..----..._.--.,...-------......-,._,.-~------~--:---~~~-~~~--.

_~--

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..
ED 1.19 1456
AUTHOR '"\

DOCO!!.'! JESUit!

SO 012 156 ~aladyna, Tom: And Others Correlates 0 f Att'i'tudes'owar d Soci~l Studies •. ~ -Naticnal S~ience Foundation~ Wa~hington, D.C.
( '( 79].

../ TIT LE

AGENCY PUB,DATE . NOTE

SPONS

22p.; Paper prEsented. at t~e- Annual Ccnfexence for the Social 'Studies (P.or-tland·, Nov~mber 21-24, OF
1919) ~
M FO 1/PCO 1 Plus PostagE~
.f"

.'

"

,
'-

EDBS

PRI CE

'

DESCRIPTOR S

*Affective Teets! Effective'Teaching; Family Environment; Grade 7: Grade 9: *Heasur~ment Techniques: *Hode,ls: Parent Attitudes;, Iyasearch Met ho do Loqv ; School Environment: seccndar Y Education,,; *Social Studies: *student Attitudes; 1eacher " A,ttJ, tudes ,

,-

A.BSTRA~T

.
? , .

t.

-Results of a study using a theoEetical I~del to measur'e sc uden t attitudes toward social studies are repor't.ed., Attituues were measured as th~y rElated to five ccn!t~ucts: (1). teacher atti~udes, iridluding suppo;t and reinforcement for the .' r student and enthu~iasm fot sub1e~t: (Z) student self~ccnceF~ \ scholastJ,c ,attitude, peer acce p+ance , and 'achievement; (3) iastruction such as homework, class discussion, learning activities, and teacher effectiveness: (q) learning environ.ent variables of cohesiveness, formality, friction, aa t.i sfact.Lon, difficulty; school pressure and size, and cl aas size: ,and (5) -pare rrt I friction; a support, and trust. One-hundred thirty-five seventh hnd ninth.grade' students plus their teacher-s resFcndef to an affective as aes saen t; questionnaire. Results indicated that varLab les in all five, " ~9nstructs were significantly rElated to attitudes tow~Id sQcial stuaies. However, the patterns ~ere not constant between ninth a~d seven.t grades. "Generally ninth. q rade rs were more affected b,y issues h of scholarship and social relationshiFs than seventh graders, althoug~ stUderit attitudes~ the lEarning envircnment, and teaoher variables are importantly related to social stUdies attitudes ~e9.a..rdless grade level .. (KC) "of \

,
p.

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•
. . *.** ** .. ********************* by********\a.re the best that c'an be Ulaue***. .t ******** **** ** ****** ******** * ReiJroductions supplied EOFS ' * from t he original docu aen t , * *******************.*****.***.***.***.*******.* ••••• *••• *.************* .
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"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS

"

..

..
of Attitudes
,

,
_

.
I

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" iIA'l'l!RIAl=EN '~('2

.l(LIqrlrai
•

GAANTEO BY Correlates Toward

d I es I, Soc ba l S tu

...

.'

TO ThfE EDUCATION'AL RESOU"CES INFORMATION CENTERJERICI."

Tom Haladyna, Joan Shaughnes$y and Bob Teaching Res~arch Division Oregon State System of Higher Education /. MonmQu~h, Orego~ 97361
"

a Isen

;/

DOCUMeNT HAS .IEN. A.t'PRO· -oucao eXAc.,TLY ... S,•.• £CElveo. FROM THE PI;R$ON,OR QltOANIU TION ORIGJN"TlNG IT ROI,HTSOF view OR OPINfON!) STA,TEI) 00 NOT NEcnSARILY REPR';SENlOFFI(IAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION POSITION OR POLICY .

THIS

...:'

In
"

receht

years

ther&

i; .

has

been an 4ncreased towa rd school

..

Int.re~t
I "

In the measure·

ment This

and unde'r s tand i ng of

...

at t I tudes

~n~ sub] ec t mat ters .

,

"

follows

a natural of

e~olutlon~ In te

thlnkin9~hl~.h

suqqe st s that
too P red i c t to

First

we

measu re ' con ~ t rue ts

res t,

.secondwe
and:tlaird,

at temit
,1
I .)

re Iat. i onbehavior

Sh.i~S

among these

constr;cts,
< :

we.1tempt

ir'lfluente

• ·(W.(I be rg,
There i ng of which

Jo9?9) are

/
for
I

I
'

many reasons

this

re~e!t'
,.

iQ.t~rist. te rs

Ft"rst,
,

the

foster-

pos i tI ve a t t I tudes
l.

towa rd sub jec /m~t

is

supported

;..

of

their'youth one with ac~ieve~ent,

by most ,educator schools,

in

'.j
/
f

and sch'oo lis

a goa I a q r ea t portion

Since

studentst-pend

educa t r~' fee I that

''''~.

chaol

experience

should Thus,

le~ve )ike

positive

attitud

s/about

the

schoo

.l t s curricula. of the edu~ational

., '.'

attitudes

a. pr i rnary that
","

p roce s s .
increasingly ~rve att"itu~es mor'e co~:n toward to s,~e~als

in m rel'j:'lng

y instructional to' the

programs

".

it

is

development

o~ posiam

h" ..,subject

Thus,

schoo l ~valua"tor!s,

~er
toward

schoo I d i; t r i '.l per~onne ~' are

the. sub j e rnat te r+as a func

,.'
Whi I.~ these

at

abou t the status

'ion

of at ~.itudes

of

the

l ns truc-t I on pr,ogr:3m.

ud~s have been found, to be r'eI ated to

have been observed m'ainly i.n mathernat lcs

.,

~ihyn~s

(Aiken,

1976),

it

i~delY

bel ieved that

attitudes

are f~ndamentally
e.

s t udvwas conduct,! through support from'the National Science FoundaResea rch in S£'e"nce Educ at i on (RISE) Program. The opinions axp re ssed this paper ar e t h only of the Cl,.uthors. Our thanks l s: expressed to' Redsun,of the Or gon College of Educa t l on and Rod Fielder of Oregon State Un.iversity, who j ortantly contributed to several aspects of this study. ~ .
i

se

;
. I

;.

,',
t •

.,,'j
,iv

\:

... .

.'

','

. ,:.

.r:
)"~...

-~.',.
'.

