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Calculus and Analytical Geometry in 2D and 3D Preview
Calculus and Analytical Geometry in 2D and 3D Preview
Topics : Set Theory 1,1 Russel’s Paradox 1, Examples of sets, null set,
indexed set, complement, Universal set etc. ,Infinite sets 3, Set Operations 4,
Venn Diagrams 7, De Morgan’s Theorems 8, Power set 12, Relations 12,
Mappings 13, Binary relations 13, Binary Operations 14, Operation tables 14,
Commutative, associative, distributive properties, Identity and inverse
elements, Reflexive, symmetric , transitive Relations, Equivalence Relations
15, Partitions 15, Equivalence Classes 15,21, Countability 18, Euler’s Circle
20, Algebraic structures on sets, such as groups, vector spaces, topological
spaces, metric spaces25.
Pages 1 to 52
Topics : Boolean Algebra for making algebra for set theory and logic 1,
Symbolic Logic, Statements, Conjunction, Disjunction, negation,
contradiction, tautology etc compared to null set, complement, Universal set
etc.2, , Duality in Boolean Algebra and symbolic logic 7, Contradiction
statements 6, Compound statements 4, Truth value of logical statements and
Truth tables 13, Premises, conclusion, Arguments, validity of argument 22,
De Morgan’s laws in symbolic logic 17, Bi-conditional statements 20, Boolean
expressions and functions 26, Arrow Diagram 28, Input- output tables 29,
Signals and logical gates 31, AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate, NAND gate,
NOR gate, XOR gate, XNOR gate, Equivalent circuits 37, Combinatorial
1
The less prominent and unusual topics are marked in bold.
Page 2 / 681
circuits 41, Rules for making them 42, Use of Boolean algebra in logical gates
44.
Page 3 / 681
hyperbolic functions, Simple harmonic function 49, wave function 52 ,
Some special curves 56 , Even and odd functions 57, Symmetric and
alternating functions 59 , parametric equations of curves 60.
Page 4 / 681
continuous functions 15, Continuous functions must be bounded 17,
Continuous function preserves sign in small intervals 18, attains maximum
and minimum 17, continuous function takes every value between the end
points 21, Theory of Equations and The fundamental theorem of Algebra,
Intermediate value theorem and application to theory of equations 19, odd
continuous function has a real root, when 0 is a root 21, continuous function
taking rational values must be a constant function 22, fixed point mapping
22, arithmetic and geometric means of continuous functions, Wavy curve
method to analyse an algebraic function (piecewise continuous) 23,
Monotonic functions and continuity of inverse functions, Inverse function of
polynomials, Monotonic functions 25, Continuous linear operators, Keppler’s
function 31,
Pages 1 to25
Page 5 / 681
differentiation of trigonometric functions, hyperbolic functions 18, inverse
circular functions 19, logarithmic differentiation 23, inverse hyperbolic
functions 25, differentiation of determinants and matrices 26, introduction to
L’Hospital’s rule, approximation by linearization 32, successive differentiation
33, differential coefficient as an operator 34, introduction to tangents and
normals 35, introduction to maxima and minima 36, The differential concept,
linearization, approximation and sensitivity to change 39, Approximation,
error, accuracy, precision and significant figures40, Role of differentials in
estimate of absolute and relative error 41, Algebra of errors 42, Minimum
error in measuring physical quantities: sum of least squares 43,
Pages 1 to25
Page 6 / 681
Topics : Equations, their degree and order 1, Functions vs Equation 2, Linear
equations and their eliminants 2, Determinants 4, Cramer’s rule 8, Addition of
Determinants 16, Additive and multiplicative identities and inverses 18,
Cramer’s rule in Detail 27, Product of two determinants in another form 33,
Elimination 36.
Page 7 / 681
of choice of origin 88, Centroid of two clusters of points is the centroid of all
points taken together 89, Center of mass 92, More explanation on Moments
of mass, Moment of Force 93, Vector triple product, scalar triple product 94,
Scalar triple product 95, Reciprocal vectors 96
Pages 1 to 51
Page 8 / 681
st lines 43, Bisectors of angle between to st. lines in 2D (without vector
concept) 44, Alternative methods 45, 46, Equation of a straight line in three
dimensional Coordinate Geometry without vectors 49.
