin Chuan Association
small group classes, but some teachers
(TCC/SCA)
also offer private lessons. It is usually
33W624 Roosevelt Road
taught indoors in studios with wooden
P.O. Box 430
floors. In temperate climates it is often
Geneva, IL 60134
taught and practiced out of doors,
Tel: (708) 232-0029
where students can breathe freely and
Conducts demonstrations, seminars, lectures, and
fully and perhaps more easily feel them-
certification program for members. Publishes
selves in harmony with their natural
annual booklet on the practice of martial arts.
surroundings. Loose comfortable cloth-
ing is worn. Students may be barefoot,
T’ai Chi Foundation, Inc.
in socks, or in soft Chinese slippers,
5 East 17th Street
depending on the surface of the floor.
New York, NY 10003
Music is never used when teaching the
Tel: (212) 645-7010
discipline, as it distracts students from
Founded in 1979, this is an educational organiza-
the awareness of the dynamic rhythms
tion that strives to make the practice of t’ai chi
within the form.
ch’üan more accessible to Western society through
T’ai chi ch’üan can be practiced in
promoting international conferences. In addition,
every phase of life: as a child, adult, and
it operates a resource center that provides informa-
senior citizen. While beginners are gen-
tion about this discipline.
erally separated from advanced practi-
tioners in classes, it is always possible
for experienced practitioners to learn Further Reading:
something new by starting at the begin-
ning once again, or for beginners to Delza, Sophia. T’ai Chi Ch’üan: Body and Mind in
learn by feeling the flow of movement of Harmony. Rev. ed. New York: State University of
an experienced practitioner. New York Press, 1985.
Reasons to Practice T’ai Chi Ch’üan Emerson, Margaret. Breathing Underwater: The
Many people believe the practice of this Inner Life of T’ai Chi Ch’üan. Berkeley, CA:
discipline can be a calming preparation North Atlantic Books, 1993.
for any task. Many people report that by
doing even some of the form, their mind Hooten, Claire. T’ai Chi for Beginners: 10 Minutes
focuses away from their anxious self, and to Health and Fitness. New York: Berkley Pub-
emotional and psychological problems lishing Group, 1996.
273
PART XI: MARTIAL ARTS
Three Theories
It has been suggested that hunting skills comprised the early forms of combat for
primitive man. As these techniques were used, their degree of sophistication gener-
ally increased. However, the origins of the martial arts remain speculative and open
to controversy among writers, historians, and researchers. Three general theories
exist to explain how martial arts developed throughout time.
274
One theory holds that ancient fighting techniques of the Greeks and Romans
spread into Asia following the routes of commerce and trade. Indeed, some combat-
ive elements can be found in literary writings and sculptures of Greece and Rome.
However, the complexity of specific Asian martial arts techniques appear to be lack-
ing in literary descriptions or sculptured poses uncovered thus far in archaeological
investigations.
A second theory maintains that martial arts could be traced to either China or
India. A common myth credits Bodhidharma, a prince of India and founder of Bud-
dhism in China, with teaching specific exercises to monks at the Shaolin Temple that
later evolved into formal combative techniques. Under close scrutiny, this theory con-
tradicts historical fact, and has lost favor with experts and historians.
The third theory argues that similar techniques of several martial arts that differed
coincidentally evolved in parallel form in widely separate regions of the world. Unique
characteristics of these similar techniques later evolved as a function of certain con-
ditions, such as social structure and physical demographics. As examples, slaves from
Africa who were brought to Brazil initially developed capoeira techniques in chains
and restraints, which limited the development of hand strikes while emphasizing
kicking movements from a handstand position. In China, individuals who were taller
developed systems that emphasized kicking (northern region) while individuals of
shorter stature resorted to systems that stressed close-range hand movements (south-
ern region). In the Philippines, Chinese merchants from the Fukien province taught
kuntao to the royal families of people of Mindanao as a token of their friendship and
good faith. The “hard” style that evolved here reflected the more external, combative
focus of the Filipino martial arts in general.
Central to the problem of documentation is the fact that martial arts were often
shrouded in a veil of secrecy. The older teachers did not reveal their knowledge readi-
ly. Secret teachings were not passed on to the student until after many years of train-
ing and dedication to the art and teaching alike. If no suitable successor to the
tradition could be found, the art often died with the master. Information was also
often transmitted orally (as opposed to any documentation in written form), leading
to further gaps in any traceable history.
Today, the martial arts of Asia have emerged as a significant component of Ameri-
can culture. It is difficult to find an individual who does not have some sense of famil-
iarity with or recognition of these ancient disciplines when reference is made to them.
Following World War II, a number of servicemen who had been exposed to these eso-
teric practices endeavored to pass on their teachings to other Americans. Fueled by
developments in media presentations, the growth of interest in martial arts—seldom
even mentioned forty years ago—has been quite phenomenal. Depiction of martial
arts in films, television, and popular magazines is now commonplace.
275
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
might include a staff, stick, blade, or projectile instrument. Martial arts disciplines
that stress these combative components are often labeled “external.”
Other martial arts disciplines emphasize an esoteric component in their teachings
that has been described as “internal” in nature. These practices and exercises include
specific types of breathing techniques, performance of unique rituals, use of special
hand-body configurations, chanting or recitation of specific combinations of letters
or words, cultivation and manipulation of “internal energy,” and sitting, standing, and
movement meditation exercises. These more esoteric practices are taught for improv-
ing physical performance, enhancement of health, and psychological and spiritual
development. Practice of traditional, regimented, prearranged forms often serves to
unify both external and internal aspects of martial arts.
Each of the different systems of martial arts has defining characteristics that
identify the nature of the art. For example, t’ai chi ch’üan is a Chinese art that con-
sists of smooth, flowing, gentle movements with no hesitation observed between
various postures and rounded, curling gestures that involve kicks, strikes, and eva-
sive actions. Originating in Africa, capoeira is now practiced widely in Brazil and is
characterized by a dancelike, acrobatic movement style accompanied by music and
song and takes on the form of a game being played as a performance. Another
example is aikido, which is a contemporary Japanese art of self-defense based upon
principles of non-resistance to and harmony with one’s opponent that makes use of
circular movements to gain control of an attacker’s momentum, thus neutralizing
aggressive actions.
276
emphasized will depend upon the individual teacher, but the physical self-defense
aspect of these disciplines remains the defining feature that distinguishes them
from other body-mind disciplines.
277
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A
ikido is a Japanese martial art. The Honolulu, Hawaii. Ueshiba died in
word aikido means the path to the 1969.
coordination of body, mind, and
spirit. It is a defensive system of continu- Concepts and Principles
ous, circular movements meant to The central concept of aikido is the
counter the attack of an armed or peaceful resolution of conflict. To this
unarmed opponent. Continued practice end, O Sensei envisioned it as training
in aikido allows you to effectively antici- for the spirit and mind, as well as the
pate and successfully defend yourself body. All techniques in aikido are
with minimum effort against an attack. defense techniques and guide the
aggressor’s attack to its conclusion,
History of Aikido resulting in the aggressor’s downfall.
The founder of aikido, Morehei Ueshiba These techniques are meant to show the
(1883–1969), also known as O Sensei, or aggressor the error of his or her judg-
“great teacher,” was influenced by two ment and end the attack. The defender,
things—religion and martial arts. In called nagi, protects himself and his
Tokyo in 1902, O Sensei studied kendo attacker, known as uke, with these tech-
(Japanese sword technique), and ju- niques. Rank is given according to
jutsu, the traditional art of hand-to- knowledge of technique and ability to
hand and small weapons combat. perform basic movements. Ranking
Ueshiba would continue these studies tests are given, but they are not compet-
all his life, earning several certificates in itive.
various schools. He also studied sojut- On a physical level, the focus and
su, or spear fighting, sumo wrestling, direction of ki, or vital life energy, is very
and kokodan judo. important in practice; ki is developed
Ueshiba studied extensively with through breathing exercises. The pelvis,
Onisaburo Deguchi, founder of Omoto- center of ki, is the origin of all move-
Kyo, a religion based on the traditional ment in aikido. From the pelvis, ki is
Shinto religion. After his father’s death, channeled through the arms and legs,
Ueshiba went to live in Deguchi’s and eventually to the hands. This
organic farming community near Kyoto. process is called extension, another
There he studied spiritual works that important principle of aikido. The
later influenced his philosophy of mar- embodiment of these concepts pro-
tial arts. In 1920 Ueshiba opened his duces flowing, circular movement that
first martial arts school, Ueshiba Acade- is the trademark of aikido.
my. By 1922 his teachings evolved into a
discipline he called aiki-bujutsu, known Aikido Practice
generally as Ueshiba-ryu Aiki-bujutsu. All aikido practice takes place in a dojo, a
Later, the art became known as aikido, room with mats on the floor and a shrine
the way of harmony, reflecting O Sen- to O Sensei at one end. For practice all
sei’s concern with the peaceful resolu- students wear a gi, a heavy white cotton
tion of conflict. suit, a kimono jacket, pants, and belt.
In the thirties and forties, the prac- Students in the lower ranks, known as the
tice of aikido spread throughout Japan five kyus, wear white belts. Advanced stu-
and was recognized by the state as a dents in the higher ranks, or dans, wear
martial art. During the Second World black belts. Senior students in the dojo
War, Ueshiba retreated to the country to are often given permission to wear black
build a shrine to aikido. After the war, wide-legged pants called hakama. All
aikido’s focus on conflict resolution advanced students wear hakama.
278
Aikido
Young students practice the continuous circular movements that characterize aikido.
279
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
student. In the course of most classes, a son, Kisshomaru Ueshiba, heads aikido
few techniques will be practiced. Often schools worldwide.
each student will take a partner and
work on the technique. Both students —Clio Pavlantos, M.A., CMA,
in each pair practice being the attacker Second Kyu USAF, in collaboration with
who takes the fall, and in turn play the Marvin Bookman, Third Dan USAF.
defender. By changing roles, students
learn to cooperate with each other.
Resources:
They are expected to adapt their prac-
tice to their partners. Injuring your
United States Aikido Federation, Eastern Region
partner is considered bad form in most
142 West 18th Street
dojos, since injury takes a student out
New York, NY 10011
of class. Aikido classes often are silent,
Web site: www.usaikifed.org
which fosters students’ concentration
Eastern United States division of the international
on the technique; concentration is
organization founded by O Sensei and now headed
important since all aikido techniques
by his son, Doshu Kisshomaru Ueshiba. The USAF
can injure the attacker.
provides lists of affiliated dojos in America and
The attacker’s falls in aikido are
abroad. Publishes the Federation News, a newslet-
called ukemi; these movements, like
ter promoting aikido.
other aikido defensive techniques, are
circular and flowing. Ukemi maneuvers
are just as important as defense move-
ments, called nagi. For example, the
forward roll in aikido begins from
standing, and flows from the leading
CAPOEIRA
arm, across the back, down to the leg,
C
and back to standing. This roll should apoeira is an ancient martial art that
always be flowing, without any jarring has its roots in African culture but
movement. developed fully and attained an
immense popularity in Brazil. Like other
An Ideal Martial Art martial arts, capoeira strives to integrate
Because of its psychological and physi- mental as well as physical strength in
cal benefits, aikido is an ideal martial art order to perform combat maneuvers with
for life. Practice builds strength, coordi- dexterity, skill, and grace. Yet capoeira dif-
nation, and flexibility. As students fers from other martial arts in that rhyth-
advance, the tempo of practice acceler- mic music, including singing, clapping,
ates, bringing aerobic benefits. On an and the playing of instruments, is integral
intellectual level, many students find to the unique spirit and practice of the dis-
mental focus and clarity through their cipline.
practice. The benefits of aikido have
taken O Sensei’s students all over the African Origins
world to open dojos. Today, O Sensei’s Although there are many theories about
Etiquette is very important in aikido. All students are expected to bow to the shrine of O
Sensei when they enter or leave the dojo and at the beginning and end of class. This is a
sign of respect rather than worship. Class begins and ends with a set protocol of medi-
tation, bowing to the shrine, to the teacher, and, at the end of class, to fellow students.
280
Capoeira
the origin of capoeira, most scholars owners were present, the dance aspects
agree it can be traced back to certain of capoeira were emphasized. Slave
hand-to-hand combat forms and owners outlawed capoeira and made
dances of central Africa. Two African the practice punishable by death. Well
dances are most often credited with into the twentieth century, capoeira was
being the origin of capoeira: sanga and an outlaw art, performed secretly by
n’golo. Both dances exhibit characteris- slaves or by thieves and criminals. Rov-
tics that are integral to the practice of ing bands of capoieristas (those that
capoeira today. Sanga was an ancient practice capoeira) were employed as
war dance, also known as a sword thugs and enforcers by businessmen
dance, in which warfare and dance and would attack taverns and police,
movements were inextricably linked. further advancing the negative image of
The dance element is significant the discipline.
because the ability to leap, twist, roll, It was through the efforts of two
and dodge the arrows and blows of modern masters, Manoel dos Reis
opponents is one of the most important Machado (known as Mestre Bimba) and
skills of capoeira. N’golo was an acro- Vincente Ferreira Pastinha (known as
batic dance used as competition Mestre Pastinha) that capoeira eventu-
between the young males of the ally became an acceptable part of
Mucope people in Angola. Brazilian life. Mestra Bimba is known as
Capoeira traveled with the Atlantic the great innovator. He invented the
slave trade to Brazil. Among themselves, style called capoeira regional, which
slaves trained in capoeira as a form of emphasizes the offensive, fighting
physical resistance, stressing the fighting aspects of the martial art. Known as the
aspects of the discipline. When the slave great traditionalist, Mestre Pastinha was
281
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
a proponent of the style called capoeira • It is not enough merely to defeat the
angola, which aims to maintain the rit- opponent; one must prove superior
ualistic, defensive, aesthetic, and philo- skill by displaying it with style or
sophical aspects of the discipline. beautiful movement. This style and
Today many styles of capoeira are grace are as important as the victory.
practiced throughout Europe, the United • Both slow and fast movements are
States, and South America. It is taught in important to capoeira angola. Most
private academies and in many universi- movements are slow and deliber-
ties. The Capoeira Foundation in New ate—they teach control and preci-
York City promotes the study, research, sion, which then enable
and performance of the art. practitioners to perform the move-
ments very quickly and effectively
Six Principles of Capoeira and to improvise new moves.
Capoeira is based on the African cultur- • Capoeira angola is a sophisticated
al values from which it arose. The reli- discipline with subtle rules and rites.
gious traditions and rituals of central If a player displays ignorance of
Africa form the basic philosophical these unwritten rules, he or she is
underpinnings of the practice of the considered an inferior player, uned-
art. ucated in the proper, traditional way.
In Karate/Kung-Fu Illustrated, Secret personal and religious rituals
August 1988, scholar Alejandro Frigerio called mandingas protect a player
identified six characteristics of modern from harm.
capoeira angola: • Finally, unlike other martial arts, the
jogo, or play of capoeira, is per-
• Complementation is the importance formed for others. The viewers
of playing with, not against, the should be entertained by the skill,
opponent. It is similar to a “cutting deception, and humor of the play.
session” in jazz, in which the musi- The practitioners of this discipline
cians try to outplay each other with should always be aware of the effect
the ultimate goal of creating beauti- their display has on those attending
ful music. Through complementa- and develop their play accordingly.
tion the most creative interaction
possible is achieved. Performance
• Malicia is the art of being evasive or The play of capoeira takes place in what
deceptive. One aspect of malicia is to is known as a roda, which is a circle
look vulnerable until the opponent formed by the players and onlookers.
attacks, then gracefully defend Included in the circle is the bateria,
and/or counterattack. In other words which is an ensemble of musicians and
one should play closed (or con- singers.
trolled), while appearing open Music is one of the most important
(undisciplined or vulnerable). elements of the art of capoeira. Different
There is little use of offensive hand techniques in capoeira. Some scholars have attrib-
uted this to the belief that slaves had to fight with their hands immobilized by chains and
therefore developed advanced foot and leg techniques. Other commentators contend
that it is more likely that the absence of hand techniques is based on an old central
African proverb that says, “Hands are to build, feet are to destroy.”
282
Ju Jutsu
songs and rhythms inspire the players strength, spiritual strength, and wis-
to more intense levels of performance dom in thought and action. It is an
and function to calm them down if the ancestral wisdom that aims to create
dance becomes too heated. The order of balanced and productive bodies,
songs is part of the ritual aspect of minds, and lives.
capoeira.
The berimbau, a musical bow with
one string, is considered “the soul of Resources:
capoeira.” Attached to the bow is a hol-
The Capoeira Foundation
lowed-out gourd that acts as a resonator
104 Franklin Street
box. Tones are produced when the bow-
New York, NY 10013
string is struck by a thin flexible stick
Tel: (212) 274-9737
(baqueta). A small rattle (caxixi) is also
e-mail: dancebrazl@aol.com
held in the hand that holds the
Provides information on capoeira, including infor-
baqueta. Each instrument has a pre-
mation on instructors.
scribed position in the circle.
The ritualized practice of capoeira
begins when two players enter the circle Further Reading:
and kneel at the foot of the berimbau.
One player sings a ladainha, a ritual Almeida, Bira. Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form.
song of commencement. If his oppo- 2nd ed. Richmond, CA: North Atlantic Books,
nent doesn’t respond with a song of his 1986.
own, the first begins another song, acor-
rido, a song for going out to play. The Dimock, Anne. “Capoeira Angola.” In Black Peo-
song is then passed on to one of the ple and Their Culture: Selected Writing from
musicians as the jogo-de-capoeira (play the African Diaspora. ed. by Linn Shapiro.
of capoeira) begins. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution,
Capoeira is characterized by dynamic 1976.
movements such as cartwheels, hand-
stands, circling kicks, and acrobatics. Kubick, Gerhard. “Capoeira Angola.” In Angolan
Performers use agility, guile, and superi- Traits in Black Music, Games and Dances of
or technique to maneuver the other into Brazil: A Study of African Cultural Extensions
a defenseless position, rendering him or Overseas. Lisboa: Junta de Investigacoes Cien-
her open to a blow, kick, or sweep. Only tifica do Ultramar, Centro de Estudos de
one’s hands, head, and feet are allowed Antropologia Cultural, 1976.
to touch the floor. Disqualification
occurs when a player is knocked down. Lewis, John Lowell. Ring of Liberation: Deceptive
Improvisation is greatly admired. It Discourse in Brazilian Capoeira. Chicago: Uni-
allows the capoeirista to create openings versity of Chicago Press, 1992.
and keep the action of the performance
innovative and fluid. Also prized are eva-
sive techniques and implied strikes, espe-
cially when one fighter has been
maneuvered into an indefensible position.
J
how to face harsh experiences while u jutsu is a type of fighting that
remaining flexible and receptive, how involves grappling, throwing, and
to respond to violence with evasion and limb twisting. Although variously
grace, how to use the trials and tribula- spelled as jiu jitsu, ju jitsu, or even ju
tions of life to develop physical jutso, the name refers to the yielding
283
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
principle of the art, which refers to the there was a slim willow tree bending
ability to submit to an opponent’s direc- under the snow, its branches so pliable
tion of attack while attempting to con- that the snow slipped from them, leav-
trol it. The Japanese character ju has ing the tree unbroken. Akiyama later
several meanings: soft, pliable, submis- meditated at the shrine and is said to
sive, adaptable, yielding, and harmo- have come upon 303 different martial
nious. The character jutsu means skill art techniques that applied the princi-
or technique. Yet the common transla- ple he had seen demonstrated by the
tion of ju jutsu as the “gentle art” is willow. He opened a new school in
somewhat misleading. Many ju jutsu which flexibility and suppleness were
techniques can be very forceful and all important, naming it Yoshin-Ryu, or
damaging to the opponent. Sometimes Willow Tree School.
great strength is needed to ensure the The 1500s are considered a turning
defeat of an opponent, though expert point for ju jutsu. During this time of
technique can make it appear to be the art’s greatest popularity, there were
effortless. Perhaps it is the fact that ju more than 700 schools sharing few stan-
jutsu is an art that adapts to the oppo- dard techniques. No method existed
nent and the situation, using leverage, that could be considered a complete
balance, and the minimum amount of and independent system of unarmed
effort necessary to gain an advantage fighting.
over the aggressor, that has earned it the Many sources regard the Takenouchi
name the “gentle art.” In ju jutsu, the Ryu, founded in 1532 by Takenouchi
mind is used to evaluate the opponent’s Hisamaro, as the core ju jutsu ryu
weaknesses and anticipate the next (school) from which all “empty-hand-
move, while the body controls the ed” (meaning without weapons) ju jutsu
opponent’s balance and positioning. sprang. Ju jutsu had traditionally been
taught in conjunction with, and as a
The History of Ju Jutsu complement to, archery, swordsman-
Ju jutsu is considered the forerunner of ship, and other forms of armed fighting.
the popular martial arts judo and aiki- Takenouchi Ryu, also known as Kogu-
do. It dates back a thousand years, soku, parted with weapon-oriented
being known as tai-jutsu, yawara, and training, establishing a pure method of
hakuda during the course of its devel- unarmed ju jutsu.
opment into what is recognized today
as ju jutsu. Grappling and throwing arts Modern Ju Jutsu
have long existed in Japan, and there are It is doubtful that the “empty-handed”
a number of legends about the emer- ju jutsu practiced today bears much
gence of ju jutsu. According to one pop- resemblance to the ancient art from
ular story, ju jutsu originated with a feudal Japan. Although Takenouchi
Japanese physician named Akiyama. He established a formal system of unarmed
traveled to China to study medicine combat, ju jutsu still continued to flour-
and, while there, learned an art known ish mainly as a part of the samurai
as hakuda, which consisted of kicking, training.
striking, seizing, and grappling. In the mid–seventeenth century,
Upon his return to Japan, Akiyama changes in ju jutsu began to emerge.
began to teach hakuda. According to the Increasingly, ju jutsu systems started to
legend, he had few techniques, so his develop independently from weapons
students grew bored and left him. training.
Angered, Akiyama went to meditate at In the nineteenth century, schools
the Tenjin Shrine. During a snowstorm opened to teach people other than
on his journey, he saw a pine tree bro- samurai who were interested in study-
ken beneath the weight of snow. Nearby ing the martial arts. The new schools of
284
Ju Jutsu
ju jutsu lacked the real combat training basic techniques to the practice of chore-
of the older schools, and many methods ographed or prearranged series of fight
became theoretical as the need for prac- moves, to freestyle or improvisational
tical application disappeared. This kind practice.
of ju jutsu came to be the most well The many techniques of ju jutsu
known, and eventually spread to the include atemi waza (striking tech-
West. A few old schools still exist, prac- niques), tachi waza and nage waza
ticing their dangerous art according to (standing and throwing techniques),
tradition. Over the years, ju jutsu, like and ne waza and katame waza (lying
karate, judo, and many other arts, and grappling techniques). Just as in
developed as a form of sporting and other martial arts, ju jutsu training
good-natured competition. Because of includes prearranged fight patterns or
this, lethal techniques were further choreography called jigo waza (defense
removed from the training programs. techniques). Jigo waza is a methodical
Since the 1970s, when the martial way to learn how to apply the basic
arts benefited from tremendous growth techniques. Randori, or free sparring, is
due to the Bruce Lee cinema phenome- a means of learning one’s strengths and
non, many offshoots from the tradition- weaknesses because it tests the stu-
al styles have sprung up, and with the dent’s fluency with spontaneous moves
help of no-holds-barred contests, ju and responses. In randori, students
jutsu and grappling arts are enjoying avoid causing injury but may use any
renewed popularity. techniques at their disposal.
As the name implies, ju jutsu is not a
Ju Jutsu Training contest of muscular strength. Excellent
Ju jutsu does not require any particular balance, leverage, and speed are needed
clothing to be effective, unlike the high to get the most out of the technique.
kicking arts that require loose clothes Throws, holds, and locks are carried out
for proper execution. The student is in a manner that, if not handled with
expected to wear traditional clothing, care, could be devastating to the oppo-
not for effectiveness, but out of respect nent. Calling for an awareness of anato-
for the history of ju jutsu. my, ju jutsu focuses on the vital points on
Many of the training procedures date the body and the effective use of force on
back to the early days of ju jutsu, when the joints and limbs. Nevertheless, com-
this discipline was still part of the samu- petitors are taught to stop short of harm-
rai’s training. For example, ju jutsu is ing each other. Modern ju jutsu is
practiced mostly with the partners fac- designed to render an opponent helpless
ing each other. This custom originates without causing injury.
from the battlefields of the old samurai.
Sometimes a samurai would stand fac- The Nature of Ju Jutsu
ing the enemy before his soldiers and Because ju jutsu originated in Japan,
scream out a challenge, his name, his there are similarities in etiquette and
ryu (school), or even a favorite tech- terminology with martial arts such as
nique. A samurai from the enemy camp karate and judo. The training takes
would come forward and accept the place in a dojo, or training hall. As in
challenge. Such a duel could determine karate, the philosophy of ju jutsu is
the outcome of the whole battle. based on Zen Buddhism. According to
While ju jutsu is often identified as this philosophy, the dojo is considered
pure grappling that incorporates arm more than a place to practice. The vigor-
locks, joint manipulation, throws, and ous training that occurs there helps
breakfalls, the art also includes devas- practitioners to understand themselves.
tating kicks and punches. Training in ju Through competition and practice,
jutsu progresses from the learning of students develop confidence and learn
285
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
about commitment, determination, Fax: (808) 622-2179 (call first to set up fax)
discipline, and conquest of fear. The e-mail: pra0005@pixi.com
lessons learned in the dojo help the stu- Web site: www.pixi.com/~pra0005/aji.html
dent to deal with conflicts and stresses Founded in 1939, AJI is the oldest martial arts
that occur outside the dojo. In this way, organization in the United States. It sponsors tour-
ju jutsu training is a source of naments and offers instruction, testing and
self-enlightenment. certification, and seminars and clinics.
The mental aspect of ju jutsu com-
plements the physical aspect. The phi- World Martial Arts Association
losophy of ju jutsu stresses the power of P.O. Box 1568
ki (also known as chi), or inner spirit Santa Barbara, CA 93102
and energy. According to this thinking, Tel: (805) 569-1389
each time attackers commit themselves Fax: (805) 569-0267
to a movement, they are also commit- Promotes and teaches martial arts such as ju
ting their ki. Skilled students of ju jutsu jutsu, judo, aikido, and karate.
can control this energy by applying the
principle of yielding, which means
Further Reading:
using opponents’ attacks and move-
ment against themselves: if the oppo-
Ferrie, Eddie. Ju Jitsu: Classical and Modern. Wilt-
nent pulls, the defender pushes; if the
shire: Crowood Press, 1990.
opponent pushes, the defender pulls.
It is believed that by controlling the
Nakae, Kiyose, and Charles Yeager. Jiu Jitsu Com-
opponent’s ki one can also control his
plete. Secaucus, NJ: Carol Publishing Group,
mind, and therefore his whole being.
1995.
Because this art is potentially destructive
and must be used responsibly, ju jutsu,
Palumbo, Dennis G. The Essence of Hakkoryo
like other martial arts, places strong
Jujutsu. Boulder, CO: Paladin Press, 1995.
emphasis on character and self-control.
Students must be patient and tolerant,
Uphoff, Joseph A., Jr. Jujitsu: The Art of Precision.
with the ability to resist confrontations if
Colorado Springs, CO: Arjuna Library Press, 1993.
deemed unnecessary. By studying ju
jutsu, students learn not only to control
their opponents but, more important,
about self-control, commitment, disci-
JUDO
pline, and rising to challenges.
—Stefan Nikander
J
udo is a modern Japanese martial art
Resources: that has its roots in the ancient martial
art of ju jutsu. It integrates mental as
American Judo and Jujitsu Federation (AJJF) well as physical strength in order to per-
c/o Central Office Administrator form a series of combat maneuvers and
P.O. Box 993312 movements with dexterity, skill, and grace.
Redding, CA 96099-3312 Like other martial arts, this discipline
e-mail: ajjfdanzan@aol.com places a strong emphasis on spiritual bal-
Web site: www.ajjf.org ance, serenity, as well as mental and phys-
Founded in 1958, this is a nonprofit corporation ical fitness as an approach to life. It is
that promotes the DanZan Ryu system of ju jutsu. characterized by techniques that are used
to upset the balance of an opponent,
American Jujitsu Institute (AJI) eventually neutralizing him or her. Today
c/o 1779 Koi Koi Street judo is often thought of as an aggressive,
Wahiawa, HI 96786 competitive sport, but in its original form
Tel: (808) 621-6274 it was nonviolent and basically defensive.
286
Judo
After the war, international judo com- the action of gripping an opponent;
petitions resumed. Weight categories, nage-waza, a series of throws; katame-
such as those used in boxing, were estab- no-kata, which are techniques of con-
lished. This step gradually led to an ideo- trol; osaekomi-waza, classified as the
logical split between those who began to action of immobilizing an opponent on
see judo more and more as a competitive the ground; shime-waz, which are
sport and those who remained dedicated strangulation techniques; and finally
to Kano Jigoro’s view of judo as a person- kansetsu-waz, which are techniques of
al art of training the mind and body. bending and locking the joints.
Today Judo is one of the most widespread Once the fundamental movements
sports in the world, but very few dojos are learned, the partners practice train-
teach the spirit of gentleness that was at ing in a freestyle combat called randori.
the heart of Kano Jigoro’s technique. In this quick dancelike practice, Uke,
the one who submits, is thrown to the
The Fundamental Principles of Judo mat and immobilized by Tori, the one
Kano Jigoro believed that his art of who throws. Suppleness of body, perfect
unarmed self-defense was a means to balance, serenity, and alertness are all
teach a philosophy or art of daily living. tested and developed here.
A serene, disciplined mind, working in
conjunction with controlled body Learning Judo
actions, was used to bring down an Judo is taught on large rectangular tata-
opponent and, applied in a larger sense, mi mats. Traditionally the mats were
to live life in peace and well-being. Con- made of straw, but today they are often
trol of body and mind results from a made of pressed foam. Students are
supple body, perfect balance, constant barefoot and wear a special uniform
alertness, emotional detachment, and called a judogi. It is made of thick white
proper breathing techniques. or unbleached cotton. It consists of
The techniques of judo are practiced large, baggy trousers called zubon, a
with a partner and require quick shifts wide-fitting jacket with wide sleeves
of body and mind. The fundamental that come halfway down the forearm
movements derived from ju jutsu are called a sode, and a belt called an obi.
designed to neutralize the opponent, Judo training is organized in stages.
but the overall aim of the technique, When a student passes a particular stage
according to Kano Jigoro, is to “under- he or she is allowed to wear the colored
stand and demonstrate the living laws belt associated with that stage. A white
of movement.” The movements involve belt represents a beginner, a black belt
the body, arms, and legs. They are the most advanced practitioner.
taught carefully and repeated many Even though today judo is more often
times in the course of training. a test of strength between the two oppo-
Today the principal movements of nents, the underlying principles of the
judo also include kumi-kata, which is spirit of the founder and of all martial
288
Karate
arts are still at the core of this body- Frederic, Louis. A Dictionary of the Martial Arts.
mind discipline. Translated and edited by Paul Crompton.
Boston: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1995.
Benefits of Judo
Tegner, Bruce. Judo: Beginner to Black Belt. Ventu-
Judo is one of the more popular martial
ra, CA: Thor Publishing, 1991.
arts disciplines, and many people
worldwide have reported a variety of
benefits. These include a significant
improvement in physical fitness; sharp-
ened mental clarity and emotional bal-
ance; increased self-discipline; and the
self-confidence from the knowledge of
KARATE
valuable self-defense techniques.
K
arate originated as a method of
—Nancy Allison hand-to-hand combat, but today is
also practiced as a sport and a form
of self-discipline. The name karate is
Resources: formed from the Japanese characters
“kara,” meaning empty, and “te,” mean-
American Judo and Jujitsu Federation (AJJF) ing hand, and is therefore often translat-
c/o Central Office Administrator ed as “empty hand.” Karate students,
P.O. Box 993312 known as karateka, learn highly effective
Redding, CA 96099-3312 weaponless (“empty hand”) techniques
e-mail: ajjfdanzan@aol.com of attack and defense using their arms
Web site: www.ajjf.org and legs. The philosophy of karate is
Founded in 1958, this organization promotes the based on Zen Buddhism, which places
teaching of ju jutsu and judo in the United States. great value on inner calm, clear think-
ing, self-knowledge, and a heightened
International Judo Federation (IJF) awareness of one’s relationship to others
21st Floor, Doosan Bldg. and the world. Therefore, karate not only
101-1 Ulchiro 1ka, Choongku is a form of physical training and self-
Seoul, Korea defense but is also used to develop spir-
Tel: (82 1 2) 759-6936 itual and mental well-being.
Fax: (82 1 2) 754-1075
e-mail: yspark@ijf.org
Web site: www.ijf.org Okinawa, the Birthplace of Karate
World’s governing body of judo. Provides informa- Karate developed in Asia over the
tion about competitive judo, including interna- course of several centuries. Its roots lie
tional and Olympic events. in the different forms of unarmed com-
bat that arose among peasants who
World Martial Arts Association sought to protect themselves from
P.O. Box 1568 neighboring invaders. Buddhist monks
Santa Barbara, CA 93102 of the Shaolin Monastery in the Hunan
Tel: (805) 569-1389 province of China also refined a method
Fax: (805) 569-0267 of fighting to protect themselves against
Founded in 1979, this group promotes and teaches troops and robbers. At the Shaolin
several martial arts, including ju jutsu, judo, aiki- Monastery, the Zen Buddhist monk
do, and karate. Bodhidharma equipped his disciples
with the strength and discipline to
approach enlightenment by instructing
Further Reading: them to practice fighting moves. The
teachings of Zen Buddhism became the
Caffary, Brian. The Judo Handbook: From Begin- basis for the mental and spiritual train-
ner to Black Belt. New York: Galley Books, 1989. ing that is essential to the martial arts.