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(J

..,

•
.......
: ..
_

• and causa.l1y re latec -tc achle.vement ••. ~conclusion cult to establi~h

l atIoneh lp between
. (I ...

e~pirlcally attitude

.,.

which' seems more dtffiI

',.

than logically.

Th~ strength

of
.

this re-

'"

and achievement' is, howev.er·, qu I te s1 lqht , for students of Illilderate achievement (Bloom,
'.

but belIeved

to b~ strohger

1976). This

fo llows ithe reasoning

, ,~

highly even'when

that many.bright students achieve . '.,. .' " they disl ike a subject ~t~er, a state of affairs which,'
,

if true, attenuates a cprrelation. .. A third reason 'for increasing

,,'

...

~pncern about at t ltudes to~ard school . who has

,,-I

and subject matters

• Q,

Is baseq ... the bel ief that any student on

I

positive
.' .....

attitude

toward a subject matter will be more l lke.ly to elect

, JI '1. • .
.1\-

that subject matter

in future studies

(M~~e~, 1963). such as math,

A fourth reason is that if subject matter disciplines,

s~lence, and
.

.. social

. studies, are
positive.
.

to continue
...

to have public support at,

these

..
I

. •.

loca l., state and federal

levels, at t ltudes toward Negative a~~ltudes

subject matters

should be ~elatively

may ultimatel~

res~lt If ..

in a dec line of resources negative

allocated

to programs

In,'respettive areas'.

atti tudes toward subject matters these persons,

are passed onj;o futute·l'gener'~-

~ tions of students, to their attitudes

"

as vadu lt.s will be biased with respect ,

toward these subject matters. exist that· lrr a recent" attitudes toward /

A search of the 1 ite~ature will ~eveal that few studies focus on the a t t-l tudes vof studen t s toward social studies. (in press), it was found ,at to attitudes

study. by Halad.~na and, Thomas

,~

social $tud~es were quite low relative matters. obs~rved

,

toward other s~bj~ci

Not only were social 'studies attitudes from grade four through grade eight.
III

low, but a dec lIne was Simil~r ~esutts were found

in a study by' Fernandez, setondary . ·f school students.

Massey, and DornbUSCh Fernandez,

(1975) with a sample of

et al., also found th~t many stu~ents.

f.

tr.

a
I

I,'

......

. ',--'

"

. i'
,

'I

.:

,~~"

.. . -'"-.'.

'

,..

..
v

cons l dered

social

,
d l f f't cu l r than o the r subi

studies

unimportant

and less

,
u, -,

J ec t

mat t e r s • The pau'~tty of s tud Ies on' t~l-t6P'lc of attitudes toward social

stud Ies I 5, q U .. to' u~~ers.t~n<labl ~ Ic;OSI de r ; n 9 .the p I Igh t of soc'la I stud Ies
,"

resear ch In ge!)e.ral •.. rn a

t

.u.»:
..
that
f

(National

Sctence

Foundat l on ,

.
.

l,978), interested

it was. ccnc luded:"

in or'. affected

"Soc l e L's tud l es educators by'resea'rch" (p , 40). social'

,

have not
-

been much .

"

..
l scqu l te

The review.goes
•

on to/suggest
"

f ac tl onated

end general to thi~

'.J

1
!

s tud l es research and ,gual ity. educators

•

lacking

'

in both quanti.ty so~ial

• '

A re~ction Davis,·

He,lburn

'J,9. )

review

by three

studIes

(Shaver,
o

was equally

s~inging

in criticism:·

"The resea ch knowledge ln this field is bas l ca l lv in disarray There are few cumulative findings of e it he r practical or theoreti~al significance.' Most of·the res~a rch (as,,;"n sc i ence educa t ion) is done' by doc tor a I candidates ~nd is not from a theoretical base nor using a ,$ sr» tegy des i gned 0 r like Iy to bu i'1 d know 1edge based on "elate~ replicative studies" (p', 26). The' p/esent culties
'.
\.

l:esearCh

was intended

to overcome

some of these affective

diffi of

..

by (a) .pr esent lnq a theoretical

'I ing

model for

aspects

relevant 1979),
,

to social
.

studi~s

education

(Ols~n,~Haladyna measures of Jaspects

&
of the collectand regions

ghnessy,
\

(b) providing

"

validated
,

d~J i~

".

(Haladyna,

Shaughnessy, a wide range

s Olsen, of school under probes

1980), districts',

(c)

systematically· class sizes,

data 'across reflect'

,.' 'hich

the dimensions. anal~siS attitudes' purpose which

study, lnto

an'd (d) employing 'that and other in this are

a three-stage believed to traits.

Istatlst~cal e~ist between

rel~tions studi~s

toward

social

affecti~e , paper

The specific 'ascertain of measure.s portantly

,

of the between

s~udy~reported social studies

was to. and a vafiety to be imsocial

the

relationship

,attitudes

represe~ related

ing sever at cons t ruc t s which are studies

bel leved

to social

\ .'

attitudes.

Specifically,'

stud)es

."
~'.,

"
,

,
'

)
att l tudes are hypothesized ~ .
\
I

. as '(a)
t eecher ,

to

rel ate

to such constructs

,.

(b) (e)

student.

(c)

Ins'tructl()n~

(d~ school and learning

environment,

and

home environment.
1

.
studies thus:

'

These fiv~ lance

constructs

are bel ieved

to account

for

most of

the var-

of ' a depenclable 'social

attitude
'.

m~asure.

,.

Ins umtnci the ry"

,
,

model can be expressed

y.

F'[T,

S,

I', SE, H]
variable, attitude toward

,• !

.
variables, variables, repr~s~nted
,
'

,.

,
'

wh~re

Y. is the criterion 'T is a set of

social

studies,

teacher student

...

.
dimensions, by

S is a set of is

instructional

qual lty

by va~iou~

SE is, the school and- learning var l'ous pimensions,~nd H is a set of hdrne and parent described

. envi ronment, ;r~presented

variables. in a paper
j

The model is more thoroughly

~

by
I J•

Olsen',

Hal advna

and Shaughnessy , (a) .there structs,

I"" •

(1979).

Two obse rvat ions about to be a considerable

the .model are noteworthy: among these major con-

is bel ieved and (b)

overlap these

the relationship!ming 'is not

~onstru~~s
, •

and between these Therefo.re

t r ad l t lonal

constructs bi~ariate expI~in

and the criterion o'i" these I inear

considered

simple.:

mul t l var l e te models Thus thl reveal

of

analysis

s,t'\bLild no t jadequat e l v a t hr ee+s t aqe pro-' the relationship~

,

re l a t lonsh i ps . which
~

research a truer

invol~;es

. cess of analysis between these

should

picture

..