Topics : A plane contains the whole st line passing through any two points on
it 1, Two sides of a plane 2, Vector equation to a plane through three non-
collinear points, A,B,C 3, Equation In Cartesian Coordiantes 5, Parametric
equation 5, Another form 6, Conversion to Cartesian form 7, More about
Triple product and volume 7, Volume of a tetrahedron 9, Volume of a
tetrahedron in Cartesian 10, Volume of a tetrahedron whose faces are given
planes 11, Volume of a tetrahedron in terms of three concurrent edges and
angles between pairs 12, Direct Cartesian derivation equation of a plane
through three given points 13, Coplanar points 14, Coplanar points in dot
product 15, Comparison of normal form of equation of plane with pedal form
17, Pedal form in Cartesian 17, Intercept form 19, Family of planes passing
through a given point 21, Plane perpendicular to a given vector and passing
through a point21, Equation of plane passing through a given st line 22,
x x1 y y1 z z1
Plane passing though the line l m n and the point x2 , y2 , z2
23, Equation of plane passing through a point and parallel to two given st
lines 23, Plane containing a given st line and parallel another st line 23,
Angle between two planes 24, Equation to parallel and perpendicular planes
25, Angle between a st line and a plane 25, Distance from a point to a plane
26, foot of the perpendicular 27, Distance from a point to a plane in the
direction of a given vector 29, Family of planes passing through two
intersecting planes( i.e., through one st line) 31, Bisectors of angles between
two planes 34, Intersection of two st lines and joint equation of two st lines
34, Intersection of two planes is a st line 35, Converting equation of a st line
from Unsymmetrical to Symmetrical form 36, Angle Between the Planes 39,
Condition for a line to lie completely in a plane 39, The family of planes
passing though a given line 39, The plane though two given points and
parallel to a given st line 40, The plane containing a st line and passing
through a point 41, Coplanar lines 41, Condition for two st lines to intersect or
to be parallel 42, In unsymmetrical form 44, Perpendicular from origin onto a
st line 45, Shortest distance between two skew lines 47, A pitfall: Shortest
distance between two parallel lines 49, To find the equation of the common
perpendicular to two skew lines 50, The equation of the common
perpendicular in vector form 51, The equation of the common perpendicular
in a simplified form 51, Three non-parallel planes either meet at a point, or
Page 9 / 681
on a line or make a prism 54, Point at , line at and plane at 57, One
parameter family of planes 57, Point of intersection of a st line with a plane
58, Line and plane to be parallel, perpendicular or to coincide59, Remember
the results 62,
Pages1 to 30
Page 10 / 681
through 3 non-collinear points 24, sphere 25, diametric form 26, a plane
touches a sphere 26, a plane cuts a sphere 27
Page 11 / 681
directrix etc 13, Reduction to standard form 13, Focus and directrix 15, Latus
rectum 15, Focal radii 15, Span of the ellipse and sum of the focal radii 16,
What does division of major axis by ordinate mean 17, Ellipse as shadow of
a circle 18, ellipse in a plane cutting a cylinder 20, ellipse is actually a
section of a cone 20, The value of e 24, Another Alternative derivation of
ellipse 24, Another alternative derivation of ellipse 25, Another derivation of
ellipse 27, Reflection property of ellipse 28, Another alternative 31,
Smashing kidney stones 31,
Page 12 / 681
22, Conjugate of hyperbola 23, Asymptotes of a hyperbola 23, Equation of
Hyperbola when Asymptotes are Axes 26, Focus, Directrix and latus rectum
28, Conic Sections compared 29, Another comparison 30, Another
comparison 31.
Pages 1 to 35
condition to represent two st lines 15, area of the equilateral triangle 18,
rectangles, triangles enclosed, their orthocenter etc up to 23, Bisectors of
vectors 25, The general conic represents the following curves 27,
Compression of coordinates 29,
Equations
Chapter 33 : Secants and Tangents Pages 1 tor 59
Topics : what are secants and tangents, tangent to a circle 1, secants to a circle 3,
Tangent to a circle, center at origin 4, Tangent to a circle, center not at origin 5,
Tangent to a parabola, hyperbola 7, UA golden rule for writing tangents , design an
equation for a purpose 8, Important Results 9, Focal chords and harmonic
relations 12, The semi latus rectum is harmonic mean of any pair of focal radii 13,
U Locus of middle points of focal chords of any conic is a conic of th same type 13,
Secant and Tangent to an ellipse if it is in parametric form 14, equation of tangents
to conics at points represented by a parameter 15, Secant and Tangent to a
general conic in polar coordinates 16, Tangent to a conic section in general 18,
Tangent to a conic section at the origin (lowest degree terms 19, Another method to
find Tangent to a conic section in general 19, Tangent to a parabola in general,
another parametric equation 20, Another Parametric Equation 22, geometric mean
Page 13 / 681
FP 2 FQ.FR 28, Tangent to a circle in general 29, Another parametric equation of a
circle 30, Tangent to a ellipse in general 30, Another parametric equation of an