289
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The island of Okinawa, located completed but, instead, stop just short
almost midway between Japan and of impact; in karate-do competitions,
China, became a place that allowed karateka are evaluated on their form
traders, soldiers, travelers, and local and the quality of their execution of
inhabitants to exchange goods, ideas, prescribed moves.
and fighting techniques. It was here in By 1930 every major university in
the seventeenth century that several Japan had a karate club. With the out-
martial arts styles arose, collectively break of World War II, karate was taught
known as Okinawa-te (“Okinawan to the Imperial Japanese Army. When
hand”). In the early twentieth century, Japan surrendered in 1945, General
the various styles of Okinawa-te were Douglas MacArthur placed a ban on all
unified under the name of karate by martial arts training, greatly hindering
Funakoshi Gichin, who is considered the spread of karate. In 1948, one year
the founder of modern karate. after the United States occupation
Funakoshi promoted his sport by trav- forces lifted the ban on karate instruc-
eling through Japan staging tourna- tion, Funakoshi started to rebuild the
ments and demonstrations, and karate sport. He gave a demonstration at a U.S.
gained in popularity. The karate prac- air base, and the impressed American
ticed at this time was used as a form of commanders gave permission for
violent combat. Because of this, karate- instruction to take place on their mili-
do was established as an alternative to tary bases. Funakoshi himself toured
the lethal version of karate. The suffix the U.S. air bases giving demonstra-
do means “way” and conveys the sense tions. It was this effort that saved karate,
that the new approach was intended and introduced the way of the empty
for spiritual and physical development, hand to the West. Karate was officially
not war. In karate-do, blows are never introduced to the United States in 1953.
290
Karate
Two years later, the Japanese Karate karate believe that confidence, charac-
Association was formed, and by 1957 ter, dignity, and self-awareness are as
karate had reached Europe. Millions of important as physical technique.
people currently practice karate, and The student’s uniform is called a
the sport is known throughout the karate gi. A belt called an obi is worn by all
world. karateka and marks the level they have
reached in their training. The belts vary in
color, with each color corresponding to a
The Styles specific level of progress. When belts were
Karate is not a single unified system—in first introduced, students started with a
fact, hundreds of styles of karate exist. light color and dyed them darker shades
Many of these styles originated in the each time they passed the examination
years after karate’s first introduction in and advanced to the next level. If the
Japan. Some were advanced by Oki- karateka studied long enough and made
nawan masters following in Funakoshi’s significant progress, the belt eventually
footsteps, while others were outgrowths became black.
from Funakoshi’s karate school. Howev-
er, all of the other styles are outgrowths
of five major branches: shotokan, wado Karate Training: Sport, Physical Exer-
ryu, goju ryu, shito ryu, and
kyokushinkai. Each style has its own
cise, Self-Defense, and a Way of Life
strengths, techniques, and applications. Karate employs the whole body and is
By comparing different styles, individu- used to gain and maintain physical
als seeking to study karate may find the fitness. While karate techniques stress
school most suited to their ability and relaxation, muscular effort is needed to
temperament. accelerate the arms and legs. Physical
training exercises are performed to
improve stamina, power, and flexibility.
The Nature of Karate Karate moves include kicking, strik-
Karate is practiced in a dojo, or training ing, and blocking with the arms and
hall. According to the philosophy of legs. The practitioner attempts to focus
karate, the dojo is not just a place to as much force as possible at the point
practice fighting techniques. It is also and moment of impact. Blows are made
where karateka learn to become emo- to the opponent with the forearm,
tionally sound and mentally disciplined. elbow, knee, heel, and the ball of the
Perfecting the technique requires a long foot. All are toughened by practice
and demanding training schedule. blows against padded surfaces or pine
Through triumphs and failures, karateka boards. Tameshiwara, or “power break-
must remain committed to the study of ing,” is one of the most spectacular and
karate and be willing to work hard. well known of karate training tech-
In karate, as in all the martial arts, niques. This involves breaking pine
etiquette is an important part of train- boards up to several inches thick with
ing and practice. Karateka bow before the bare hand or foot. But like all the
entering the training area of the dojo as techniques of karate, Tameshiwara is a
a sign of respect for their training com- personal measure of concentration and
munity. Before they practice fighting, self-confidence as much as a test of
the students bow to each other. At the physical strength.
beginning and end of every training ses- Proficiency in karate comes through
sion, they line up and bow to the sensei, drills and repetition of techniques.
or master. When karateka bow, they are Extensive repetition requires patience,
not only showing respect but also learn- stamina, and discipline. The philosophy
ing to display an inner calm and power of karate is based on Zen Buddhism,
that emanates an aura of inner strength which promotes these qualities and
and invulnerability. Practitioners of aims to bring the mind and body into
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
K
endo is the Japanese martial art of collaboration by the six leading ken-
swordsmanship. The name literal- jutsu schools at the end of the feudal era
ly means “the way of the sword.” It in 1876.
is considered the oldest of the Japanese The first academy of kendo was
martial arts and is based on rigorous founded in Tokyo in 1909. Both men
physical and mental training and self- and women were taught, and the new
discipline. Essential to the practice of martial art gained a large following
kendo is the knowledge and anticipa- throughout Japan. The study was pri-
tion of the opponent’s thoughts in order marily confined to Japan until 1955,
not only to defend oneself from the when it was introduced on an organized
attack of others, but to better under- scale to France and the United States. In
stand oneself and others in daily life. 1970 the first international tournament
was held in Japan.
History of Kendo Since that time kendo has gained a
Kendo has a long and respected tradi- high reputation internationally and is
tion in Japan, with techniques as old as practiced throughout the world. Kendo
swordsmanship itself. They were first used is practiced in thirty-seven countries
by the bushi, or warrior class, that devel- today, and there are thirty-four member
oped in the northern provinces of Japan in countries of the International Kendo
their fights against the Ainu tribes. Federation. The federation sponsors an
Throughout Japanese history the tech- international competition every three
niques have been called ken-jutsu, heiho, years.
toho, gekken, hyoho, to-jutsu, tachi-uchi
and hyodo. These techniques were passed The Basic Principles of Kendo
on from father to son and from teacher to The goal of kendo is to overcome the
student through oral tradition. opponent by overcoming the self. This
The samurai, an elite class of bushi, involves tremendous self-discipline and
started training in these techniques in intense mental concentration, often in
the tenth century. It is estimated that the face of great physical pain. Unlike
from the start of this training until 1876 tai chi ch’üan or aikido, which admon-
more than 600 different schools of ishes the practitioner to “go with” the
swordsmanship flourished throughout opponent, the philosophy of kendo is
Japan. In 1876 the first Meiji emperor that it is a battle to the death and only
forbade the samurai to carry swords due the strongest will remain alive when the
to the many fights and political fight is over.
intrigues between the samurai and To dominate the opponent the
noble class. kendoka (someone who practices
The exact origin of modern kendo is kendo) must unite his or her ki with the
credited to a variety of sources. Accord- ki of the universe. According to Japan-
ing to Louis Frederic in his Dictionary of ese belief, ki is the vital life energy
the Martial Arts, Sakakibara Kenkichi, flowing through all things and all peo-
an expert of the Jikishin kage school of ple. Kendo philosophy states that the
swordsmanship, improved upon a tech- power of ki can be channeled and
nique using the shinai, or bamboo directed through concentration.
sword. He gave demonstrations of his This ability to channel the ki is first
new technique throughout Japan in realized through the kendo stance, in
1873. Sakakibara’s desire was to revive which the kendoka absorbs the ki from
the art of Japanese swordsmanship the earth by pulling it up through the
without its violent applications. The soles of the feet into the legs, torso, and
name kendo was given to the new eventually the top of the head. The
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Masks, shinai (swords), and costumes reveal the ancient roots of kendo, the Japanese art of
swordsmanship.
294
Kendo
Precision, speed, and coordination are the qualities admired in a kendo attack. Bruce
Robertson Smith, a first-degree black-belt student, explains that scoring a point in
kendo is not as clear-cut as scoring a point in soccer or basketball. Three judges, stand-
ing in a triangular formation around the contest area, must all agree that the kendoka
has earned the point.
Earning a point involves many things. First of all, the kendoka must strike the exact tar-
get that he or she calls out at the instant of the attack. Kendo recognizes nine target spots
on the body: the right, left, and middle of the forehead; right and left forearms; the right,
left, and center of the torso; and the center of the throat. Only the point or upper third
of the shinai can effectively be used to strike a target area. The movement of the attack
must be aesthetically pleasing, much like the criteria for earning points in competitive
gymnastics. Finally, the energy expressed through the ki-ai must be full and strong.
These criteria, known as kikentai-no-ichi, literally translated, mean “life force-sword-
body-one.”
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Kung Fu Wu Su
K
ung fu wu su refers to a multitude of wu su. In time, Taoist monks began to
Chinese martial arts and gymnastic experiment with various divergent
movements, and encompasses styles, beginning with five animal styles:
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
the crane, tiger, snake, dragon, and mon- blows and movements. Others may
key. The second great transformation in emphasize the “soft” way, where the
the system came from India, when a trav- opponent’s strength may be used
eling Buddhist monk, Bodhidarma, intro- against him, but is just as effective in
duced advanced breathing techniques subduing an adversary. For example,
and meditative exercises, which were gin kong is considered a hard style
incorporated into kung fu about 550 years because of its aggressive nature, and
ago. This reinforced what came to be t’ai chi is a soft style because of its
known as the Shaolin style, named after emphasis on defensive movements.
the temple where it was taught. Bodhidar- Some disciplines, such as northern
ma was enshrined by his Chinese name, Shaolin style, may be a combination
dor-mor, for adding to and strengthening of both.
an already established system. • The second classification is based on
China’s history has been tumul- geography. Pa kua, a style that
tuous, and conflict and warfare eventu- emphasizes distinct stepping move-
ally disrupted the tranquillity of the ments, comes from north central
Shaolin Temple. The Shaolin Temple era China. Jow gar and hung dar, styles
ended with the Ming Dynasty that emphasize strong hand tech-
(1368–1644 CE), when the reigning niques, come from southern China.
emperors began to regard the two • The next classification is based on
Shaolin temples, one in southern the character of the style. T’ai chi,
China, the other in the north, as a threat with its emphasis on inner force and
to their authority. They effectively evasive maneuvers, is considered an
embarked on a campaign that led to the internal discipline. An example of a
destruction of both temples. With the discipline that is external in nature is
demise of their temples, Shaolin monks hung gar, because of its preference
scattered throughout Asia, teaching for force and rapid attack move-
kung fu wherever they went. ments. A combination of both can be
found in the northern Shaolin style.
The Varied Styles of Kung Fu • The final classification is based on
The differing styles of kung fu evolved the purpose of the style. It may be the
through need or observation. For exam- grabbing, grappling style of chin-na
ple, besides the animal styles, which are fa, or a weapon style like the steel
based on observation of animal move- sword or kong chien. The terminolo-
ments, there are also styles based on gy used to define each style often
natural phenomena, such as moving reflects its content.
shadow. Other styles are based on dis-
tinct physical features like white eye- Most styles of kung fu employ
brow, a state or condition such as punching and kicking techniques, but
drunken monk, or even a physical sub- others use grappling and throwing tech-
stance, such as green jade. niques, and/or ground fighting. Most uti-
There are twenty-five groupings in lize a variety of weapons, both long and
kung fu that identify the various styles. short, such as the long or sleeve staff,
These groupings include everything small-bladed weapons, straight sword or
from an astrological classification, like machete, long-bladed weapons such as
chee sin, or seven stars style, to insects, the spear or trident, and throwing
like tong lon, or praying mantis style. All weapons such as stars or spikes. Nearly
these groupings can be classified into all the styles incorporate meditation,
four general categories: breathing techniques, and body condi-
tioning. The end result is a vigorous
• The first classification is based on combination of external and internal
appearance. Some may emphasize the methods, designed to promote knowledge
“hard” way with strong, devastating of self-defense and enhance general
298
Kung Fu Wu Su
The chinese martial art of kung fu consists of nearly 400 different styles.
health. The overall makeup is derived just a sport or pastime. In its true
from philosophical and theoretical con- essence, it is an ethical discipline that
cepts from Taoist and Buddhist teach- permeates every aspect of life. Since
ings, designed to keep both the body kung fu is more than a martial arts tech-
and mind agile and resilient. nique, it can be achieved by any disci-
Kung fu embodies more than just plined person. If one does a task well,
physical aspects. Ancient masters in and acts in a correct and moral manner,
China considered it a way of life, not he or she is said to have kung fu. The
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
What Is Kung-Fu?
A common question is: How does kung fu differ from other martial arts systems? There
is no easy explanation. All martial arts are good in and of themselves. It is the effort that
the individual puts into it that makes the difference. A good martial artist, no matter
what his or her method may be, will always prevail. Traditionally, kung fu is considered
circular in its motions, while other disciplines are more linear. This does not take into
account other ways of fighting such as judo, ju jutsu, aikido, kempo, and others.
One of the defining differences in kung fu is that the students utilize footwear. They do
not train barefoot, as in Korean or Japanese styles. Also, traditional Shaolin kung fu does
not have a belt system. Since training was within the family or village group, a ranking
system was not necessary. Some large schools in northern China did use a button sys-
tem of ranking, which is used in certain kung fu schools today.
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Taekwondo
T
aekwondo is one of the most popu- Japanese army. Originally, taekwondo
lar martial arts in the world. Its was nothing more than transplanted
offensive and defensive move- Japanese karate with a bit of tae kyon. In
ments are uniform for all of those that fact, the term taekwondo (tae meaning
practice the discipline, which makes it “foot,” kwon meaning “fist,” do
easy to set standards of accomplish- meaning “art” or “the way”) was adopt-
ment and skill. It is also used by many ed by the Korean Taekwondo Federation
people as an effective system of self- as the Korean translation of karate (kara
defense. People of all ages and walks of meaning empty, te meaning hand).
life have taken up this contemporary Today, however, the World Taekwondo
Korean martial art to improve their sta- Federation is the undisputed governing
mina, physical fitness, and mental acu- body, sanctioning all taekwondo com-
ity, and to learn to defend against petitions and certifying all belt rank
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A taekwondo student breaks a board with hand for a blue belt test.
304
PART XII: YOGA
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306
the attention of much of the mainstream Western scientific community to the link
between human consciousness and physical functioning.
Today many Westerners practice yoga on a variety of levels—from full body-mind-
spirit union to the maintenance of physical well-being. Many types of yoga classes are
available in most major cities and even in smaller towns. There are a multitude of
training programs where yoga practitioners, from beginner to advanced, can develop
their practice.
• Raja yoga, also known as royal, kingly, classical, ashtanga, or eight-limbed yoga,
is the path of mental mastery. Mental mastery here refers to the basic yogic belief
that the disciplined focus of mental energy is the necessary basis for spiritual
awareness. Raja yoga recognizes that this energy cannot be tapped unless the
body is strong, healthy, relaxed, and balanced. Students of raja yoga work through
the first seven limbs, or stages, which cover physical stretching, strengthening,
toning and cleansing exercises, breathing exercises, ethical and philosophical
inquiry, and meditation practices to reach samadhi, which is considered the
eighth limb.
• Hatha yoga, the path of bodily mastery, is the best-known and most practiced form
of yoga in the West. Perhaps because of its focus on the body itself, the benefits of
hatha yoga may be felt most easily without having to accept the spiritual component.
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
For this reason many scholars believe that the practices of hatha yoga are merely
a preparation for raja yoga. Hatha yoga practices include asanas, or postures in
which one balances, stretches, and strengthens the body; kriyas, or methods of
cleansing the internal body; and pranayama, or special breathing exercises.
Together these constitute a thorough method of hygiene that cleanses and tones
the internal organs and glands and the musculo-skeletal, respiratory, digestive,
and nervous systems.
• Mantra yoga is the practice of influencing consciousness through repetition of
certain syllables or phrases known as mantras. The word or phrase is considered
to be a mystical distillation of the cosmic energy of the universe. It can be repeat-
ed aloud or silently in the mind. In Western scientific terms, spoken mantras may
be understood as sound vibrations affecting one’s emotions, similar to the way
music often does. Transcendental Meditation, which was brought to the West by
Marahishi Mahesh Yogi, is a form of mantra yoga.
• Yantra yoga uses visual images as the focal point for concentration in order to
affect consciousness in the same way that mantra yoga uses sound. Yantra
images may be sculptures or paintings of deities or teachers, but more often they
are mandalas—symbolic, geometric images of the relationship between the indi-
vidual and the universal energy. Traditional mandalas are ornate paintings incor-
porating many Hindu or Buddhist deities in a sort of map of the spiritual
universe, but simple abstract images are also common in the West today.
• Kundalini or laya yoga is a method of yoga in which cosmic energy is imaged as
a sleeping serpent coiled three and a half times around the base of the spine. In
this image the mouth of the kundalini, or serpent, is grasping the sushumna, a
narrow nerve channel through the spine. Difficult asanas, strenuous pranayama,
mantras, yantras, muscular contractions or locks called bandhas, and concen-
trated meditative practices are all used to encourage the kundalini to climb up
the sushumna through the seven chakras, or spiritual centers, that correspond to
physical places along the length of the spine. As the kundalini passes through
each center it purifies the channel and awakens specific physical and psychic
powers. While the traditional practices of kundalini yoga are often considered
dangerous, the imagery associated with the chakra system is frequently used in
other systems of yoga and has affected the development of many Western body-
mind disciplines as well.
• Jhana yoga, the path of spiritual knowledge and wisdom, emphasizes philosoph-
ical inquiry and meditation to reach spiritual enlightenment. For instance, stu-
dents are encouraged to reflect on the nature of the world, reality, and the
meaning of life, and their true selves. This is the path of intellectual pursuit and
does not involve the body directly. A follower of jhana yoga would be comparable
to Albert Einstein. Einstein was not a yoga practitioner, but the way he focused
his intellect to inquire deeply into the nature of the universe had the disciplined
and dedicated quality of a yogic meditation. Interestingly Einstein’s ground-
breaking theories about the relationship of energy and matter began a shift in
Western physics that continues to move ever closer to the Hindu philosophical
view of the universe.
308
• Bhakti yoga is the path of love and devotion. It emphasizes living a life that
demonstrates one’s pure and selfless love of the divine. The Hindu god Krishna is
often a focus for this form of yoga in India. The rites of this path include singing
songs and dancing dances of devotion. Members of the Krishna Consciousness
Movement are among the devotees of this path. While it has traditionally been
one of the most popular paths for the people of India, Westerners are generally
less comfortable with its practices.
• Karma yoga, the path of selfless action and service, might be exemplified by
Mahatma Gandhi or Mother Teresa. Even though Mother Teresa practiced
Catholicism, the way in which her devotion to her religion led her to serve
humanity is similar to the way in which a follower of karma yoga is taught to ded-
icate all of his or her actions to the good of others.
• Tantric yoga as a general term can refer to any method of yoga using physiologi-
cal techniques such as hatha or kundalini yoga, but is more specifically used to
describe the path of union through harnessing sexual energies. In tantric yoga
sexual union is seen as a way to spiritual illumination. Its practices include
asanas, pranayama, mantras, and yantras employed in preparation of and during
sex, which is performed as a ritual uniting of the male and female aspects of the
one universal energy. (The Hindu spiritual texts have many names for these
aspects, which are represented in Hindu art as gods and goddesses in the act of
sexual embrace, but they are more familiar to Westerners through their Chinese
names of yin and yang.) Because tantric yoga is an ecstatic path that embraces
the earthy aspects of life, it has often been abused as a spiritual path, but the goal
of tantric yoga, like the goal of all yogas, is spiritual union, and when practiced in
earnest requires the same discipline and dedication.
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Yoga practices, such as this forward bending pose, develop physical and mental concentration.
310
students will be urged to focus their attention on the initiation, sequencing, and qual-
ity of movement as they enter, hold, and leave each pose. Each pose has a specific pur-
pose and name. For example the cobra pose, named for the characteristic pose of the
animal, is a backward lengthening and bending of the spine performed while lying on
the stomach. It’s used to develop flexibility in the spine, strength in the abdomen, and
an openness in the personality and spirit. Focusing on the flow of breath while in the
pose calms the nervous system and mind, gently preparing the body and mind for
deeper meditation.
The asana portion of the class is generally followed by a series of pranayama, or
breath-control exercises. Through pranayama, yoga students aim to create steady
flowing movement of prana, or life force, through the system. As the breathing
becomes deeper, more controlled, and rhythmical, the mind becomes calm and
focused.
With a cleansed and strengthened body and a calm and focused mind, the student
is better prepared to begin meditation. The meditation portion of the class is designed
to create a heightened sense of peace and awareness and to focus, empty, and control
the mind. It is through the practice of meditation, after many years of long and disci-
plined study, that yogis believe the state of samadhi may be reached.
Benefits
With or without the goal of samadhi, the benefits of yoga can be numerous. Many
practitioners attribute health, vitality, and peace of mind to the practice of yoga. West-
ern scientific studies have shown it to be effective in strengthening muscles and
bones, improving circulation and respiration, reducing blood pressure and heart rate,
relieving stress and physical pain, sharpening intellectual functioning and motor
skills, and aiding in relief from physical and emotional addictions.
With the plethora of classes and approaches available, it is important to take the
time to find a well-trained teacher, in a style and class of yoga that is compatible with
the goals and temperament of the student. Once found, the potential benefits of yoga
seem to be limited only by the dedication of the student.
Yoga Therapy
Yoga therapy is an emerging field of physical therapy most often practiced on a one-on-
one basis. Yoga therapy is not a complete method as are the nine ancient systems, but
uses the therapeutic properties of yoga breathing, posturing, and meditative techniques
to aid the healing process. Yoga therapy functions much like a visit to a doctor or a ther-
apist, at which certain exercises are prescribed to treat particular symptoms, and verbal
dialogue between the therapist and client addressing the body-mind nature of the ail-
ment may ensue.
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Himalayan International Institute of Yoga, Science Arua, Pandit U., et al. Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
and Philosophy with the Exposition of Yvasa: A Translation and
78 Fifth Avenue Commentary. Vol. 1. Honesdale, PA: Himalayan
New York, NY 10011 Publishers, 1986.
Tel: (212) 243-5995
Offers courses and lectures on all aspects of yoga Eliade, Mircea. Yoga: Immortality and Freedom.
practice and workshops for yoga teachers. The New York: Pantheon Books, Bollingen Series
school is dedicated to helping individuals develop LVI, 1958.
physically, mentally, and spiritually.
Hewitt, James. The Complete Yoga Book.
The International Association of Yoga Therapists New York: Schocken Books, 1977.
109 Hillside Avenue
Mill Valley, CA 94941 Satchidananda, Yogiraj Sriswami. Integral Yoga
Tel: (415) 381-0876 Hatha. New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston,
1970.
International Sivananda Yoga Vedanta Centres
Worldwide Vishnudevananda, Swami. The Complete Illustrat-
Sivananda Ashram Yoga Camp ed Book of Yoga. New York: Harmony Books,
8th Avenue 1980.
Val Morin, Quebec
Canada
Tel: (819) 322-3226
Fax: (819) 322-5876
Yoga Journal
2054 University Avenue
Berkeley, CA 94704.
Tel: (510) 841-9200
312
Integral Yoga
I
ntegral yoga is a modern approach to (originally the Integral Yoga Institute) in
the ancient body-mind discipline of the United States in 1966.
yoga. Its practice combines six For the past forty years Swami
ancient methods of yoga to help indi- Satchidananda has promoted world
viduals discover inner peace and happi- peace through ecumenism—the recog-
ness. The methods it combines are nition that, intrinsically, all religions
hatha yoga, which uses body postures embrace the same ultimate truth and
(asanas), breath control (pranayama), belief in one God, which may be wor-
and relaxation techniques; karma yoga, shiped variously through many names
which teaches the selfless service of and forms. He frequently conducts
oneself for the good of others; raja yoga, Light of Truth Universal Services, where
which stresses concentration and medi- clergy of all faiths worship together,
tation on ethical perfection; japa, or each according to his or her own tradi-
mantra, yoga, which uses the repetition tion.
of sounds to help focus the mind in Integral Yoga International now has
meditation; bhakti yoga, which stresses more than forty Integral Yoga Institutes
love and devotion to God or the Divine (IYIs) and Integral Yoga Centers (IYCs)
Being; and jhana yoga, which encour- throughout the United States and
ages self-inquiry and the investigation abroad. The headquarters of Integral
of the meaning of life and the nature of Yoga International is Satchidananda
knowledge and reality. Ashram–Yogaville, located in Buck-
ingham, Virginia. The center
encompasses almost 1,000 acres of
Guiding Principles of Integral Yoga woodland and fields. Here, people of
The goal of integral yoga is to help peo- all faiths and backgrounds come
ple achieve what practitioners believe is together to study and practice the prin-
the birthright of every individual—that ciples of integral yoga.
is, to realize the spiritual unity behind The focal point of Satchidananda
all the diversity of life and to live har- Ashram–Yogaville is the Light of Truth
moniously as members of one universal Universal Shrine (LOTUS), which
family. This goal is achieved by main- embodies Swami Satchidananda’s
taining a well-balanced life with a body teachings and his efforts to foster world
of optimum health and strength, the peace and religious harmony. Inside the
senses under total control; a clear, calm, shrine each major faith is represented
well-disciplined mind; a sharp intellect; by an altar, on which rests a carved
a will that is strong and yet pliable; a inscription from the scripture of that
heart full of unconditional love and particular faith. Other known faiths and
compassion; an ego as pure as crystal; those that may one day develop, but
and a life filled with supreme peace and which are still unknown to us, are also
joy. Integral yoga strongly encourages represented by illuminated arches. The
such principles as truth, nonviolence, theme of LOTUS is “Truth Is One, Paths
and universal brotherhood. Are Many,” and this aphorism may also
be extended to integral yoga. Integral
The Development of Integral Yoga yoga is a system that synthesizes the
In the early part of the twentieth centu- various yogic approaches with one goal
ry Swami Sivananda Saraswati in mind: to help the individual experi-
(1887–1963) of Rishikesh, India, devel- ence physical, mental, and spiritual
oped an approach to yoga that integrat- harmony.
ed several of the ancient methods of
yoga. Several of his disciples spread this —Rev. Kumari de Sachy, Ed.D
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I
yengar yoga is a specific approach to Berkeley, California. The center was run
the ancient body-mind discipline of by his students at that time. Presently
yoga. It was developed in the 1940s by there are schools teaching his approach
B. K. S. Iyengar. Iyengar’s approach to worldwide. Teacher training includes
yoga incorporates all of the methods of classes in anatomy, physiology, kinesi-
classical or eight-limbed yoga. Yoga ology, yoga philosophy, and
begins with the study of universal and student/teacher relationships as well as
individual ethical values. This is fol- asana and pranayama. Iyengar is called
lowed by the physical practice of guruji by his students, which is an Indi-
stretching, strengthening, toning, and an term of affection for a beloved
cleansing the body through postures. teacher. He has written five books on
After a time breathing exercises are yoga. He continues to teach in India, the
introduced. This foundation leads to United States, and throughout the
the various stages of meditation. Iyen- world today.
gar Yoga is unique in its specific
approach to asana, or body postures, Unique Aspects of Iyengar Yoga
and pranayama, or breathing practices. Iyengar yoga relies on standing asanas
more than do other styles of yoga. Stu-
The History of Iyengar Yoga dents first learn to balance in the field of
B. K. S. Iyengar was born on December gravity and develop a richer contact
14, 1918, in Karnataka, in southern with the Earth through the feet. Iyengar
India. At the age of sixteen Iyengar believes that active development of the
moved to Mysore to live with his uncle, posture inherent to human beings—
Shree T. Krishnamacharya, who had that of standing on two legs—enhances
founded a yoga school. Iyengar’s early the understanding of other types of
experiences with yoga postures were poses. Experience gained in the practice
tremendously painful and made him of standing poses is used in all other
aware of his own stiffness. Through per- types of asanas—seated, twisted, invert-
severance Iyengar found he was able to ed, and back bending.
do more and more, achieving a remark- Another unique aspect of Iyengar
able skill in his own practice. Soon he yoga is the use of props such as chairs,
314
Kripalu Yoga
weights, benches, mats, belts, and blan- Yoga is meant to give practitioners
kets, which help stretch and strengthen peace of mind, and good health, and to
the body. Iyengar yoga teachers accom- develop spiritual awareness so that
modate students with special needs their inner divinity which, according to
through the effective use of props. In his Hindu and yogic tradition, is inherently
teaching, Iyengar saw that students new present in everyone, can manifest itself.
to yoga tend to struggle at a muscular Kripalu yoga is taught in three
level, which creates a disturbance in the specific stages. The first stage is called
breath. He found that a prop used for “willful practice.” The purpose of this
support can alleviate muscular effort, stage is for practitioners to learn to per-
thus helping the student achieve a free- form the postures correctly; to learn to
dom of breath. This encourages quiet- take deep, full breaths; to coordinate
ing of the mind and senses, bringing the their breaths with the movements; and
student to a state of meditation in the to pay close attention to body align-
asana. ment.
When students have mastered this
A Summary of B. K. S. Iyengar’s first stage they move on to the second,
called “will and surrender.” In this stage,
Approach to Yoga postures are performed with the con-
In Iyengar yoga, the asana practice can centration focused fully on the body
be quite rigorous. Yoga asanas some- and the physical sensations that are
times resemble typical Western exercis- being experienced. In this second stage
es or stretches. Thus, according to practitioners hold the postures longer
Iyengar, a change is required in the typ- than in the first stage. Holding the pos-
ical Western mind-set, a movement tures longer provides a physical chal-
away from a mechanical, purely physi- lenge that allows practitioners to face
cal practice toward an integrated, mind- their own physical and mental resis-
ful approach. Yoga describes the body tances. Devakanya G. Parnell, the
as consisting of five layers: anatomical, director of resident yoga education at
physiological, psychological, intellectu- the Kripalu Center in Lenox, Massa-
al, and bliss. Iyengar stresses that yoga chusetts, has described it this way:
develops all five layers, not just the “When you come to your toleration
physiological layer. point during prolonged holding, you
encounter your self-perceived limita-
—Janet MacLeod tions and learn how to consciously tran-
scend them” (“Hatha Traditions: How to
Find a Class That’s Right for You,” by
Linda Johnson in Yoga International’s
Guide to Yoga Teachers and Classes, Yoga
KRIPALU YOGA International, 1996). This aspect of kri-
palu yoga is meant to help students with
similar experiences in everyday life. It
K
ripalu Yoga is a modern approach helps build confidence and self-
to the ancient body-mind disci- reliance.
pline of yoga. It was developed by The third and final stage is reached
Amrit Desai, a yoga practitioner when practitioners perform postures in
inspired by Kripalvananda, an Indian a spontaneous flowing pattern, follow-
master of kundalini yoga. The kripalu ing their bodies’ intuition and desires.
approach to yoga combines asanas, or This is known as Meditation in
postures, which involve folding, stretch- Motion™. In this, the hallmark of kri-
ing, bending, and balancing the body in palu yoga practice, it is believed that the
a variety of positions; pranayama, or practitioner is able to sustain a tangible
breath control; and meditation. Kripalu relationship with his or her own divine
315
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
316
PART XIII: MEDITATION
Meditation was also an integral part of European Renaissance culture and occult
Christianity, which helped spread the practice to the West. This was particularly true
among the mystical religious schools, such as the Rosicrucians.
In the New World, German mystical communities settled in the original thirteen
colonies, especially in Pennsylvania, where persecuted religious groups could come
practice freely in an atmosphere of tolerance. Some of these groups practiced ascetic
forms of meditation informed by Eastern religion and philosophy.
By the mid-nineteenth century, New England transcendentalists, such as Ralph
Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, had read the few Eastern scriptures in cir-
culation at the time and integrated ideas about meditation and yoga into their own lit-
erary and philosophical meditations. The transcendentalists used a walking form of
meditation they called sauntering. They also practiced looking within one’s self, or
quiet contemplation, while immersed in nature.
By the last quarter of the nineteenth century such international movements as the
Theosophical Society, which was first founded in the United States in 1875 and then
reestablished in India in 1878, were disseminating information about Eastern con-
templative practices to a public eager for the exotic as well as for alternative sources
of spiritual discipline.
or word. To this he has recently added readings from the inspirational texts of a
practitioner’s religious tradition.
A normal meditative session might last twenty minutes and be practiced once or twice
a day. The subject usually sits comfortably in pleasant, quiet surroundings, preferably in a
room with lowered illumination. The session might begin with a moment of deep relaxed
breathing. The meditation task that follows might be to contemplate an object, such as
looking into a candle flame, meanwhile paying attention to the cycle of one’s breath. The
task might be to keep the mind clear of attachment to any thoughts. It might be to just wit-
ness what goes by in the field of consciousness without thought or judgment.
The inability of a subject to succeed in the task at first should be no cause for alarm.
Concentration merely means returning to the task without judgment. Each time the mind
wanders, free of guilt or recrimination, one simply returns the mind to its original focus.
Eventually, the surface of the mind becomes quieter and quieter, until sustained concen-
tration becomes possible. Reentry into normal waking reality should be gradual, and as
relaxed as in the beginning. A typical session might then end with some gentle stretching.