. of

constructs

and t he vc r I t e r i on , soc l a l vs tud i es attitude,

,
Sample

Method

t'\

•
I

This

In l t l al study

ip a Serie\Of
j

studies

invol.yed

135 seventh

and

ninth

grade students

from junior

h i qh schoo l s in t he central

Wil'lamette

'

"

','

.
.'

"

·-5·
n

V~lley.

The sample

is rather small and is not intended to be repr.esen-

tattv~ of a larger population. On the other hand., the sample is equally v distributed :with re!;pec~o gi~rls and boys, re~resentative of a larger population with respect to achievement
var lab les ,

levels, aptit~e

for learning,

and other demOgraphic

This sample was derived from a field test of instrumentation

formed

in the Spr lnq of 197.9 in 36 c las s rooms in this region as a or ecur-' with 270 classrooms in grades four, seven
./

.per- f

sor of a larger study conducted and nine. Instrumentation In consultation~ith

s lve review of available

"
'I"

social studies educators

<

an inten'!'
•

i,\struments in the affective

domain pertinent

to

the purpose of this s tudv;

.

selection

and creation 6f measures

".'

several decisions ,

were reached reqar d lnq the the· trit~~ion vari~bte

used to represent

and the major constructs

of the model upon which this study is based. Assessment Questionnaire measure.

The sum total of thi~ effort was an Affective

~hat represents

each of t~e five constructs

,
'

and the criterion

TlIe seventh and ninth grad;\~erSiOn

of

thiS. inst~ment'

had 148 responses w_i11 be briefly

which yielded -49 ·variables. ;, Each of the major con

, described

'\

t ruc t s

and instruments

rev~J.ewedwh i ch measure

these constructs. inventory the criteriQn

Attitude Toward Social' Studies. developed. by Haladyna variable, attitude and Thoma5
)4

A five-scal_)-attitude
.

(1979) was used to measure

'.

toward soc la Ii stud le s , as well as student att i~~des

j~

toward school, and composed

t hree

other: c~rriclJlar ·areQs·. These other measures

,

'

part of the set of varia~les

.
"

representing

'

the constructs

student

characteristics.,
(

Evidence

fo r the' factorial
t hes e
t

validity of the se measures

'>-

..

a s we I I as fo r the reI i ab i I l~y of

scales was reported by Haladyna

\\
,
.

'~

6•
.

.
I

'

~----~~-------~'----~----,,---~-----------~--------,,--~------:------"

'.

"

-6and Thomas
I

r.

(1979).

'.

T~ the

Internal sample
.,!

con~lstence of

re! i,a~i 1 J ty estl,91ates

YI

ranged at'titude

from .60 to .86 for measure

~t';' study; .
"

.'

the

social

studies -

had a re l iabi fity Environment.

estimate

Learning

Three-item,

of

·!~5.
., sca l es re~enting

..

twelve.

aspects

....

·of the learning envlronmen~ were created from th~a~ni~~

I nven"tory in over (Anderson and Wal ber~', '£oIn,dated) . ,,\h in the (Walberg, reveals of .52. United -per sonal reliab~l States
.
,

Environm~nt
.
"

"

is

t nst rumens h,as been used

v

400 studies

and il')t'ernattonally'

in a var le tv analysis

•• .._j.

.. •• -'

• of circums.tances of these with'a variables

,

communication). Ity estimates ~re that

Preliminary (ange

/,

from .23 to·,.83 low and pr l ncan be

,\.

median I imit related The other

cipally highly

value

The~e 'estimates

relatively

the degree

to whic~ any of these measure.

twelve

variables

to the criterion variables of the

study

were drawn r~preseAted educators

from a w l de "variety
,

of ,
,"
• ,.

sources,

many of which ~ere

,.

diffusely
I

in pre~ious
"

studies.

Many items were written .

':

by social

studies .
, •

or the 'authors

,in., an
"~
"

effort

to achieve

a complete

mapp lnq of the

Q

theoretical as well
,

_model posited: as their

c.

The report estimate~

of the val idity wil I ap~ear

of' these'

measures

reI iab i I ity

t

in a valid~tion

s~udy ~Haladyna, reveal that

4"" •

Shaughnessy,
,
• ' L

...

&

Of sen , 1980). possess cons

t

Prel lmi na rv analyses interpal

t

~st

of t.~es~,me~sures e~~lmates,and
."

satisfactor¥
t

~onsistency
,{
\

reliAbit~ty
t•

.'

good
~

ruc

val idity.

.'

....

"

.'
Procedure School to participate. drstricts were given partlc~lars
\

of the

study

and were asked written consent.

Those choos inq to par tLc l pate were approached

\

provided

'.

,-

Building a brief ating

principals

in

j he

same manner, consent

and each was gi~~rI, from the coope

r+v

summary of the principal

project.

Upon rece.iving copies of the

and teacher,

...

form were administered

to students

'I
\,

-,

.. ' -~,
'

..,.

..

"

'

. :-

,
,

-.]-

.
,_

For each c.l as s room where'deta,were , ,

'

co l l ec ted , the teacher

~

was asked
..

to

~.ve

the
;'

room and, comp1ete.e

.,.,

'l

teacher

survey

•"

form.,

A Held

r,epresenstu-

tative dents, to

administered,the ~ .. AIl

"
"

student

',.

survey
..

farm .
~ I
t.

in the '.', classroOm to all .,

..
•

j"

responses were c~l ie~ted

, •• 1

,~nctnymous Y i and no attempt 1 all participants

was made
.,

i'dent'ifV

any, per t lc ipan t ln any way, 'The,refore"

'~

,were·

protected

from

resu 1 ts was,'gua ra~teed"

, 'J

lnvas'l on iof privacy,

and conf l den t l a ll tv in r epor t l nq these

...
"

,.

f)Ra'lys is of
,

Data
"

. In theo'ry-building',,£he that
" ."

process

that

was fo1.1owed wa~ (at

formulation
t'••

,_~ of
.. .I

the constructs

were be l'Leved to ex.ist

and desc r l pt.l ons of

•

the
~I

relationships ,
~,

.
J'

'among these cons t ruc t s , (b) explication .....' ...... ..' C'o-~structs,
•

of
l!'

the measures \.

that,'

,.~~present
\ •

these

anct>(~) valida-tion,
•

which

is aproces s whereby
\

~.