ellipse 31, A segment of a tangent to an ellipse cut between the directrices 31,
Tangent to an ellipse in general in polar coordinates 32, many of the properties of
2 2
ellipse may be carried over to hyperbola just replacing b by - b 32, Another
parametric equation of hyperbola 32, Tangent to a rectangular hyperbola 33,
Condition that a given st.line may be a tangent to a conic 33, Pair of tangents from
any point (x1, y1) to the general conic 34, Lengths of tangents to the circle from any
point 35, Remember the following results in the exercises 37, When two circles
touch each other and two alternative criteria 37, Common tangents to two circles
38, Common tangents to parabolas 40, tangents to other curves in exercises 41,
Common tangents to an Ellipse and a Circle, common tangents to ellipses 43,
Common Chords 45, Differentiation for getting slope of tangent 47, meaning of
derivative 49, Total differential and tangent 51, Tangent at the origin( lowest degree
terms equated to 0) 52, Tangents of curves cutting at right angles, director circle &
directrix , case of ellipse, case of hyperbola, case of parabola, 54, Angle between
two curves at intersection 55, Dip of the horizon 57, Vector equation of tangent,
velocity and acceleration58,
Topics : Normal to any curve 1, Normal to any curve 2, Intercepts of normals with
axes 2, Reflection property 4, Feet of perpendiculars 4, Auxiliary Circle 6, Feet of
perpendiculars joined to foci 6, Normal to a general conic at the point (r, θ) in polar
coordinates 7, Working rule 8, To find locus of the foot of the perpendicular upon
tangent and normals from center of a hyperbola 8, Another form of a normal for
parabola; another parametric equation 9, : Theorem of three normals for parabola 9,
two of the normal are perpendiculars to each other 10, Feet of the perpendiculars
from foci on any tangent to an ellipse 14, Product of distances of any tangent from
foci 14, AOF = angle BOG and the angle AFO = angle BFO 14, Any normal to an
ellipse 15, Theorem of four normals 15, Geometrical meaning of parametric eqn of
parabola 18, Distance of a curve from a given point 19, Pedal equation of the conic
25, Subtangent and Subnormal and their lengths 27, focal distance, reflection
property, 28, The focus is at middle point of intercepts of tangent and normal with the
axis 28, Reflection property and comparison of conic sections 29, Subtangent and
subnormal of parabola from simple geometry 30, Angle between radius vector and
tangent 30, Angle between two curves at intersection 31, Direct derivation of pedal
equation 32, Radius of curvature and curvature 33, A small part of a curve is a small
part of a circle 33, Curvature at the origin if one of the axes is a tangent or normal
,Newton’s formula 37, Tangents, Normals, Curvature and Torsion 38, binormal 39,
Evolutes 40, Evolutes 41, Evolutes may easily be known as its center and radius are
known 41, Conic sections as real plane sections of cone, Dandelin spheres 45,
Directrix and eccentricity, another meaning of eccentricity 47, Directional derivative
and gradient 47, level curves 49, Gradient in different system of coordinates 49,
Page 14 / 681
Section 6: Parametrization Of Conics and General Problems
Chapter 35 : Parametrization of conics and general problems on circle and parabola
Pages 1 tor 59
Pages 1 to 30
Topics : General problems on ellipses 1, PG.PH FP.F ' P . 14, OT .OG OF 2 14,
General problems on hyperbola 17.
Topics : Central conics 1, eqn to the general conic referred to the new axes through
the center 2, Center of a parabola and two st lines as conic sections3, There is only
one pair of conjugate diameters common to any two concentric central conics 4, eqn
of ellipse , with axes parallel to conjugate diameters 4, Central conics referred to
their axes and lengths of the semi-axes 5, Foci of central conics 7 .
Topics : An asymptote to a curve is a st line which meets the curve at infinity, but it
is not a line at infinity 1, Conjugate hyperbola & Asymptotes 2, Conjugate hyperbola
& Asymptotes; eqn in general form of central conics 3, Another definition 4,
Asymptotes by expansion and its two generalisations 5, hyperbola for given
Asymptotes 7, Theorem of four normals for central conic 7, the feet of the four
perpendiculars from any point (h, k) on a central conic lie on a rectangular
hyperbola passing through the origin. 7, Asymptotes parallel to y-axis 8, A
controversial view of asymptotes 9, Asymptotes of general rational algebraic
equation( with exception) 10, two parallel asymptotes 12, Summary 13, Asymptotes
in polar coordinates 15, Polar subtangent and polar subnormal 17, An asymptote
and the curve at infinity are described by the same equation as it is a tangent at
infinity. If there are two asymptotes , the point at infinity is a double point 18,
Inverse or reciprocal curves 18, Reciprocal coordinates 18, Reciprocal curves in
polar coordinates 19, Pole and polar of circle is a duality relation 22, : Conic
sections may be viewed as reciprocals or inverses of a circle 23, Study of
curves from their asymptotes 24, Asymptotes as guidelines24, Envelopes 26, Some
facts about Envelops29, Pedal curves and pedal point construction,
representing conics in yet another way 32, Pedal curve and pedal point
construction 33.