321
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
he relaxation response is a body- The relaxation response is the oppo-
mind process that is characterized site of the stress response, or what has
by significant physical changes, been termed the fight-or-flight
such as lower blood pressure, a response. When most animals in the
decreased heart rate, and increased wild are faced with life-threatening situ-
body temperature as well as a general ations, their bodies respond with a pre-
sense of intense calm. Dr. Herbert Ben- dictable arousal pattern that prepares
son, through an examination of the psy- them to either fight a threat or run away
chological and physiological aspects of from danger. In humans, this response
meditation, found that the relaxation prepares the body for vigorous muscu-
response can be brought about by the lar activity by stimulating the sympa-
use of meditation, yoga, repetitive exer- thetic nervous system to increase heart
cises, hypnosis, prayer, and other forms rate, blood pressure, and muscle ten-
of stress management. sion. The fight-or-flight response was
necessary for the survival of humans
when confronted by wild beasts. Today,
The Development of the Relaxation the same response is stimulated to vary-
Technique ing degrees when we are faced with
In the late 1960s, Herbert Benson, M.D., everyday stresses, most often threats to
a Harvard cardiologist, began to study our ego, such as taking tests or being
the physical effects of meditation. Later late.
he traveled to India to study Tibetan The work of Dr. Benson suggested
monks who meditate every day. Dr. an important symmetrical relationship
Benson was one of the first scientists to between the fight-or-flight response and
study advanced meditators using West- the relaxation response. Whereas repeat-
ern scientific methods. He measured ed or prolonged elicitation of the fight-
some of the physical changes, such as or-flight response has been associated
blood pressure and body temperature, with medical illness related to stress
that occurred as the monks meditated. and arousal, repeated or prolonged elic-
He found that while the monks were in itation of the relaxation response has
a meditative state their body processes been associated with the prevention of
slowed. He documented the fact that stress-related disease.
meditation was associated with lowered Through his examination of the psy-
blood pressure and heart rate and an chological and physiological compo-
increase in body temperature, all of nents of meditation on Tibetan monks,
which are associated with calmness. He Dr. Benson theorized that the positive
labeled these meditation-induced effects of meditation could be acquired
physical changes in the body the relax- without the belief in Eastern religions or
ation response. altered states. The most important thing
was that patients learn to generate the
The Relaxation Response calming effects associated with the
Studies prove that if people could relax relaxation response. The way in which
the body they could potentially prevent an individual learned to generate the
some of the harmful effects of psycholog- effect was unimportant. He then set out
ical stress. Hundreds of scientific studies to devise a general strategy that would
have shown that there are negative bring about the desired response. He
effects from psychological stress; these found that the relaxation response
effects are mental or intellectual, behav- would occur using many different disci-
ioral and physical. Psychological stress plines including yoga, repetitive exer-
can make it harder to think effectively cise, hypnosis, and other forms of stress
322
Relaxation Response
management. Dr. Benson and his col- relaxation. Maintain a passive attitude
leagues concluded that only two and permit relaxation to occur at its
specific steps were necessary to pro- own pace. Expect other thoughts.
duce the relaxation response: the first is When distracting thoughts occur,
attentional focus on a single repetitive ignore them and continue repeating
word, sound, prayer, phrase, image, or “one.” With practice, the response
physical activity; the second is to pas- should come with little effort. Prac-
sively return to a specific focus when tice the technique once or twice
distractions occur. daily, but not within two hours after
any meal, since the digestive
How to Elicit the Relaxation Response processes seem to interfere with the
In a typical training session the client subjective changes.
enters the therapist’s office and is
instructed to sit in a comfortable chair. Benefits of the Relaxation Response
The therapist then begins giving the fol- The relaxation response has been asso-
lowing guidance in a quiet voice: ciated with improvements in many
medical conditions, including hyper-
1. Sit quietly in a comfortable position tension, cardiac arrhythmia, chronic
and close your eyes. pain, insomnia, side effects of cancer
2. Deeply relax all your muscles, therapy, side effects of AIDS therapy,
beginning at your feet and progress- infertility, as well as preparation for
ing up to your face. Keep them surgery and X ray procedures.
deeply relaxed.
3. Breathe through your nose. Become —Richard Friedman, Ph.D., Patricia
aware of your breathing. As you Myers, Herbert Benson, M.D.
breathe out, say the word “one”
silently to yourself. For example
breathe in . . . out, one; in . . . out, Resources:
one; etc. Continue for twenty min-
utes. You may open your eyes to Mind/Body Medical Institute
check the time, but do not use an Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
alarm. When you finish, sit quietly Harvard Medical School
for several minutes at first with 110 Francis Street
closed eyes and later with opened Boston, MA 02215
eyes. Tel: (617) 632-9530
4. Do not worry about whether you are Provides a well-respected treatment program that
successful in achieving a deep level of teaches how to elicit the relaxation response.
Meditation and its potential role in health is often misunderstood because of its associ-
ation with mystical Eastern traditions. While Eastern cultures accept the concept that
regular meditational practice can result in positive psychological benefits, they also
believe that it can result in an altered state of consciousness or a change in the percep-
tion of reality. Because meditation is so heavily associated with altered states, the West-
ern medical community has been slow to acknowledge that the practice of meditation
could be used by patients to produce positive healthful effects.
323
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
T
ranscendental Meditation (TM), is than 100 countries.
a simple technique that is used to Currently, people participate in
help individuals access their inner Maharishi’s teachings to different
creativity and wisdom while also extents. There are many students who
improving their physical health. Accord- follow Maharishi’s versions of various
ing to TM theory, which is based on the branches of Vedic science, including
ancient Vedic tradition of yoga, certain systems of medicine, architecture, and
meditation techniques can quiet the prediction. For them, Maharishi’s
mind, allowing the body to enter a state teachings influence various aspects of
of deep relaxation. Veda, meaning one’s lifestyle. His teachings have also
“knowledge,” is a science of life and con- inspired a political movement, orga-
sciousness that is rooted in ancient nized in sixty countries as the Natural
India. TM was introduced in 1957 by Law Party. At the same time, there are
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. He has since many other people who study only the
traveled the world, promoting and meditation technique without changing
teaching TM. As a result, more than 5 their lifestyles or political beliefs. They
million people from different countries, attend classes where the TM technique
religions, and educational backgrounds is taught and use the skill to help
have learned the TM technique. achieve their own personal physical,
emotional, and spiritual goals.
Photo: UPI/Corbis-Bettmann
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, founder of Transcendental Meditation.
326
PART XIV: PSYCHO-PHYSICAL
EVALUATION FRAMEWORKS
Enneagram • Kestenberg Movement Profile • Laban Movement Analysis •
Movement Pattern Analysis
Psycho-physical evalua-
tion frameworks are orga-
nized theoretical structures
and notation systems that
correlate body movement
with psychological attri-
butes and patterns. These
frameworks see the process
of movement as a complex
and multifaceted affair.
Each method combines, in
its own way, an objective
approach to observing and
recording the subtle aspects
of movement with an appre-
ciation for the subjective
elements of the experience
of moving. Because each Photo: © Steve Skjold Photographs
method aims to create a
comprehensive model of all
the possible combinations
of movement elements,
these frameworks can be
applied to many athletic
and aesthetic activities,
therapeutic modalities, and Many psycho-physical evaluation frameworks use abstract nota-
educational programs for tion to record observed movement. Pictured above is motif writ-
ing used in Laban movement analysis.
diagnostic as well as pre-
scriptive purposes.
The majority of psycho-physical evaluation frameworks in use today and included
here are inspired by the work of Rudolph Laban (1879–1958), an Austro-Hungarian
movement theorist. The methods included in this section are distinguished by their
founders’ efforts to collect first all the variations of movement they could observe
before developing theoretical frameworks linking physical movements to psychological
327
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
E
nneagram is a model of human per- Oscar Ichazo, a European born in the
sonality that provides nine person- early 1930s and a noted contemporary
al strategies, or ways of being in the enneagram author who claimed to have
world, called types. In Greek ennea learned the system from Sufi masters in
means “nine” and gram means “graph” Afghanistan, added the next develop-
or “model.” The system provides a ment to the enneagram system. He
framework, language, and conceptual named the central focus of each of the
vocabulary for understanding people types after Christianity’s seven capital
and behavior. In offering personality sins—anger, pride, envy, avarice, glut-
descriptions that account for differ- tony, lust, sloth—and added two more,
ences between people, the model great- deceit and fear. This frame of reference
ly enhances people’s ability to has become widespread, but it does not
understand themselves and to appreci- imply that it is a system of Christian
ate that others approach the same situ- psychology.
ation from different perspectives. When In 1972 the first teacher of the
used well, the enneagram system opens enneagram in the United States, a
up new possibilities for people in man- Chilean psychiatrist named Claudio
agement, leadership, teaching, learn- Naranjo, a student of Oscar Ichazo,
ing, and personal growth. taught the system to a group of psychol-
ogists, psychiatrists, and students in
Berkeley, California. This group
Nine-Pointed Star painstakingly aligned the central fea-
Many ancient sacred traditions such as tures of the enneagram types with the
esoteric Christianity, Sufism, and Diagnostic Survey Manual, a canon in
Judaism describe variants of the ennea- the psychological community used by
gram model. This implies an old, com- all American and Canadian clinicians
mon source for the current model. for diagnostic purposes. While the DSM
There are other strands that lead into describes pathologies (deviations from
the modern-day enneagram. For normal psychological functioning), the
instance, the Platonic tradition from enneagram describes in general terms
ancient Greece, in which the philoso- the broadly correlating characteristics
pher Plato describes nine perfect essen- of normal and high-functioning people.
tial states of being and a tenth state For example, in enneagram theory
called unity, is a philosophy that res- point six represents constant fear and
onates with the enneagram as well. vigilance; enneagram practitioners
In this century George Ivanovitch believe that this corresponds with the
Gurdjieff (1872–1949), the spiritual psychological term paranoid. In a like
philosopher and teacher, brought a manner, every point on the enneagram
nine-pointed star diagram to the West, correlates to a contemporary psycho-
purportedly from Sufi sources. Gurdjieff logical pathology.
used the star, and the internal-flow pat- Naranjo’s other contribution was to
tern that unites the points in a specific explore the enneagram using panels of
way, in his private teaching work. the types; in this method groups of peo-
According to Gurdjieff theory, by using ple of the same personality type work
the star he was able to describe the together to explore the intricacies of the
changing attitudes and perceptions that inner structure of their thought and
occur when people feel either secure or behavior patterns. These early panels
stressed. Gurdjieff painted a huge provided the empirical proof for the key
enneagram on the floor of the Institute distinguishing characteristics of the
for the Harmonious Development of types.
329
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The Mediator
Calm, seeks consensus, takes on oth-
ers' agenda at expense of own posi-
tion, obstinate and stubborn.
The Boss
9 The Perfectionist
Take-charge, protective of Conscientious, preoccupied
turf, combative, likes 8 1 with correcting error, inflexi-
control. ble, judgmental.
The first books on enneagram theory mental, and emotional types. The
were published in the United States in enneagram recognizes these distinc-
the mid-1980s. Today research on the tions too, and the diagram is organized
correlation between the enneagram in triads that are made up of these dis-
model and Western psychological theo- tinct energies—the emotional triad
ry is being conducted at Loyola Univer- (points 2,3,4), the mental triad (points
sity in Chicago, the Center for Integral 5,6,7), and the instinctual/body triad
Studies in San Francisco, and less for- (points 8,9,1).
mally in many other seminaries and In traditional psychology, personali-
graduate schools. ty type has been identified through
pathology, or deviations in personality
What Is Type? makeup. Many psychologists and psy-
People have to survive in the world and chiatrists believe that if people can
need to exhibit traits and characteristics understand how their personality disin-
that will enable them to make their way tegrated, they can be helped to reinte-
and form relationships. Personality is grate themselves. Psychotherapists are
about defense mechanisms, characteris- trained to find how the personality
tic habits of thought, emotions that defense mechanisms have broken
underpin thoughts, interpersonal apti- down, rather than to concentrate on
tudes and abilities, and a way of handling what is working.
the body to manage energy. While all The enneagram system provides a
people have access to all these areas, in new way to understand ourselves. The
many instances one area predominates model offers a format for normal and
and people fall broadly into physical, high-functioning people to examine
330
Enneagram
There are currently many enneagram centers and hundreds of enneagram teachers
throughout the United States and the world. In 1994 the First International Enneagram
Conference was cosponsored by and held at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California.
In 1996 the First National Enneagram Institute for Educators was cosponsored by and
held at the Milton Academy in Milton, Massachusetts, which is becoming a laboratory
for enneagram applications in education, particularly learning and teaching styles.
331
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Business managers, educators, and stu- Riso, Don Richard. Personality Types: Using the
dents feel that the system helps them Enneagram for Self-Discovery. New York:
develop a sense of their motivations Houghton-Mifflin, 1987.
and the patterns behind their thoughts
and actions. Rohr, Richard, and Andreas Ebert. Discovering the
However, there are dangers inherent in Enneagram. New York: Crossroad, 1992.
the system. Stereotyping, or not seeing the
individual in the type, is a distinct danger. Journals:
A shallow understanding of the system on The Enneagram Monthly. Troy, NY.
the part of the practitioner, whether
teacher or student, ignores the facets that
account for individual differences. Per-
haps the gravest danger in the system lies
in people prematurely mistyping them- KESTENBERG MOVEMENT
selves and others.
PROFILE
—Janet Levine
T
he Kestenberg movement profile
(KMP) is a method of psychological
Resources:
assessment based on observations
of patterns of movement. While
The International Enneagram Association
observers have long recognized that
849 Independence Avenue, #B
bodily movement styles often reflect
Mountain View, CA 94043
various aspects of personality and feel-
Tel: (415) 903-8300
ings, a framework was needed to unrav-
Fax: (415) 967-0995
el the mind-body connections in a
Offers a full listing of enneagram centers and teach-
systematic fashion. Such a framework
ers both in the United States and internationally.
was developed in the 1960s by Dr. Judith
S. Kestenberg and the Sands Point
The National Educators Institute for Enneagram Movement Study Group, consisting of
Studies Drs. Hershey Marcus, Jay Berlowe,
Program Director: Janet Levine Esther Robin, Arnhilte Buelte, and
Milton Academy Martha Soodak. A new generation of
170 Centre Street students such as Susan Loman, Mark
Milton, MA 02186 Sossin, and Penny Lewis continue to
Tel/Fax: (617) 696-9410 develop the approach in the 1990s. The
e-mail: Jlevinegrp@aol.com KMP provides a methodology and theo-
Web site: www.enneagram-edge.com ry for observing and interpreting body
Provides information about training in the ennea- movement patterns and has been used
gram system for the educational sector. effectively for evaluation as well as pre-
scriptive purposes by psychologists,
anthropologists, and dance/movement
Further Reading:
therapists.
Books:
Naranjo, Claudio. Enneatype Structures. Nevada The Sands Point Movement Study
City, CA: Gateways, 1990. Group
Kestenberg first observed the close inte-
Palmer, Helen. The Enneagram. San Francisco: gration of body and mind in Vienna in
Harper San Francisco, 1988. the 1930s while studying patients with
neurological brain damage. Later, as a
——. The Enneagram in Love and Work. San Fran- child psychiatrist in New York, she specu-
cisco: Harper San Francisco, 1994. lated about ways in which psychological
332
Kestenberg Movement Profile
334
Laban Movement Analysis
Resources:
LABAN MOVEMENT ANALYSIS
Allegheny University of the Health Sciences
L
1505 Reay, Mail Drop 905 aban movement analysis (LMA) is a
Bellet Bldg., 10th Floor system that provides a comprehen-
Philadelphia, PA 19102 sive language to describe, interpret,
Tel: (215) 246-5020 and study movement. Central to LMA is
Offers a program in the KMP. the idea that movement is an outward
expression of inner intentions and that
Antioch New England Graduate School movement is a combination of the
Keene, NH 03431 physical, emotional, and mental attrib-
Tel: (603) 357-3122 utes of human behavior. LMA allows for
Provides a training program in the Kestenberg the analysis and synthesis of the physi-
movement profile. cal and psychological processes of
moving. As such, the language of LMA is
applicable to many fields of body-mind
The Laban-Bartenieff Institute for Movement
study.
Studies
11 East 4th Street
New York, NY 10003 The History of Laban Movement
Tel: (212) 477-4299 Analysis
Teaches the Kestenberg movement profile to Rudolf Laban, artist, scientist, and
qualified individuals. philosopher, was born in 1879, in what
was then Bratislava in the Austro-Hun-
garian Empire. He spent much of his life
Further Reading: in France, Switzerland, and Germany
until, in 1936, artistic conflicts with the
Books: National Socialist Party (the Nazi Party)
Kestenberg, J. S. Children and Parents: Psychoana- led him to relocate in England, where he
lytic Studies in Development. New York: Jason lived until his death in 1958.
Aronson, 1975. From 1913 to 1917 in Ascona,
Switzerland, he began developing an
Kestsenberg, J. S., and M. Sossin. The Role of abstract-symbol system that notated
Movement Patterns in Development II. New movement. Originally this system pro-
York: The Dance Notation Bureau Press, 1979. vided the impermanent art of dance
with a means for documentation and
Kestenberg, J. S., J. Amighi, S. Loman, P. Lewis, and
historical preservation. But Laban’s
M. Sossin. The Meaning of Movement: Develop-
broad range of interests coupled with
mental, Multicultural and Clinical Perspectives
his scientific approach to the study of
as Seen Through the Kestenberg Movement
movement led him to develop a system
of notating all types of movement.
Profile. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1998.
Between 1920 and 1936 Laban was
most active in Berlin. He established
Lewis, P., and S. Loman, The Kestenberg Movement
two dance companies, Tanzbuhne
Profile: Its Past, Present Applications and Future
Laban and Kammertanzbuhne Laban.
Directions. Keene, NH: Antioch New England
Laban’s system of notation was pub-
Graduate School, 1990.
lished in 1928 as Kinetography Laban,
which became known as Labanotation
Journals: in the United States. Laban established
Loman, S., and H. Merman. “The KMP: A Tool for dance schools throughout Germany
Dance/Movement Therapy.” American Journal and gained a reputation for his prolific
of Dance Therapy 18, No. 1 (1996): 29–52. work in developing movement choirs,
335
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
336
Laban Movement Analysis
forms. It provides a vocabulary for iden- for health and efficiency. Since LMA
tifying design elements that appear in recognizes that movement can express
the arrangement of body parts in rela- inner intentions and psychological
tionship to one another. In addition to motivations, the system also provides
familiar descriptions of shape such as concrete tools for deciphering the non-
curved, angular, symmetric, or asym- verbal language of movement expres-
metric, shape is viewed as a dynamic sion as viewed within the fields of
process, the outward shape change psychology, sociology, and anthropolo-
revealing a variety of inner attitudes. gy. As a conceptual framework, it pro-
The change in body shape that occurs vides movement educators with a
when an individual is actively engaging concrete language for the clarification
or responding to the outer environment, of somatic goals and an assessment of
as in building a sand castle, appears very progress. As a system that provides
different from a change in the body specific links between mental, physical,
shape that results from a deep sigh or and emotional realms of human func-
other internally motivated action. This tioning, its range of potential applica-
framework provides a way to describe tion extends to any inquiry concerned
the plasticity of the body, the forms it with the intersection of body and mind
reveals, and the way in which its form experience.
constantly changes.
Any movement event is a complex —Ed Groff, M.F.A., CMA
layering of many movement elements.
Variables of body, effort, shape, and
Resources
space are all occurring simultaneously.
The Laban framework provides differen- The Laban-Bartenieff Institute of Movement
tiated concepts within each category. Studies
The vocabulary that results from this 11 East 4th Street
conceptual understanding of movement New York, NY 10003-6902
enables observers to identify the most Tel: (212) 477-4299
important characteristics of a movement An institute providing comprehensive training in
event and to describe how these charac- LMA that offers a certificate program.
teristics change through time.
The Dance Notation Bureau
LMA in Practice 33 West 21st Street
LMA provides a means of moving from New York, NY 10001
description of movement to interpreta- Tel: (212) 807-7899
tion and creating plans for change or An institute providing certificate training in
improvement in movement expression. Labanotation.
In athletics, performance arts, martial
arts, and fitness training, LMA is used to Motos Humanus
break an action down into its separate P.O. Box 11036
elements and then to determine which Denver, CO 80211
elements are most important in per- Tel: (303) 421-2023
forming the action most efficiently, An organization serving the needs of Laban-based
effectively, and/or expressively. From movement professionals through publications,
this assessment it is possible to move conferences, advanced training seminars, and pro-
actively toward developing and refining fessional consultation.
the specific movements that contribute
to virtuosity within any physical skill. In Laban Centre for Movement and Dance
the same way LMA can also serve as a University of London Goldsmith’s College
diagnostic tool in injury rehabilitation London SE 14 6NW
and in maximizing movement patterns England
337
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
M
ovement pattern analysis focus- the behavior of managers in their offices
es on the relationship between and devised a system for correlating
mind and body in the structure effort phrasing with the decision-mak-
and coding of movement. Though it can ing skills required for a number of man-
be applied to a broad range of activities, agerial activities. First marketed in the
it is generally used in executive training 1960s as action profiling, Lamb’s
programs to improve individual skills in method had an enormous impact on the
decision making, communication, and corporate community, particularly in
338
Movement Pattern Analysis
339
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Lamb, Warren. Posture and Gesture. London: Duck- Ramsden, Pamela. Top Team Planning: A Study of
worth, 1965. the Power of Individual Motivation in Manage-
ment. London: Associated Business Programmes,
——. Management Behavior. London: Duckworth, 1973.
1969.
340
PART XV: EXPRESSIVE AND CREATIVE
ARTS THERAPIES
Art Therapy • Authentic Movement • Dance Therapy • Drama Therapy •
Halprin Life/Art Process • Journal Therapy • Multi-Modal Expressive Arts
Therapy • Music Therapy * Poetry Therapy • Sandplay Therapy
recognized around the world from the beginnings of human history. For ancient pri-
mal cultures and their contemporary relatives, the indigenous peoples of North and
South America, Africa, Polynesia, Australia, and Asia, the arts are an intrinsic part of
life. In these cultures children develop gross and fine motor skills along with a strong
sense of identity as they learn to weave baskets or make pottery, clothing, or hunting
equipment in the traditional patterns of their culture.
In these cultures religious celebrations mark the seasons of the year and important
events in life, such as birth, reaching adolescence, marriage, and death. These cele-
brations are often communal events in which participants might prepare traditional
costumes, masks, and musical instruments and take part in ritualized singing, danc-
ing, and theatrical presentations. These activities develop physical and intellectual
skills in the participants while serving on a deeper level to guide their emotional and
spiritual development.
In the highly developed ancient cultures of China, India, and Egypt the arts were
an integral part of political, educational, religious, and health practices. These cul-
tures believed that the universe was perfectly ordered by divine forces. They believed
that achieving power, success, happiness, and health was a result of learning how
these divine forces operate in the universe and working harmoniously with them. One
way this could be accomplished was through aesthetic expression. Sound, motion,
and light—the elemental materials of music, dance, and visual and performance art—
were believed to follow divine cosmological laws. Artists and philosophers, who also
functioned as teachers and healers in these cultures, worked to discover aesthetic the-
ories for the arts so that artistic expressions would reflect the divine order of the uni-
verse and help people experience a sense of harmony with it. The teachers applied
these laws to various artistic disciplines such as music (including chanting), calligra-
phy, dance, and theatrical performances.
342
and intellectual thought as the one true path to spiritual salvation. The arts were treat-
ed as crafts in need of direction and control and became a mere adornment to the pur-
suit of spiritual excellence. Then, during the Renaissance, the arts began to fall prey to
the secularized demands of commerce, where they have by and large remained to this
day.
However, at the dawn of the twentieth century a confluence of forces in art, poli-
tics, and health care served to partially reestablish the role of the arts as a tool for heal-
ing in the West. In the first decades of the century Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) and his
colleagues, notably Carl Jung (1875–1961), began to explore the connections between
physical health and the workings of the human mind and emotions. Freud’s theories
of the unconscious and its role in the development and behavior of human beings
became the basis of an entirely new mode of treatment in Western scientific medicine.
Both psychoanalysis, as Freud termed his approach, and analytical psychology, as
Jung described his approach, relied on the revelation of personal unconscious
imagery to effect a cure. This unconscious imagery is still an important tool for many
expressive and creative arts therapists.
At about the same time Western artists such as Pablo Picasso (1881–1973),
Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951), Isadora Duncan (1877–1927), Rainer Maria Rilke
(1875–1926), and Konstantin Stanislavsky (1863–1938) were becoming disillusioned
with traditional art forms, which they felt were outmoded and had lost their ability
to inspire. They began creating modern art forms full of vibrant abstract images
reflecting personal perceptions. By the time World War II rocked the Western world
in 1939 there was a large body of artists in Europe and the United States exploring
the power of the arts to capture, reflect, and organize unconscious content. Many of
these artists intuitively recognized the therapeutic value of their own artistic activi-
ties, and they explored its potential in private teaching situations. Open-minded
doctors, aware of the therapeutic successes of some of these artists, invited them
into the hospitals, which were strained by the large number of people suffering from
physical and emotional trauma as a result of the war. Predominantly dancers and
visual artists, but also musicians, writers, and theater artists, entered the hospital
setting, and the new modalities of music, dance, art, poetry, and drama therapy
were born.
After 1945 the nascent expressive arts therapies were introduced into other insti-
tutional settings such as schools, prisons, and senior citizen homes. Experiential
exploration and theoretical development continued throughout the 1950s with more
and more creative artists developing unique practices and approaches to healing and
changing through the arts. With the social upheaval of the 1960s and its demand for
more meaningful forms of living, the creative and expressive arts were enlisted once
again in growth centers across the country. For example, at the Esalen Institute in Cal-
ifornia and the Omega Institute in New York, the arts became a means by which ever
greater numbers of people sought to expand their understanding of themselves and
their role in the universe.
Today each of the expressive arts therapies (music, dance, visual art, poetry, and
drama) is represented by a national organization that sets standards for the training of
therapists and offers a forum for the many technical and philosophical issues confronting
343
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
the field. In addition, an ever-growing number of related creative arts practices serve
individuals in their efforts to heal and grow physically, mentally, emotionally, and
spiritually.
346
Art Therapy
A
rt therapy is a method used to influenced the development of art ther-
help people release inner apy. Jung was particularly interested in
thoughts and emotions by mak- the psychological meanings and uses of
ing visual art. The process of creative art expressions, including his own
expression, through forms of visual art drawings and those of his patients.
such as drawing, painting, sculpture, or Unlike Freud, who never asked his
collage, is thought to aid a person’s patients to draw their dream images,
healing and recovery. Therapists may Jung often encouraged his patients to
work with a person to decipher symbol- draw. “To paint what we see before us,”
ic representations of his or her feelings, he said, “is a different art from painting
thoughts, or perceptions. This form of what we see within.” Jung believed that
therapy may appeal to people who oth- there was an important connection
erwise find it difficult to express or between the images that people made
understand a problem or emotion. Art and their inner thoughts. Jung studied
is used as an intuitive, physical method art created around the world and noted
of manifesting hidden feelings and recurring and seemingly universal sym-
overcoming difficult problems. bols he called archetypes. These arche-
types are cultural images that represent
basic elements of unconscious thought
The Origins of Art Therapy and human development. Jung’s theory
Although the field of art therapy formal- of archetypes became a foundation for
ly emerged in this century, the use of understanding how symbolic imagery
visual images to express inner emotions reveals meaning in artworks, and is still
and master external events extends as used by many therapists today.
far back as prehistory. Masks, ritual pot- In the 1940s, art therapy became a
tery, carefully designed costumes, and profession in the United States largely
musical instruments were all created as due to the work of Margaret Naumburg.
outer expressions of powerful spiritual She founded the Walden School in 1915,
beliefs and were used in rituals. The use where she used students’ artworks in
of art in so many rituals suggests two psychological counseling. She agreed
healing aspects of art: its potential to with the predominant psychological
achieve or restore psychological equi- viewpoint that art expression is a way
librium and its ability to alleviate or to manifest unconscious imagery.
contain feelings of trauma, fear, anxiety, In Naumburg’s view, art could provide
and psychological threat to the self and the client a form of spontaneous expres-
the community. sion and communication. She consid-
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, a ered these images a form of symbolic
growing number of European psycholo- speech.
gists were becoming interested in study- Through the 1950s and 1960s Edith
ing visual art made by patients with Kramer, an artist, educator, and pioneer
mental illnesses. In 1912, psychiatrists in the field of art therapy, pointed to
Emil Kraeplin and Eugen Bleuler were another important benefit of art mak-
among the earliest therapists to try to ing. She was a European artist who
diagnose psychopathologies by interpret- moved to the United States, where she
ing their patients’ drawings. Later, Sig- began teaching art to children. While
mund Freud reported that patients of his other therapists sought to decode
who were unable to describe their dreams patients’ artworks, Kramer was interest-
in words would frequently say that they ed in the value of the act of art making.
could draw the images from their dreams. She believed that there were therapeu-
This observation encouraged the belief tic benefits to the creative process itself.
347
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Art making allows people to release their emotions without verbalizing them.
348
Art Therapy
Art therapists who practice in the United States are trained at the graduate level and
receive a master’s degree; a strong background in visual art and psychology is generally
required to enter a graduate program.
349
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A
uthentic movement is a dance- authentic movement. She established
movement process practiced by the Mary Starks Whitehouse Institute in
individuals and groups as a way to western Massachusetts in 1981, two
learn from the body’s own experience, years after Whitehouse’s death, as a
insights, and imagination. It is an out- place to study and teach this form of
wardly simple but profound process movement.
where subjects follow their impulses for
movement or stillness in an accepting Core Elements of Authentic Movement
rather than judgmental way. Rather than The core element of the process shared
consciously choosing what movements by most practitioners is the relationship
350
Authentic Movement
between the mover and the witness. such as for personal enrichment, spiri-
With eyes closed or inwardly focused, tual insight, artistic renewal, psy-
the mover responds to his or her inner chotherapy, or community ritual.
impulses while the witness watches Although the name authentic move-
nonjudgmentally from the sidelines. ment is widely used to identify the
After a set time of moving, usually with- process, other names are also used—
out musical accompaniment, there is such as contemplative dance, or the
usually a dialogue between mover and moving imagination. Currently, there is
witness. The heart of the process is to no central organization overseeing
honor the expression of the mover’s practitioners, although steps toward
inner experience without judgment. more communication between practi-
There are several core values shared tioners is under way.
by most authentic movement practi-
tioners. The first is that one’s body con- Experiencing Authentic Movement
tains wisdom and can be used as a During a session, people move in a
source of insight, healing, and guid- tremendous variety of ways, from
ance. A second is that the mover’s expe- extended periods of complete stillness to
rience during the session—when one vigorous activity. The movement might
spends time in the body, paying atten- be minute—even imperceptible—or
tion to how the body moves—is of large and highly stylized. It can be idio-
prime importance. The third is that syncratic, mundane, or formal; rhythmic
authority for an individual’s experience or dancelike or not; familiar or foreign;
rests with the individual and not with homely and awkward or graceful and
anyone who moved with that person or elegant. No movement is inherently
an observer. unacceptable unless it harms the mover
Authentic movement offers an or others. This very broad acceptance of
opportunity for deep rest and recupera- movement possibilities distinguishes
tion of both body and soul. It cultivates this practice from other forms of open
the integration of one’s physical, psy- improvisation. Unlike most forms of
chological, and spiritual aspects, and it dance, there is no need to please or
invites the safe inclusion of the full impress viewers or fellow movers.
range of healthy human expression—be In order to establish a safe environ-
it playful or somber, solitary or shared. ment both physically and interpersonally,
Authentic movement is practiced by rules about safety and confidentiality are
people varied in age, physical skill, regularly reinforced and refined. Individ-
dance or movement training, and reli- uals must be responsible for not hurting
gious belief, and for diverse purposes themselves or fellow movers (by opening
“The witness, especially in the beginning, carries a larger responsibility for conscious-
ness, as she sits to the side of the movement space. She is not ‘looking at’ the person
moving, she is witnessing, listening—bringing a specific quality of attention or pres-
ence to—the experience of the mover.”
“The mover works with eyes closed in order to expand her experience of listening to
the deeper levels of her kinesthetic reality. Her task is to respond to a sensation, to an
inner impulse, to energy coming from the personal unconscious, the collective uncon-
scious, or the superconscious. . .The mover and witness usually speak together about
the material that has emerged during the movement time, thus bringing formerly
unconscious processes into consciousness.”
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
D
training, and goals are appropriate. One ance therapy is founded on the
should ask for references. It is important principle that a vital connection
to feel intuitively comfortable with the exists between personality and
teacher and that the goals for working the way in which one moves, and that
together are shared. changes in movement behavior can
affect the emotional, intellectual, and
physical health of an individual. It is
Benefits used to help people attain healthy,
Authentic movement is a contemporary
expressive functioning, individually or
movement practice that provides people
in group situations. It is especially use-
from a wide variety of backgrounds and
ful with people for whom verbal therapy
abilities a structure within which they
is ineffective or overwhelming. While
can recuperate their bodies and souls.
the roots of dance therapy are ancient, it
This process can lead to an enhanced
has been recognized as an established
awareness of one’s whole self, and pro-
form of therapy only since the 1940s.
vide insights to fundamental issues and
questions relevant to one’s life.
Dance: An Ancient Form of Self-
—Daphne Lowell Expression
The rhythmic movements of dance have
appealed to people throughout the
Resources: ages. Dance is found in nearly every cul-
ture and civilization, serving a variety of
The Authentic Movement Community Directory purposes. In many cultures, dance was
Editor: Michael Gardos Reid and still is used as a cathartic healing
2219 Taft Street tool. Primitive societies used dance in
NE Minneapolis, MN 55418 rituals, such as rites of passage and
352
Dance Therapy
other religious ceremonies. Dance ritu- in England were examining the unique
als marked life transitions, helping to movement behavior of people with
integrate individuals with the larger mental illness. The field of dance thera-
society. Many societies still use dance in py emerged in the 1940s and 1950s
similar ways. Experts agree that in early amid these innovations in dance and in
civilizations dancing, religion, music, psychological treatment.
and medicine were often connected. The earliest dance therapists were
dancers and dance teachers who were
Dance Therapy Evolves encouraged by psychiatrists to use
In the early part of the twentieth centu- dance as a method of communicating
ry radical changes in dance movement with withdrawn patients. Marian Chace
and expression resulted in what is now (1896–1970) is considered an important
called “modern” dance. Up to that time pioneering force in the establishment
Western theatrical dance had been a of dance therapy in the United States.
highly structured and regimented art Chace’s dance education included
form. Modern dance focuses on spon- dance from many cultures, dance
taneity, awareness of natural move- improvisation, and music theory, and
ment, and more freedom for personal cultivated in Chace an openness to
expression. During the first half of the many forms of dance expression. Later,
twentieth century there were also new she established her own school in
developments in psychiatry that Washington, D.C., where her dance
explored nonverbal aspects of psychol- technique, which stressed improvisa-
ogy and psychopathology. Eugen tion and individual expression, gained
Bleuler in Switzerland, Jean-Martin a reputation for having therapeutic
Charcot in France, and Henry Maudsley effects.