."

...

evidence, these

is 'collected

to

conf l rm 'statements

about .t he r-e Lat l ons h lp s of

'

con s t rucas .
~'

These .procedur es a re thos~.!'Prescribed"by valid

Eronbech' and measures

Meehl (1955)
,,

fo r as t ab li shf nq construct
When such interpretations affairs insufficient to avoid
~ .,.",

l nt erp'te t at l ons of

.
..

of
.

imper t ance ; of

are not val id~ one may attribute , theorizing, (b ) inadequate

~

,--

Sli!(j:',:a state .... ..

~~
'I ....

to . (a) or

faulty

ln s.t rumenof data

tat ion,

o~ (c)

in~ppropri~te

analys1s.

The a~alysis

•
was underta'ken the. thi rd possibi'l
..

be, r epo r t es '(Haladyna, avoid

Shauqhnessv,

l t v .' The val l dat lon. study to ' ' '. , ~ ,~'Olseri, 1980) r eports steps taken to
.

..

the s~cond'po~~ibiri{y.

Given, these' precautions,.negat~ve

evidence

"can .tlhen be reasonably pelled to reject

e t t r jbu t ed to faulty
,

theor.lzing,
~

and one is comJ. OJ

I,'
~

or modify analys;s

the -theor.etical
,

'modef)

~.

A threeJstage

was conducted.

The first

step was a standard relationship

"

..

correlational

anel vs l s to de te rml ne the simple,

,

between each variable regression

and' the cr,iterioo,.· the generai

biv.alia'te
"-

The' second stag,e involves linear model." The model allows

a
the

ena lys'l s using .,

. ..
,-.
__ ____C_~~ _
___L~~ __"' --:' "'"

'\.

~8,.
d~velopment variance .of a series of variables
.'

-,:. (

..

believed

to pccount

for the criterion

and a direct test of -t he ~de·l ,. the'model contributions

. 'f

also a l lows for. t,ests The third stage innon-I lnear

of unique and interactive vo1ves the assessment The standard

for variabl~s.

of the reqress lons for possible

t"re~s. (1973) exist

correlational

ane lvs ls is a 1 Inear method.

and Haladyna

has shown that one can reasonably in 'Such corre 1at.ions. estimates

expect non-l inear relationship~to

Therefo re the 1 inear cor re I at ioha I method under--

relationships.' only Stages and 2 a re reported.' • by each of

"

I~ thJs paper,

RESULTS AND DISCUSS10~ The resul ts are rep~r·ted for Stage) the major constructs Stage I - Analysis Correlations are reported Teacher studied.,
-

-.

and Stage 2 analyses

between'all' variables
. i'

and attitude
.:l(

toward soc al studies les . vaf1.ables should

irr Tab le 1 for the seventh

and

variables.

It was to st.udents' attitudes

"

be substantial lyrelated
"'"
.

toward social studies.

The

results

i~ Table

I general ly,copfirm

this hypothesis.·

For the seventh 'grade

,sample, teacher enthusiam These seventh graders

was very highly

reLated to social studies attitude. by the teachers who like

{'

seem to be greatly aff~cted

their subject matter, who know about their subject· mat t e r , and who commun I>: cate this positive feel ing to their students. For the ninth grade sample,

three o t her variables (a) support student.

were related to social studies attitude.

..

·These were" to ......

for the Ind i v i dua l , (b) good teacher, and (c) reinforcing are more diffuse

These variables
.,

into teacher-student dicates

~elationships. is wilHng

in meaning but offed insights • . 'Teacher -support for the individual ir;l8" t9

that the. teacher

to help that student \~ndivi?ually,

"
,

I~
"

,til

••

.
1 l sren,

'

"

.,.
concern. Th~ ·var-iable:r.

..
,

to

reatt

•. and
...

to

express
,<.. '

indi-vidual

labeled

"g00(j\ teacher"
,

'

is very
';'",

diffuse

and consl s t s of items that

'

reflect

'f

many aspects

of" t.he 't~acher

t{lcluding

fri~ndliness, 'Gen~rally~

'pos'itive is stuto the

fa lrnes s , anCiV'1t~rest.:

• \.' .1"

in. 'student.

the goo~ teacher

dent -cen tered. ,~Jhe th i rd var Iab l e , re lnforc

" ,

tendency
,

kind some te~chers to offer . The di fference between ccr re l at ions for of
' ,
'

lnq to s tuden t , refers'

,

word~ when performance seventh

is good. ninth :'

graders

arid for

graders

se~ms t?

reveai

the tendency

for

the older '"

students positive

to become attitudes' toward was·

more differentiated social hig~ly studies'.

8 ,

w'i'th ~spe~t I.Wl'th the seventh

to what fosters

I, )
~hile

grade .samp l e-, orily grade s,\mple"

' ,"'tl

tea~here·nthuslam the other

r~lated,

with
,,

the ninth

,~h.ree var l ab l es

were. s ta tis fica 11 y ,.'siQn i f ican et y , r, Iated.

.Tab l e ,I
Correl~ionsl

"
and
,

",3
\

Between all Varia'bles ofntherS~tudy Social Studies Atbitude .

. .
,"
•

'

.~:'::'.:'~
',? ' ,.,.'

c
',01-

1 ...

•(

~ra~e __:':"/.. N" 4'4

/
I,

r,cr.~:9' " N. :"'"

G 91 ~...
> '

'itt

II;';\..'. f-

, ~.

}. .

A. ,,'
,
"

.TEACHER

.
B.

1. ,2.

3. 4'.
I

,~
"

. Support fur the l nd l v ldua l- " Good Teacher Erith4.1siasm for Subject Re_inforcing to S,tudent
,

..
2'1 -06 55** 17 23** 27~H 16 24:'dc
"

.STUDEN~ 'Demograeh ic

.
II

3.
,

1• 2.

Sex Mobil i'ty . TN Viewing Habits Toward

-09

-II -02

-06~ -03 12

Attitudes

..
•
J

I•
2.

scboo 1
,Read ing Math Sc I ence

,4.

3.

361'o't 51 }"'~ 12 30"c

'41Jb'c 40''t* 04 20,'t

1(J
-,

;-~~

.-~.

__ -

---,.
"

....

----~-~.-..;----~--

...

":":""

~.
--~,

-:-~~--.~-

~----:-----~~-----.-----. -.---;- --- .. -----.-

I ...