Page 15 / 681
Chapter 39 : Chord Of Contact, Pole and Polar Pages 1 tor 45
Topics : Condition that the second degree eqn in two variables represents two st
lines 1, Parallel lines meet on the line at infinity 2, Line at infinity 2, Partial
differentials met in conic sections 2, Tangent and normal , secant, chord of contact,
Polar, the curve itself etc.3, Equation of a chord bisected at any point (s, t) is parallel
Page 16 / 681
to the polar of the point 5, Centre of the curve 6, Conjugates and Asymptotes 7, Axes
of the central conic 7, Foci of the central conic 9, Tracing of parabola, (having no
centre, or centre at infinity) 9, Envelopes 11, four points of intersection 12, conic
passing through intersection of two conics 13, Only rectangular hyperbolas can pass
through intersection of two rectangular hyperbolas 14, : St lines passing through
intersection of two conics 14, : A pair of st lines passing through intersections of two
rectangular hyperbolas are perpendicular to each other 14, When two rectangular
hyperbolas intersect at four points, each point of intersection is ortho-centre of the
triangle formed by the other three points 15, Any conic passing through four points
15, A conic passing through intersection of a conic and a pair of st lines 16, Pair of
tangents on the general conic 18, Imaginary tangents from foci of the general conic
19, Foci of the general conic 19, Foci of the central conic 20, conic with a tangent
and a normal as axes 21, Chords And Harmonic Relations 23, Symmetric
relations like conjugate diameters, pair of tangents etc, 27, Foci of general conic 28,
Circle of Curvature 30,
Ax 2Bx C
2 n
Page 17 / 681
Chapter 44 : The Definite Integral Pages 1 to 52
x a bx
m n p
dx
36, Simple Evaluation of
2 2
Pages 1 to 36
Page 18 / 681
5, important results 6, Walli’s formula 7, , has many alternative
m, n
forms 8, The (gamma) function, also called Euler’s 2nd integral 12,
Graph of Gamma Function 13, Relation between Beta and Gamma Functions
14, Alternative definitions of gamma function 14, Weierstrass Formula for
Gamma function 15, Some special cases of gamma function 16, another
Relation between beta and gamma function 17, multiplication formula due
to Gauss, Euler, complement formula 19, Differentiation under integral
sign 20, Leibnitz formula 25, generalization of Fundamental Theorem of
Integral Calculus 27, Newton-Leibnitz Formula for evaluating limits 35.
Pages 1 to 64
Page 19 / 681
1
tm
F D
Integral of sin mt or cos mt 20, Particular integral of 21, Forced
oscillations with damping 22 , Particular integral by method of undetermined
coefficients 23, travelling time of a tunnel train 25, Elements of electrical
circuit 26, self inductance, Lenz’s law 27, Examples of Transient current
circuits 28, Example of Use of complex quantities in circuit equations,
Impedance 33, The power factor 35, Planetary motion: A grand example of
2nd order linear diff. eqn in vectors 36, Kepler’s second law 38, Projectile
motion and vector equation of a parabola 38, Kepler’s first and third
laws 39, Total energy a nd eccentricity: physical meaning of eccentricity
42, Areal velocity and angular momentum and moment of momentum 44, An
example Vector integration : Planetary motion (in vectors) 45, Interpretation,
finding the orbit and speed 47, expression for e for planetary motion given
above and criteria for open / closed orbits 48, hodograph 49, Central force as
any function of distance in general 51, Central force directly proportional to
distance 52, semi-conjugate diameter 53, Two simple harmonic motions at
right angles to each other superimposed on a particle result in an elliptical
orbit. 56, Newton’s inverse square law from Kepler’s laws 57, Some more
particular integrals 58, Homogeneous linear equation 62, Bertrand’ s
theorem 63.
Page 20 / 681
FOREWORD
This is an humble endeavour to blend Calculus, Analytical Geometry of Straight Lines, and
Conic Sections, Vectors, Matrices and Determinants, Theory of Equations, and Elementary
Differential Equations through examples of Uniform Motion, Projectile Motion, Rotational
Motion, Central Forces like Uniform Circular Motion, Simple Harmonic Motion, Planetary
Motion, Coriolis Force into a single mammoth concept of Identity – Division – Symmetry, the
ultimate key to unravel the mystery of Nature. This is just like every number, say 5, and its
additive inverse – 5 peacefully coexisting inside the identity of addition 0; or like 5 and its
multiplicative inverse 1/5 peacefully coexisting inside the multiplicative identity 1. Euler’s
2 i
celebrated equation e 1 0 the five constants .Identities and constants are treated as same
thing in this book, same thing as invariants like the laws of conservation of mass, energy,
momentums, etc. and we break open these to get the differential equations of motion or the
equation of motion in simple cases.
1
1 x . The vector is a division in the sense ordered pairs or triplets are. Differential
coefficients and integrals are also a remote similarity. Fixed points are some sort of
invariants;(Fixed points of x f x are roots of F x f x x 0 . A locus of a moving point
)
is a static picture, an equation or a conditional identity. A determinant, matrix, inverse circular
function or logarithm contains all its properties just in its definition, which is just like a personal
identity, just like the name and personality of a real person. As Einstein said, the problem and
the answer lie just side by side; approach near and near the problem and the solution is there
itself, maybe, just give it a symbol ; as in word problems offered by the village school master or
3 9 A division , 3 and 5 of 8 though not
2
x2 9
like while taking the limit of lim lim
x 3 x 3 0 3 3
.
8 2 82
symmetric, a higher level symmetry 5 , 3 is there , well behind it. Every topic of
2 2
the book is an endeavour to link it to identity, division or symmetry, which would give the reader
a feeling of rediscovery and confidence of solid fundas which he or she may not forget after
the exams. The writer hopes this view would not put an end to why’s and how’s but definitely
help to peep into the world behind them, to enable the average student to see through the
concepts taught conventionally. An identity like 0 contains symmetrical pairs like +5 and – 5
added together; an identity like 1 contains 5 and 1/5 multiplied together. An identity like
a b
2
a 2 b 2 2ab
still remains valid if a and b are changed just as someone’s personal
identity which does not change as some one grows up or goes to different places. (not even
when someone changes sex!)