353
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
354
Dance Therapy
In 1966, a group of therapists formed the American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA)
in order to set professional standards and establish channels of communication among
dance therapists who were working mostly in isolation in hospitals and clinics through-
out the country. Today, ADTA has over 1,000 members nationally and internationally.
The association publishes the American Journal of Dance Therapy, holds an annual con-
ference, and maintains a registry of dance therapists who have met educational and
clinical requirements. The professional training of a dance therapist takes place on a
graduate level. Dance therapists in training study dance/movement therapy theory and
practice, psychopathology, human development, observation and research skills, and
complete a supervised internship in a clinical setting. The title dance therapist regis-
tered (DTR) indicates that the therapist has completed professional education and train-
ing as indicated by the ADTA. Academy of Dance Therapists Registered (ADTR) is a title
that means qualified to teach, provide supervision to other dance therapists, and prac-
tice privately.
355
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
DRAMA THERAPY
new ways to interact with others. Dance
therapy also provides a safe environ-
ment in which to address emotional
D
issues. Dance therapy can help individ-
rama therapy combines tech-
uals with serious psychological and
niques from drama and theater
social difficulties, eating disorders, sub-
with techniques from psy-
stance-abuse problems, Alzheimer’s
chotherapy in an action-based method
disease, and posttraumatic stress disor-
that helps people find solutions for
ders. It can also be helpful in dealing
social and emotional problems. This
with everyday stress and emotional and
creative arts therapy helps people
relationship issues. The elderly, adults,
improve their sense of self-worth by dis-
adolescents, children, and infants have
covering their own inner resources and
all been helped by dance therapy.
by learning how to function better in
groups. In its most well known form,
—Anne. L Wennerstrad drama therapy uses role play to help
participants learn healthier behavior
Resources: patterns. Drama therapists also use
techniques such as improvisation, the-
The American Dance Therapy Association
ater games, concentration exercises,
2000 Century Plaza, Suite 108
mime, masks, and puppetry, scripted
Columbia, MD 21044
dramatizations, and open-ended
Tel: (410) 997–4040
scripts to further emotional growth and
Fax: (410)997–4048
psychological integration. Drama ther-
e-mail: ADTA@aol.com
apy can offer individuals a vision of
listserv: adta@list.ab.umd.edu
something outside the self and beyond
Founded in 1966, this membership and advocacy
a personal, subjective view of the world
group sets dance therapy eligibility standards,
to expand their universe.
holds annual national conferences, provides infor-
mation about graduate training programs, and The Origins of Drama Therapy
publishes the American Journal of Dance Therapy. Drama has been with us since the first
cave people came home from a hunt
and acted out their daring adventures
Further Reading: for an assembled group. Formal theater
came much later with dramas that pro-
Levy, F. Dance Movement Therapy: A Healing Art. vided moral and ethical lessons for peo-
Reston, VA: American Alliance for Health, Phys- ple, as well as comedies to entertain
ical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 1992. and lighten their burdens. Religious
leaders recognized the power of drama
Payne, H. Dance Movement Therapy: Theory and as a method of teaching their beliefs to
Practice. London: Routledge, 1992. people and added theatrical elements
to their rituals. Theater practitioners
Sandel, S., S. Chaiklin, and A. Lohn, eds. Founda- have long been aware of the therapeutic
tions of Dance/Movement Therapy: The Life and value of drama.
Work of Marian Chace. Columbia, MD: The It took a little longer for the action
Marian Chace Memorial Fund of the American method of treatment combining psy-
Dance Therapy Association, 1993. chology, process-drama and theater to
356
Drama Therapy
357
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
comments heard after a good role play performers stay in role to answer ques-
are, “Now I know how my mother feels!” tions, and others offer workshops after
Or “I never thought of it that way before.” the performance.
The experience of being in someone
else’s shoes can be very insightful. Who Uses Drama Therapy?
In group drama therapy most thera- Since there are many techniques and
pists structure their sessions similarly variations of drama therapy, it is suit-
with a warm-up first to help the clients able for all age groups and populations.
feel comfortable and safe. When every- Most often it is practiced in groups and
one is ready, the main action, where role can be done in a variety of settings. Cur-
play is often used, comes next. Lastly rently drama therapists are working
comes the sharing or processing of the with every population that can benefit
session, which is equally if not more from any of the creative arts therapies,
important than the action section. including special education classes,
In the processing or sharing part of psychiatric patients, persons recovering
the session, the players talk about the from substance abuse, trauma victims,
feelings they had in their role during the dysfunctional families, developmental-
scene. If there is an audience, they are ly and physically disabled persons,
encouraged to express their feelings and prison and correctional facility inmates,
responses also. Other possibilities are anorexic and bulimic patients, AIDS
discussed. How else might the scene have patients, the homeless, the elderly, chil-
gone, or what else could the person say? dren, and adolescents. These therapists
Everyone is encouraged to make some provide services to individuals, groups,
contribution. The processing discussion and families in addition to conducting
is as important as the action, helping clinical research.
people realize that there is always more With some groups the drama therapist
than one solution to a problem. is brought in to deal with a certain issue or
Other types of group drama therapy offer training to deal with specific needs
include theater performances dealing of the group. For example, a drama thera-
with specific problem issues. These are pist may be contracted to work with a
most popular in community and school group of managers dealing with sexual
settings and usually address the kinds harassment. All the exercises, role plays,
of life choices facing students today, and explorations will deal with bringing
e.g., drug and alcohol use, sexual con- about a greater understanding and sensi-
duct, violence, and problems with par- tivity to that subject.
ents, teachers, and peers. Other groups
present a production that offers infor- Choosing a Drama Therapist
mation and/or education on a specific When choosing a drama therapist, veri-
subject such as AIDS, drug abuse, illit- fy that the person is an RDT, a registered
eracy, dealing with violence, etc. Some drama therapist. This is the only valid
RDT, registered drama therapist, is the only valid credential for drama therapists. RDTs
are registered through the National Association for Drama Therapy. Standards for regis-
tration include expertise in dramatic, theatrical, and performance media; an under-
standing of psychotherapeutic process with different populations in a variety of settings;
integration of the artistic and psychological aspects of drama therapy; and professional
expertise in the field of mental health and/or special education. An RDT/BC is board
certified to give training in drama therapy.
358
Halprin Life/Art Process
credential for drama therapists. RDTs Gersie, Alida. Dramatic Approaches to Brief Thera-
are registered through the National py. London: Jessica Kingsley, 1995.
Association for Drama Therapy and
have met rigorous standards for their Grainger, Roger. Drama and Healing: The Roots of
credentials. Standards of registration for Drama Therapy. London: Jessica Kingsley, 1990.
RDTs include the following: expertise in
dramatic, theatrical, and performance Landy, Robert. Drama Therapy: Concepts, Theories
media; an understanding of psy- and Practices. Second edition. Springfield, IL:
chotherapeutic process with different Charles C. Thomas, 1994.
populations in a variety of settings; inte-
gration of the artistic and psychological Salas, Jo. Improvising Real Life: Personal Story in
aspects of drama therapy; and profes- Playback Theatre. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt
sional expertise in the field of mental Pub. Co., 1993.
health and/or special education.
Schatner, Gertrude, and Richard Courtney. Drama
—Patricia Sternberg, RDT/BCT Therapy Vol. I and Vol. II. New York: Drama
Book Specialists, 1981.
T
RDT Registry is available and may be requested
he Halprin life/art process is an
from the national office as well as further informa-
integrative approach to move-
tion on the organization.
ment, the expressive and the thera-
peutic arts. It is used to evoke the
Further Reading: creative development and expression of
the whole person, and to foster person-
Bailey, Sally. Wings to Fly: Bringing Theatre Arts to al, interpersonal, and social transfor-
Students with Special Needs. Rockville, MD: mation. The discipline is based on the
Woodbine House, 1993. belief that dance and the expressive
arts, when connected with life con-
Emunah, Renee. Acting for Real: Drama Therapy cerns, can have a creative and healing
Process, Technique, and Performance. New York: role for an individual, the community,
Brunner/Mazel, 1994. and the environment.
One drama therapist explains her work with substance abuse groups: “I begin by saying
that drama therapy is an exploration of our strengths. I work with the imagination, help-
ing my patients learn how to use it as a problem-solving tool.” She goes on to say, “Often-
times patients who are invited to attend a drama therapy session will say, ‘I’m no actor’
or ‘I don’t know how to act.’ My answer to that is, ‘It’s not acting. It’s human behavior and
everybody does that.’” The ultimate compliment she hears about the benefits of drama
therapy after a session with this population is, “I never knew you could have so much fun
without being high!”
359
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The Halprin life/art process was and mental aspects of the individual,
originated by dance pioneer Anna Hal- often focusing on an identified life
prin in the 1950s at the San Francisco theme. For example, working with the
Dancer’s Workshop Company, a collab- theme balance/off balance, a class ses-
orating collective of dancers, musicians, sion might start with an exploration in
and visual artists. Halprin tried to devel- movement of the physical experience of
op a form of modern dance that could being in balance and off balance. The
foster the organic and authentic expres- student or client would then draw two
sion of the body, and integrate the emo- images inspired by the movement expe-
tions and imagination of the dancer. rience, which may be consciously or
Beginning in the 1960s, Anna Halprin unconsciously connected with a life
and her company worked with leaders experience. The drawings are given
in humanistic psychology, exploring titles that serve as a basis for a written
relationships between art and therapy. piece: prose, poetry, or a dialogue
Upon being diagnosed with cancer in between the two drawings. The theme
1972, Halprin devoted her research and balance/off balance is then reencoun-
teaching to the use of dance as a healing tered as the student creates an expres-
art, working with people challenging sive movement piece, which is
cancer, and later challenging AIDS. consciously connected with the draw-
Daria Halprin, Anna Halprin’s daugh- ings and written script.
ter, was an original member of the According to this discipline, an inte-
Dancer’s Workshop Company. She grated and healthy life includes and
developed applications of the Halprin honors creative expression. The Hal-
life/art process as a therapeutic and prin life/art process is interested in
educational model to advance personal how we can live artfully in our world
transformation. In 1978, Anna and Daria today, and how we can bring the trans-
Halprin founded the Tamalpa Institute formative power of art into our daily
to teach the Halprin life/art process in and community life. Practitioners apply
training programs, workshops, and their work as performance artists,
classes, all of which incorporate the teachers, and therapists. As leaders in
application of the expressive arts to psy- community settings, they work with
chology, education, and health. people and groups facing life-threaten-
The Halprin life/art process addresses ing issues, including cancer, AIDS, eat-
three dimensions of human experience: ing disorders, physical and sexual
the physical, emotional, and mental. The abuse, homelessness, addictions, and
physical is addressed through the study physical disabilities. Students have
and practice of basic principles of somat- applied their work to environmental
ic awareness, movement, and dance. The and cross-cultural issues.
emotional is addressed through the study
and practice of movement, drawing, and —Daria Halprin-Khalighi, M.A., CET
other therapeutic processes. The mental
is addressed through the study and prac-
tice of group facilitation methods, collec- Resources:
tive creativity, communication skills,
creative writing, and the presentation of Tamalpa Institute
theory. Each of these three aspects is stud- P.O. Box 794
ied and explored from the point of view of Kentfield, CA 94914
how it interrelates with all the other Tel: (415) 457–8555
aspects. Fax: (415) 457–7190
In the Halprin life/art process, e-mail: tamalpa@igc.apc.org
expressive art activities follow the Offers training programs, workshops, and classes in
model: move/draw/dialogue. This the Halprin life/art process. Upon completion of the
model evokes the physical, emotional, Practitioner Training Program, graduates are eligible
360
Journal Therapy
to apply for certification as an expressive arts thera- didn’t come into public awareness until
pist through the National Expressive Arts Associa- the 1960s, when Dr. Ira Progoff, a psy-
tion (NETA) and as a movement therapist through chologist in New York City, began offer-
the International Somatic Movement Education ing workshops and classes in the use of
and Therapy Association (ISMETA). The institute what he called the intensive journal
publishes a yearly newsletter, and distributes arti- method. Dr. Progoff had been using a
cles and books representing the Halprin life/art “psychological notebook” with his ther-
work. apy clients for several years. His inten-
sive journal is a three-ring notebook
with many color-coded sections for dif-
Further Reading:
ferent aspects of the writer’s psycholog-
ical healing. The Progoff method of
Halprin, Anna. Movement Ritual. Illustrated by
journal keeping quickly became popu-
Charlene Koonce. Kentfield, CA: Dancer’s Work-
lar, and today the method has been
shop/Tamalpa Institute, 1990.
taught to more than 250,000 people
through a network of “journal consul-
——. Moving Toward Life: Five Decades of Trans-
tants” trained by Dr. Progoff and his
formational Dance. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan
staff.
University Press, 1995.
In the late 1970s journal writing for
personal growth and emotional well-
Halprin, Daria. Coming Alive: The Creative Expres-
ness was introduced to a wider audi-
sion Method. Kentfield, CA: Tamalpa Institute,
ence through the publication of three
1990.
books. Dr. Progoff’s At a Journal Work-
shop (1978) detailed his intensive jour-
nal process and gave instructions on
how to set up an intensive journal for
J
ournal therapy is the act of writing Baldwin published her first book, One to
down thoughts and feelings to sort One: Self-Understanding Through Jour-
through problems and come to nal Writing, based on the adult educa-
deeper understandings of oneself or the tion journal classes she had been
issues in one’s life. Unlike traditional teaching. And in 1978 Tristine Rainer
diary writing, where daily events and published The New Diary, a compre-
happenings are recorded from an exte- hensive guidebook that for many years
rior point of view, journal therapy was the most complete and accessible
focuses on the writer’s internal experi- source of information on how to use a
ences, reactions, and perceptions. journal for self-discovery and self-
Through this act of literally reading his exploration.
or her own mind, the writer is able to
perceive his or her own problems more
clearly and thus feel a relief of emotion-
The Philosophy of Journal Therapy
In the 1980s many public school sys-
al and mental tension that has also been
tems began formally using journals in
shown to improve the immune system
both English classes and other curricu-
functioning of individuals.
la as well. These journals, often called
“dialogue” or “response” journals,
The Development of Journal Writing offered a way for students to develop
for Well-Being independent thinking skills and gave
Although people have written diaries teachers a method for responding
and journals for centuries, the thera- directly to students with individual
peutic potential of reflective writing feedback. Although the intention for
361
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
and eventually diagnose problems that Baldwin, Christina. One to One: Self-Understand-
stem from them. Journal therapy has ing Through Journal Writing. New York: Evans
been used effectively for grief and loss; & Co., 1977.
coping with life-threatening or chronic
illness; recovery from addictions, eating ——. Life’s Companion: Journal Writing as Spiritu-
disorders and trauma; repairing troubled al Quest. New York: Bantam Books, 1990.
marriages and family relationships;
increasing communication skills; devel- Oshinsky, James. The Discovery Journal. 2nd ed.
oping a healthier sense of self-identity; Odessa, MD: Psychological Assessment
getting a better perspective on life; and Resources, 1994.
clarifying life goals.
Progoff, Ira. At a Journal Workshop. New York:
—Kathleen Adams, M.A., LPC Dialogue House, 1978.
M
The Dialogue House
ulti-modal expressive arts thera-
80 E. 11th Street
py integrates various forms of
New York, NY 10009
arts into a therapeutic relation-
Tel: (212) 673-5880
ship to foster awareness, encourage
Fax: (212) 673-0582
emotional growth, and enhance rela-
Provides several intensive workshops that utilize
tionships with others. It promotes heal-
the journal therapy method.
ing through the transformative power of
both the arts and psychotherapy. By
The National Association of Poetry Therapy activating the imagination, this therapy
P.O. Box 551 enables self-exploration and self-
Port Washington, NY 11050 understanding; by working within more
Tel: (516) 944-9794 than one medium, it amplifies and
Web site: www.poetrytherapy.org. clarifies self-discoveries; and by
Multidisciplinary professional organization for expressing these discoveries through
students and practitioners of journal therapy. images, sound, movement, and words,
it expands communication.
Further Reading:
The History of Multi-Modal
Adams, Kathleen. Journal to the Self: 22 Paths to Expressive Arts Therapy
Personal Growth. New York: Warner Books, 1990. The arts have been brought together to
shape and express human experience
——. The Way of the Journal: A Journal Therapy since the dawn of civilization. Pale-
Workbook for Healing. Lutherville, MD: Sidran olithic cave paintings indicate that
Press, 1993. early humans used art as a means for
passing spiritual, social, and hunting
——. Mightier than the Sword: The Journal as a skills from generation to generation. In
Path to Men’s Self-Discovery. New York: Warner ancient Greece, dramas incorporating
Books, 1994. music, dance, and storytelling brought
363
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
365
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Rogers, N. The Creative Connection: Expressive mother’s heartbeat and breathing, and in
Arts as Healing. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behav- its mother’s rocking motions. The baby’s
ior Books. 1993. very first sign of life at birth, crying, is
seen by music therapists as combining
Journals: the primary elements of music—rhythm,
Lusebrink, V. “A Systems-Oriented Approach to movement, and sound—in the service of
the Expressive Therapies: The Expressive Ther- self-expression and communication
apies Continuum.” The Arts in Psychotherapy 5 with other people.
(1991): 395–403.
MUSIC THERAPY
art, and literature throughout the ages.
In the Bible, young David, known for his
musical talents, is brought to play the
M
lyre before King Saul, in the hope that
usic therapy is a profession that
this would alleviate the King’s ill humor
believes in the therapeutic
(Samuel I, 16, 14–23). Greek mythology
potential inherent in music.
ascribed a divine origin to music. In the
Qualified music therapists use music
mythological world, music had magical
and/or musical elements such as
powers; people believed it could heal
sound, rhythm, melody, and harmony
sickness and purify the body and the
with individuals or groups to help peo-
mind. Among the Greeks, music was
ple improve, change, or better integrate
thought to be an activity related to the
different aspects of their selves. Listen-
pursuit of truth and beauty.
ing to, moving to, and creating music
The therapeutic power of music
are used to help resolve emotional,
plays an important role in the healing
social, familial, cognitive, physiological,
ceremonies of early cultures throughout
and developmental problems. While
the world. Healers and shamans use
recognition of the therapeutic powers of
chants, incantations, rhythmic playing
music is ancient and widespread, for-
of drums and rattles, clapping, and
mally, it became a type of therapy in the
stomping to induce hypnotic or ecstatic
1950s.
states. When in this altered state of con-
sciousness they communicate with the
Connecting the Basic Elements of spirit world, which helps them exorcise
Music to Human Development bad spirits, cure illnesses, and soothe
The fundamental elements of music— and relax patients.
sound, rhythm, hearing, and move- Everyday experience also points to
ment—and people’s prenatal and the psychological effect that music can
primary experience with these elements have on us. Most would agree that even
are paramount to music therapists. given varying musical tastes, certain
They consider music’s basic elements types of music create specific moods. A
essential in the development of human wedding march creates a different
beings and deeply rooted in the very mood than does a funeral dirge. Scary
beginning of a human life. Research movies use ominous music to create
shows that the human fetus can hear at suspense. Bands play lively music at
four months of fetal life. A developing sporting events to excite the crowd. A
fetus hears voices, noises, and the doctor may play quiet easy-listening or
sounds of its own and its mother’s classical music in his waiting room to
heartbeat and digestive system. After help soothe patients. Mothers sing to
birth, a baby continues experiencing and rock their babies in times of dis-
rhythm and beat in the sound of its tress.
366
Music Therapy
367
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
ways. For example, one might choose to Another type of music therapy uses
play an instrument, sing, or write words recorded music as a stimulus for explor-
to a song. This musical experience ing the self. Clients are induced to a state
occurs in the “here and now” but later of relaxation through breathing and sug-
becomes material for discussion and gestive imagery. Music carefully selected
the development of better self-under- by the therapist is played, and the client
standing. is invited to explore images, sensations,
368
Music Therapy
memories, and visions prompted by the been used by therapists to help people
music. Sometimes the client achieves an recovering from accidents, including
altered state of consciousness, which is individuals recovering from cerebro-vas-
usually extremely positive and relaxing cular accidents and major surgery.
and can lead to self-discovery. After the
listening experience, the client is brought —Adva Frank-Schwebel
out of the relaxed state and is invited to
discuss the experience with the therapist.
In some models the client is invited to Resources:
choose preferred selections and listen,
American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT)
move, or paint to that music.
P.O. Box 27177
Music is also used in family and group
Philadelphia, PA 19118
therapy. Special techniques have been
Tel: (215) 265-4006
developed to utilize music’s inherent
Association for professional music therapists that
social character. One outstanding feature
publishes the journal Music Therapy and also
of the art of music is the possibility to
produce and perceive several sounds holds conferences. It also determines credentials for
simultaneously as with orchestras, certified music therapists (CMTs).
ensembles, and choirs. Although some-
thing of this sort takes place in all of the National Association of Music Therapy (NAMT)
performing arts, its effect is most dramat- 8455 Colesville Road, Suite 930
ic in music. For example: members of a Silver Spring, MD 20910
family in therapy may be asked to choose Tel: (301) 589-3300
a musical instrument and then improvise Association of professional music therapists that
a performance. The “music of the family” provides registered music therapist (RMT) creden-
proves to be enormously indicative in tials. It also publishes the Journal of Music Thera-
showing who is “in harmony” with whom py and holds music therapy conferences.
in the family, who gets the role of making
“disturbing noises” or “clashing sounds,” Further Reading:
who picks a very loud instrument that
prevents everybody else from being Books:
heard, or who gives up playing their
favorite instrument because someone Bonny, H., and L. Savary. Music and Your Mind:
else demanded it. Group or family musi- Listening with a New Consciousness. New York:
cal improvisations often reveal hidden Harper and Row, 1973.
agendas, tensions and dilemmas, self-
defeating communication patterns, and Bruscia, K. E. Improvisational Models of Music Ther-
other problems. These problems are apy. Springfield, IL: C. Thomas Charles, 1987.
sometimes easier to perceive, express,
and deal with when manifested in music. Feder, S., R. L. Karmel and G. H. Pollock, eds. Psy-
choanalytic Exploration in Music. Madison, CT:
The Benefits of Music Therapy International Universities Press, 1990.
Music therapy is suitable for individuals
of all ages, even young babies. Music Maranto, Cheryl Dielo, ed. Perspectives on Music
therapy is used to help autistic children Therapy Education and Training. Philadelphia,
acquire communication skills. It has PA: Temple University, 1987.
been shown to improve the skills of indi-
viduals with learning disabilities, and to Nordoff, Paul, and Clive Robbins. Creative Music
help people deal with emotional, social, Therapy. New York: John Day Co., 1977.
and familial problems. Music therapy is
utilized in individual, family, and group Priestley, Mary. Music Therapy in Action. St. Louis:
settings, as well as with couples. It has MMB Music, 1985.
369
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Sekeles, Charles. Music, Motion and Emotion: The started using the various expressive arts
Developmental-Integrative Model in Music in order to soothe patients’ anguish and
Therapy. St. Louis: MMB Music, 1996. as a medium to encourage dialogue and
social interaction. The general population
Verney, T., and G. Kelly. The Secret Life of the has also used poetry and literature as a
Unborn Child. London: Sphere Books, 1981. form of catharsis. For example, one might
be cheered by a limerick, or be comforted
Journals: by an eloquent expression of grief that a
Noy, P. “The Psychodynamic Meaning of person feels speaks to his or her own
Music–Part II.” Journal of Music Therapy, 4 (1): emotions. Robert Haven Schauffler wrote
7–23. a prescriptive book called The Poetry
Cure: A Pocket Medicine Chest of Verse,
which was published in 1925. The book
contains numerous poems that are cate-
POETRY THERAPY gorized for use with specific life prob-
lems.
The formal development of poetry
P
oetry therapy involves reading, therapy as a discipline begins with Jack
writing, reciting, and/or creating J. Leedy, a psychiatrist, who in 1969
poetry as well as other language founded the Association for Poetry
arts to cope with emotions related to Therapy (APT) in New York. In 1973,
psychological, physical, and social prob- Arthur Lerner, a psychologist and poet,
lems. Poetry therapy uses the imagina- founded the Poetry Therapy Institute in
tive and emotional qualities of all types California. In 1981, APT became formal-
of literature and is therefore not limited ly incorporated as the National Associa-
to the specific genre of poetry— tion for Poetry Therapy (NAPT). The
metaphor, poetry reading, journal writ- NAPT sponsors annual conventions
ing, song lyrics, storytelling, and prose and has helped set standards and pro-
writing may be used. It should be noted cedures for certification and registra-
that bibliotherapy, the use of reading to tion of poetry therapists.
help individuals, has an extensive histo-
ry and is now considered a part of poetry Human Experience Captured
therapy. For all practical purposes, the in Symbols and Images
terms are now synonymous. Many pro- Language and feelings are central to
fessionals such as social workers, psychol- both poetry and therapy. Similar to
ogists, nurses, physicians, counselors, and other arts therapies such as music and
special education teachers use poetry dance, poetry therapy concerns itself
therapy as a tool in their work. Other with symbolism, verbal and nonverbal
professionals have received advanced expression, rhythm, order, and balance.
training in poetry therapy methods and Psychotherapy, for example, often
developed it as their primary method of addresses an individual’s interpretation
practice. of certain past events and/or fears
about the present and future. Poetry has
Poetry: An Ancient Form of Therapy the capacity to capture similar human
The notion of poetry as therapeutic has experiences through symbols and
ancient roots. For ages poetry has been a images. Also, the rhythm of certain
method through which people have pon- poems can affect the reader’s mood.
dered the human condition and Some poems might be used for a calm-
expressed their sorrows, joys, and epipha- ing effect, while others might be used to
nies. The ancient Greeks made Apollo the energize clients.
god of both poetry and healing. In the Poetry therapy provides a vehicle for
early eighteenth century psychiatrists individuals to express what might be
370
Poetry Therapy
difficult to express under ordinary cir- poetry is part of the therapy. A poet
cumstances. By talking about a poem, might start a writing program in a run-
one can relate personal material. Often away shelter. In this case, the purpose
an emotional identification can be might be educational or life enriching
made with a poem that reflects a per- rather than therapeutic; however, the
son’s thoughts or feelings on a particu- therapeutic aspects of writing are rec-
lar matter. The poem can also help the ognized. Following are a number of
person to feel that he or she is not alone. ways in which poetry is used to help
Writing a poem (or letter, story, or jour- people:
nal entry) can be empowering by pro-
viding a sense of order and control to an • Introduce an existing poem to an
individual. The act of writing integrates individual, group, or family and
one’s thinking, feeling, and behaving. invite reactions. The theme of the
The sharing of reactions to poetry or the poem should relate to the issues of
sharing of one’s own work also has the the individual or group. If a person is
potential to build interpersonal rela- having a hard time making an impor-
tionships and communication skills. tant decision, then a poem such as
Robert Frost’s “The Road Not Taken”
The Techniques of Poetry Therapy could be connected to the struggle of
There are a variety of techniques that the individual. A discussion of possi-
can be used depending upon the pro- ble “roads” that the person might
fessional’s education and training. For take could follow.
example, a social worker might use a • Collaborative poems. Sometimes
poem to validate a feeling or promote communication breaks down in fami-
insight with a depressed individual in a lies and conflicts develop. Each mem-
therapy session. In this situation the ber of a family is invited to contribute
371
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
372
Poetry Therapy
PROBLEM POEM
373
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Leedy, Jack J., ed. Poetry as Healer: Mending the propounded by Swiss psychotherapist
Troubled Mind. New York: Vanguard Press, C. G. Jung. Though children are the
1985. [Note: This book is a combination of two usual clients of sandplay therapy, it is
previous classics edited by Leedy, Poetry Thera- also used effectively with adults on
py (1969) and Poetry the Healer (1973).] their spiritual path to individuation.
S
andplay therapy is a form of because of the ever-present danger of
psychological treatment that cen- imposing adult norms on childhood
ters upon play with a vast collec- experiences. Nonetheless, she believed
tion of miniature figures and two that the world technique offered a
sandboxes, one that contains damp means of gaining privileged access to
sand, the other one dry. Unlike verbal the world of the child for both diagnos-
therapies that deal directly with inner tic and therapeutic purposes.
memories, sandplay involves the con- Dora Kalff, a Swiss therapist, brought
struction of scenes in which self- Lowenfeld’s work into the second half of
expression can be indirect and the twentieth century, and she never
nonverbal. This therapeutic approach doubted the healing powers of this tech-
is considered particularly appropriate nique. Kalff’s training at the Jung Insti-
for children because it provides a safe tute in Zurich led her to view the
way to act out troubling feelings that miniatures as a counterpart to Jungian
may be at the root of behavioral prob- archetypes. Kalff was influenced by Ger-
lems. Furthermore, the scenes them- man Jungian analyst Erich Neumann’s
selves are thought to be a sensitive studies of child development; she was
approach to determine the way mind able to correlate her observations of
and body come together in the totality sandplay constructions with Neumann’s
of personal development. Sandplay theories. According to Kalff, the healing
therapy’s most widely used theoretical powers of sandplay therapy, as she
model makes use of symbols and termed her variant of world technique,
archetypes derived from the theories are explained by its capacity to help
374
Sandplay Therapy
traumatized children in their struggle field. For instance, the analyst is aware
toward internal ego support and full that a child’s mother has died. It is to be
autonomy. assumed that the child in therapy will
An understanding of Jungian arche- seek to connect with the lost mother in
types and the archetypal level of the psy- some way. If the analyst is aware of the
che is what differentiates this approach archetypal level of the psyche, he or she
to sandplay from other theories. Jung’s will be able to observe, for example,
structure of the psyche proposes that when the Great Mother archetype (in
the psyche is made up of three levels: the both her positive and negative forms)
conscious, the personal unconscious, emerges. This can enhance the analyst’s
and the collective unconscious, which is unspoken understanding of this child’s
the area wherein the archetypes are struggle and deepen the connection
found. An archetype is simply a model between child and therapist.
or prototype of an idea, such as the
“Great Mother,” the “Wise Old Man,” the A System of Representation
“Hero,” the “Anima/Animus,” or the As taught by Kalff, sandplay therapy is
“Ego/Self.” Archetypes are two-sided, based on the belief that symbols and
having both positive and negative myth constitute a world history of, and
aspects. They are believed to be in the psychological “guidebook” to, the ways
psyches of all people in all cultures. by which human beings come to an
Knowledge of the archetypes allows the understanding of themselves and their
analyst to transmit his or her under- culture. By providing ready access to
standing of the client’s struggle, most this system of representation, sandplay
often nonverbally, in the interactive therapy enables clients to explore and
375
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Books:
The Benefits and Risks of Sandplay Carey, Lois. Sandplay with Children and Families.
Therapy Northvale, NJ: Jason Aronson, Inc., 1998.
While sandplay therapy poses no
unusual risks to clients, it does require Friedman, Harriet, and R. Mitchell. Sandplay: Past,
the help of a skilled analyst if the full Present and Future. London: Routledge, 1994.
Despite Dora Kalff’s book Sandplay and many lectures, training in sandplay therapy has
never been widely available. While some advocates remain committed to the Kalff-Jung
legacy and offer a pure form of sandplay, a growing number of analysts and educators
approach it on a pragmatic basis as a natural form of healing with strong affinities to art
and play therapy.
376
Sandplay Therapy
377
PART XVI: BODY-ORIENTED
PSYCHOTHERAPIES
Bioenergetics • Bodynamic Analysis • Core Energetics • coreSomatics® •
Emotional-Kinesthetic Psychotherapy • Focusing • Gestalt Therapy •
TM
Hakomi Integrative Somatics • Holotropic Breathwork • Medical Orgone
Therapy • Organismic Body Psychotherapy • Pesso Boyden System Psy-
chomotor • Process Oriented Psychology • Psychodrama • Psychosynthe-
sis • Radix • Rebirthing • Rubenfeld Synergy Method • Unergi
Body-oriented psy-
chotherapies are healing
modalities that use the
body to help solve emo-
tional problems. The term
“body oriented psy-
chotherapy”traditionally
refers only to methods in
which physical body pos-
tures or types and physical
behavior patterns are used
to diagnose and treat emo-
tional disorders. However,
this volume expands that
definition to include many
other methods that rely on
a variety of physical activi-
ties to affect mental and
emotional health. Although
some people mistrust their
unusual methods, many
Photo: © Joel Gordon
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
B
ioenergetics is a form of body- Research in New York, that he felt he
oriented psychotherapy developed found an answer to his own questions
by American doctor Alexander about the nature of the relationship
Lowen during the mid-twentieth centu- between body and mind. Lowen studied
ry. Based on the groundbreaking work with Reich from 1940 to 1952 and under-
of Austrian psychotherapist Wilhelm went therapy with him from 1942 to 1945.
Reich, bioenergetics views body, mind, During these exciting and inspiring years
and spirit as interdependent and he finished premedical studies and
reflective of each other. By combining trained to become a Reichian therapist.
active bodywork exercises with verbal Lowen saw his first patient in 1945. Dis-
therapy, Bioenergetics therapists aim to appointed with his progress with his early
liberate both body and mind from patients, Lowen spent the years from Sep-
restrictive holding patterns, helping tember 1947 to June 1951 studying medi-
people to live freer, more pleasurable, cine and earning his M.D. degree from
fulfilling lives. Geneva University in Switzerland.