..

".

-10,
1. 'con t I nued
~
• l

~.

'Table

Grade 7· N. ;'4'

'

Grade

N· 91

Academlc
,
,

Self-Concept in Subject In School Hatter L~arning

"

2.

1~

Con'idence Conf~dence

.
t" '
,

~~
,

Ji2
,

51**' 25*
,

Scholastic

Attitude

.,.
,

,1."

2~ 3~
,

Checking Out Books Amount of 'Homework Each Week ·Ac~demic Plans ~

25 -42**
04
1

-10 • -08

'.

Peer Acceptance'

-35**
v~

, 1:
2:

Li kes Peer~ ..'

Peers Like S\udent
\'

'\
1.
S~1 -~eport 'Gra~~ '\ ",!, ~ • '

.
•

'-_

15 -09,

-O~

37**'

04 '

48**

C.

I t-fSTRUT I ~N

3. 4.
, 5.
D.

1. ' Homework, ASsign~d.i \n C1.ass.: 2.. Oppettun i ty t o Ta 1k\

TeacT\\r'T'a1k -' Use of Supplementary Materials Amount of 'Activities "In -t l ass OVeral I Teacher Ef'f'ec t l venes s; ~

6.

LE'ARN LNG ENVI RC004ENT

lit
0

,,

,
"

',_

,
..
.

Cohes i yenes.s .: Formal j ty 3. Speed ' 4. 'EDV! .ronmerrt 5. , Fr),'c t ron 6'~ Goal Direction Favor it i sm 7. 8. CI i queues s .9 .. Sat i s fact ion 10. Disorganization 11'. Difficulty , 12. Apathy 13. li king Schoo 1 14. Schoo 1 ,Sp i r it, 15. ,Schoo I 'p res ~ rE,! 16. Cl as s Siz~ 17'. 'School Size

1.

2.

,
I I

..

..
I

-14 -06 06 .I 35**'

I

22 ,Ie 09

I5

'19* -07

i. \

\
•

-17~

06 19

16

05

-08

~,

20 39"0'( \ . -36*1, '

05 05
12

21*
04 .04

24 - 1(2
1,

02
06

-08 -28*
09

..

-17

00

"

',,'

",;

'.
\1

.,'
"
.'

,
'-ll"'~

'

~
'-..

.
,

1 .~

'

,.
,

Tl\; 1e 1 c6n't t nueCi

'~

,
./

.
",

..
Grad~ 9 N- 91'
'"
/. r ...

'G'rade '7
I

~..,.

~
II

N·

44

e::.

,PARENTS Parental Support 2'. Parent Trust 3~.' Friction -wi th' Par ent.s Dec t rna1s. amitt,d L.

'/

"

.. .
,

'~

22* 02
-ri.

05

..

•
'

.... ,

*p .( .05 **p <. • 01

...
the
. "

Student'variables.
It , '.,~

Student
I

variables

ca~ be classified
q

into
_

Mo,

.cat:~g~ries
,

of r~graphic,
"

attitude,
•

ac_ademic sel f -concep t , ,scholastic these

0 '.

attitude, students studies

\')

and 'peer that sh~uld

"

'

accep t ance ,
~
I

In ,general,

are

char-ac te r l s t l c s df 'socii 1
,,'
"

"

not necesse r-l l v be strongly

~el~t~ctto

atti~udes.

The re su I ts or. Tab Ie I show' a con sis tent attitu~s.attitudes

o

pat tern

for

demog raph i cs and wh,ile

e"

No demographics toward
,

are

related

to social science ' are

studies'attitudes~ re'ated.

",'1

school,
,

reading-and school
'

Not surprisingly, relate~ to

how,a student ho",-that

perceives perceives

and reading studies.

seems ~o be ~t~ongly

studerit

social

Math was the except l on , as a

non-sign~ficant

relationship

was observed. sample," confidence l nTearn l nq soc t a l s t ud l es was true for thee I

With' the n l nt H grade very highly grade

re l a t ed to so'c l a l .s tud les a t t I tude ; sample., A smaller relationship

\

This'. was not

sevent~ confidence sample

,

was ob;erv~~
' .:

between
/

overal grade

irr learning for the

and soc I al studies seventh graders.

attitude Again,
, h

for this

the ninth

,~
~, I

seventh

..

bu~ not

difference

between

and ninth

graders

may be a~trJbuted

to a more differentiated

outt

, look "Of the older

and more mature

s't uden t s wi th respect

to s oc l a l stu-die's
"

".

1~
"

"

, ...
\ '

'f.. :

'.11

t. .
f
e:

.ttu'9~~~ att
,
'

~I

"

• ' 1.

The ninth

gr~d,rs.clei~l'y·

~,

• t.tomest.o
e
,

se 1 f-~onf i~enc~ ~nd

: '.

-~?Ci a 1 stud!
... .••.
.

have'_

different
. .

outl00~

when It ..
,f

es it.t t tudes •.
,

""'.

\.

,Scho ~ t lc 'att ltude 1as .'

shows 'a t'endency .

on

..

the

part "of a student' .

f

to

"

. be more sch~l arl y or Ient ed and to have more amb i t'i ous p 1.ans fo'
"

lnq ,'
•

T~
"....

per son w th a high

• •• .",

,...

scho l es t lc .ttitude
~ ~, ."

schoo l-

is mor_f'school'supportive
I • • ,.. C.
4 ,'.

"
.

";

..

·and orlente~.

With respect

"~

~o'the

de').t.s, a, most. interesting ~ample, t"ude. ",. -t'tudies

'resul'~

..

fi~dings ,

of seventh ;

and'ninth

grade
,

stu~

was observed

Wtth 'the seventh to' social

gra~e attt-' s~cial'

amount of homework was negatively Students ••·.. Thi~

related.

st~dles to'~ke

who reported
0

resul~.~as plans
\

less,l:tom~work'

each week tended

not ..fjplic~ted : were 1mpo~tantly

•\_

~ln~.tead" ac~d'etnic

.. "

w~t!:t the ninth

..,
I'l

gr'ad~ .. sample.
.

related

to .soc lal

studies
.,

at tl tude •
Q.

Those with .mar~ ambitious

pran~

for

future

,:r' ~
~. p ,_

'school

lng r~nde~'ito

,"

dJst"'ite
.