Such condensation of topics, as mentioned earlier, i.e., integrating many concepts shall not
come in the way of rigor; rather it would be a relief in heavy course of curriculum today (some
topics of Physics like Mechanics, Circular motion, SHM, Planetary motions, varying currents and
Page 21 / 681
transient currents etc. are also covered) and sit would provide an edge for competitive entrance
examinations, both in concept building and problems.
Conic sections are shown to be really sections of cone just with the help of high school
geometry and various meanings of eccentricity are illustrated. They are also derived by
simple compression of coordinate axes, as inversion of circles and such alternative
treatments of topics abound in the book, which would delight students and teachers alike.
Last but not the least, the author would be very thankful to any one who offers some
suggestions for improvement of points out mistakes if any.
The Selection of topics includes courses of Calculus, Coordinate Geometry, Vectors, Analytical
geometry, Mechanics, determinants, matrices, differential equations of first order and first
degree in the +2 curriculums of CBSE, ICSE, and various regional boards, and council s
in India and fundamentals for preparation for IITJEE and other entrance exams. The
celebrated institutions preparing for these entrance examinations expect this knowledge
and they themselves seldom teach the fundamentals. The book is to fill up this gap.
Author.
Page 22 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
You have a nature and a name, you have your tastes, choices, likes and dislikes, love and hate,
relationships, characteristics and personality – the sum totality of this is your identity. It does not
change, i.e., people still know and recognise you if you grow up in time, change houses or go
abroad. You are still the same person with the same identity. Similarly your family has an
identity, it does not change , for example, if represented by you or some other member of your
family. In the same way the groups or communities or country you belong to, have identities for
that matter. In mathematics you have come across the identity 0, celebrated as the identity of
addition. You know it contains every number and its negative in pairs, for example 5 and – 5 .
The identity 0 does not change any number with which it is added or subtracted from . You
know 1 is an identity, the identity of multiplication, for example 5 and 1/5 both reside in 1
multiplied with each other. The 1 does not change any number it is multiplied with or divides.
Such is the nature of identities. Any number such as 7 is called a constant as it does not vary.
You will see this is also an identity in some sense. Note a class of integers which leave a
remainder 1 when divided by 7, such as 8, 15, 22 etc. We can denote this class with a symbol
[1]. Other such classes of integers are [3], [4] etc. leaving remainder 3 and 4 respectively . Take
any two members, one in each class, say 10 from [3] and 25 from [4] and adding them gives 35,
which belongs to the class [0] or [7]. This is no fallacy and we can call [7] or [0] each as an
identity of addition in these seven classes of integers called congruent modulo 7. An identity
does not change ; so also constants. You know (a + b)2 = a2 +2ab+ b2 is an identity. The
formula holds no matter how a and b may change. An identity is an equation which holds ( =
1 1 xy
holds true) for any admissible value of the variable(s). For example, the equation
x y xy
holds for any value of x and y except 0. Also x y x y x y is another example. Thus
2 2
the identity stands on its own and does not depend upon the symbols though it is convenient to
express them with the help of these symbols. Instead of identities that are evident at sight, like
(a – b ) + (b – c ) +(c – a ) , we can assume or construct identities .
If we assume (X– x )2 + (Y – y )2 +(Z – z)2 = 0 for all values of the variables X, Y, Z, x, y, and z ;
or in other words if we assume it to be an identity,( call it a conditional identity) we
immediately have the three equations X= x ,Y= y , Z = z. We dwell on this point again and again
to prove beautiful results of use like equality of conjugate surds when given surds are equal;
equality of complex numbers when given complex numbers are equal; proving that conjugate of
a root of a polynomial is also another root of it; so on and so forth.
An identity operation does not change or modify the argument (on which it operates) or
the operand. For example, k = (k)2 ; an operation like squaring the square root of any number
does not change that number. In other words it preserves the identity of the operand and it is
© Page 1
Page 23 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
therefore only that the operator is called so. Please note that the compound operation of first
taking square root and then squaring is not same as first squaring and then taking the square
root; simply because, it does not result in identity. Taking square of a number and extracting the
square root again are thus seen to be not the exactly reverse operations so as to result in an
identity operation. We know reverse operation always takes us farther than we imagined. For
example adding two natural numbers results in a natural number ; there is no restriction in
adding and we cannot get out of the natural number system in the process of addition. The set
natural number is thus said to be ‘closed’ under the process of addition . We would return to
this point a little later. You see the power of identities in the next two examples.
Since the equation is true for any value of x, putting x = 0, we get, d = t and they
obviously cancel out from both sides. Then we could assume values of x as 1, -1 and 2 say, and
get three equations involving a - p, b - q, and c - r ; and on solving them , we can get, each of
a – p etc., each = 0. Alternatively, after canceling out d and t from both sides, we can get
another identity, or equation which holds for all values of x. Putting x = 0 again in this eqn., we
get c = r . Repeating the process, we get the desired result. The utility of this result is
indisputable as you are aware when apply this result to knotty problems.