Although Lowen believed he had
Origins of Bioenergetics made substantial progress in his own
Bioenergetics was developed by Alexan- therapy with Reich, he felt that many of
der Lowen, M.D. (1910– ), a student of his own conflicts had not been fully
Wilhelm Reich, M.D. (1897–1957). Reich, resolved. He perceived that the physical
the founder of medical orgonomy and a and emotional freedom gained in his
colleague of the seminal psychoanalyst therapy with Reich did not necessarily
Sigmund Freud, is generally credited as transfer to real-life situations. After his
the first person in modern Western psy- return from Europe, Lowen spoke with
chotherapy to incorporate working several other former patients of Reich,
directly with the body in psychothera- most notably John Pierrakos, M.D., who
peutic treatment. He explored the body’s felt the same way.
involuntary responses to emotional situ- In 1953, working together with Pier-
ations to arrive at his own theoretical rakos, Lowen set out to develop the
construct of human personality. techniques of Reichian therapy so that
Reich believed that neuroses, or per- deeper, more pervasive improvement
sonality problems, are anchored in the could result. He believed a more active
body as chronic muscular tensions. He physical approach, as well as a deeper
observed that chronic muscular tensions analytical approach, was needed. For
decreased a person’s general energy level three years Lowen experimented with
and ability to feel all emotions, particu- Reich’s bodywork techniques, using
larly pleasurable ones. Reich believed Pierrakos to apply pressure directly on
that deepening a person’s involuntary Lowen’s chronically tensed muscles.
breathing process was key to releasing The exercises he developed form the
chronic muscular tension and opening basis of bioenergetics. During this time
muscular tissue to the full streaming of Lowen and Pierrakos met regularly with
psychological and physical energy. another Reichian associate, Dr. William
As a young man, Alexander Lowen Walling, M.D., in clinical seminars that
noted that regular physical activity enriched Lowen’s theoretical under-
improved his physical and emotional standing of Reich’s approach as well.
state. He became interested in tech-
niques that developed the body-mind Breaking Down Body Armor
relationship, such as Emile Jacques Dal- Bioenergetics is based on a model of
croze’s eurythmics, Edmund Jacobson’s the human personality as comprised of
382
Bioenergetics
383
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Reich had his patients lie on a bed and do deep-breathing exercises. He applied pressure
to chronically held muscles to help a person feel the pain of holding them tense and
release the holding. He would direct a person to change the position of the body in some
subtle way that allowed the energy and the feeling to flow out in an open channel. Lowen
describes in his book Bioenergetics (1975) his first therapy session with Reich. Lowen lay
on a bed in bathing trunks and began to breathe deeply; at the point he began to relax,
Reich asked him to drop his head back and open his eyes wide. When he did this he
screamed involuntarily, thus releasing a feeling he had unconsciously blocked for many
years as well as freeing up the energy that had been used to hold it back.
384
Bodynamic Analysis
B
odynamic analysis helps people word go together. Finally the no move-
resolve life problems by building ment lessens or disappears and the
new coping skills, also known as word “no” stays. In this way Marcher
“resources,” in the body and psyche. believed the timetables for the evolu-
Bodynamic analysis describes resources tion of motor patterns and psychologi-
as the normal physical and psychologi- cal and social patterns are intimately
cal abilities that are learned during linked.
healthy childhood development. Devel-
oped principally by Scandinavian phys- Theory of Bodynamic Analysis
ical educator Lisbeth Marcher in the Bodynamic analysis is based on a funda-
1970s, bodynamic analysis is based on mental way of thinking about the role the
an intricate theory that links specific body plays in shaping who people are and
385
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
how they think, feel, love, play, work, child masters her or his own abilities
and grow. By observing the unfolding within the context of peer group activi-
pattern of motor development in chil- ty. By determining the stage or age at
dren, bodynamic analysts see how the which a person feels stuck, bodynamic
child’s motor system is intimately linked analysis is able to help that person
to core self-development. By linking a resolve past traumas and move him or
person’s spontaneous movements to the her toward gaining new resources.
underlying psychological expression, Bodynamic analysts believe that the
bodynamic analysts believe they are thread that runs through all these stages
able to pinpoint the origins of the is the child’s intense desire and drive
difficulties that people experience in toward establishing deep, powerful
their present lives. connections to the outside world. Body-
Bodynamic analysis is based on the namic analysts call this drive mutual
concept of seven overlapping stages of connection, and believe it informs the
child development named by Marcher. basic movement of life energy. Ulti-
These seven stages are related to the mately what is most traumatic to the
psychological characteristics of each growing child is when the bond
particular stage. They are the existence between the child and others is dis-
stage (second trimester–3 months), turbed or broken.
when the child first develops a sense of
secure existence; the need stage (0–18 What a Typical Session Is Like
months), when physical bonding and A typical session of bodynamic analysis
contact are established and core body often begins with an agreement to focus
rhythms of eating, sleeping, etc., are on a specific issue, such as the ability to
set; the autonomy stage (8–30 months), establish and maintain fulfilling rela-
when the child begins to move directly tionships, or with an ongoing develop-
out into the world through crawling, mental issue or stage. Sessions may
walking, and grasping; the will stage focus on body sensations, paying atten-
(2–4 years), when the child learns to tion to any impulses, movements,
manage power and master loving and images, or memories that emerge. The
angry feelings and begins to develop a person’s posture, movements, and lan-
structuring of the world through plan- guage begin to tell a story. The story is
ning and role formation; the love/sexu- developed by expanding the move-
ality stage (3–5 years), when loving and ments, and through supportive touch,
sexual feelings emerge more intensely; role playing, or working with early his-
the opinion stage (5–8 years), when the torical experiences. Most healing is
child learns to express ideas and com- accomplished by an integration of sens-
pare them with the world around her or ing, experiencing, moving, and think-
him; and finally the solidarity/perfor- ing, in the context of the supportive
mance stage (7–12 years), when the relationship with the practitioner.
Bodymap™
In bodynamic analysis, there is a way to see our body profile in a muscle test called the
Bodymap™. This is a process in which each muscle is tested for four degrees of hyper- and
four degrees of hypo-response as well as a healthy response. This is then charted visually
on a map of the body, which becomes available for detailed interpretation of a person’s
early history. Therapists then look to see at what ages and in what ego aspects individuals
may be most held or blocked, and in what areas they are the most developed and
resourced. This information helps clients understand themselves and guides therapy.
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Core Energetics
C
Because therapist and recipient are ore energetics is a mode of healing
able to focus on specific issues, body- that combines bodywork, psy-
namic analysis often works well as a chotherapy, and a spiritual process
short-term intensive therapy; however, called the pathwork to activate the greater
it is more often seen as a long-term consciousness dwelling within every
commitment. While bodynamic ana- human soul to release and strengthen
lysts try to work from people’s innate human energy at all levels—physical,
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
SPIRIT
WILL
MIND
EMOTIONS
BODY
emotional, mental, and spiritual. Unlike circles because of his unorthodox views
conventional psychiatric or medical on the fundamental nature of the
therapies, core energetics views the human organism. He maintained that
spiritual dimension of life as an essen- the body is infused with an invisible
tial component in the process of recov- energy known as orgone, which also
ery and growth. In fact, core energetics infuses all material aspects of the cos-
therapists believe that illness is a block mos. What happens in the body affects
in the life force said to be at the core of what happens emotionally and mental-
every individual. The core is called ly, therefore illness is to be understood
alternatively energy, love, or soul. as a dual body-mind phenomenon—a
According to core energetics theory, the notion that was alien to a medical pro-
unblocking of emotion promotes self- fession then organized around the sep-
healing and benefits a variety of mental aration of psychological and physical
and physical disorders from depression healing. Reich gave Pierrakos the
to chronic fatigue syndrome. framework for his life’s work as a holis-
tic physician committed to a search for
The History of Core Energetics effective body-mind treatments.
Core energetics, sometimes called the In the 1950s he and another physi-
core energetic evolutionary process, cian, Alexander Lowen, made Reich’s
was developed by John Pierrakos, a teachings the basis for bioenergetics, a
Greek-American doctor who started his body-oriented psychotherapy that uses
career as a follower of the innovative the body to diagnose and heal emotion-
Austrian psychiatrist Wilhelm Reich. al illness. Impressed by the parallels
Reich had come to America after the between Reich’s notion of orgone and
Nazi rise to power and soon began to ancient Eastern ideas of human energy,
stir controversy in American medical Pierrakos began researching the nature
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Core Energetics
of energy and human energy fields. By has grown rapidly in the United States
the early 1970s he had formulated a and abroad. There are now branches of
theory of the human organism, still the Institute of Core Energetics in the
Reichian in broad outline, but incorpo- United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil,
rating the conception of chakras (or Germany, Switzerland, and Italy.
energy centers). He developed an inno-
vative system that looked at the chakras The Theory of Core Energetics
and correlated what he found to be Core energetics is based on the belief
their normal or abnormal functioning that the individual has an innate capac-
to the person’s psychological and phys- ity for love and a need to evolve and that
ical traits. Pierrakos became proficient these together constitute a life force of
at viewing the human energy field and virtually unlimited creative potential.
chakras. He observed the energy of Further, it is believed that health is a
people in a medical setting and was dynamic state found only when the
able to tell what other physicians need- individual realizes his or her creative
ed complex laboratory tests to show. potential in a process of personal
Eva Broch, a spiritual medium and growth and change. Though the move-
eventually Pierrakos’s wife, helped him ment receives its impetus from the life
complete his synthesis of Western and force, it occurs in the body, the vehicle
Eastern medical teachings. Her through which emotion, thought, and
confidence in the existence of the spiri- spirit are expressed.
tual, together with clinical observation Pierrakos is the first modern Western
that spiritual belief enhances patients’ physician to connect the ancient knowl-
recuperative powers, inspired Pierrakos edge of energy and spirituality to the
to risk going beyond the bounds of science of new physics and to the cur-
Western scientific reason in his rent medical practice of psychiatry. He
definition of human energy. It is ulti- has created a holistic approach by com-
mately spiritual in nature, he conclud- bining work with all five levels of human
ed, and cannot be fully understood existence in the human entity. These
unless its relationship to the human five levels are the physical body, feelings
capacity for love is recognized. The spir- and emotions, mind and thought, will,
itual dimension, love, and the life force and spirit.
became synonymous in Pierrakos’s Core energetics therapists believe
thought during the late 1970s. He built that we are made up of layers of energy.
core energetics on his work in bioener- At our center is the pulsing, moving
getic analysis and the inspiration he energy of life that Pierrakos calls the
obtained from the spiritual teachings of core. This is our life force, which, fol-
the pathwork, a spiritual process that lowing the laws of physics, seeks to
consists of learning to activate the expand and grow. When people are in
greater consciousness dwelling within touch with their life force, they feel love
every human soul. for themselves and their fellow crea-
In 1980 he founded an institute in tures. The next layer is the lower self,
New York City for study and training in which contains our wounded child and
the approach he called core energetics the dark side, or shadow part, of our
and regarded it as the culmination of nature. Core energetics theory con-
his career. Most forms of body psy- tends that we block our life force when
chotherapy and transpersonal work in we are not allowed to express our emo-
this country are informed by Dr. Pier- tional pain or negative emotions. This
rakos’s work in bioenergetic analysis energy becomes stagnant and will pro-
and core energetics. His work is unique duce a layer of defense, which becomes
because “the love force” is “the sub- the physical armoring. Next we put on a
stance and movement of life.” During the social mask designed to protect our-
last decade interest in core energetics selves. This mask, or false self, dampens
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The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
the vibrancy and buoyancy of the life use hands-on touch to help the receiver
center—the core. mobilize and direct energy through the
The process of this evolutionary body. All levels of the human entity—
work, therefore, is to unblock our physical, emotional, mental, and spiri-
defenses, move the stuck energy to cre- tual—are addressed as appropriate for
ate healthy flow, and transform the neg- the individual.
ative, distorted emotions back to the Treatment will be adjusted to the
core self. This is done by first penetrat- particular needs of the receiver and be
ing the mask, which uncovers the false different at each stage of therapy, but is
self; second, by working with the physi- always approached as an evolutionary
cal body, the body armoring; third, by process that leads from unmasking of
transforming the negative emotions of the shadow self to expression and
the dark side and allowing the primal transformation of pain to understand-
wounds to be expressed; fourth, sup- ing and acceptance that opening the
porting the core to be experienced as heart and feeling love is the healing
loving, joyful, and connected to all life; agent. Transformation occurs when the
and finally, this work organically leads client unmasks and expresses the ener-
to a deep understanding of a person’s gy of the wounded and lower self,
task and purpose in life. which then allows connection to the
According to core energetic theory, core/spirit.
it is of primary importance to teach
people to use their positive will, the will The Benefits of Core Energetics
of the heart, to live in the present, and Core energetics should not be confused
to be aware that people have choice in with conventional psychotherapy. It
each moment to create their own lives. teaches receivers about their capacity
for self-healing and launches them on a
Experiencing Core Energetics process of transformation that is ulti-
A typical session in core energetics lasts mately spiritual in nature. Proponents
approximately an hour. The receiver of core energetics credit it with provid-
may wear a leotard or bathing suit so ing a sense of well-being at all levels of
that the therapist can easily assess and human existence. It is also regarded as
treat the defenses built into the body. helpful for weight problems, panic
Initial work often involves breathing attacks, unresolved anger, posttraumat-
exercises to charge the system, bring ic stress, sexual dysfunction, repairing
awareness to the receiver, and start the troubled marital and familial relation-
process of release and transformation. ships, making major personal and pro-
There is always intensive work with fessional changes, and expanding
bodily movement and exercise and spiritual awareness.
emotional expression that unblock the
flow of the life force. The therapist may —Pamela L. Chubbuck, Ph.D.
Training in core energetics requires four years of course work and extensive personal
therapy at an Institute of Core Energetics. Generally prior involvement in another form
of therapy such as chiropractic or osteopathy is required for admission. The curriculum
features courses on anatomy, physiology, human energy theory, Reichian theory, bioen-
ergetics, and pathwork spirituality. One year of postgraduate study is required for those
who wish to become trainers of other core energetics therapists.
390
coreSomatics®
CORESOMATICS®
Fax: (212) 673-5939
Web site: www.core-energetics.org
A training and treatment center that organizes
C
workshops and lectures, publishes a newsletter,
and gives referrals to therapists trained in core oreSomatics® is a discipline
energetics. designed to increase awareness of
the ways our childhood, emo-
Institute of Core Energetics South tions, and experiences influence the
8733 Lake Drive posture and alignment of our bodies. In
Lithonia, GA 30058 coreSomatics, the habitual use of the
Tel: (770) 388-0086 body is seen as a mirror, reflecting all
Fax: (770) 388-0806 personal experience, creating a dynam-
A training and treatment center for core energetics, ic interdependence between the body
organizes workshops, lectures, and publishes a and the mind. In the nonjudgmental
newsletter. environment of coreSomatics, individu-
als identify and change limiting habitu-
Institute of Core Energetics West
al physical behaviors, leading to an
P.O. Box 806
improved state of mind and self-image.
Mendocino, CA 95160
The discipline combines the Feldenkrais
Tel: (707) 937-1825
Method® and the Alexander technique
Fax: (707) 937-3052
with gestalt therapy, Jungian psychology,
e-mail: lisycee@mcn.org
and the expressive arts therapies.
Offers treatment and training in core energetics.
coreSomatics was developed in the
1970s by Kay Miller. During the early
Further Reading: part of that decade, Miller created
countless theater games and sound and
Books: movement exercises for the improvisa-
Pierrakos, Eva. The Pathwork of Self-Transforma- tional theater company she had founded
tion. New York: Bantam, 1990. in 1974. The exercises gained recogni-
tion for their success with at-risk young
Pierrakos, John. Core Energetics: Developing the adults. By the late 1970s, Miller began to
Capacity to Love and Heal. Mendocino, CA: Life use theater exercises with the physical
Rhythm, 1990. process therapies of the Feldenkrais
Method and the Alexander technique.
——. Eros, Love, and Sexuality. Mendocino, CA: Integrating these with Jungian psycholo-
Life Rhythm, 1997. gy and gestalt therapy, Kay Miller creat-
ed coreSomatics. In 1983, the Somatic
Journals: Institute, Pittsburgh, was founded as a
Energy and Consciousness: International Journal of not-for-profit organization to provide
Core Energetics. Jacqueline Carlton, Ph.D., ed. research and education in coreSomatics.
coreSomatics is founded on the
premise that what the individual seeks, in
Videotapes: order to bring about personal improve-
ment and change, already exists in the
Chubbuck, Pamela. Say Yes to Life: Grounding and unconscious. Negative aspects such as
Loving Your Body. Lithonia, GA: The Institute of insecurity, self-doubt, fear, rigidity, and
Core Energetics South, ND. tension are seen as resulting from early
391
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
E
verbal expression, movement exercises, motional-kinesthetic psychothera-
and works with breathing patterns and py (EKP) is a discipline that incor-
existing posture. Body tensions and pain porates the body in psychotherapy,
are explored through imagery, sound, seeking to help clients integrate the
humor, and intuition. physical, emotional, and spiritual
In the process of the hands-on physi- aspects of their selves. It incorporates a
cal interventions and verbal expressions, variety of techniques, including touch,
individuals discover that their physical to facilitate this integrative process.
habits are connected to emotional and Therapists attempt to create an envi-
psychological memories, which are expe- ronment of emotional safety and
rienced as muscular armor, rigidity, ten- respect to allow clients to access and
sion, and pain. coreSomatics practitioners reveal their mind, body, heart, and
believe that it is through the physical and soul.
emotional releases of this process that EKP believes that there exist three
individuals find more effective ways to levels of human intelligence: cognitive
manage their lives and experience the (consisting of knowledge), emotional,
exuberance of having reclaimed their and somatic (consisting of body sensa-
fluidity, flexibility, and spontaneity. tions). According to EKP, the heart is the
coreSomatics has been used to reduce place where somatic and emotional
stress, relieve tension, and allow individ- intelligence meet. Any life difficulty or
uals to experience their lives more fully. body sensation can be accessed and
People have experienced significant explored by asking, “What’s happening
improvements in intelligence, sensory in your heart?” at a moment in time.
acuity, memory, and concentration. Emotional and somatic sensations con-
Improvements in mood, interpersonal tain information and experience that
relationships, productivity, and general inform a person’s thought process, and
health and wellness follow naturally. without which a person often cannot
move forward in his or her life.
—Kay Miller Linda Marks developed EKP from
her experience as a trauma survivor,
which led her to study approaches to
Resources: psychotherapy that study the body. EKP
draws extensively from Ron Kurtz’s
Somatic Institute, Pittsburgh Hakomi and incorporates aspects of
8600 West Barkhurst Drive Robert Assagioli’s psychosynthesis and
Pittsburgh, PA 15237 Eugene Gendlin’s focusing. EKP
Tel: (412) 366-5580 responds to clients’ particular needs by
392
Emotional-Kinesthetic Psychotherapy
F
ly experience, and then they keep their
ocusing, developed by Dr. Eugene
attention on it while it comes into
Gendlin, is a process that allows
focus. In essence, they attend to what
and encourages the mind and body
they don’t yet fully understand.
to communicate in order to heed the
In the realm of focusing, the “body”
wisdom that comes from our bodies.
means not only the physiological self,
The focusing process can be used by
but also the storehouse of experience
itself, and it also makes all types of psy-
that is carried there. Dr. Gendlin called
chotherapy and counseling more effec-
the body’s version a “felt sense.” By
tive. It facilitates problem solving,
learning to tune in to the bodily “felt
creative endeavors, stress reduction,
sense” of different experiences or
and spirituality. The six steps of focus-
difficulties, we can more easily resolve
ing invite people to unlock doors and
life issues and problems.
move into dimensions that cannot be
Another important assumption is
entered through intellect alone.
that every problem has within it some
wisdom about its next step, and some
The Development of Focusing positive life energy that wants to move
Dr. Gendlin, a professor who is both a forward or to be released. When we
philosopher and psychologist, devel- accurately name how the body is carry-
oped focusing while at the University of ing an experience, not only do we get
Chicago. The concepts of focusing new information and insights, but we
evolved from his work in existential get a physical release that feels good.
philosophy, which he wrote about in Currently, exciting work is being
The Creation of Meaning (1962) and done to bring focusing into education,
from his research in psychotherapy, into the healing and creative arts, into
which is described in an article entitled medicine, and into spirituality. The
“Focusing” in Psychotherapy: Theory, potential of this simple yet powerful
Research and Practice (Vol. 6., No. 1, tool continues to unfold. As Dr. Gendlin
1969). says, “One step in the body is worth a
Since 1969 Dr. Gendlin has been thousand steps in the mind.”
teaching focusing all over the world
and writing about it in numerous arti- How to Practice Focusing
cles and three books. There are certified Focusing can be learned from a book, but
focusing trainers located throughout is best learned from a person who guides
North America, as well as in South one through the process. Many people
America, Europe, and Asia. Training begin by learning it in a class or workshop
programs are available worldwide for or from a focusing teacher, and then con-
those who want to become certified tinue to practice with a focusing partner.
focusing trainers in order to teach or to Partners take turns so that each one has a
apply it toward other disciplines. chance to be the guide and the focuser.
394
Focusing
Focusing Instructions
1. CLEAR A SPACE
How are you? What’s between you and feeling fine?
Don’t answer; let what comes in your body do the answering.
Don’t go into anything.
Greet each concern that comes. Put each aside for a while, next to you.
Except for that, are you fine?
3. GET A HANDLE
What is the quality of the felt sense?
What one word, phrase, or image comes out of this felt sense?
What quality-word would fit it best?
4. RESONATE
Go back and forth between word (or image) and the felt sense. Is that right?
If they match, have the sensation of matching several times.
If the felt sense changes, follow it with your attention.
When you get a perfect match, the words (or images) being just right for this
feeling, let yourself feel that for a minute.
5. ASK
“What is it, about the whole problem, that makes me so__________?”
6. RECEIVE
Welcome what came. Be glad it spoke.
It is only one step on this problem, not the last.
Now that you know where it is, you can leave it and come back to it later.
Protect it from critical voices that interrupt.
Does your body want another round of focusing, or is this a good stopping place?
395
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
The focusing process involves six “hurt” she heaves a sigh of acknowledg-
steps. In the first step, the Focuser is ment. “Yes, that’s how I really felt when
invited to “clear a space,” which I hung up the phone.” She then senses
involves taking an inventory of the con- into the whole thing about being “hurt,”
cerns or issues that the person can and finds that it has to do with feeling
locate in his or her body at that time unrecognized and unseen. When she
and placing each “down” or outside the asks what this feeling of “hurt” needs, it
body. After the simple act of putting the becomes clear that the right step is to
problems down, the person often feels a talk to her boyfriend about her hurt and
distinct release. Clearing a space often disappointment, not about the anger,
releases stress and creates a safe dis- which has by now shifted.
tance from the issues or feelings that
are being carried around.
Next the focuser is asked to choose a
Benefits of Focusing
The benefits of focusing include
problem that needs attention right now
becoming aware that there is a realm of
and to ask in a friendly way, “How does
inner knowing that can be found in the
this whole issue feel in my body right
body, reducing stress or tension in the
now?” After a pause, the focuser checks
body-mind, and increasing one’s life
to see if a word, phrase, or, perhaps, an
energy. Focusing also offers a way to
image comes that feels like it matches
work through blocks, it facilitates effec-
the sensations inside. If there is a
tive problem solving and decision-mak-
match, the focuser usually feels a “yes”
ing, it promotes creativity, it improves
inside, which is followed by a sense of
the effectiveness of psychotherapy, and
bodily release. He or she then proceeds
it deepens spirituality.
to the next step. If there isn’t a match,
the focuser tries other words or images
—Joan Klagsbrun, Ph.D.
until a good fit is found. Then the
focuser sits with this body sense, just
“keeping it company,” or asking it open- Resources:
ended questions such as “What’s the
crux of this?”, “What does this problem The Focusing Institute
need?”, or “What’s a step in the right 34 East Lane
direction?” In the pause after each Spring Valley, NY 10977
question, the focuser is invited to let a Tel: (914) 362-5222 or (800) 799-7418
fresh answer arise from the body sense. e-mail: info@focusing.org
There is usually some physical relief or Web site: www.focusing.org
“felt shift,” as well as new insight that Provides training tapes, articles, and information
results. about teachers and focusing-oriented psychothera-
For example, a focuser might find on pists around the world. Publishes the journal
a given day that she is aware of three dif- Focusing Folio.
ferent and distinct unsettled feelings in
her body: one from an uncomfortable
conversation with her mother, one from Further Reading:
an argument with her boyfriend, and
one from worry about a test. After setting Boukydis, C. F. Z. “Client-Centered/Experiential
them all aside on an imaginary bench for Practice with Parents and Infants.” In Client-
a few moments, she chooses to work on Centered and Experiential Psychotherapy in the
the argument with her boyfriend. At first Nineties, edited by Lietar, G., et. al. Belgium:
she thinks the word that best describes Leuven University Press, 1990.
the tight feeling in her chest is “angry,”
but that doesn’t quite fit. She finds that Campbell, P., and G. McMahon. Biospirituality:
“hurt” better captures how she feels after Focusing as a Way to Grow. Chicago: Loyola
their argument. When she says the word University Press, 1985.
396
Gestalt Therapy
Cornell, A. Weiser. The Power of Focusing. San The History of Gestalt Therapy
Francisco: New Harbinger, 1996. The original theories and techniques of
gestalt therapy were formed by Laura
Friedman, Neil. On Focusing: How to Access Your and Frederick “Fritz” Perls from the sci-
Own and Other People’s Direct Experience. Self- entific and intellectual atmosphere of
Published (259 Massachusetts Ave., Arlington, Germany in the 1920s. After receiving
MA, 02174). his medical training, Fritz Perls began
working with brain-damaged soldiers at
Gendlin, E. T. “A Theory of Personality Change.” In Frankfurt-am-Main in 1926. During this
Personality Change, edited by Worchel and time he became interested in new theo-
Byrne. New York: Wiley, 1964. ries of the mind conceived by the exis-
tential philosophy of Martin Heidigger
——. Focusing. New York: Bantam, 1981. and Martin Buber and gestalt psycholo-
gy, developed by Max Wertheimer and
——. Let Your Body Interpret Your Dreams. Wil- Kurt Koffa. He became a psychoanalyst,
mette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1986. studying with people such as Karen
Horney and Wilhelm Reich, who were
——. Focusing Oriented Psychotherapy: A Manual expanding Sigmund Freud’s methods.
of the Experiential Method. New York: Guilford In the 1930s Fritz Perls went into thera-
Publications, 1996. py with Reich, who led him to believe
that the body was a critical aspect of
psychological therapy. Laura Perls stud-
ied with the influential thinkers Martin
Buber and Paul Tillich at the University
of Frankfurt. Often writing under her
GESTALT THERAPY husband’s name, she incorporated the
principles of existential philosophy and
theology into a framework of psycho-
G
estalt therapy is a form of logical therapy.
humanistic psychology that In 1934 Fritz and Laura Perls fled
attempts to help participants Nazi Germany for South Africa, where
develop awareness of their unresolved they established the South African
needs and emotions. Gestalt therapy’s Institute for Psychoanalysis. Ego,
notion of the mind is based on psycho- Hunger, and Aggression, published in
analysis, gestalt psychology, existential- 1942, outlined the principles that were
ism, and the theories of Wilhelm Reich. to become the foundation of gestalt
A person is thought to be psychological- therapy. In 1946 they moved to New
ly healthy when he or she is aware of his York City, where they began conducting
or her needs and is able to resolve them gestalt group therapy sessions in their
in an effective way. Gestalt therapists try apartment. The Gestalt Therapy Associ-
to identify when their clients are block- ation of New York was established in
ing emotions by observing their move- 1952, followed by the Gestalt Institute
ments and postures. Instead of of Cleveland in 1954. Through the
investigating the past, gestalt therapists 1960s, gestalt therapy’s popularity grew.
address clients’ problems and emotions Fritz and Laura Perls moved to Califor-
as they manifest in the present nia in 1960 and conducted workshops
moment, often using techniques that throughout the West Coast. In his work-
require the client to act out his or her shops, Fritz Perls established himself as
emotions. By urging people to confront a leader and a guru. Many participants
their emotions, gestalt therapy seeks to accused him of abusing his power. He
help them make choices, interact with continued to promote gestalt therapy
others, and relieve the physical symp- until his death in 1970. The variety of
toms of anxiety and stress. techniques developed throughout the
397
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
398
Hakomi Integrative Somatics
Benefits
Many individuals choose gestalt therapy
to become more emotionally expressive
and more confident in their ability to HAKOMI INTEGRATIVE
make decisions, and to develop greater
self-awareness. An individual may
attend a group session to improve the
SOMATICS
way he or she relates to others. Or a
H
group of family members or coworkers akomi integrative somatics is a form
may attend together to develop more of therapy that combines bodywork
successful ways of interacting. Gestalt with elements of psychological
399
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
counseling. It grew out of the hakomi physical changes were more enduring.
method of body-centered psychotherapy, Ogden’s efforts to join hands-on body-
founded by Ron Kurtz. Both forms of work and movement work with psy-
hakomi view the mind and body as a sin- chotherapy resulted in the formation of
gle integrated organism, in which past Hakomi Integrative Somatics.
traumas, both mental and physical, are
“somaticized,” that is, manifested in the Increasing Self-Awareness
body as habitual tension and strain. Hakomi is founded on the premise that
Fixed attitudes and patterns of behavior human beings are self-organizing; we
are similarly formed. Hakomi integra- continually and creatively adapt our
tive somatics seeks to teach students to perceptions and behaviors in accor-
bring these unconscious habits to con- dance with our environment. Eventual-
scious awareness, understand them, ly, however, we may form fixed attitudes
and change them. about ourselves and these may become
unconscious attitudes, or “core organiz-
The History of Hakomi ers,” that can limit us to habitual, auto-
Kurtz based his original techniques of matic styles of being and relating to the
hakomi psychotherapy on his knowl- world. Further, they can restrict our
edge of Taoism, Buddhism, and various creativity and capacity for personal
body-mind disciplines, including fulfillment. Core organizers are held
Reichian therapy and bioenergetics. His and expressed in belief systems and
studies in these areas led him to emotional habits, as well as in body
observe that a person’s psychological structure and movement patterns.
defenses arise from a desire to avoid Hakomi recognizes two distinct types of
pain; thus, Kurtz believed, they are wounds that affect the formation of
more readily overcome when they are core organizers: developmental and
gently supported rather than opposed. traumatic. Developmental wounds
He developed hakomi into a method of arise from the unsatisfactory comple-
psychotherapy that strives to evoke and tion of learning tasks. Such tasks
process inner experiences through include learning to get one’s needs met
techniques of “mindfulness,” an East- and learning to be autonomous. Trau-
ern meditative technique for becoming matic wounds occur in overwhelming
aware of one’s feelings and sensations situations in which actual survival is
in the present moment. threatened, such as abuse, accidents,
In the mid-1970s, Pat Ogden, an surgery, and war. When we suffer from
apprentice to Kurtz and a student of either kind of wound, we may become
various bodywork therapies, became habitually dissociated from one or more
intrigued with the pervasive pattern in of our core organizers.
her patients’ dissociation of the mind In hakomi integrative somatics, a heal-
from the body. She also noticed that ing relationship between therapist and
bodywork therapies and psychotherapy patient is established, providing a crucial
were generally practiced independently element in the creation of a context in
of each other. Wanting to forge the two which the cooperation of the patient’s
approaches into a tool for treating unconscious may be gained. Then, by
body-mind dissociation, Ogden began means of exercises combining bodywork
to include bodywork in psychotherapy with verbalizations by the patient, core
sessions. She found that her patients organizers are brought to consciousness
negotiated the healing process in a and new information about them
more integrated way and with more becomes available. In this experiential,
lasting results. In addition, she found rather than cognitive (analytical, think-
that by incorporating the psychological ing-based), process, the patient can
processing of emotional material dur- explore new options—both physical
ing a bodywork session, a patient’s and psychological—and spontaneously
400
Hakomi Integrative Somatics
reorganize toward health. The patient that is the language of the body. This
also learns ways to deepen his or her awareness becomes a powerful healing
awareness of the connection between tool for it naturally expands the
the body and the mind. He or she patient’s sense of a physical self—an
becomes more attuned to the ever- essential step in correcting the dissocia-
changing flow of wordless information tion of the mind from the body.
401
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
H
sesses. The therapist approaches the olotropic Breathwork
TM
is a
client in a manner that acknowledges recently developed method of
that client’s abilities, rather than adopt- self-exploration that combines
ing a stance that focuses exclusively on rapid, deep breathing, evocative music,
problems and supposed deficiencies. and focused bodywork. The term
“holotropic” is derived from the Greek
Integrating the Body and Mind holos, meaning “whole” and trepin,
Hakomi integrative somatics can enhance meaning “to move in the direction of.”
physical, psychological, and spiritual well- Holotropic Breathwork aims to bring
being. By working simultaneously with the mind and body together in a trance
the body and the mind, Hakomi can often state, which furnishes access to buried
uncover information that remains uncon- memories and aspects of consciousness
scious in conventional therapies and can hidden under ordinary conditions.
402
Holotropic BreathworkTM
403
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Training
Certification at the Grof Transpersonal Training center requires 150 hours of general expe-
rience in Holotropic Breathwork, 350 hours of training combining theory and practice,
and a final two-week seminar. The instruction focuses upon breathwork techniques and
correlated issues ranging from childhood sexual abuse to paranormal psychology and
shamanism. The certification program takes at least two years to complete.
404
Medical Orgone Therapy
of their lives. Practitioners of the disci- Grof, Stanislav, and Hal Bennett. The Holotropic
pline believe that the technique pro- Mind. San Francisco: Harper San Francisco,
motes self-healing through the release 1992.
of accumulated stress and trauma and
greater connection with physical, emo- Scotton, Bruce, Allan Chinen, and John Battista,
tional, and spiritual parts of oneself. eds. Textbook of Transpersonal Psychiatry and
Psychology. New York: HarperCollins Publishers,
—Kylea Taylor, M.S. 1996.
Association for Holotropic Breathwork Interna- ——.The Ethics of Caring. Santa Cruz, CA: Han-
tional ford Mead Publishers, 1995.
P.O. Box 7169
Santa Cruz, CA 95061-7169 Wilber, Kenneth. The Spectrum of Consciousness.
Web site: www.breathwork.com Wheaton, IL: Theosophical Publications, 1977.
Membership group that organizes conferences and
publishes a quarterly newsletter, The Inner Door,
with articles on Holotropic Breathwork research
and practice.