".
I

,....

so.cial

s tud.l es .
' .. It
,

Th~S is
~

in I ine' with

. et ~I., ·(1975)
"'

..

,where they, found that relevant. was a fact.or sample.

..

t't';e results
......

of the ~.tud~;by studies

F:ernandez, less

'students

fbund'oSo,~ial

difficult
'. ,

arid less

...
"

,
students would had' a to
;.

,..

Peer acceptance in the ninth

J ,

in social
.~

studies

~tti.t~des

for .37)
y.

gr~de students

The size

of the

re l at iorrsh lp (r·
'"

suggest.
,.

that

who reported social

"be~ng I iked by, peers This

in the

class,

better explain',

percep t ion tof and the

stud l es than others.

is difficult

resu l t s may be ar t l factua l and not

rep ll cat ed with

a l ar-

ger sample.
•• i

', .

Self:reported attitude better

grades for

did not

significantly qr ader s but did

'

co~ralate

with

soci~1 ~,"

.~~~dies who did

t'he seventh" ,. in sociarstudies

Z

..

fo~r'ninth'g'raders"~Those

l Ike-soc l a l studies,

relationship
/,;
/

{J
emerges

.48)

wouJd

indicafe

,,?

that

tbis

..

i~ a fairly

better.
,

The sizable strong tendenc~

and also

'. ' . WI t h' t]he more mature t an d d l c r ..mr na t l nq njn t h gra d ers\~ rs r i

;1\,

..
.~

,
...
..:..

:..

.'

,"

..
~,
to,
~\

.4

. ..
"
"

".1,.

InstructIon.

The w'ay social

"13stud les '!nstructl.o7 to social s~l1dt~ for

.,
.,

:is cpn~~~ted,,, att Ltudes.,

,
'

. woul~d s'.em to be. Importantly

<It

re l ared
,

,T~e

"

,
"

.var l ahl es
';c~.tterlon class,
.

in this {., variance.

,category

were expected
.

Surprisingly, teacher
' # .

to account

much of -theIn to who' recejved suggest with

.....

only

amount of;:'hom~work assigned 'we're~ si9nlficantl;lrel~ted

.0("

and overall
. ,

,,~

effectiv~~ss the. seventh social on the

soc I~ I ,stud les

.

at t l tudes for to dislike

gr~ders. ,studies. patt

Students This

... ,;).'

mdre

homework tended

seems.t"o gradef~

an anti-intellectual respect
L

~tmosphere
~

to soc la l studies. in both samples grade

...

" expected, As

of 'seventh teacher

, overall

ef fect l venes s • attitudes.

,was potent

as a correl~te
.

of~s~cial
,

studies talk
'"

. With the ninth

\.

sampTe,·opportunity"'for

lrr-c l as s was ra l-so to det e r-

r e l at ed to social
i

s tudl es at t l tudes , oppor turr l toy t'Q talk 'if lecture

'."

It would be ..interesting \,
_i

mine

if student
that

"

present

'')woul~a~pear ceiving affected

,."

dominatesdnst-ructton,.those
(t,

'--,

in such c l as s rooms . student.s ~e negatively

,. ' ,

per£.

a lack of opportunity

to

...

talk

WQuid most ~Iikely

..:...

The mos.t 'cpnfusing cant relationship

..

in their

attitude. 'finding,

regarding

the ,h,omewS'rk assi~ned seventh

..

here

is the evident

..

reversal 'in class.

o f ,signifiWh~i1e the,

...

• relatJonship positive

was"':.Qega1ive for f.or ninth graders"'. levels

q rader s , this

re l a tl onsh l p was

,"

Whet"her th'l s is a"d~velopmental

.,

differ~nce ls indeter-

,"

in 'the two qr ade mlnant

,

or an ar~ifact Other that'

~...

at

this

time. dc~~rring

resul t s have, sugg.es,~ed that

..,

of'. the
,

small

samp.l es

a deve l opmqn t a l of .

difference'ii
.' ~.

substantially
~
,,

~Iters
,(lit'"

the,constella~ion
.

....,

variables

..
"

that

~re most strongly

,

••

related
.

~? s9cia1
.

studies

at~itude

Learning

environment
~

.• A large

number. of var l abl e s ex l s t ed In the

c;:ate~,ory" al though

the .re l l ab l l ity

'" ana1yses
that

revealed

that

mos t were

.riot
I.

Pel l ab l e enouqh to offer

the resu I ts
\

were expected.
(,

~It wa;:, ant i c i pated

"

..

,
,

.
,

'

•
"\1

,
' )

..

..•

.'

1" '"

f'

,.

,.

.,..

"

..
:-'

,.j!
"

-14 .. ,

"

.,
,
"

.-

l,:>
.Q
e
I

' t,

"-

,.

...
learn ~ng environment
• ..

,
•
•

,~
I

..
attl•
"

that tudes. fbr

the

was very
'

hlgh!y
•

relsted
• ~

to student
I'

The results seven at t l tude

in -Tible.

I Indicate
e'

only

four

of: these correlated

17)1itlables with ~ocial

grade

were stat.istically and' In grade lcal' nine

•

significantly only

studies
,.
,
,~

3 of ]7 were si~"'lfic.an't.
J

A p l eesent--ohvs eas i ~r class, seventh

env l ronment , organized Iat~d

,

-l nst ruct l on , and an

.

were' sign if i cant lyre School size physical

t~ soc l a 1 5 tud ies att I tude related

1,

for

graders.

wih also

heslveriess,

a pleasant;

..

envl ronment , and student

/

to at t l tude , "-C·lass

='.
"

sat ls fact ion for ninth gr .

\

se~m to be highly

related ~thers

to social
•

'.

"" ~est
'.

results, that the

'.

with social
"

""?" ~eal1ng_:~ith
of the class attitude's
'.

.studies

attitudes
t

~tud~ntvar.Iable\~u

structure studies

seems to be rrpre effe~e '.,. ,. grad~.

i .

in determ'inlng dency

so~ia'l'
f

In 'theY ninth
....

....
•

te'n':

is no t ext an t il1 t~he-'seventh·g~ader.s. Parents .. There was an expecta.tion ~ith respect t' that

' thCJt parents

------. 'A
.1,
v,

have a. s l qn I f lcarit
,

.
'

,C

contribution stud Ies .

to ma~
'R~3U

to students' pa rent factor', support although

pe r'cept Ions\ .. o(social .

\ ,

Its

i nd Icared was, indeed,

for

school

and soc Ia l . of the rel a<.