Or, p cos x + q sin x + r = (a + b) cos x + (b - a)sin x + (c + ) for all x, …………(a)
© Page 2
Page 24 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
So we get three independent equations in , , and from (d) and (e) which may be
easily solved to find , , and in terms of p, q and r. ( the result has many uses in integration
chapter)
It seems at first sight that identities are trivially true and are of little utility. No. Just
like 0 is a trivial nothing , but embodies a world of secrets like a black hole, identities contain a
world of secrets inside them. We give below an example how the concept of identity is used to
reveal the sum of an infinite series hidden in the symbols we define ,to get rid of a difficulty. The
great scientist Albert Einstein perhaps said, if only you could know where exactly the
problem lies, the solution lies there itself. In his times, half of the world believed there was
the all pervading invisible ether and the other half believed there was no ether. He put an end
to the controversy by telling everybody to raise only the questions which probably have
answers, and discard all others. Did he take the cue from a small child he taught, who told,
“there can be another way besides the Earth going around the Sun and the Sun going around
the Earth ? ” If a point of difficulty is pinpointed, and is enclosed in a symbol, the solution lies
nearby, just you have to manipulate with the adopted symbol in set procedures and arrive at the
removal of difficulty. Do the duo of the difficulty and the solution constitute some sort of identity
or invariable ? Maybe. Follow the examples:
© Page 3
Page 25 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
b 2 4ac b b 2 4ac
or, at = b /4a – c t =
2 2
x =
2a 2a 2a
Now the poor things, h and t have been thrown out mercilessly once the difficulty is removed!
- b b 2 4ac - b b 2 4ac
are and .
2a 2a
b c
The sum of the two roots is and the product of the roots as may be
a a
verified direct. We know in high school that this solution has been got by completing square
method, either by dividing by a throughout or multiplying by 4a throughout. The ‘difficulty’
identified in this way is to make ax2 + bx , a part of a complete square (as this one is not a
complete square, ) The roots are real if discriminant of the equation , b 2 4ac is positive,
i.e., b2 – 4ac 0 and imaginary otherwise( by imaginary we mean, the roots of a negative
number, if at all we agree for its existence). They are rational if b2 – 4ac is a perfect square
and irrational otherwise .Actually, the concepts of irrational numbers and imaginary numbers
are gifts of the quadratic equations. The roots are equal if the determinant is 0. The
expression under the square root is called discriminant because it determines the very nature of
roots of the quadratic. If the roots are irrational or imaginary, one is the conjugate of the
other, i.e, if one is p+ √q or p + iq, the other is p - √q or p – iq; ( This is evident from the
structure of the roots , they are already in p+ √q and p - √q form. To prove it, assume m+ √n is
another root, so their product (p+ √q)(m+ √n) = c/a, a rational number .This is possible only
when m+ √n is a multiple of conjugate of p+ √q, say k(p - √q). Now, the sum of the roots is
p + √q + k(p - √q) = p(1 + k) + (1 - k )q = - b/a. Solving this for q we see that either 1 – k = 0
or q = {- b/a – p(1 + k)}/(1 – k), a rational number, which is a contradiction. So 1 – k must be 0
or k = 1 or the other root must be p - √q . ). In another way, we observe that the sum of the
roots is – b/a and the product of the roots is c/a; both rational numbers by assumption. Then , if
the roots themselves do not occur in conjugate pairs, how can their sum and product be rational
? No matter if the reader does not understand imaginary numbers . We would return to the
subjects, quadratic equation and imaginary numbers in detail in later chapters at appropriate
places and this is merely one example how to apply the “Difficulty Pin-pointing Method”.
Actually this is a method how second term in a polynomial equation could be removed. (See
further the chapters on quadratic equations, theory of equations, Cardan’s solution of cubic
equation etc.)
© Page 4
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
b
Hint : Put x t in the equation and get the cubic equation reduced to
3a
t 3 pt q 0 …..(1)
Does this removal of square term help in solving the cubic equation ? It is not apparent on first
sight. Any playing with (1) sooner or later leads back to the original cubic equation, back to
square one. But Cardano decomposed the new variable t into t u v which changed equation
(2) into u 3 v 3 3uv p u v q 0 ……………………………….(3)
Could we abruptly put 3uv p u v equal to 0. Why not ? Who deters us? ( If we are to put a
symbol at the point of difficulty, and there are three unknown roots to search, Cardano might
have been motivated to put two symbols instead of one!)
Since the number of choices of u and v are infinite as t u v and since we are not actually
bothered by the relation between u and v, if there be any; we incur no loss assuming a relation
p
between u and v which would make 3uv p 0 uv ……………(4)
3
And lo, we have got two equations(4) and (5) in u and v and we can immediately solve them.
p3
Of course it is a quadratic equation u v q, u v
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
and in u and v ,i.e., u and
27
p3
v3 become the roots of the equation z 2 qz 0 and we get
27
q q 2 p3 q q 2 p3
u3 and v
3
……………………(6)
2 4 27 2 4 27
b
Now just retracing our contrivances u v t and x t , we land ashore quickly,
3a
© Page 5
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
q q2 p3 3 q q2 p3 b
uv 3 t x
2 4 27 2 4 27 3a
b 3 q q2 p3 3 q q2 p3
x
3a 2 4 27 2 4 27
q2 p3
Only a small assumption 0 gives us a real number solution of the cubic equation. We
4 27
would know later on that any cubic equation has at least a real root. But don’t be swayed away
with this tempting, small and alluring example which reveals mathematics being so easy. Of
course it is, the way you look at it is important.