East-West Retreats
MEDICAL ORGONE THERAPY
P.O. Box 12
M
Philo, CA 95466 edical orgone therapy is a
Tel: (707) 895-2856 unique approach to treating
Organizes Buddhist Vipassana/Holotropic Breath- emotional and physical illness
work workshops. by reducing or eliminating those barri-
ers that block the natural expression of
Grof Transpersonal Training emotion and healthy sexual feeling.This
20 Sunnyside, Suite A-253 method of treatment was developed by
Mill Valley, CA 94941 Austrian psychiatrist and scientist Wil-
Tel: (415) 383-8779 helm Reich, M.D. (1897–1957). After
Web site: www.holotropic.com years of clinical and experimental labo-
Trains and certifies practitioners of Holotropic ratory research, Reich concluded that
Breathwork, provides referrals to certified emotions, sexual feelings, and all life
practitioners, and publishes the Grofs’ lecture and processes are expressions of a biological
conference schedule. energy in the body. He further concluded
that this life energy is related to bioelec-
tricity but is fundamentally different. He
Further Reading: called this energy “orgone energy.” Reich
theorized that orgone energy fills the
Grof, Christina. The Thirst for Wholeness. San universe and pulsates in all living
Francisco: HarperCollins Publishers, 1993. things. He believed that deep, genuine
love and the ability to experience a grat-
Grof, Stanislav. The Adventure of Self-Discovery: ifying orgasm mutually with one’s part-
Dimensions of Consciousness and New Perspec- ner are the fullest and deepest
tives in Psychotherapy and Inner Exploration. expressions of our being and are central
Stonybrook: SUNY Press, 1988. to maintaining optimal health.
Reich contended that in almost all
——. Realms of the Human Unconscious. London: individuals, the flow and release of
Souvenir Press Ltd., 1975. orgone energy are blocked by chronic
405
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
Photo: Corbis–Bettmann
Austrian psychoanalyst Wilhelm Reich is often referred to as the father of body-oriented psychotherapies.
406
Medical Orgone Therapy
407
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
their natural capacities to enjoy satis- ——. The Emotional Plague of Mankind: Vol. 1.
faction in love, work, and the pursuit of The Murder of Christ. New York: Orgone Insti-
knowledge. tute Press, 1953.
—Peter A. Crist, M.D., ——. Reich Speaks of Freud. New York: Farrar,
and Richard Schwartzman, D.O. Straus and Giroux, 1967.
Books:
Baker, Elsworth F. Man in the Trap. New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1967.
O
——.Children of the Future: On the Prevention of rganismic body psychotherapy is a
Sexual Pathology. New York: Farrar, Straus and form of psychotherapy developed
Giroux, 1983. by Malcolm and Katherine Brown
based on their belief that the body, mind,
——. Cosmic Superimposition: Man’s Orgonotic and spirit are interconnected, and that
Roots in Nature. Rangeley, ME: Wilhelm Reich life-enhancing benefits can be realized
Foundation, 1951. using techniques that involve the body as
well as the mind. Organismic body psy-
——. The Discovery of the Orgone:Vol. 1, The Func- chotherapy is termed neo-Reichian
tion of the Orgasm: Sex-Economic Problems of because it incorporates ideas put forth by
Biological Energy. Translated by Theodore P. Wilhelm Reich, such as the concept of
Wolfe. 2nd edition. New York: Orgone Institute body armoring, but makes significant
Press, 1948. modifications to Reich’s ideas. One of the
most important modifications is the
——.The Discovery of the Orgone: Vol. 2, The Can- belief that releasing body armor does not
cer Biopathy. Translated by Theodore P. Wolfe. have to be strong and highly emotional;
New York: Orgone Institute Press, 1948. rather, organismic body psychotherapy
theory recognizes the possibility of a
409
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
gradual, quiet release. Physical exercise, the abilities to sense, feel, think, and
verbal dialogue, and touch are com- intuit that lie within a person’s body.
bined to bring about release and even- The internal flowering of these faculties
tual physical, emotional, and spiritual enables a client to become relatively
well-being. self-trusting and to lead a rich life. To
awaken these self-healing resources,
organismic body psychotherapy tech-
The Development of Organismic
niques seek to engage the mental, emo-
Body Psychotherapy tional, and spiritual aspects of a client.
Organismic body psychotherapy was A key tenet of organismic body psy-
created by Malcolm and Katherine chotherapy is that the body as well as the
Brown. Malcolm Brown is a clinical psy- mind must be engaged in the therapeutic
chologist who has been strongly process because a client’s psychological
influenced by a variety of therapeutic defenses are also manifested at the body
models, including Fritz Perls and Kurt level. This physical manifestation of a
Goldstein’s writings on gestalt therapy, client’s defenses is called armoring and
Abraham Maslow’s humanistic psychol- consists of physical tensions that block
ogy, Carl Roger’s client-centered thera- emotion, feeling, and the ability to satisfy
py, and Jungian psychology as fundamental emotional needs. According
developed by Carl Jung and Erich Neu- to organismic body psychotherapy, these
mann. The writings of Alexander Lowen needs include the ability to connect with
in biogenetics introduced Brown to the others, the ability to connect to one’s inner
ideas of Wilhelm Reich and other body- self, the ability to see the outer world and
oriented psychotherapists. Brown has one’s inner self objectively and make
worked with Alexander Lowen and meaning of both, and the ability to fulfill
European neo-Reichian psychothera- personal goals.
pists, including Gerda Boyesan and According to the theoretical founda-
David Boadella, who are known for tion of organismic body psychotherapy,
developing a more subtle approach to there are three stages of growth in the
Reich’s work. therapeutic process. They are: loosen-
Katherine Brown is a therapist with a ing the armoring; resolving psychologi-
background in gestalt therapy, sensory cal conflicts; and finally, growth
awareness, and massage therapy. In combined with self-actualization.
1972 she attended a lecture given by Using these stages as a guide, the thera-
Malcolm Brown. She became very inter- pist attempts to identify a client’s cur-
ested in his theories and eventually rent state and to adjust the therapeutic
began collaborating with him. They modality accordingly. The process
subsequently married and started begins with more of a therapist-direct-
working as cotherapists with some of ed style and gradually becomes more
their respective clients. They found that patient-directed. Because organismic
practicing as a male-female therapist body psychotherapy is based on the
team was very effective. They coined belief that each individual is unique, it
the term organismic body psychothera- is believed that the unfolding and dura-
py for their work, and devoted the tion of each of these stages will be dif-
remainder of their professional pursuits ferent for each individual.
exclusively to training psychotherapists
in their methods. The Browns are now
semi-retired.
Mobilization Exercises
Among the techniques used to dissolve
the armoring are mobilization exercises
A Body-Mind Discipline and direct touch. Mobilization exercises
Organismic body psychotherapy is are done with a client standing or lying
designed to facilitate an increasing self- on a padded mat. They are designed to
reliance on the human faculties, such as release chronic armoring patterns,
410
Pesso Boyden System Psychomotor
P
crying or screaming, which are a result
of loosening of the armoring. esso Boyden system psychomotor
While working with the body is an (PBSP) therapy uses group therapy
elemental aspect of organismic body psy- to help patients recall, encounter,
chotherapy, sessions are not entirely non- and ultimately rebuild in a positive way
verbal. Verbal work, such as a discussion of their reactions to past events. The “psy-
emotional releases, dreams, or insight, cho” in psychomotor refers to the psy-
also plays an important role in the organ- che, or the mind. “Motor” refers to
ismic body psychotherapy process. bodily sensations and movements,
which include actions that may be
blocked in the body by trauma. Through
Feeling Connected group role-playing activities called
When applied properly, direct touch “structures,” PBSP patients relive long-
seems to increase a client’s awareness of past memories and emotions that have
his or her primary need to feel connect- saddled the patient with traumatizing
ed and related that often has been feelings of dissatisfaction. With the
unsatisfied since early childhood. More- guidance of the therapist and the assis-
over, direct touch seems to accomplish tance of the group, the patient under-
this without creating overwhelming goes emotional “reeducation”: the
anxiety or hardening a client’s defenses. truthful recollection of a painful event
Once the armoring has been loosened with a convincing reenactment of a
and healing has occurred through the happier conclusion.
resolution of psychological conflicts,
practitioners of organismic body psy-
chotherapy believe that a person’s An Innovative Movement Program
resources and faculties are accessible PBSP is based on the studies of Albert
for development of the soul. Pesso and Diane Boyden-Pesso, classi-
cally trained dancers and choreogra-
—Elliot Greene phers who, in the late 1950s, developed
their own style of expressive dance.
Much of their new style focused on the
Resources: development of emotional and physical
tools that could convincingly commu-
Washington Institute for Body Psychotherapy nicate internal feelings, visions, and
Elliot Greene and Barbara Goodrich-Dunn, Direc- ideas to an audience.
tors This research led Albert Pesso, in the
8830 Cameron Street, Suite 206 early 1960s, to publish an essay that
Silver Spring, MD 20910 placed all movement into three categories:
Tel: (301) 588-9341 reflex, voluntary, and emotional. Reflex
Offers a four-year training program in body psy- motion includes the reflex to keep our
chotherapy and workshops on subjects related to bodies upright. Voluntary movement is
body psychotherapy. oriented to our environment, that is,
411
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
those movements that we consciously not been met by the participant’s par-
initiate in order to manipulate and ents. These needs and hungers change
move through the world around us. By the way people look at the world.
contrast, emotional movement Depending on the nature of the
includes any movement initiated by our unfulfilled need, the effect from these
reaction to our inner feelings and how unconscious hungers can range from
we feel about the environment around occasional depression to total physical
us. and emotional debilitation on the part
These three types of movement are of the sufferer.
inextricably interwoven. We can volun- PBSP tracks down clues to these hid-
tarily alter or stop many reflex actions den feelings and seeks to bring expres-
for a short period of time. Similarly, sion and healing to the damage they
strong emotions can have a marked have caused. A patient first meets with a
impact on our voluntary and reflex psychotherapist for an observation ses-
motions. sion, during which the therapist formu-
Albert and Diane were not the first lates some idea of what might be the
researchers to envision such a break- underlying root cause of the patient’s
down of the patterns of movement. neuroses or problems. Diane Boyden-
Their work built on the established sys- Pesso describes the agenda of the ther-
tem of French acting and singing apist at the meeting in this way: “My
teacher François Delsarte (1811–1871), goal as a therapist is to make sure that
who formulated specific principles of the client works in [PBSP] from where
aesthetics based on a set of rules coor- he really is, what is really important and
dinating the voice with body gestures. real, and not work on something that he
As Albert and Diane continued to devel- or she may have decided in advance
op their style of expressive dance, they intellectually that it would be good to
began to incorporate more and more work on. We have to work on what is
exercises aimed at sharpening aware- valid and spontaneous at the moment.”
ness of the three types of movement
into their dance training programs. Structures
They found that a dance student, once The primary tool of PBSP is a group
made sensitive to these three types of role-playing activity, called “struc-
movement, could eliminate unwanted tures,”comprised of a seamless series of
and unpredictable motions from his or steps (individually known as “a struc-
her performance by giving it its proper ture”) within the total structure. Within
and therapeutic expression. Further- a carefully controlled group session the
more, the students reported that having therapist encourages the patient to
full mastery of all three types of move- share what is upsetting him or her in
ment seemed to allow a more open and the present.
healthy expression of their needs in To this scene, however, two important
their everyday lives. characters are added: the “truth stater”
and the “witness.” The truth stater is used
Recognizing Your Feelings to eternalize and illustrate the partici-
Diane and Albert soon theorized that pant’s spoken thoughts and beliefs by
these same exercises could help emo- stating out loud the “truths” by which the
tionally troubled people overcome their participant lives. If the participant says, “I
problems. To them, a person’s emotions have to take care of myself because there
stored in the body represent the nearest is no one in the world who will do that for
thing to a true self. Most psychological me,” the truth stater is instructed to
problems, they believe, can be attrib- announce, “You have to take care of your-
uted to the absence and repression of self because there is no one in the world
the body’s interactive needs that had who will do that for you.”
412
Pesso Boyden System Psychomotor
In a safe, respectful setting, the PBSP therapist supplies the natural, comprehensive, and
carefully crafted technology—discovered by Albert Pesso and Diane Boyden Pesso—
which uses the resources of the body, mind, and soul to help people complete the five
crucial life tasks necessary for intellectual, psychological, emotional, and spiritual well-
being.
413
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
the participant has gotten in contact and to deal with other organizational
with his or her needs, feeling them problems.
again, and then has these needs met by PBSP is a safe procedure that puts a
this new positive figure in a way that high emphasis on the comfort of its
leaves an imprint in the body-mind patients. Nevertheless, PBSP involves
memory of the participant. The memo- complex psychological evaluation that
ry can then be recalled at will by the is best handled by professionals. Any-
participant to reinforce the positive one interested in PBSP therapy should
experience. This is a step toward final consult a trained PBSP psychotherapist
maturity. Through this, the participant or PBSP institution.
has abandoned the hope of having his
or her needs redressed by the original —Albert Pesso
person. Instead, they have the need
satisfied while they are in touch with Resources:
the right age by someone representing
the ideal mother or father, whichever is
Pesso Boyden System/Psychomotor
needed. The participant has taken an
Strolling Woods
important step toward healing.
Lake Shore Drive
PBSP is considered a psychoanalytic
Franklin, NH 03235
process, a behavior modification
Tel: (603) 934-9809
process, a reparenting process, a gestalt
Web site: www.pbsp.com
process, a body therapy process, a fam-
Provides information on practitioners as well as
ily therapy process (without the fami-
the discipline.
ly), and more. It contains so much that
is fundamental to all forms of psy-
chotherapy that it relates easily to all Further Reading:
major techniques used to treat emo-
tional and mental problems. Books:
Napier, Augustus Y., Ph.D. The Fragile Bond: In
The Benefits of Emotional Maturation Search of an Equal, Intimate and Enduring
PBSP gives participants a positive lens Marriage. New York: HarperCollins, 1990.
through which to see and experience the
world. Following PBSP therapy they are Pesso, Albert. Experience in Action. New York:
less likely to be ruled by habitual, emo- New York University Press, 1973.
tional reactions such as displaced anger,
anxiety, depression, and emotionally ——. Movement in Psychotherapy. New York: New
immature desires. Through PBSP, clients York University Press, 1969.
can function more productively in the
reality of present-day settings. ——. Moving Psychotherapy . Cambridge, MA:
Therapists use PBSP, in groups and Brookline Books, 1991.
one-on-one, with a wide variety of pop-
ulations. It is successfully used in psy- Journals:
chiatric settings, drug and alcohol Foulds, Melvin, and Patricia S. Hannigan. “Effects
treatment centers, pain clinics, and of Psychomotor Group Therapy on Ratings of
obesity treatment programs. It is effec- Self and Others.” Psychotherapy: Theory,
tive with victims of abuse, incest, and Research and Practice, Volume II, no. 4 (Winter
adolescents having trouble with their 1974).
emotions, the law, and drugs. It has
significant value in application to mar- ——. “Effects of Psychomotor Group Therapy on
riage and family problems and is now Locus of Control and Social Desirability,”
being used to alleviate executive stress Humanistic Psychology 16, No. 2 (Spring 1975).
414
Process Oriented Psychology
P
conscious, objective, intentional activities
rocess oriented psychology, or sim-
of everyday life, often leading the person
ply “process work,” is a form of psy-
to experience things that conflict with his
chotherapy used to help a person
or her self-image. When a person puts
become aware of and embrace all
aside such a disturbing experience, the
aspects of his or her experience, even
dreaming process continues to express
those that at first seem too disturbing,
itself as physical symptoms, relationship
strange, or socially unacceptable.
difficulties, or conflicts with society. Min-
According to process oriented psycholo-
gy, the disturbing or traumatic experi- dell believes that the experiences with
ences that we cannot accept tend to which a person least identifies conscious-
reappear as dreams, physical symptoms, ly have the most power to produce change
relationship difficulties, or conflicts with and restore the flow of the dreaming
society. A process oriented psychologist, process. Because these experiences chal-
believing that all experience is meaning- lenge our personal or collective identity,
ful, helps a client approach the disturb- he believes that we stop them from com-
ing experience and explore its pleting themselves, fearing the inner or
connection to current physical and outer conflict they might produce. By
emotional problems. Treating a disturb- focusing awareness on these experiences
ing experience with love and under- and encouraging them to unfold, process
standing may help one find a solution. oriented psychology aims to help people
Process oriented psychology was find solutions to current problems and to
developed by the American Jungian ana- tap into a source for continued personal
lyst Arnold Mindell. He developed meth- growth.
ods to help couples and families explore Process work is most frequently prac-
disturbing experiences and worked with ticed as a form of individual psychothera-
a wide variety of individuals not usually py. A client typically visits his or her
treated with psychotherapy. These tech- therapist for an hour-long session. A
niques later became a part of Mindell’s course of therapy may consist of one ses-
work with groups and organizations that sion, or may last for many years. The client
were troubled by conflict. He found that may present a dream, a relationship
groups, when faced with situations and difficulty, a physical symptom, or any
individuals that challenge their purpose other experience that he or she would like
and unity, behave much like troubled to explore. The process worker focuses on
individuals. By encouraging silent voices the client’s subjective experiences of his or
to speak, and allowing other members to her concerns and problems, observing
experience what it feels like to occupy movement, body posture, and language.
unpopular roles, he helped the majority To help identify, clarify, and learn from
of the group assimilate new points of aspects of the client’s subjective experi-
view, often leading to unique solutions to ence, the process worker employs a wide
the group’s problems. Mindell developed array of techniques, some of which are
these methods into “world work,” a body drawn from psychodrama and art and
of theory and practice for working with dance therapy. A therapist may also
groups in conflict, even when they con- employ bodywork techniques, including
tain people from many ethnic and racial massaging or gently vibrating the client’s
groups, socioeconomic classes, sexual body to help raise awareness of his or her
orientations, and spiritual affiliations. physical sensations.
415
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
P
sychodrama is a method for explor- nauts through the use of simulators. In
ing problems by improvisationally his emphasis on dramatic, physical
enacting them as if in a play. In addi- action, he ran counter to those tenden-
tion to its being a form of psychothera- cies in psychotherapy that constrain the
py—the process of treating patients by process to verbal modes of interaction.
416
Psychodrama
418
Psychosynthesis
Information about training and names and and Practice. New York: Tavistock/Routledge,
addresses of certified directors may be obtained 1994.
upon written request.
Moreno, J. L. Psychodrama, Beacon, NY: Beacon
The American Society for Group Psychotherapy House, Vol. 1., 1946, and, with Zerka T. Moreno,
and Psychodrama (ASGPP) Vol. 2, 1959, and Vol. 3, 1969.
301 North Harrison Street, Suite 508
Princeton, NJ 08540 Journals:
Tel: (609) 452-1339 Blatner, A. “Psychodrama: The State of the Art.”
Fax: (609) 936-1659 The Arts in Psychotherapy 24, No. 1 (1997):
Information about regional and national confer- 23–30.
ences, newsletters, and professional journals may
be obtained upon written request. Journal of Group Psychotherapy, Psychodrama and
Sociometry. Heldref, 1318 18th St, Washington,
National Coalition of Arts Therapies Association DC 20006.
(NCATA)
2000 Century Plaza, Ste. 108
Columbia, MD 21044
Tel: (410) 997-4040
Fax: (410) 997-4048
This is an alliance of professional associations that PSYCHOSYNTHESIS
promote the therapeutic nature of the arts.
P
sychosynthesis is a theory of mind
Further Reading: used to help a person realize his or
her inner wisdom. According to
Books: this theory, there exists within each per-
Blatner, Adam. Acting-In: Practical Applications of son a “higher self” that is a source of
Psychodramatic Methods. 3rd ed. New York: guidance, value, and creativity. It is the
Springer, 1996. basis of a form of therapy that, through
various methods, attempts to bring par-
——. “Psychodrama.” in Current Psychotherapies. ticipants to a greater understanding of
R. J. Corsini and D. Wedding, eds. 5th ed. Itasca, themselves. They are encouraged to
IL: Peacock, 1995. access their higher selves to help solve
problems and make decisions.
——. , and Allee Blatner. The Art of Play: An
Adult’s Guide to Reclaiming Imagination and The Foundations of Psychosynthesis
Spontaneity. Bristol, PA: Brunner/Mazel, 1997. Psychosynthesis was first developed by
Roberto Assagioli (1888–1974). A col-
——. , and Allee Blatner. Foundations of Psy- league of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung,
chodrama: History, Theory, and Practice. New Assagioli was the first person to practice
York: Springer, 1988. psychoanalysis in Italy. In 1910, he left
the psychoanalytic movement because
Corey, G. “Psychodrama.” In Theory and Practice he felt its view of human nature was too
of Group Counseling. 4th ed. Pacific Grove, CA: limited. He objected to the standardiza-
Brooks/Cole, 1994. tion of ideas and techniques, believing
that there should be an individual
Fox, J., ed. The Essential Moreno: Writings on Psy- method for each person.
chodrama, Group Method, and Spontaneity. He began to develop his own spiritu-
New York: Springer, 1987. al model of human development and
opened an institute in 1927 in Rome. He
Holmes, P., M. Karp, and M. Watson, eds. Psy- chose the term “psychosynthesis” to give
chodrama Since Moreno: Innovations in Theory a name to the impulse in each person to
419
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
R
adix teaches students to become mechanism of voluntary attention and
conscious of an invisible life force basis of the will. We need it in order to
(“radix”) and to restore its natural function effectively as human beings.
pulsation in their bodies. This requires Radix work aims to help people learn
confronting and changing acquired pat- how to use their muscular armor with-
terns of breathing and muscular tension out unconsciously becoming its victim.
that block a person’s emotions. By getting Radix teachers work with inhibitions
in touch with the physical sensations to breathing, with the muscular armor,
flowing through their bodies and the emo- and with the mental attitudes that sup-
tions linked to those sensations, Radix stu- port them. They use suggestions, direct
dents seek to gain better control over their body contact, and exercises for loosen-
life forces and physical defenses and to ing tensions and freeing feelings. Clients
develop greater capacity for choice. learn to develop a structure of muscular
421
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
tensions that contain emotions and Branden, Nathaniel. Taking Responsibility: Self-
form personal boundaries. This results Reliance and the Accountable Life. New York:
in a more effective, flexible type of Simon & Schuster, 1996.
muscular armor. Most sessions include
work with the student lying supine on a Kelley, Charles R. The Radix, Vol. I: Personal
mat, lightly clad in shorts or bathing Growth Work, and Vol. II: The Science of Radix
suit, with the teacher kneeling along- Processes. (Compilation of articles from the
side. This enables the teacher to 1960s to the 1990s. Also published in Spanish.
observe skin color—an indicator of the Vancouver, WA: K/R Publications, 1992.)
degree of radix charge and flow in the
body—and to observe breathing and Reich, Wilhelm, “The Expressive Language of Liv-
patterns of muscle tension or flaccidity. ing in Orgone Therapy.” Chapter 15 in Charac-
A student may stand up for “ground- ter Analysis. 3rd ed. New York: Orgone Institute
ing” exercises that are used to develop a Press, 1949. Reissued by Farrar, Straus &
sense of the relationship between the Giroux.
feet and the ground. A student may also
stand to perform exercises that help
him or her release anger. A student may
also sit face-to-face with the teacher to
discuss a problem or emotional issue.
There are a variety of Radix pro-
grams, reflecting the style of the
REBIRTHING
teacher and needs of the student. Many
R
students choose a mix of individual ebirthing is a gentle, meditative
and group sessions. Group sessions are breathing technique. Advocates of
usually small and include periods of this therapy believe that it enables
individual interaction with the teacher. an individual to become more aware of
A typical individual program lasts for thought and behavior patterns that may
fifty minutes on a weekly basis, but prevent him or her from enjoying life to
other arrangements are often made, the fullest. In this way, those who prac-
including concentrated programs of up tice rebirthing reduce limiting psycho-
to ten sessions within five days. logical and emotional conditions,
increase the vital transfer of oxygen to
—Erica Kelley the organs and cells, and release deep-
seated tensions from the body, thereby
increasing physical comfort.
Resources:
422
Rebirthing
others to rebirthing, Orr observed that the tissues/cells of the body and can
the pattern and quality of breathing prove harmful if not released. Rebirthing
attained during the sessions, character- seeks to release trauma from the body
ized by a continuous cycle of inhalation and support increased well-being.
and exhalation flowing deeply and
fluidly through the mouth, remained Rebirthing in Practice
constant, regardless of who participat- Individuals are advised to seek the guid-
ed. By comparison, normal breathing ance of a rebirther who has enough
has a pause between one breath and the rebirthing training and experience to
next. Orr also noted that the same qual- provide safety and support during the
ity of breathing could remain effective first several sessions. A person should
for individuals even out of the water. ask a prospective rebirther about the
Currently, the most popular version of extent of his or her training and their
rebirthing is the “dry” method, which number of rebirthing experiences. A
does not require being submerged in series of ten sessions with the same
water. rebirther is recommended. The conti-
nuity and trust generated by this rela-
The Importance of Breathing tionship is believed to accelerate the
Proper breathing can produce changes in progress of healing.
a person’s clarity of thinking and physical The rebirther begins by asking the
state. Controlled breathing has been used individual about his or her life. Together
for centuries—often in conjunction with they look for patterns and habits that
meditation—to achieve high levels of the client seeks to change, or eliminate.
calmness and peace. Deep, even breath- They jointly identify positive thoughts
ing has the natural tendency to slow the that will help begin this change. This
heartbeat as well as the flow of thoughts. period of discussion is followed by a
Proper breathing also increases the flow period of physical relaxation and
of oxygen throughout the body, which is breathing exercises, guided by the
essential to the smooth function of cells rebirther. The individual lies on a mat or
and organs and the body as a whole. In pad on the floor. During this stage the
fact, the body rids itself of 70 percent of breath slows, allowing tension to dis-
its toxins and other body wastes through solve from the body. This results in a
respiration. state of relaxation during which the
Rebirthing utilizes breathing tech- individual consciously or subcon-
niques to achieve maximum physical sciously addresses his or her concerns.
and emotional health. Rebirthers Review of traumatic life experiences
(rebirthing practitioners) use these may result in discomfort when feelings
techniques to shed tensions and foster a and long-suppressed thoughts resur-
tranquil mental state. This in turn face. At the end of a session, thoughts
allows the body rest and recuperation and feelings as well as questions can be
and the mind a period of clear thinking shared with the rebirther. The rebirther
to sort through complex or long-buried may also offer some suggestions or
emotional issues. Rebirthing also relies affirmations to focus on until the next
on the use of positive affirmation, the appointment. The recommended ses-
planting of new thoughts in a person’s sion length is one to two hours.
consciousness to replace negative
thought patterns that affect behavior. A Greater Quality of Life
Rebirthing theory views many destruc- People develop stress, frustration, anger,
tive patterns as stemming from the and worry, which, if not dispersed, can
birth trauma and from later life experi- affect their physical and emotional
ences, all of which can be locked into health. Advocates of rebirthing say that
423
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A rebirther and client discuss the patterns and habits that he or she wishes to change.
their therapy allows the body to recuper- Loving Relationships Training (LRT) International
ate by teaching individuals to breathe in a c/o Clarity Productions
way that promotes physical and emo- P.O. Box 160
tional well-being. In addition, rebirthers Manhattan Beach, CA 90267
assert that by upgrading the quality of Tel: (800) 468-5578
thoughts while in a deep-breathing Offers rebirthing seminars, training, certification,
mode, quality of life also improves, thus and books on related subjects.
producing greater health, improved rela-
tionships, self-esteem, and prosperity. The New York Rebirthing Center
Furthermore, by devoting time to the 205 East 95th Street, 23A
examination of buried emotional and New York, NY 10128
psychological matters while in a relaxed Tel:(212) 534-2969
physical and mental state, people are Fax: (212) 534-2969
able to address deep-seated issues that Coordinates rebirthing seminars, group rebirths,
affect behavior and thought patterns and and similar activities and provides a list of
make positive changes in their lives. rebirthers in your area.
T
he Rubenfeld synergy method is a Rubenfeld’s curiosity led her to train
holistic healing system for the and collaborate with psychiatrist Dr.
integration of the body, mind, Peter Hogan and with Fritz and Laura
emotions, and spirit. It was developed Perls, cofounders of gestalt therapy, and
in the 1960s by Ilana Rubenfeld, a psy- to further combine body-oriented
chotherapist and bodyworker who methods with psychotherapy. The addi-
sought to teach people how to recog- tion of appropriate verbal processing to
nize, express, understand, and manage body-mind disciplines practiced in a
their emotions, feelings, and sensa- safe, trusting, and nonjudgmental envi-
tions. By combining gentle touch and ronment seemed to make the various
verbalization, the Rubenfeld synergy modalities function synergistically, and
method reportedly brings about remarkable results occurred in a short
beneficial changes in self-image, time.
health, personal and family relation- Rubenfeld began the first profes-
ships, and spirit. sional Rubenfeld synergy training pro-
gram in 1977 in New York City. This
Rubenfeld’s Vision 1,600-hour, four-year training program
In the 1950s Rubenfeld was a conduct- includes lectures, demonstrations, dis-
ing student at the Juilliard School of cussion, and a great deal of supervised
Music when she suffered a debilitating practice. Trainees learn self-care, main-
back spasm. Seeking help, she discov- tain high standards of integrity and
ered Judith Leibowitz, a teacher of the competency, and seek supervision,
Alexander technique, who taught her therapy, and continued education for
how to use her body efficiently and themselves. The code of ethics for
avoid re-injury. During these Alexander Rubenfeld synergists includes demon-
lessons, Rubenfeld sometimes expressed strating respect for people, preserving
intense emotional feelings, but Lei- their confidentiality, showing sensitivi-
bowitz, untrained in treating emotions, ty to the difference in power between
425
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
A certified synergist demonstrates movement techniques used to unlock emotions from the body.
practitioners and help seekers, the patterns; healing their “inner child”;
avoidance of personal relationships exploring somatic (regarding the body)
with help seekers, and the maintaining dreams; and developing a sense of
of clear boundaries. humor. Synergists believe that the
combination of these techniques works
The Many Techniques of the Method to engage the help seeker in under-
The goals of the Rubenfeld synergy standing the causes of discomfort and
method are to enhance people’s natural enables them to instruct the help seek-
capacity for self-healing and self-regula- er on how to alleviate physical pain and
tion, to teach them to recognize and resolve emotional issues.
learn from the truths their bodies tell, The establishment of a therapeutic
and to teach them to use their own relationship of safety and trust is essen-
resources for change, choice, and self- tial, so that each person can journey
care. Synergists accomplish these goals inward, recognize and release traumas
by teaching people how to become and dysfunctional memories, and
aware of the messages, memories, and reclaim his or her body, mind, and soul.
emotions locked in their bodies, causing
energy blocks and imbalances. Rubenfeld Synergy Sessions
Using a variety of techniques and A typical session lasts about forty-five
elements—including verbal dialogue, minutes and is conducted privately or in a
movement training, imagination exer- group, with both synergist and help seek-
cises, breathing techniques, and non- er(s) fully clothed. Help seekers are usual-
sexual, caring touch—synergists assist ly invited to lie on a padded table, but
people in exploring the relationship sessions may also be conducted with
between posture and emotions; discov- them sitting, standing, or moving. Ses-
ering how body metaphors reveal life sions begin in the “here and now,” then
426
Rubenfeld Synergy Method
move into the past and future within the clarity and purpose; increased energy,
context of each person’s needs. No diag- body awareness and body image; deep
noses are made, nor cures promised. Help relaxation; and relief from pain.
seekers are in charge of the pace and Trainees conduct pilot studies on such
direction of the sessions, and they may topics as body image, posttraumatic
stop at any time. People interested in prac- stress disorder, recovery from addictive
ticing the method may learn Rubenfeld behaviors, incest and abuse, and stress-
bodymind exercises, which ease tensions, related illnesses. There are no known
foster flexibility, develop strength, and contraindications to receiving Ruben-
teach “inner listening.” These can be prac- feld synergy sessions. Synergists are
ticed anywhere. Although Rubenfeld syn- trained to recognize conditions requir-
ergy may bring insights in a short time, ing medical supervision and refer
weekly sessions for a period of at least sev- clients to appropriate professionals
eral months to several years are advised when necessary.
for fully integrated and lasting benefits.
—Ilana Rubenfeld
427
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Body-Mind Disciplines
U
112 Lund Street nergi is a holistic therapy method
Richmond Hill, ON L4C 5V9 that aims to help participants
Canada integrate body, mind, emotions,
Tel: (905) 883-3158 spirit, creativity, and the healing forces
e-mail: aturner@yorku.ca of nature. Unergi was developed by Ute
Supports members’ professional growth and pro- Arnold, combining healing forms
motes high standards of professional ethics. Also derived from gestalt therapy, the
seeks to educate the public about the Rubenfeld Feldenkrais Method®, the Alexander
synergy method. technique, and Rubenfeld synergy.
Unergi combines the words unity
and energy, reflecting Arnold’s belief
Further Reading: that all people originate in a state of
unity and can restore their energy and
Books: prevent disease through self-care, self-
Caldwell, Christine. Getting in Touch: The Guide expression, participation in communi-
to New Body-Centered Therapies. Wheaton IL: ty, and active involvement with the
Quest Books, 1997. organic rhythms of nature. According
to unergi there exists a vibrational
Claire, Thomas. Bodywork: What Type of Massage energy, radiating from our natural envi-
to Get—And How to Make the Most of It. New ronment, that is able to heal by restor-
York: William Morrow and Company, 1995. ing one’s internal energy. Like all of the
healing methods from which it draws,
——. “Gestalt Therapy and the Bodymind: An unergi considers physical and emo-
Overview of the Rubenfeld Synergy Method.” tional problems to be a result of psy-
In Gestalt Therapy: Perspectives and Applica- chological patterns developed in early
tions. Edwin C. Nevis, ed. New York: Gardner childhood. These patterns censor vari-
Press, 1990. ous aspects of our inner life and self-
expression. When a person’s body and
Journals: psyche have been denied expression
Lerkin, Jan Marie. “Sing the Body Electric.” for a long time, unergi practitioners
Changes June 1995. believe that his or her whole being will
start to feel more and more ill at ease.
Markowitz, Laura. “Therapists Explore Mind- One may feel this as aches, pains, or
Body Alternatives.” Family Therapy 1996. numbness, which over time become
more acute. Healing is seen as a release
Rubenfeld, Ilana. “Ushering in a Century of Inte- of old ways of being and a return to
gration.” Somatics Autumn-Winter 1990–91. wholeness.