'I'

.s tud l esc a t t l tude tionship dealing school, '~ith

the- size

was moderate,' with

...

'The parent of "parents for

support school,

variable emphasis student,

consisted. on doing

of ' items well in concern

concern

~egree'ofparental studies.

lnvo l vement with

social

and specific

Sta'ge

2 - Ana I ys is The re~ult<, of Stage

,

,.

ane l vs l s was far corr~1atibns. as posited, establ

more positive ished

It

"

than

expected.
\.

The number of significant . ,

. that

l nd l cat e 'tbat to social

~.
:

"

a patt~rn

of• results major

f ae tor s

the model, studies

Indeed

described

related

attitudes,

The St-aqe 2 ana I ys~ s shou I d r evea I •

\.

"

..

.,. !

15

..

~ ...

,,'
.\

'r

.
".'

,.

'1

,.

.f
I

,',

-15-' ".
.6 -.
.~ • I

."

~"

.Ar.. '.
'I.

t'(tal
'

~ffects

of some of' these each

"

proml s l nq variables. corr.elatlon These

,

Flve models as well as the

.

we,re cornposecand
~

·.l

reveals accLnted

the muLtiple

proportion

o f var lance 2.

'by each mode l .

resu I ts appear

l n Table

, The first the[e

,

model dealt toward

.

with school

attitudes. and, certain

I.

How much of a carry-over $ubJect

.. ,~"

is

in attitudes attitudes?

matters

to social correlations

studies

The resul.t s lnd-l ca te that both samples, with

the multiple and 24.8%

wer e sub s t an t La l for

accounted student
-,

33.4%
It

of the

variance
r esu l t s, that

by these perceptions \

attitude of pther. s6cial

01

measures. subjects 'st~di~s~

is c l ear

f-rom these

as weI I as school It is,.lso clear

does that

influence there is a real.

"
\

the w~y they

-d l f fe rence d i f fe rence
.

per~~ive in t~e

two samp l es wh l ch, may reflect

the itwo popu l a't l ons , namely

a s-ystemati.c'\ind that ninth graders

between iated-

are

more . different

in thei r perception's
,

of fae-tors

~of school ing and are

.t

',more peer

or l ent ed and,
"

perhaps,

more scho lase lc a l l v oriented: 2., dea l s with construct~

•

The second

model,

shown in Table One' of th~major

v

the effects' of the model:

of

rearn l nq For the

.
('

environment "sev.enth while R:le. grad~rs

variables, this o-

grades,

set

of variables

accounted
I

for 43.2% for

I'

of t bev ar l ance grade sam-

only

12.7% of the variance

~. ',

was accounted
. ,

in the ninth important

Factors but
~ •

indigenous far less

J

'to 'the .

classroom

seemed graders.
,

to s even th

important variables
tt.·

to ninth

Only four

teacher

were examined
~,.

In the

third

model.
\
.

For

~
"

~.
1--.

seventh

graders.'

37.5% of the Ve r l ance wa~ accoug.ted

for in the ninth'~~ade role seventh

for, by these

variables, it .would attitudes.,

"

while
','"

26.7% was accGunted

the this teacher role plays

sa~ple. In social graders

Thus studies

se.em that but that

an important wi th the

is stronqer

"than wi th ninth

. qr ade r.s .

..

..

l6

"

..
.,

..

.'

------- .......------------------------------,.---------;--~-----~-----.
..
J" c»»

..

. - 1~- . -

t
I • I

,I

Hodel
1.

Regression Analyses

'.

.Table 2
I

/
"

.,

for Seventh' nd Ninth Grade Samples / :'t __ ~~-Gd7 __r~a~e~~.------~ Percent of Accounted Mu,t i~~ t e. Correlation Variance

4t

Grade 9 Percent of Muitiple Accounted Correlation Var iance

.~.

Att Itudes Toward. School Reading, Math and Science Learnin9 Environment
#
p

.578 ..

.499
I .

2".8 12.7 26.7 26.3

'

2.

3.

,..

Teacher

"

,.
2

.657 .612
.2"0
....

.356 . .516 .513 .678

.
c

Academic' Self-Concept Cdmprehensive

v-

5.

Model
,

a. ~ Attitude Toward SchoOl b. School St-ze " "c. -~Teacher Talk d. Confidence 'in Subject Matter 'e. Teacher Enthusiasm f. .Teacher Rel nforcement g. S~pport for Individual h; Parental Support

..

.698

8.7

·"6.0

<7' I

....
I

I~

\.
I

, .1 ~
••

...
I.

,
...tl , ....

: .;',

. '-.<1'
I

v.

••

t-

.f

The fourth model d~alt with academic the student

,

"17self-concept, ,a ~imension of

construct.

A very small percent of variance

, ,)

..

was ~ccounted

for by ·th~se variables

'

f.or seventh .graders, but 26.3% was accoun ted for

In the ninth gr_ade samp le ,

cuss ion that suggests .that the ninth graders place a greater importance I' ., of schol ar-shio in soc lal 'studies' and I'iking that subject . matt~r. ,
,
'.

This follows

from earlier

..

analyses

and dls-

The f i f t h and final rocde lvdeve looed was a comprehensive ~o~bined .prehensive the most promi~ing model

mode). that This comBoth cor re la·

.,'

of the variables

included variables

from all five constructs. variance;

,

of the studJes.

mode'rs accoun~ed'''fo~ nearly 50% of criterion

tions 'were a robust ... and .6.78 for thp re spec t lve samples. 698

multiple

..
l lm i ted sample wer.e quite

,,
"

CONCLIJSIONS
)

The' resu l t s of thi.s' tudy which ~as based on a small and relatively. .s pr~mi;ing ift terms o~·des.~ri'bing corr.elates of
",

;socf~1 studies attitudes.

Of the fiv~ ~onstructs

,

posi~~d

as being related

..
,

to social studies attitudes,

tica)ly 'significantly
:

14.

all five yielded~variables to social studies.

~hich wer~ s~atisth~ pat-

related

'\'

Interestingly,

. terns of significahtly seventh results

qradev

correlated

variables ~

were not const~nt What

from the "

t

samp le to the ni'nth grade sa~ple.

is sugge~:ted by

hese

i-s t~C!t t hese older, ninth grade students

\

per'ce lve social

studies
a.