Example2 ; Infinite Sequences and Series :
Difficulty here is that we do not know the sum of the series. But we think that it must involve n
and its powers and some constant, of course, independent of n . So let us assume (like defining
symbols as we often do) ,
t n A Bn Cn 2 Dn 3 ......................................................(B)
The tr, the r-th term, or the general term for that matter, may be written as r(r + 1).
(Had all of them been equal, we could have simply multiplied ‘n’ with any term to get the sum.
That makes the sum one degree higher in ‘n’, than the degree of ‘n’ in tn . So it is safe to
assume that, if n = 6, we don’t require more than 7 terms in the series for tn . So we have
3
taken terms up to n in (B) when t n has no other power of n larger than 2. Similar must be the
things for n+1 terms too; then,
tn 1 A B ( n 1) C (n 1) 2 D ( n 1)3 ...............................................(C )
tn1 1x 2 2 x3 3x 4..........upto..(n 1)(n 2).......................................( D)
© Page 6
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
B C D 2,2C 3D 3,...and..3D 1
D 1 3,...C 1,...and...B 2 3
With these values and putting n = 1 (or any integer you like) in (B), which is also an identity, we
get, t1 t1 1x 2 A 2 3 1 1 3,..Or ..A 0
2n n3 2 3n n 2 n ( n 1)( n 2)
tn 3
n 2 .. t n n
3 3
3
This is not certainly an universal technique for tackling any series whatsoever. But it gives a little
bit of that feeling.
n n 1
1) Sum of 1st n natural numbers, tn, tn =n, or in other words n 2
n n 1 2 n 1
n 2
6
.
n2 n 1
2
Not only we use symbols to ‘avoid difficulties’, often we use them to take their
advantage. Take the example of Trigonometric ratios; these symbols have been aimed at
measurement of heights and distances, but have gone a long way in development of complex
numbers, theory of equations and so on. In a similar manner Calculus is developed to deal with
infinitesimal numbers (infinitely small numbers) by assigning symbols to them .
The process or method is, to identify the ‘difficulty’ or pinpoint it, adopt some
symbol to enclose the difficulty, then proceed with known and standard methods until
the symbol reveals itself or until the difficulty vanishes otherwise and toss away the
symbol mercilessly. Wait. We can throw the symbol out in a particular problem, or well keep
the symbol for future use if it has general importance, like ( - 1) = i or like log2 8 = 3 for 23 = 8
or sin – 1 ½ = 300 for sin 300 = ½ ., or a symbol for eliminant of equations such as matrices and
determinants which find much use elsewhere. We shall return to the subject.
Throughout the book series, we have adopted this method to develop a topic, adopting a
symbol tacitly carrying its entire properties and characteristics; may it be Matrices and
Determinants, Trigonometric functions, Inverse Circular Functions, Logarithms, Limits, Conic
© Page 7
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
sections, Differential Coefficients, Integrals etc. etc. Due to this approach the topics appear in a
manner how they were discovered and developed rather than a formal presentation.
There are numerous examples throughout the book where we would be using this technique to
rediscover and redevelop many topics from identities. Before that the reader may try some
identities from high school some of which are given below. The reader can try as many of them
as possible and at ease. Use the fact that if a = b put throughout the expression makes it 0,
then a – b is a factor; similarly if a = - b put throughout the expression makes it 0, then
a + b is a factor.