428
Unergi
—Ute Arnold
429
Index
A alcohol
AAMT. See American Association of Music effect on health, 8, 46, 59, 139, 178, 184, 196
Therapy See also addictions
AAPB. See Association for Applied Alexander, F.M., 157, 201, 204
Psychophysiology and Biofeedback Alexander the Great, 143
Abe-ryu, 293 Alexander technique, 89, 157, 201, 204-207, 266,
absolute self, 319 391, 425, 428
abuse, 251, 400, 414 alienation, 365, 371
recovery from, 139, 172, 190, 360, 427 alignment, 214, 237, 260, 264, 267, 391, 402
academic performance, 248 allergies, 97
Academy for Guided Imagery, 78 treatments for, 65, 101, 188, 194
Academy of Science, 73 allopathic medicine
accidents, 6, 67, 111, 112, 149, 209, 221, 369, 400 compared to alternative medicine, 1, 3, 46, 66
See also injury; trauma costs and risks of, 57, 62
Acorrido, 283 naturopathy and, 17
acrobatics, 297 nutrition and, 61
action profiling, 338-339 See also pharmaceutical drugs
actors, 211, 212, 216 aloe (Aloe vera), 59-60
acupoints, 178, 180, 182 alpha state, 68, 320
acupressure, 24, 117, 118, 119, 126, 143, 144, 178, alternative health models, 1-4
180-183 Alzheimer's disease, 106, 356
See also Jin Shin DoTM; process acupressure American Association of Artist-Therapists, 364
acupuncture, 9, 17, 23, 24, 81, 82, 119, 124, 126, American Association of Music Therapy
142, 143, 144, 163, 177-180, 183-187, 193 (AAMT), 367
colorpuncture and, 107 American Association of Professional
See also traditional Chinese medicine Hypnotherapists, 76
Acu-yoga, 182 American College of Orgonomy, 407
Adams, Kathleen, 362 American Dance Therapy Association (ADTA),
ADD. See Attention deficit disorder 354, 355
addictions, 35, 39, 66, 358 American Institute of Homeopathy, 12
treatments for, 21, 65, 67, 70, 83, 99, 101, 103, American Journal of Dance Therapy, 354, 355
105, 106, 107, 139, 156, 172, 178, 184, 187, 311, American Medical Association (AMA), 2, 47
326, 356, 360, 363, 414, 427 American Music Therapy Association (AMTA),
See also alcohol; drugs; smoking 367
adhesions, 42 American Polarity Therapy Association, 127,
Adler, Janet, 350 128
adrenal glands, 101 American School of Osteopathy, 47
ADTA. See American Dance Therapy American Society of Clinical Hypnosis, 74, 76
Association AMMA, 180, 195
AEDE. See Association des Eleves de Dr. AMTA. See American Music Therapy
Ehrenfried et des Practiciens en Association
Gymnastique Holistique Anatomy of an Illness as Perceived by the Patient,
affirmations, 423 80
See also visualizations anesthesia, 73, 184
Africa, 142, 275, 276, 280-281, 342 aneurysm, 162
Age of Reason, 2 anger, 96, 137, 226, 390, 414
aggression, 276 See also emotions
See also anger; emotions Angola, 281-282
aging, 365 animal magnetism, 73
agoraphobia, 270 ankylosing spondylitis, 79
AIDS, 66, 101, 146, 323, 358, 360 anmo, 143, 198
aiki-bujutsu, 278 anorexia
aikido, 118, 250, 276, 278-280, 284, 293 treatments, 83, 139, 270, 358
Ainu people, 293 See also eating disorders
Akhilananda, Swami, 317 anthropology, 332, 337
akiyama, 284 Anthroposophical Society, 254
430
antibiotics, 2, 17, 54, 84, 104 attention deficit disorder (ADD), treatments for,
See also pharmaceutical drugs anti-inflam- 67, 70, 93, 106, 113, 248, 408
matories, 87, 102 attitude
anxiety, 21, 95, 98, 152, 232, 379, 398, 399, 414 effect on health, 8, 67, 79, 226
effect on health, 8, 95 See also emotions
treatments for, 14, 65, 67, 70, 73, 76, 106, 141, attunement, 135, 136
155, 187, 326 audio-psycho-phonology (APP), 111
See also emotions; stress aura, 48
AOBTA. See American Oriental Bodywork Australia, 342
Therapy Association authentic movement, 350-352
A-P. See Aston-Patterning autism, 113
APP. See Audio-Psycho-Phonology Autobiography of a Yogi, 306
appendicitis, 14 awareness through movement, 217-218
appetite control, 19 ayurvedic medicine, 2, 5-7, 54, 55, 116, 117, 126,
APT. See Association for Poetry Therapy 143
archery, 284, 301
archetypes, 374, 375 B
Aristotle, 2, 65, 143 Babylonia, 99
Armenia, 256 Bach, Dr. Edward, 83, 96-98
armoring, 189, 379, 382-383, 389-390, 407-408, back pain, 204, 265-266
409-411, 421 treatment for, 39, 42, 125, 158, 159, 162, 164,
Arnold, Ute, 428-429 182, 187, 194, 196, 209, 221, 262
aromatherapy, 83, 85, 86-88 bacteria, 54, 103
arrhythimia, 323 ba-gua, 122-123
See also heart conditions Baker, Elsworth F., M.D., 407
arthritis, treatments for, 8, 14, 39, 67, 76, 86, 101, balance, 270, 272
124, 125, 129, 151, 174, 182, 187, 199, 264 Baldwin, Christina, 361
artists, 343 balms, 86
art sport, 249 Barnes, John F., PT, 158
art therapy, 347-350 Bartenieff Fundamentals, 210-212
asanas, 306, 314 Bartenieff, Irmgard, 201, 210-211, 336
ashokh, 256-257 “the basic six,” 212
ashrams, 309 Bates method, 88-90, 229
Asia, 259, 317, 342 Bates, William, 88-90
Asian bodywork, 34, 82, 143, 163, 177-180, 195 baths, 83, 99, 102, 143, 422
Assagioli, Roberto, 193, 379-380, 392, 419-421 See also hydrotherapy
assembly line work, 211 Battle Creek Sanitorium, 100
Association des Eleves de Dr. Ehrenfried et des Beatles, The 324
Practiciens en Gymnastique Holistique beauty, 366
(AEDE), 234 bed sores, 125
Association for Applied Psychophysiology and bedwetting, 68
Biofeedback (AAPB), 68 behavior
Association for Poetry Therapy (APT), 370 effect on health, 204, 228
asthma, 35, 260 See also lifestyle
treatments for, 14, 37, 39, 67, 104, 129, 178, behavioral vision therapy, 83, 90-93
199, 344 behavior modification, 414
See also breathing difficulties benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), 59
astigmatism, 231 Benjamin, Dr. Ben, 157
Aston, Judith, 207-209, 222 Benjamin system of muscular therapy, 157
Aston-Patterning® (A-P), 207-210, 222 Benson, Dr. Herbert, 319, 322
astrology, 120 beri-beri, 61
astronauts, 81 berimbau, 283
At a Journal Workshop, 361 Berlowe, Dr. Jay, 332
athletics, 143, 153, 204, 206, 207, 209, 210, 211, Bernheim, Hyppolyte, 74
216, 231, 317 beta carotene, 55
See also sports Better Eyesight Without Glasses, 88-89
at-risk youth, 391 bhakti yoga, 309, 313
atman, 319 Bible, 116, 143, 366
431
Bimba, Mestre, 281 brain, 41, 43, 48, 71, 94, 105, 169
binde, 150 three-brain model, 237
bindegewebsmassage, 150 See also mind
bioenergetics, 382-385, 388-389, 393, 400, 410 Brain Gym®, 245, 247-249
biofeedback, 65, 66, 68-70, 72, 80, 89, 92 brain waves, 320
Biofeedback Research Society, 68 Brazil, 275, 276, 280, 281
biofield, 137, 138 breast cancer, 55, 81
biomagnetic therapy, 125 breathing, diaphragmatic, 264, 295
biomorphism, 253 breathing difficulties, 35, 231, 408, 421, 423
birth injury, 159 treatments for, 70, 218
black diphtheria, 47 See also asthma
Black Plague, 144 breathing exercises, 6, 118, 119, 168, 231, 253,
bladder infection, 38 298, 300, 311, 368, 382
Bleuler, Eugen, 347, 353 breathing rate, 72, 85, 87, 320, 403
blockages, 115-117, 174, 179, 191, 266, 269, 388, Bresler, David E., 77-78
396, 407-408 Breuer, Josef, 379
See also emotions; memories brief strobic phototherapy (BSP), 106, 108
blood, 35, 48, 107, 173, 174 bright light therapy, 105, 106-107
TCM view of, 26 See also light therapy
blood clots, 147 British Columbia, 146
treatment cautions, 175, 242 Broch, Eva, 389
blood flow enhancement, 174, 182 Brockett, Sally, 91
bloodletting, 10, 34, 46 bronchitis, 35
blood pressure, 72, 85, 87, 311, 320, 322 treatments for, 14, 129, 187
See also high blood pressure Brooks, Peter, 259
Boadella, David, 410 Brown, Malcolm and Katherine, 409-411
Boas, Francizka, 354 bruises, 147
Bodhidharma, 275, 289, 298 treatments for, 88, 125
Bodies in Revolt: A Primer in Somatic Thinking, BSP. See brief strobic phototherapy
219 Buber, Martin, 397
bodybuilding, 231, 260 Buddhism, 133, 134, 135, 275, 289, 298, 299, 301,
body fluids, 26, 179 306, 308, 317, 319, 400
BodymapTM, 385, 386 Buelte, Dr. Arnhilte, 332
body-memory, 169 bulimia
Body-Mind Centering®, 212-215 treatments, 83, 139, 270, 358
bodynamic analysis, 385-387 See also eating disorders
body-oriented psychotherapies, 82, 378-381 Burmeister, Mary, 188, 191-192
body space, 269 burns, treatments for, 60, 88, 124, 125
bodywork, 55, 84, 177 bursitis, 39
defined, 33, 115 bushi, 293
Oriental, 27, 177 bushido, 295
See also movement therapy
Bolesky, Karen L., 237 C
bone fracture, treatment cautions, 175 Caesar, Julius, 143
Bonnie Pruden School for Physical Fitness and caffeine, 8
Myotherapy, 160 Campbell, Don, 109
botanical medicines, 15 Canada, 146
Bothmer gymnastics, 268 cancer, 360
boundaries, 399, 426 conditions affecting, 55, 66, 147
Bowen technique, 148-149 treatment cautions, 147, 175, 196
Bowen, Thomas A., 148-149 treatments for, 14-15, 55, 61, 62, 71, 107, 129,
bowing, 278, 295, 303 264, 323
boxing, 240, 260 capoeira, 275, 276, 280-283
Boyden-Pesso, Diane, 411, 412 Capoeira Foundation, 282
Boyesan, Gerda, 410 capoeiristas, 281
BPH. See benign prostatic hyperplasia cardiovascular disease, 58, 104
Braid, James, 73 carpal tunnel syndrome, 125, 162
Braille, 228 Cartesian Principle, 29
432
catalepsy, 75 coex systems, 403-404
cataracts, 228 Cohen, Bonnie Bainbridge, 213, 214
treatment cautions, 90 colds, 57, 58, 61, 86, 88, 96, 194, 197
“cat stretch,” 221 colon cancer, 55
Center for Children and Parents, 333 colonics, 102
Center for Enneagram Studies, 331 colors, feng shui and, 122
Center for Integral Studies, 330 colorpuncture, 107-108
Center for Journal Therapy, 362 comedy, 79-80
Center for Self-Healing, 230 communication, 338, 344, 356, 363, 418
cerebral cortex, 105 complementation, 282
cerebral palsy, 159, 344 Complete Book of Yoga, The, 306
certified infant massage instructor (CIMI), 153, compresses, 99, 102
155, 156 concentration, 111, 261, 263, 293, 300, 317, 320,
certified Laban movement analysts (CMAs), 325, 356, 392
211 Confucianism, 23, 24
Chace, Marian, 353, 354 congestion, 101
chakras, 127, 193, 389, 429 Connective Tissue TherapySM, 145, 150-152, 166,
chamomile (Matricaria recutita), 54, 58, 60 167
Chang San-Feng, 270 Conrad-Da'oud, Emilie, 245, 252-253
Charcot, Jean-Martin, 353 Conscious Ear, The, 111
Charing Cross Hospital, 83 consciousness, 324, 325, 326, 369, 379, 398, 402-
chi, 23, 116, 120-123, 127, 177-178, 180, 183, 300 403
chi kung, 118 See also mind; unconscious
childbirth, 76 constipation, 196
child care, 234 constitution, 5
children, 102, 211 contact improvisation, 245, 246,249-252
chills, 180 Contact Newsletter/Quarterly, 249
China, 7, 34, 37, 65, 83, 99, 118, 120, 124, 129, contemplative dance, 350
142, 143, 144, 163, 180, 187, 195, 244, 245, 275, continuum, 245, 246, 252-253
284, 297, 319, 342 contraria contraris, 10
Chi Po, 118 contrology, 245, 261
chiropractic, 9, 33, 34, 36, 37-40, 48, 55, 126, 172, coordination, 344
252, 261, 270 core energetics, 380, 387-391
See also network chiropractic CORE structural integrative therapy, 152-153
chit, 319 coreSomatics, 380, 391-392
Cho Hong Hi, Gen., 301 coronary artery disease, 55
cholecystitis, 14 See also heart conditions
cholera, 12, 104 correctives, 211
treatments for, 14, 104 cortisone, 146, 196
cholesterol, 58-59 Coué, Émile, 74, 76
Christ, 116, 134, 171 counseling, 126
Christianity, 65, 116, 134, 143, 245, 309, 317, 329, Cousins, Norman, 79, 80
342 cranial osteopathy, 40
Chronic Disease: Their Peculiar Nature and Their CranioSacral therapy, 34, 36, 40-42, 48
Homeopathic Treatment, 12 Creation of Meaning, The, 394
chronic fatigue syndrome, 14, 42, 106, 159 creative writing, 372
Cicero, 143 creativity, 84, 105, 111, 214, 237, 248, 326, 396,
CIMI. See certified infant massage instructor 402, 417, 429
cinchona, 10 See also expressive and creative arts thera-
circulatory system, 152, 162, 163, 164, 175, 196, pies; imagination
270, 311 cross-eye, 90
cirrhosis, 59 crying, 383
Clark, Barbara, 225 Cullen, Dr. William, 10
Classic of Difficult Issues (Nan Jing), 24 Cunningham, Merce, 249, 265
claustrophobia, 270 Cyriax, Dr. James, 157
cleansing, 21
Cleveland Homeopathic College, 14 D
clinical guided imagery, 78 Dalcroze, Emile Jacques, 258, 382
433
Damballah, 252, 253 doctor of chiropractic (DC), 34, 39, 63, 162
dance, 119, 210, 212, 216, 226, 227, 234, 249-252, doctor of naturopathy (ND), 15, 63
254, 260, 263, 266, 281, 342, 343, 344 doctor of osteopathy (D.O.), 34, 48, 63, 162
DanceAbility, 250 do-in, 117, 118-119
dance education, 201 dojang, 302
dance therapy, 209, 210, 247, 328, 332, 350, 352- dojo, 278, 285-286, 287, 291, 295
356 dor-mor, 298
Dancer's Workshop Company, 360 dos Reis Machado, Manoel, 281
dao-yin, 130 doshas, 5-7
dar, 297 double gate theory of pain, 187
Darwin, Charles, 48 double vision, 92, 93
DC. See doctor of chiropractic Downing, Dr. John, 105
de Hartmann, Thomas, 258, 259 drama, 417
de Montgrillard, Guy, 287 drama therapy, 356-359
de Salzmann, Alexandre, 258 dreaming process, 415
de Salzmann, Jean, 258 dreams, 139, 429
deafness, 38 shamanism and, 19, 21
death, 98, 269 drugs
decision making, 338, 396 effect on health, 8, 10, 34, 40, 46, 146, 344
degenerative disorders, 151 etymology of term, 57
Deguchi, Onisaburo, 278 See also pharmaceutical drugs
dehydration, 102 drumming, 21
Delsarte, François, 412 drumming circle, shamanism and, 22
delta waves, 306 DSM. See Diagnostic Survey Manual
delusions, 124 Duncan, Isadora, 343
Dennison, Gail, 245, 247 Durham, Else Henscke, 234
Dennison, Paul E., Ph.D., 245, 247 dynamis, homeopathic, 13
depression, 35, 399, 407, 414 dyslexia, 113, 248
treatments for, 37, 55, 59, 61, 67, 70, 83, 103,
104, 106, 124, 139, 187, 326, 371, 408 E
See also emotions ear disorders, 111, 112
Desai, Amrit, 315 Ear and Language, The, 111
Descartes, René, 29, 65, 71 ear lavage, 102
developmental disabilities, 42 eating disorders, 66, 76, 83, 106, 137, 139, 172,
Dharmapala, Anagarika, 317 215, 270, 356, 358, 360, 363, 380, 414
diabetes, 55, 162 See also anorexia; bulimia
treatment cautions, 60, 176 echinacea (Echinacea spp.), 58, 60, 102
treatments for, 125 ecumenism, 313
Diagnostic Survey Manual (DSM), 329 eczema, 14
Dialogue House, 362 edema, 162
diaphragmatic breathing, 264 Edson, Dr. Susan, 14
diarrhea, 46 education, 109, 258, 418
Dicke, Elizabeth, 150, 152 Education and Dyslexia, 111
Dictionary of the Martial Arts, 293 Educational Kinesiology Foundation, 247
dietary and nutritional practices, 53-56 EEG. See electroencephalograph
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act effleurage, 174
of 1994 (DSHEA), 57 effort phrasing, 338
diet, effect on health, 6, 8, 35, 36, 84, 100, 118, Ego, Hunger, and Aggression, 397
126, 127, 128, 178, 196, 300 Egypt, 34, 83, 86, 99, 124, 143, 163, 342
digestion, 72, 194 Ehrenfried, Dr. Lily, 234
See also indigestion Einstein, Albert, 268, 308
digestion aids, 57, 58 EKP. See Emotional Kinesthetic Psychotherapy
disabilities, 250, 358, 360, 365 elderly, treatment cautions for, 102
disease electricity, feng shui and, 122
homeopathic view of, 13 electroencephalograph (EEG), 68
osteopathic view of, 48 electromagnetic energy, 103-109, 117
dissociative identity disorder, 106 electromagnetism, 324
D.O. See doctor of osteopathy electronic ear, 111, 112, 113
434
Eliade, Mircea, 306, 307 exercise, 118, 126, 127, 128, 162, 225, 264
Elizabeth Dicke Society, 152 effect on health, 36, 100, 178
Ellon, Inc., 98 relation to wellness, 8, 16, 126, 196
EMDR. See Eye Movement Desensitization and expressive and creative arts therapies, 82, 341-
Reprocessing 346
Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 317 eye disorders, 228-230
emotional difficulties treatments for, 42, 83, 93, 164, 188
treatments for, 42, 44, 76, 81, 164, 378, 404, eye exercises, 231, 295
414 eye gym, 91-93
vision problems and, 89 eye movement desensitization and reprocess-
emotional kaleidoscope, 188 ing (EMDR), 94-96
emotional kinesthetic psychotherapy (EKP), eye therapies
380, 392-394 Bates method, 88-90
emotional well-being, 289, 356, 357, 370 behavioral vision therapy, 90-93
defined, 29-31 eye movement desensitization and reprocess-
emotions ing, 94-96
effect on health, 35, 48, 65, 67, 72, 73, 78-79,
96, 137, 139, 157, 204, 207, 343 F
repressed, 8, 72, 106, 169, 189, 347, 398-399, far-sightedness, 231
407 farming, 120
shamanism and, 19, 21 fascia, 150-151, 158-159, 165, 222, 223, 235-236
See also attitude; depression; memories fasting, 53
empathy, 355 fatigue
emphysema, 8 treatments for, 97, 103, 106, 164, 172, 188, 226
endocrine system, 85, 101, 105, 196 See also chronic fatigue syndrome
endorphins, 66, 182 fats, 55
enema, 102 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration
energetic forces, 2, 388-389 fear, 67, 76, 96, 98, 137, 169, 231, 235, 286, 384,
energy 391, 407
TCM view of, 26 coping mechanisms for, 14
wellness and, 29, 263, 267 Fehmi, Les, 68
Zero Balancing and, 50, 51 Feldenkrais, Dr. Moshe, 201, 216, 219, 425
energy flows, 25, 35, 139, 224 Feldenkrais Method®, 215-218, 391, 425, 428
energy vortex, 193 fencing, 268
Enlightenment, the, 65 feng shui, 115-116, 117, 119-124
enneagram, 329-332 Fenichel, Clare, 234
environment fever, 145, 146, 196
arrangement of, 119-124 treatments for, 99
effect on health, 8, 207, 213, 221, 386, 392 feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium), 58
effect on vision, 90 fibromyalgia, 125, 159, 162, 264
See also lifestyle, effect on health Field, Tiffany, 155
ephedra (Ephedra sinia), 60 fight-or-flight response, 247, 322
epilepsy, 143 Finsen, Dr. Niels R., 103
Epsom salts, 102 fitness training, 207, 210
Epstein, Dr. Donald, 43, 44, 238, 239 Fitsgerald, 163
ergonomics, defined, 207 five elements, 26, 184, 186
Erickson, Milton H., 74, 76 flexibility, enhancement of, 162, 206, 218, 224,
Esalen Institute, 209, 234, 240, 343, 403 237, 240, 242, 263, 264, 267, 280, 291, 296
Espenak, Liljan, 354 flower remedies, 84, 85, 96-99
essence, TCM view of, 26 flu, treatments, 57, 58, 88, 194
essential oils, 86, 87 flushes, 99, 102
etiquette, role of, 278, 280, 285, 291 flying, 251
eucalyptus, 87 foam wedges, 208
Europe, 343 focusing, 394-397
eurythmics, 258, 382 folk dancing, 211
eurythmy, 245, 254-256 folk medicine, 143, 195, 198
Evan, Blanch, 354 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 57, 407
evolution, 48 food, as medicine, 54, 62
435
foundation joints, 36 Graham, Martha, 265, 350
four methods of evaluation, 199 Graham, Sylvester, 54
France, 258, 293 grave sites, 120
frankincense, 86 gravity, 165, 167, 219, 223, 231, 269, 272, 314,
Franklin, Benjamin, 73 324
Frederic, Louis, 293 Greece, 2, 37, 54, 65, 71, 83, 86, 99, 116, 143, 145,
Freud, Sigmund, 66, 71, 74, 116, 343, 344, 347, 163, 275, 329, 342, 363, 366, 370
378-379, 382, 397, 398, 407, 419 Green, Drs. Elmer and Alyce, 66, 68
friction, 174, 175 grief, effect on health, 79, 137, 139, 164, 363
friction treatment, 157 Grof, Christine, 403
Frigerio, Alejandro, 282 Grof, Stanislav, 380, 403
Fritz, Sandy, 143 groundedness, 164, 383-384, 422
Fromm, Erich, 234 groups, 338, 399, 411-414, 415
Frost, Robert, 371 Guest, Anne Hutchinson, 336
fulcra, 51 guided imagery, 65, 67, 71-73, 74, 80, 225
Fuller, Betty, 240 ROM dance and, 265-267
Function of the Orgasm, The, 379 shamanism and, 21, 65
Functional Integration®, 217-218 guilt, 137, 189
Fundamentals of Therapeutic Massage, 143 Gurdjieff Foundation, 258
Gurdjieff, George Ivanovitch, 245, 256-260, 257,
G 317, 329
Gach, Michael Reed, 182 Gurdjieff movements, 256-260
gait, 172, 173 guruji, 314
Gandhi, Mahatma, 309 gymnastics, 143, 260
Gao Fu, Madame, 130 gymnastik, 232
garlic (Allium sativum), 54, 58-59 Gymnastique Holistique, 234
gastrointestinal disorders, 204
treatments for, 39, 67, 107, 164, 178, 199 H
See also indigestion habits, 231, 259
Gattefosse, René Maurice, 86 Hahnemann, Samuel, 2, 10-12, 11, 116
Gautama, Siddhartha, 306 Haiti, 252
gekken, 293 hakama, 278, 295
gender equality, 251, 373 hakomi integrative somatics, 392, 399-402
Gendlin, Dr. Eugene, 392, 394-397 hakuda, 284
genetic predispositions, effect on health, 6, 8, Hall, Edward T., 268
16, 35, 39 hallucinations, 124
geomancy, 120 Halprin, Anna, 360
geriatric problems, 159, 264 Halprin life/art process, 359-361
germ theory of disease, 7, 54 hand therapy, 264
Gesell Institute of Child Development, 93 hands
gestalt, homeopathic, 14 use in therapy, 37, 119, 128, 133
gestalt therapy, 234, 380, 391, 397-399, 410, 414, See also touch
417, 425, 428 Hanna Somatic Education® (HSE), 218-222
Gi, 278, 291 Hanna Somatic educator, 221
Gichin, Funakoshi, 290, 291, 292 Hanna, Thomas, 219, 220, 244
Gindler, Elsa, 169, 201, 226, 231, 232, 234 happiness, 326
ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), 59 hara, 295
glandular disorders, 164 Harlowe, Diane, M.S., 245, 263
glaucoma, treatment cautions, 60, 90, 404 hatha yoga, 65, 245, 305, 307-308
Gnosticism, 116 Hawkins, Alma, 354
goals, 363 Hayashi, Chijuro, 135
God, 48, 65 head, 204
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 11 Head, Henry, 150
goldenseal, 102 head zones, 150
Goldstein, Kurt, 410 headaches, 97, 204
golgi tendon reflex, 148 treatments for, 70, 72, 93, 124, 129, 159, 162, 164,
gonorrhea, 14 178, 182, 187, 194, 199, 215, 221
gout, 104, 125 See also migraine headaches
436
healing crisis, alternative methods and, 4 homeopathy, 2, 5, 9, 10-15, 16, 116
Healing Massage Techniques, 142 homeostasis, 13, 173, 226
healing process homeplay, 248
natural, 3, 9, 72, 349 hormone levels, 85, 87, 105
participation in, 17, 69, 141, 352 Horney, Karen, 317, 397
self-healing, 3, 35, 38, 41, 88, 129, 140, 388, hospices, 373
405 hospitals, 373
health HSE. See Hanna Somatic Education
behavioral model of, 89 Hua Tuo, 129
factors affecting, 8 Huang-ti Nei Jing (Yellow Emperor's Internal
Health Building, 126 Classic), 24, 118, 143, 184, 198, 297
health maintenance, compared to disease treat- Hull, Clark, 74
ment, 3 human beings, 154
Heard, Gerald, 317 non-material aspects, 3, 213
hearing, defined, 112 relation to environment, 25
hearing loss, 83 Human Movement Potential, 225
heart, 392 human potential, 232
heart conditions, 35, 137, 404 humanistic psychology, 380
treatments for, 39, 61, 62, 67, 70, 175, 323 Humanistic Psychology Institute, 219
heart rate, 72, 85, 87, 311, 320, 322 Hunt, Dr. Valerie, 252
Heidigger, Martin, 397 Huxley, Aldous, 89, 317
heiho, 293 Hwarang, Code of, 301, 303
Heller, Joseph, 202, 222 hydrotherapy, 15, 16, 83, 85, 99-103
Hellerwork, 202, 222-224 hyodo, 293
hemorrhages hyperactivity, treatments for, 42
treatment cautions, 175 Hypericum perforatum (St. John's wort), 55
treatments for, 99 hypertension. See High blood pressure
hepatitis, 14, 59 hypnosis, 73, 322
herbal medicine, 2, 17, 23, 25, 27, 53-54, 55, 57- Hypnosis and Suggestibility, 74
60, 86, 126, 180 hypnotherapy, 19, 65, 66, 73-77
types of herbs, 59 self-hypnosis, 71
herpes, 86, 88 hysteria, 71
Herschel, John, 103 hyung, 303
Hewitt, James, 306
Heyer, Lucy, 169 I
Hidden You, The, 225 IAIM. See International Association for Infant
high blood pressure, 55 Massage
treatment cautions, 60, 196 Ichazo, Oscar, 329
treatments for, 39, 67, 70, 129, 187, 215, 320, ideas, 355
322, 323, 326 ideokinesis, 201, 224-226
See also blood pressure imagination, 71, 73, 78, 344, 350, 363, 370, 420
higher self, 419, 420 See also creativity
Himalayan Institute, 306 immune system
Hinduism, 5, 135, 193, 305, 307, 308, 309 factors affecting, 78-81, 83, 88, 362
Hindu Vedanta, 317, 318, 319 strengthening, 99, 129, 136, 146, 196
hippies, 145 immunity, 72
Hippocrates, 34, 37, 54, 62, 71, 83, 99, 116, 143 Imperial College of Medicine, 198
hip replacement, 264 improvisation, 355
Hisamaro, Takenouchi, 284 incense, 86
histiopathology, 39 incest, 414, 427
Hoffer, Abram, 61, 63 See also abuse; sexual dysfunction
Hogan, Dr. Peter, 425 incontinence, treatments for, 67
holdings, 168, 170, 221 India, 5, 7, 73, 83, 118, 124, 126, 143, 153, 245,
holism, 7, 29 275, 298, 306, 317, 342
holistic health, 3, 7-9, 46 indigestion, 97, 128
Holotropic BreathworkTM, 380, 402-405 treatments for, 88, 139, 164, 188
Holotropic Mind, The, 403 See also gastrointestinal disorders
homelessness, 358, 360, 373 infant, music therapy for, 366-370
437
Infant Massage: Handbook for Loving Parents, 153 jam sessions, 249
infant massage, 153-157 James, William, 306
infections, 79, 81, 97, 111, 112, 162 Japan, 118, 143, 163, 178, 191, 195, 285
treatment cautions, 175, 199 Japanese Karate Association, 291
treatments, 54, 73, 86, 104, 107, 141 jaundice
infertility, 323 treatment cautions, 175
treatment for, 164, 323 treatments for, 103, 104, 107
inflammation, treatment cautions, 175 Javal, Dr. Emile, 83, 90
influenza, 14, 146 jaw pain
infrared energy, 103 treatment for, 158, 159
Ingham, Eunice, 163 See also temporomandibular joint
inhibition, 169 jealousy, 96, 98
injury jet lag, 105, 106
See also accidents jhana yoga, 308, 313
effect on health, 39, 111 Jigoro, Kano, 216, 287, 288
treatment for, 124, 151, 157, 172, 194, 199, 207, Jin Shin Do®, 178, 180, 187-190
212, 225, 337 Jin Shin Jyutsu®, 180, 188, 190, 191-192
innate intelligence, 38 jin ye, 26
inner child, 426 jing, 26
inner elixir qigong, 132 jogo, 282
insect bites, 88, 125 jogo-de-capoeira, 283
insomnia, treatments for, 58, 67, 69, 70, 76, 103, Johnsen, Lillimor, 385
106-107, 124, 139, 178, 187, 188, 199, 323, 326 Johnsen, Linda, 306
instincts, shamanism and, 19 Johnson, Lyndon B., 160
Institute for Music, Health, and Education, 109 joint pain, treatments for, 188
Institute for the Harmonious Development of jojoba, 88
Man, 258, 329 Journal of Orgonomy, 407, 408
Institute of Noetic Sciences, 117 Journal of Practical Medicine, 10
integral yoga, 313-314 Journal to the Self, 362
Integral Yoga Institutes (IYIs), 313 journal therapy, 361-363
integrated movement, 339 journaling, 237, 372
intelligence, 392 journey, shamanistic, 21
Interactive Guided Imagery, 72, 77-78 Joy, Dr. Brugh, 222
Intermodal Learning in Education and Therapy, joza, 295
364 ju-jutsu, 278, 283-286, 286, 287
International Association for Infant Massage Judaism, 116, 124, 143, 245, 329, 342
(IAIM), 153 judo, 118, 216, 278, 284, 285, 286-289
International Kendo Federation, 293 judogi, 288
International Medical and Dental Judson Church Group, 249
Hypnotherapy Association, 76 Jung, Carl Gustav, 126, 169, 193, 343, 347, 350,
International Somatic Movement Therapy and 374, 379-380, 391, 404, 410, 419
Education Association (ISMTEA), 202
Interscience Research Institute, 421 K
intimacy, 402 Kabat-Zinn, Jon, 319
intuition, shamanism and, 19 Kagan, Alfred, 157
irrigations, 99, 102 Kalff, Dora, 374-377
irritable bowel syndrome, 69, 70 Kamiya, Joe, 68
ischemic compression, 160 Kammertanzbuhne Laban, 335
Islam, 124, 144, 306 Kanemon, Terada, 287
ISMTEA. See International Somatic Movement kapha, 5-7
Therapy and Education Association karate, 118, 285, 289-292, 301
Iyengar, B.K.S., 314-315 Karate/Kung-Fu Illustrated, 282
Iyengar yoga, 314-315 karateka, 289, 290, 291
IYIs. See Integral Yoga Institutes karma yoga, 309, 313
kata, 292
J keiko, 296
Jacobson, Edmund, 382 Kellogg, Dr. John Harvey, 100
Jacoby, Heinrich, 201, 232, 234 Kelly, Dr. Charles R., 421-422
438
ken-jutsu, 293 Landau reflex, 219
kendo, 278, 293-297 Lao-tzu, 186
kendoka, 293 law of cure, 12
Kennedy, John F., 144, 160 Lawrence, F. C., 338
Kestenberg, Dr. Judith S., 332, 336 lazy eye, 90, 93, 231
Kestenberg movement profile (KMP), 213, 328, leadership, 329
332-335 learning, 84, 105, 329
ki, 23, 116, 278, 286, 293, 295 learning disabilities, treatments for, 67, 70, 93,
ki-ai, 295, 296 103, 113, 215, 216, 247, 248, 369
kicking, 275, 276 Lee, Bruce, 285
kidney disorders, 152 Leedy, Jack J., 370
kikentai-no-ichi, 296 Leibowitz, Judith, 425