" quite -dt f fer ent lv t'han seventh affecied

graders.'
_

thes~ ointh graders relatiqnships (ttitudes,'the rel~ted

are more > • than ~eventh !earning

env

by issues of scholarship'and

soc~al

It..is also. clear that thestudenf onment, and~ teacher variables' are Importantly
.....

lr-.,

to social studies

.....

.attitudes
~

regardl.ess of grade level.

.

"

Fut ur'e studies

wi~h a sam~}e of substantial

t

'.

are be lnq conducted' to-determine

size and representa t i. veness ....(f these

.

,.

these relat I ons hlps

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results a great
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c:an be rep1 icated

.

In these
,

future stud l es ,
,

. would
.

.'

appear
.' a

that. • •
lY
I>

,..i.,'

~any.affectalv. studies
..

..

variables".,as
• r

pos.l t ed \,in
.,.
, ,

,~hjs model,~"~re
,..

reia~ed· un~~r.,..
"

to social stand

at nltudes
"

.:

Thus' thl s work hel ps

~.p '-I

us

to better
;",

':w

. . .i .

"

the dynamics
-,.

that

.t ake p l ace

to

form soc l-al f s tud l es atti~t.udes.

•

Whil~ these . 'to create tudes

'.

results
. :.

arecorrelati6nal

and descrfpt1.velO,they
.'
,

. can

•.

be·wsed~'. . atti-.
:

causa l mo\~els which

as a function

of the

can explain the

the teacher,

format Ion of ~hese

"

student,

ing environment,
,

and parent s ,

lns t ruct-Len , the learn\ -. ' '. The moc:fel is t as t ab l ejand .... carr,~5:w.ittiJ\··: .. Gi"ven that- 'some of'tl'lese ~:
~
oj ' •

..

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•

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t•

a research var!able~ to ,
'

base 'and suitable are modlfjable of

'instrumentation .

:~

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in the process intervention many educators 'are as import~~t·

o f. ,.. . schoo 11.n9, w'e can-e hen .be~ i-';

.
., •

••
"

....

"

.
.j,

..

It Q

initiate

prcqrems

to pos l t lve lv chanqe

\

iat t i.tudes
.

t'oward"

social

studies.

Since studi~~ with the

are~wrlli~g

t6 admit

thjt

a~tittde5 a'r~~"

....
'.

..

",.~.

t:~ward socia-l

"

a~ a~hiev'e~'e~~

in' thi's

S·~Ch.
...

.,.
'

~\

interventions

Intent

to -Imp rove attitudes

should-be

most we l come',

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Refe rences

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...

..

Aiken, L. R.,. Jr. Attitudes toward Research.,. 1970. 40; 551-596. . ,,.j>

mathemat 1 cs ,

Review of Educational

.
.\

Aiken, L. R., Jr. Update learning ma theme t lcs .

on attItudes and other affective variables in Review of Educational Researc , 1976, 46(2), 293-311.
~

..

Anderson, G. J., s Walbe,rg, H. J., The assessment qf'learnlng environments: A manual for the Learnin ·Environment Inventor. and the M' Clas.s Invento '.,Chicago, Illinois: Of ice of Evaluation Research, unt ve rsl tv of l.l l lno l s , -unda

•....

f'

tel· '-',
.

,'

Bloom,B:: .•.

Hi ~ J~
)

Hurtan ch~racteri;tics k Company, 1976.'

and school

learning.

..

New. York:

MeG raw-

eron bach, L. .J." &, Meeh 1, P. E,. ,Const rue t v~l i d i ty .i n'~~·Y.~ho1ogi ca 1 t~s. Psy~hoAogicalBullt~.tjn.,' ~955, g, 281-302. .. •.. :.... ./-..... I• '"' '" •

J;. •.••

Fernandez, C., 'Mas.sey, ··G. C., s pornb'usch, .s , M. ·Hi.gh school students' per'. ceptions of soc'ial styd'ies. (Occasional Paper 6). Stanford, CA: Stanford Center for'Research and Development in, Teaching; 1975 ..... (ERrC Documen r", . 'Reproduction S~rvice No. EO 113 2lt.H
. . ." ......

Haladyna, . 1 ineaf annual

Effects of distribution aJ:ld domain on the frequensy of non.' regression in -bivaria.te relatlon.ships. 'Paper presented aJ the meeting o f .rthe American Psytholog<ical Association; Montreal, 1973.
.

r·.

"

. .•

..

.:.

b.

'"

"

, ,

Haladyna,- T., Shauqhnessv, J., & Olsen, R. M. Construct': val idatlon of an > inventGrY of a.ffective aspe<;t.s ot school ing. P!lper to be presented at the annual meeting ofqthe Af1lerica'n Ed.ucational Research Association, Bos ton, 1980. " .. ,.
.Hal advna , T., & Thomas, G~ ,:'The attitudes of e leifen te'ry school t9Ward schoo Land sub'ject matters. Journal of Experimental p!res$ •

/.

..

chi l dren Equcatlon, of

, In"

.. ~a1~.dY'na, T.,: Y~dutatlonal

Thomas, G., Measurement,

, ~

The affective 1979, li(l),

•

'reporti"ng '49-54.
u

system.

'Journal'

Mager, R. F. IDeveloplng attitude Fearon Pub1 ishers, 1968.

"t" • '¥-

".'
~

ttward
,

learning.

Palo Alto,

Cal ifornia:

Mes"sic~,- S. The "sta,ndardq,roblem: The mea~ing and values in measurement and evaluation. Amedcan Psychologist, 1975, 1Q., 955-.966.
I. 'v •

"National. Science Foundation., Ih~ stat-us of pre-college.science, and soc i.a I studieseducatronal ractices In u:s... schools: sUllYllaries' of three. s tud l es ,; Washin ton, D.C.: .. National Direcforate for Science Educ~tion, 1978.

mathematics, An overview ad,' Science Founda t Ion

~.

Olsen, R., Hal advna , T., & Shaughnessy, J. A model for'affectlve 'aspects of schooling. Paper presented,.at the annua Lroee t l nq of the National Council for Social Studi~s, Portland, Oregon~ ~ovember 1979 •.

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Oevts, O. 'L.a
,.'

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re-colle e social
,

Jr.,

$ Helburn,

studies education based he. Na tiona Coune t

S.

w.

An Interpretive

..
• 0

;.

" .'Wa·lbe .... H~' J. The soc Ia l envI ronment as a medlator of classroom g, Journal of Educa tlonalPsychology, 1969. 60, 44l;448~ ...
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