kinesiopathology, 39 Lepkoff, Daniel, 249
kinesphere, 251, 336 Lerner, Arthur, 370
kinesthetic sense, 82, 231, 266 levity, 269
kinetic awareness, 226-228 Lewis, Penny, 332
Kinetography Laban, 335 Liberman, Dr. Jacob, 106
kirlian photograph, 107 licensing, 145-146
KMP. See Kestenberg Movement Profiler licking, 154
Kneipp, Father Sebastian, 2, 15-16, 83, 99-100 Liebault, Auguste Ambroise, 73-74
Knill, Paolo, 364 lifestyle, effect on health, 6, 7, 8, 16, 35, 36, 111,
Kodokan, 287 112, 178, 196, 344
Koffa, Kurt, 397 lifestyle counseling, 15
light, feng shui and, 122
Kogusoku, 284
light therapy, 83, 84, 85, 103-109, 320
kokodan judo, 278
Light of Truth Universal Services, 313
Konia, Dr. Charles, 408
Light of Truth Universal Shrine (LOTUS), 313
Korea, 118, 301, 319
limbic system, 85, 86-87, 105
Korean Taekwondo Federation, 301
Ling, Per Henrik, 144, 174
Kousaleos, George P., 152
Ling System, the, 174
Kraeplin, Emil, 347
listening, 111, 248, 250
Kramer, Edith, 347
defined, 111-112
Krieger, Dolores, Ph.D., 140
Sounding and, 109-111
kripalu yoga, 315-316
liver disorders, 59, 147
kripalvananda, 315 LMA. See Laban Movement Analysis
Krishna Consciousness Movement, 309 lodestone, 124
Krishnamacharya, Shree T., 314 logic, 2
Krishnamurti, Jidhu, 317 Loman, Susan, 332
kriyas, 308 longevity, 118, 263
Kübler-Ross, Dr. Elizabeth, 29-30 LOTUS. See Light of Truth Universal Shrine
kundalini yoga, 308, 315, 320 love, 74, 407
kung fu, 118 love force, 389
kung fu wu su, 297-301 Lowen, Dr. Alexander, 382-385, 388, 393, 410
kuntao, 275 Lowenfeld, Margaret, 374
Kunz, Dora, 140 lupus, 264
Kurtz, Ron, 392, 400 Lust, Benedict, 15-17, 83
Kushi, Michio, 54, 118 lymphatic drainage, 148, 174
lymphocytes, 79
L
Laban Institute of Movement Studies, 211 M
Laban Lawrence industrial rhythm, 338 ma huang (Ephedra sinia), 60
Laban movement analysis (LMA), 211, 213, 327, MacArthur, Gen. Douglas, 290
328, 335-340 macrobiotics, 54, 118
Laban personal effort assessment, 338 magic, 118, 257
Laban, Rudolf, 210, 327, 333, 335, 338 magnesium, 249
Labanotation, 335 magnet therapy, 115-116, 117, 124-126
ladainha, 283 magnetotherapy. See magnet therapy
Lamb, Warren, 333, 336 makiwara, 302
439
malicia, 282 Mesmer, Franz Anton, 64, 73
management, 329, 332 Mesmerism, 37, 48
Mandel, Peter, 107 miasms, 12
mandingas, 282 Middle Ages, the, 144
mantra yoga, 308, 313 migraine headaches, 8
mantras, 309, 326 treatments, 14, 39, 42, 58, 67, 70, 76, 139, 187
manual lymph drainage, 145 See also headaches
Marcher, Lisbeth, 385-387 milk thistle (Silybum marianum), 59
Marcus, Dr. Hershey, 332 Miller, Kay, 391
Marks, Linda, 392-393 Milton H. Erickson Institutes, 76
martial arts, 82, 118, 226, 249, 251, 274-277, 317 mime, 254, 356
martial arts qigong, 131 mind
Mary Starks Whitehouse Institute, 350 effect on health, 65, 71, 77, 270, 325, 343, 379
Maslow, Abraham, 345, 380, 410 influence on health, 3
massage therapy, 6, 9, 23, 74, 82, 84, 88, 118, See also brain; consciousness; unconscious
119, 136, 142-147, 173, 174, 178, 195, 197-198, mind/body medicine, 64-67, 82
229, 231, 268, 328 Mindanao, 275
materialism, 317 Mindell, Arnold, 193, 415-416
Maudsley, Henry, 353 mindfulness, 400, 402
Maury, Marguerite, 86 mirroring, 354
McClure, Vimala, 153-157 mirrors, 207
McMillan, Jaimen, 245, 268 Miss Sarah Farmer's Greenacre School of
M.D. See medical doctor Comparative Religions, 317
measles, 146 mobility junction, 250
treatments for, 14, 104 Modern Educational Dance, 336
mechanistic paradigm, compared to wellness monasticism, 143
paradigm, 29 Montague, Ashley, 154
medical doctor (M.D.), 63, 162 Moreno, Jacob Levi, M.D., 380, 416
medical orgone therapy, 405-409 morphine, 46
medical orgonomy, 116, 382 Moshou, 198
medical qiqong, 131 motivation, 67, 84, 105, 113, 230, 332
medicine men. See shamanism motor-coordination, 42, 113, 226, 386-387
medicine wheel, 22 Mount Kuriyama, 135
meditation, 6, 64, 68, 69, 74, 117, 119, 131, 251, 298, movement, universal, 245-246
300, 303, 315, 317-321, 403, 423 movement coaching, 207, 328
meditation in motion, 315-316 movement in depth, 350
Meetings with Remarkable Men, 256, 257, 259 movement dysfunction, 159, 207
Meir Schneider's Miracle Eyesight Method, 230 movement pattern analysis, 328, 338-340
Meir Schneider self-healing method, 228-231 movement therapy, 82, 200-203, 247, 268, 270,
melatonin, 105 332
Melzack and Wall, 187 See also bodywork
memories moving imagination, 350
effect on health, 79, 214 Mowrer, Hobart G., 68
emotional, 85, 106, 152, 169, 194, 248, 326, moxibustion, 24, 186
367, 379, 392, 402, 426 Mrs. Ole Bull's Cambridge Conferences on
vision and, 89, 94 Comparative Religions, 317
See also emotions MTPT. See Myofascial Trigger Point Therapy
Menninger Foundation, 117 Mucope people, 281
menopausal difficulties, 188 mudras, 191
menstrual difficulties, 106, 139, 164, 188 mugwort (Artemesia vulgaris), 186
mental disorders, 124, 187, 194, 403 Muktananda, Swami, 50
mental health, 373 multi-modal expressive arts therapy, 363-366
mental rejuvenation, 260 multiple sclerosis, 14, 229
mental well-being, 276, 286, 289, 302, 311 mummification, 86
defined, 29-31 Murai, Jiro, 180, 188, 189, 191
mentastics, 242 muscular dystrophy, 230, 240, 344
mercury, 40, 46 muscular pain, treatments for, 69, 86, 102, 124,
meridians, 24, 178, 180, 182, 184, 186, 189, 193, 195 125, 146, 148, 157, 182, 196, 236
440
muscular system, 36, 262, 311, 408 autonomic, 148, 169
muscular therapy, 157-158 disorders of, 164
musculoskeletal system, 152-153, 204, 224, 225, immune system and, 79
227 parasympathetic, 150
music, 72, 234, 254-255, 259, 280, 282-283, 403 network chiropractic, 34-35, 43-45, 239
music therapy, 366-370 network spinal analysis. See network chiro-
musicians, 206, 211, 212, 216, 231, 267, 343 practic
Myofascial Pain and Dysfunction, 160 Neumann, Erich, 374, 410
myofascial release, 145, 158-160, 236 neuralgia, treatment for, 125
myofascial trigger point therapy (MTPT), 160- neuro-hypnosis, 73
163 neurological disorders, 42, 216, 225
myopathology, 39 neurology, 173, 264
myrrh, 86 neuromuscular facilitation, 145, 150, 231
mysticism, 317, 403 neuropathology, 39
My Water Cure, 100 neurosensory development, 105-106, 108
neurosis, 74, 116
N neurotic character structure, 383
nagi, 278, 280 New Diary, The, 361
NAMT. See National Association of Music New School for Social Research, 234, 382
Therapy New York Academy of Science, 62
Nan Jing (Classic of Difficult Issues), 24 New Zealand, 248
NAPT. See National Association for Poetry Newton, Sir Isaac, 103
Therapy n'golo, 281
Naranjo, Claudio, 329 niacin, 55, 61
NASA, 105, 222 nibanna, 319
National Association for Drama Therapy NIH. See National Institutes of Health
(NADT), 357, 359 nine-pointed star, 329-330
National Association of Music Therapy nirvana, 319
(NAMT), 367 Nixon, Richard, 144
National Association for Poetry Therapy NLF. See National Learning Foundation
(NAPT), 362, 370 Nolte, Marcia, 237
National Cancer Institute, 55 nonviolence, 313
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 55, 57, 140 norepinephrine, 105
National Institute of Mental Health, 105 Novato Institute for Somatic Research and
National Learning Foundation (NLF), 247 Training, 219, 222
National Socialist Party, 335 Nugent, John J., 37
Native Americans, 46, 83, 99, 142, 163, 342, 403 numbness, 180
natural childbirth, 17 numerology, 120
natural law, relation to health, 8, 118, 131 nutrition, clinical, 15
Natural Law Party, 324 nutritional counseling, 37
nature, human beings and, 84, 245 nutritional and dietary practices, 53-56
naturopathic medicine, 15-17 nutritional supplements, 16
naturopathy, 2, 9, 83
Naumburg, Margaret, 347 O
Nazism, 335, 397, 420 O Sensei, 278-280
NCCAOM (National Commission for OAM. See Office of Alternative Medicine
Certification of Acupuncture and Oriental obi, 288, 291
Medicine), 28 obsessive compulsive disorder, 106, 139
ND. See doctor of naturopathy occupational health, 231
nearsightedness, 83, 91, 231 occupational therapy, 213, 245, 263
neck, 204 OEP. See Optometric Extension Program
neck pain, treatment for, 39, 42, 158, 159, 162, Office of Alternative Medicine (OAM), 57
206, 209, 236, 264 Ogden, Pat, 400, 401
necromancy, 118 Ohashi Institute, 195
needs, 398, 412 Ohashi, Wataru, 195
nervous system, 35, 41, 42, 43, 48, 85, 99, 100, Ohashiatsu, 195
102, 104-105, 146, 150, 152, 163, 172, 173-174, Okinawa, 290
175, 196, 203, 219, 392 oM, 309
441
Omega Institute, 343 Patanjali, 306
Omoto-Kyo, 278 pathophysiology, 39
On Vital Reserves, 306 pathwork, 387-391
oncology, 264 Pauling, Linus, 54-55, 61
One to One: Self-Understanding Through Journal Pavek, Dr. Richard R., 137, 138
Writing, 361 Paxton, Steve, 245, 249, 250
opium, 46 pediatric problems, 159
Optiks (Newton), 103 pellagra, 61
Optometric Extension Program (OEP), 91 penicillin, 2, 84
organismic body psychotherapy, 380, 409-411 Pennebaker, Dr. James, 362
Organon of Rational Medicine, 10 perceptual difficulties, 214
orgone, 388 performing artists, 204, 206, 211, 227, 260, 267
See also medical orgone therapy perfumes, 86
Oriental medicine, 15, 17, 23 Perls, Fritz, 234, 380, 397-399, 410, 417, 425
See also traditional Chinese medicine Perls, Laura, 380, 425
Orr, Leonard, 380, 422-425 personal growth, 329, 357
orthomolecular medicine, 55, 56, 60-63 personal kinesphere, 336
orthopedic disorders, 42 personality, 72, 96, 109, 330, 354, 359, 393, 398
orthoptics, 90 homeopathic view of, 14
Osmond, Humphrey, 61 Pesso, Albert, 411-414
osteoarthritis, 226 Pesso Boyden system psychomotor (PBSP), 381,
osteopathy, 33, 34, 36, 38, 40, 45-50, 55 411-414
osteoporosis, 221 petrissage, 174
otitis, 14 pharmaceutical drugs, 2, 7, 16, 38, 54, 84, 144
Ottenbacker, K. J., 154 herbal medicine and, 57, 58
Ouspensky, P. D., 258 See also Allopathic medicine
overeating, 6 pharmacopiae, 27
See also eating disorders Philippines, 275
phlebitis, 147
P phobias, 35, 67, 73, 76, 270
PA. See Process Acupressure photoluminesence, 107
PACE (Positive, Active, Clear, Energetic), 248 photoreceptors, 105
pain photron ocular light stimulator, 105
effect on health, 79, 133 phrenology, 48
principles of, 173-174 physical education, 261, 268
treatments for, 21, 33, 42, 57, 65, 67, 70, 72, 73, physical fitness, 252, 276, 289
76, 124, 129, 141, 145, 146, 158, 159, 160, 172- physical medicine, 15
173, 182, 194, 196, 206, 209, 216, 218, 223, 227, physical reeducation, 234
228, 229, 235, 240, 263, 264, 267, 323, 428 physical therapy, 169, 210, 252, 261, 263, 268,
palliative treatment, homeopathic, 10 270
Palmer, Bartlett Joshua, 37 physical well-being, defined, 29-31
Palmer, Daniel David, 34, 35, 37, 38 physiology, 144, 145-146
Panchakarma, 6 physiotherapy, 268
pancreatitis, 14 Picasso, Pablo, 343
panic attacks, 106, 139, 408 Pierrakos, Dr. John, 382, 388-389, 393
Paracelsus, 71 Pilates, Joseph H., 245, 260, 261
paralysis, 253 Pilates Method of Body Conditioning®, 245,
paranoia, 329 246, 260-263
Paré, Ambroise, 144 pitta, 5-7
parent-child interactions placebo, 66-67
before/after birth, 334 plantar fascitis, 162
infant massage, 153-157 plants, medicinal, 53-54, 119
Parkinson's disease, 264 See also herbal medicine
Parnell, Devakanya G., 315 Plato, 143, 342
Pasteur, Louis, 54 playing, 261
Pasteurization, 54 pleasure, 195, 239, 240-242
Pastinha, Mestre, 281 PMS. See premenstrual syndrome
Pastinha, Vincente Ferreira, 281 pneumonia, 46
442
treatments for, 14, 104 psychoanalysis, 343, 379, 398, 414, 419
PNI. See psychoneuroimmunology psychodrama, 380, 416-419
Poetry Cure, The, 370 psychology, 19, 111, 235, 332, 337
poetry therapy, 370-374 psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), 29, 65, 66, 67,
Poetry Therapy Institute, 370 78-81
polarity therapy, 5, 116, 126-129, 145 psychopathology, 347, 353
Polarity Therapy, 126 psychosynthesis, 381, 392, 419-421
polio, 210-211, 344 psychotherapy, 84, 95, 104, 106, 169, 172, 188,
treatments for, 14, 210-211 234, 317, 356
Polynesia, 342 See also body-oriented psychotherapies
poomse, 303 pulses, 24
positive thinking, 79-80 puppetry, 356
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) purging, 10, 34, 46
treatments for, 83, 94-95, 139, 194, 290, 356, Pythagoras, 245
402, 427
See also stress; trauma Q
postural alignment, 264 qi, 23, 24, 25, 129, 132, 138, 183, 194, 195, 197,
posture, 113, 173, 174, 207, 209, 226, 231, 240, 198
242, 262, 269, 306, 391 TCM view of, 26, 27
Power of Imagination Conference, 78 qigong, 117, 129-133, 244-245, 320
Practice of Aromatherapy, The, 86 quinine, 10
prana, 116, 127, 311
pranayama, 308, 309, 310, 311, 314, 315 R
prayer, 74, 342 Radix, 421-422
pregnancy, 267 Raheem, Dr. Aminah, 182, 192, 193
cautions in, 190, 196, 242, 404 Rainer, Tristine, 361
premenstrual syndrome (PMS), treatments for, raja yoga, 306, 307, 309
103, 139, 187, 196, 320 Rama, Swami, 306
PressureStat Model, 41 Ramakrishna Vedanta, 317
preventative treatment Ramamani, 314
homeopathic, 10 randori, 285, 288
naturopathic, 16 rape, 94
physical, 172, 194 rapid eye movement (REM), EMDR and, 95
spiritual, 198 Rational Hydrotherapy, 100
Priessnitz, Vincent, 83, 99 RDAs. See recommended daily allowances
primordial qigong, 132 RDT. See registered dance therapist
Primum non nocere, 16 reading skills, 248
prisons, 358, 373 Realms of the Human Unconscious, 403
process acupressure (PA), 192-194 rebirthing, 380, 422-425
See also acupressure recommended daily allowances (RDAs), 62-63
process oriented psychology, 380, 415-416 recreation therapy, 263
Progoff, Dr. Ida, 361-363 reflexes, 219
Program Guide for Body-Mind Centering reflexology, 163-165
Certification Program, 213 registered dance therapist (RDT), 355, 358
progressive relaxation, 382 Registered Movement Therapist, 202
prophesy, 118 rehabilitation medicine, 49
prosperity, 424 Reich, Dr. Wilhelm, 116, 157, 189, 379, 382, 384,
prostate, 59 393, 397, 400, 405-409, 406, 409-410, 421
proving, homeopathic, 12-13 reiki, 116, 133-137, 145
Prudden, Bonnie, 160, 161 relationships
psoriasis, 14, 103, 107, 320 effect on health, 35, 98, 107, 356, 363, 369,
See also skin disorders 387, 390, 414, 424
psyche, 256 See also emotions
psychiatric disorders, 61 relaxation
psychiatry, 49, 264, 353 health and, 79, 99, 141, 200, 242, 368
psycho-physical evaluation frameworks, 327- treatments for, 33, 69, 76, 77, 174, 175
328 relaxation response, 322-324
psychoactive drugs, 146 Relaxation Response Program, 319
443
religious persecution, 144, 317 Saraswati, Swami Sivananda, 313
religious rituals, 342, 353 Satchidananda Ashram-Yogaville, 313
REM. See rapid eye movement Satchidananda, Swami, 313
remedy portrait, 14 Saul, King, 366
Renaissance, the, 2, 71, 86, 144, 317, 343 saunas, 102
Renaud, Jean-Joseph, 287 sauntering, 318
Rentsch, Oswald and Elaine, 148 saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), 59
reparenting, 414 Scafifi, F.A., 154
resentment, 96, 98 scar tissue, 152
resonance, 26 scarlet fever, 14, 104
resources, 385 Schauffler, Robert Haven, 370
respiratory conditions, 81, 311 schizophrenia, 55, 61, 399, 408
treatments for, 67, 76, 107, 194 Schneider, Meir, Ph.D, 228
restorative observation, 201, 231 Schoenberg, Arnold, 343
Return to Life, 261 School for Body-Mind Centering, 213
rheumatism, treatments for, 101, 125, 144, 174, School of Nancy, 73
182, 264 School for Self-Healing, 230
rhythm, 269 schools, 373, 418
rickets, 260 Schoop, Trudi, 354
rigidity, 222, 391 sciatica, 39, 162
Rilke, Rainer Maria, 343 scientific method, 2
Rishis, 5 scoliosis, 39, 42, 159, 188, 206
Ritter, Johann, 103 scurvy, 61
rituals, 352 seasonal affective disorder (SAD), 105, 106-107
shamanism and, 18, 19 self-awareness, 169-171, 214, 215, 402
"Road Not Taken, The", 371 self-confidence, 96, 98, 235, 276, 285, 289, 291,
Robin, Dr. Esther, 332 302
roda, 282 self-defense, 260, 274, 300
Rogers, Carl, 345, 380, 410 See also martial arts
role play, 357-358, 412, 416, 418 self-discipline, 276, 286, 289, 293, 302
Rolf, Dr. Ida, 50, 165-168, 166, 201, 209, 222, 235 self-esteem, 8, 204, 218, 248, 326, 356, 363, 424
Rolf Institute, 223 self-expression, 171, 224, 248, 267
Rolfing®, 48, 50, 145, 165-168, 209, 222, 223, 235 Self-Healing: My Life and Vision, 230
ROM dance, 245, 263-265 self-image, 415
guided imagery and, 265-267 self-knowledge, 259
Rome, 83, 86, 143, 275, 342 self-realization, 319
Rosen, Marion, 169, 170 self-reliance, 203
Rosen method, 168-172 self-study, 259
Rosen method of bodywork, 169 Selver, Charlotte, 233, 234
Rosenthal, Norman, 105 Selye, Hans, 66
Rosicrucians, 317 Sen-Nin, 118
Rossman, Dr. Martin L., 77-78 sensory awareness, 203, 231-235, 410
Royal Gymnastic Central Institute, 144, 174 Sensory Awareness Foundation, 234
Rubenfeld, Illana, 380, 425-428, 427 sensory-motor amnesia (SMA), 221
Rubenfeld synergy method, 425-428 sensory recruitment, 72
sensory therapies, 82-85
S sensory-motor amnesia (SMA), 221
sabumnim, 303 sensuality, 195
sacred gymnastics, 258 sequences, 211
SAD. See seasonal affective disorder serotonin, 105
safety-energy locks, 190, 191-192 sexual activity, 309, 379-380
Salinger, J.D., 317 effect on health, 8
samadhi, 306, 311 sexual arousal, 72
samurai, 284-285, 293 sexual dysfunction, 97, 106, 390
sandplay therapy, 374-377 shakti yoga, 50
Sands Point Movement Study Group, 332, 333 Shaku, Rev. Soyen, 317
Sanga, 281 shamanism, 2, 18-23, 81, 65 129, 306, 403
Saraswati, Swami Brahamananda, 324 See also trance state
444
shamanistic counseling, 2, 21 sojutsu, 278
shame, 137, 189 soma, 219, 244
Shang Han Lun (Treatise on Harm Caused by SOMA Institute, 237
Cold), 25 soma neuromuscular integration, 202, 235-238
Shaolin Temple, 275, 289, 298 somatic dysfunction, 49
Shapiro, Francine, Ph.D., 94, 95 somatic exercises, 221
sharing, 418 Somatic Institute, 391
shen, 26 somatic practices, 82
SHEN, 116, 137-139 somatics, 253
shiatsu, 117, 145, 146, 178, 180, 194-197 defined, 219
shinai, 293 somato respiratory integration (SRI), 238-239
shingles, 86 Soodak, Dr. Martha, 332
Shinto, 278 Sossin, Mark, 332
shoulder pain, 162 soul, 96, 192, 389
Shute, Evan and Wilfred, 61 sound, 119, 254-255, 308, 403
Siberia, 306 feng shui and, 122
Siegel, Bernie, 71 sounding, 109-111
sign language, 254 South African Institute for Psychoanalysis, 397
similia similibus curentor, 10 Spatial DynamicsSM, 245, 246, 268-270
Simons, David, M.D., 160 Speads, Carola, 226, 234
Simonton, Carl, 71 Specific Human Energy Nexus. See SHEN
singers, 206 speech, 109, 379
singing, 342 Spencer, Herbert, 48
sinusitis, treatments for, 39, 164, 187, 188, 196 spinal cord, 41, 43
Skeffington, Dr. A.M., 91 spine
skeletal manipulation methods, 33-36 illness and, 34, 38-39, 206, 231
skeletal system, 213 manipulation of, 36, 37, 48, 204, 295
skeleton models, 207 spirits, 2, 3, 18, 19, 26, 65, 71
skin spiritual nature, 3, 315
hypersensitivity of, 162 spiritual qigong, 131
treatments for, 59-60, 102, 175 Spiritual Regeneration Movement, 324
skin disorders spiritual well-being, 286, 380, 396
treatments for, 88, 101 defined, 29-31
Skinner, Joan, 245, 265 spiritual world, 254
Skinner releasing technique (SRT), 245, 246, spiritualism, 48
265-267 Spitler, Harry, 84, 104
skull, 34, 36 spontaneity, 417
slaves, 275, 281 sports, 73, 226, 247, 268
sleep disorders. See insomnia See also athletics
SMA. See sensory-motor amnesia sports injuries, 148, 165
smallpox, treatments for, 104 sports training, 71, 328
Smith, Bruce Robertson, 296 sprains and strains, 178, 199
Smith, Fritz Frederick, M.D., 50 SRI. See Somato respiratory integration
Smith, Nancy Stark, 249, 250 SRT. See Skinner releasing technique
Smith, William, M.D., 47 Ssu-ma Chien, 24
smoking, 6, 19, 73, 76, 178, 184 stamina, 270, 291
effect on health, 8 Stanislavsky, Konstantin, 343
See also addictions startle response, 219, 221
smudging ceremony, 21 Steiner, Rudolf, 245, 254-256, 268, 269
Smuts, Jan Christiaan, 7 sterilization, 107
snake bite, 143 stiffness, 180
Snyder, Gary, 317 Still, Dr. Andrew Taylor, 33, 34, 35, 40, 45-50
Society for Clinical and Experimental stimulants, 60
Hypnosis, 76 St. John method of neuromuscular therapy,
sociology, 337 172-174
sociometry, 416 St. John Neuromuscular Pain Relief Institute,
Socrates, 143 173
sode, 288 St. John, Paul, 172
445
St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum), 55, 59 synergy, 380
stomach. See gastrointestinal disorders syntonic optometry, 104, 108
Stone, Randolph, 126 syphilis, 14
storytelling, 18, 370
strange flows, 189 T
strength conditioning, 262-263, 267, 280, 286, tachi-uchi, 293
296, 311 tae kyon, 301
See also bodybuilding taekwondo, 301-304
stress t'ai chi ch'üan, 117, 118, 119, 211, 244-246, 250,
coping mechanisms for, 14, 70, 77, 152, 155, 263-264, 270-273, 276, 293, 297, 298, 320
356 tai-jutsu, 284
effect on health, 35, 39, 66, 68, 79, 83, 98, 111, Takata, Hawayo, 135
112, 172, 221, 230, 427 Takenouchi Ryu, 284
treatments for, 52, 65, 67, 101, 109, 124, 164, talent, 232, 345
174, 178, 187, 194, 247, 267, 317, 326, 405 Tamalpa Institute, 360
See also tension Tameshiwara, 291
stress management, 17, 42, 89, 145, 264 tanden, 295
Stress Reduction Clinic, 319 tantra, 319
stroke, 55, 67 tantric yoga, 309
treatment cautions, 176 Tanzbuhne Laban, 335
See also heart; high blood pressure Tao of the Body, 350
structural integration, 167 Tao Teh Ching, 184-186
su bak, 301 Tao-Yin, 118
subconscious, 95 Taoism, 23, 24, 25, 65, 118, 120-121, 184, 198,
subluxations, 37, 43 245, 297, 299, 400
substance abuse. See addictions Taoist Canon, 131
subtle energy practices, 64, 82, 115-117, 163 tapotement, 174, 175
See also energy taste, 54
Sufism, 306, 329, 403 Taylor, Charles Faytte, 144
sugar, 8 Taylor, George Henry, 144
suggestive therapeutics, 73 TCM. See traditional Chinese medicine
Sullivan, Harry Stack, 354 teacher, shaman as, 18
Summers, Elaine, 226 teaching, 329, 332, 342
sumo wrestling, 278 tee, 297
sun cure, 104 Teeguarden, Iona Marsaa, 180, 187-188
sun dance, 22 telepathy, 118
sun therapy, 6, 83 temperature, 322
See also light therapy disease and, 145
sunburn, treatments for, 60 temporomandibular joint (TMJ),
sunyata, 319 treatments for, 42, 70, 162
support groups, 81 See also jaw pain
surgery, 76, 221, 323, 369, 400 tendinitis, 162
minor, 15, 17 Tenjin Shrine, 284
suriashi, 295 tennis elbow, 162
Sutherland, Dr. William, 40 tension, 99, 190, 228, 230, 231, 379, 392, 398
Suzuki, Daisetz T., 317 physiological, 46
sweat lodge, shamanism and, 22 unconscious, 204
Swedish massage, 144, 146, 147, 148, 174-176 See also stress
Sweigard, Lulu, 225 tension relief, treatments for, 39, 42, 43, 44, 182,
sword dance, 281 223, 226, 228, 362
swordsmanship, 284, 293-297, 301 "Tenth Good Thing About Barney, The", 372
symbols, 71, 126, 328, 347, 354, 374 Teresa, Mother, 81, 309
symptoms Thai massage, 146
alternative vs. allopathic view of, 3, 9, 12, 46 Theatre of Spontaneity, 416
holistic view of, 9, 38 Theosophical Society, 317
homeopathic view of, 13 therapeutic touch (TT), 38, 116, 131, 139-141,
naturopathic view of, 17 145
suppression of, 54 Thinking Body, The, 225
446
thinking skills, 322 tuberculosis, 14, 83, 100, 104, 201, 231
Thoreau, Henry David, 317 tui na, 143, 180, 197-199
three-brain model, 237 types, 329, 330-331
thrombosis, treatment cautions, 175 typhoid, 46
thurmae, 143 typhus, 11
thyroid problems, 106
Tibetan monks, 322-324 U
Tillich, Paul, 397 Ueshiba Academy, 278
TM. See Transcendental Meditation Ueshiba, Kisshomaru, 280
TMJ. See temporomandibular joint Ueshiba, Morehei, 278-280
to-jutsu, 293 Ueshiba-ryu Aiki-bujutsu, 278
Todd, Mabel Elsworth, 201, 225 Uke, 278, 280, 288
toho, 293 ulcers, treatments for, 67, 76, 125, 129, 187
tolle causam, 16 ultrasound, 16
Tomatis, Dr. Alfred, 84, 111 ultraviolet energy, 103-104, 107
Tomatis method, 84, 111-114 unconscious, 66, 74, 106, 343, 379
toning. See sounding See also consciousness; mind
toothache, 125 unergi, 428-429
Tori, 288 universal reformer, 262
touch, 27, 115, 425 universe, 245
use in therapy, 35-36, 115, 126, 135, 142, 192 University of California–Irvine, 43, 45
touch communication, 153-154 unruffling, 140
Touch Research Institute (TRI), 146, 154-155 Upledger, Dr. John E., 40, 41, 42
Touchdown, 250 Upledger Institute, The, 42
Touching, 154 urogenital problems, treatments for, 188
toxemia, 150 U.S. Centers for Disease Control, 8
toxicity, factors affecting, 35, 59 Usui, Mikao, 133-134
toxins, elimination of, 6, 99, 152, 164, 179, 180, Usui System of Natural Healing, 135
182
traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), 177-178, V
180, 183, 186, 189, 194, 195, 197 valerian root (Valeriana officinalis), 58
traditional massage. See Swedish massage Valnet, Jean, 86
Trager, Dr. Milton, 201, 240 varicose veins, 147
Trager Institute, The, 240 treatment cautions, 175
Trager psychophysical integration, 239-243 vata, 5-7
trance state, 21, 65, 73, 74, 106, 402, 404 Vazquez, Dr. Steven, 106
See also hypnotherapy; shamanism verbal unwinding, 163
Transcendental Meditation (TM), 308, 319, 324- verbalizations, 169
326 Veselko, Ruth, 234
transcendentalists, 318 vibration, 174, 175
transformations, 26, 359 Vietnam War, 47, 57, 94
transpersonal psychology, 193, 403 violence, 358
trauma, 42, 133, 153, 159, 172, 174, 224, 251, 253, Viorst, Judith, 372
343, 358, 363, 392, 405, 423 Vis medicatrix naturae, 16
effect on health, 35, 66, 111, 112, 189-190, 194 vision quests, shamanism and, 22
trauma reflex, 219, 221 visualizations, 19-21, 119, 231, 429
Travell, Dr. Janet, 160 shamanism and, 19-21
Treatise on Harm Caused by Cold, 25 vital life force, 34
Treatise of Materia Medica, A, 10 vitamin B3, 55, 61
TRI. See Touch Research Institute vitamin C, 61, 79
trigger points, 160, 173 vitamin D, 105
trigger-point myotherapy, 145 vitamin E, 61
trust, 249, 250, 426 vitamin therapy, 55, 60-62
truth, 313, 366 Vivekananda, Swami, 317
Tschanpua, 143 vodoun religion, 18
tse, 297 voice, 254-255
tsubos, 194 therapies for, 109-113, 201, 204-207, 213
TT. See Therapeutic Touch vomiting, 10
447
W wounds, 147, 1599
Walden School, 347 emotional, 400
Waldorf School, 245, 254, 269 treatments for, 60
wall-eye, 90 writing skills, 248, 372
Walling, Dr. William, 382
water, 83, 99 X
See also hydrotherapy X ray, 323
Watts, Alan, 234, 317
waza, 295 Y
wellness, 3, 5, 8, 29-32 yantra yoga, 308
Wells, Dr. David, 90-91 Yawara, 284
Wertheimer, Max, 397 Yellow Emperor's Internal Classic (Huang-ti Nei
whiplash, treatment for, 39, 162, 209, 221 Jing), 24, 118, 143, 184, 195, 198
White House Task Force on Innovative yin and yang, 26-27, 118, 120-121, 186, 272-273,
Learning, 247, 248 309
Whitehouse, Mary, 350, 354 Ying qi, 26
WHO. See World Health Organization Yoga: Immortality and Freedom , 306
Wigman, Mary, 350 yoga, 64, 66, 82, 117, 118, 128, 250, 251, 305-312,
Wilber, Kenneth, 403 317, 322, 324, 382
Williams, Drs. Bill and Ellen, 202, 235 Yoga Journal International, 306
Williams, Roger, Ph.D., 62 Yoga Sutras, 306
Winternitz, William, 100 Yogananda, Paramahansa, 306, 317
wisdom, 258, 419 Yogi, Marahishi Mahesh, 308, 319, 324, 325
wisdom qigong, 132 Yoshin-Ryu, 284
women Yu, Tricia, 263
in homeopathy, 14
in osteopathy, 47 Z
World Health Organization (WHO), 57-58, 62, za-zen, 295-296, 319
187 ZB. See Zero Balancing
World Parliament of Religions, 317 Zen Buddhism, 135, 285, 289, 291, 317, 319
World Taekwondo Federation, 301 Zero Balancing® (ZB), 35, 36, 50-52, 145, 192
world technique, 374 Zhang Jie-Bin, 27
world work, 415 Zhang Zhong-Jing, 25
Worsley, Prof. J.R., 50 zone therapy, 163
wound healing, 81, 104, 124, 141, 144, 152 zubon, 288
448