4) (a – b) + (b – c) + (c – a) = 0;
5) c(a – b) + a(b – c) + b(c – a) = 0
6) c(a – b)3 + a(b – c)3 + b(c – a)3 = (a + b + c)(a – b)(b – c)(c – a)
7) c(a – b)2 + a(b – c)2 + b(c – a)2 + 8abc = (a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
8) c4 (a2 – b2) + a4 (b2 – c2) + b4 (c2 – a2) = - (a – b)(b – c)(c – a)(a + b)(b + c)(c + a)
9) (b - c)3(b + c – 2a) + (c - a)3(c + a – 2b) + (c - a)3(c + a – 2b) = 0
10) (b - c)(b + c – 2a)3 + (c - a)(c + a – 2b)3 + (c - a)(c + a – 2b)3 = 0
11) (ab – c2)(ac – b2) + (bc – a2)(ba – c2) +(bc – a2)(ba – c2)
= bc(bc – a2) + ca(ca – b2) + ca(ca – b2)
12) bc(b –c) + ca(c –a) + ab(a –b) = - (b –c)(c –a)(a –b)
13) a2 (b –c) + b2 (c –a) + c2 (a –b) = - (b –c)(c –a)(a –b)
14) a(b2 –c2) + b(c2 –a2) + c(a2 –b2) = - (b –c)(c –a)(a –b)
15) a3 (b –c) + b3 (c –a) + c3 (a –b) = - (b –c)(c –a)(a –b)(a + b + c)
16) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c)(a2 + b2 + c2 – bc – ca – ab)
17) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = (a + b + c)(b2 – ca + c2 – ab + a2 – bc)
18) a3 + b3 + c3 – 3abc = ½ (a + b + c)[(b – c)2 + (c – a)2 + (a – b)2]
19) (b – c)3 + (c – a)3 + (a – b) 3 – 3(b – c)(c – a)(a – b) = 0
20) (a + b + c)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 6abc
21) (a + b + c + d)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 6abc
22) bc(b +c) + ca(c +a) + ab(a +b) + 2abc = (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)
23) a2 (b +c) + b2 (c +a) + c2 (a +b) + 2abc = (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)
24) (b + c)(c + a)(a + b) + abc = (a + b + c)( bc + ca + ab)
25) (a + b + c) (-a + b + c) (a - b + c) (a + b - c) = 2b2 c2 + 2c2 a2 + 2a2 b2 – a4 – b4 – c4
26) c (a4 – b4) + a (b4 – c4) + b (c4 – a4) = (b –c)(c –a)(a –b)(a2 + b2 + c2 – bc – ca – ab)
27) (a + b)5 = a5 + b5 + 5ab(a + b)( a2 + ab + b2)
28) (a + b + c)5 = a5 + b5 + c5 + 5(a + b) (b + c)(c + a)( a2 + b2 + c2 + bc + ca + ab)
29) c2 (a3 – b3) + a2 (b3 – c3) + b2 (c3 – a3) = (ab + bc + ca)(a – b)(b – c)(c – a)
30) bc(c2 – b2) + ca(a2 – c2) + ab(b2 – a2) = (b – c)(c – a)(a – b)(a + b + c)
31) (b +c){(r + p)(x + y) – (p + q)(z + x)}+ (c +a){(p + q)(y + z) – (q + r)(x + y)}
+ (c +a){(p + q)(y + z) – (q + r)(x + y)} = 2[a(qz – ry) + b(rx – pz) + c(py – qx)]
32) (a – x)2{(b – y)2(c – z)2 - (b – z)2(c – y)2}+(a – x)2{(b – y)2(c – z)2 - (b – z)2(c – y)2}
+(a – x)2{(b – y)2(c – z)2 - (b – z)2(c – y)2} = 2(b – c) (c – a) (a – b) (y – z) (z – x) (x – y)
© Page 8
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
All Mathematical formulae read in high school are identities or conditional identities and we
know their utility. As examples of some conditional identities put a + b + c = 0 in expressions
above where a + b + c appears: the result may be taken as a conditional identity.
33) 2bc = a2 – b2 – c2
34) 8a2b2c2 = (a2 – b2 – c2)( b2 – c2 – a2)( c2 – a2 –b2)
35) a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
36) 2(a4 + b4 + c4) = (a2 + b2 + c2)2
37) 3a2b2c2 – 2(bc + ca + ab)3 = a6 + b6 + c6
38) a5 + b5 + c5 + 5abc(bc + ca + ab)
a 2 b 2 c 2 a 5 b5 c5 a 7 b7 c7
39)
2 5 7
a b c bc ca a b
40) / 3 3 /
bc ca a b a b c
A look at the previous examples of identities makes us think about symmetry anti-symmetry and
cyclic symmetry of the expressions. Discoverer of electrical generator must have observed the
change in electric field due to motion of chares, i.e., electric current causes a magnetic field;
and it must have occurred to him that a change in magnetic field may generate electric current.
Take the previous example of equalizing coefficients of similar terms from both sides of an
identity equation. This reveals the beautiful feature of symmetry. Take the algebrical identities in
the previous exercises. The hint is to put a = b in the expression. If the expression reduces to 0,
then (a – b) is a factor. This is cyclic symmetry. Analyse any identity and you find some
symmetry. Symmetry reveals the things that are not explicit. It also helps us to write
expressions in brief. For example, a stands for a + b if two elements are taken; it stands for a +
b + c or a + b + c + d if 3 or 4 elements are taken. Similarly a2 stands for a2 + b2 or a2 + b2 + c2
or a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 if 2 or 3 or 4 elements are taken. The expression a2 + b2 is symmetrical with
respect to a and b in a sense that a and b can be replaced with each other without affecting the
value of the expression. The feature may be termed bilateral symmetry. The expressions such
as a2 + b2 + c2 or bc + ca + ab are bilaterally symmetrical, as any two of them can be
interchanged without changing the value of the expression. In addition, the latter expressions
are of cyclic symmetry; i.e., if a is replaced by b, b is replaced by c and c is replaced by a
simultaneously, the expression is unchanged.
To illustrate the method of applying symmetry concept in working out problems, consider
factorizing the expression
(a + b + c)5 - a5 - b5 - c5 .
© Page 9
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
The value of the expression is unchanged if we put b in place of a , c in place of b and a in place
of c. But the expression becomes 0 if b = - a throughout. Hence b + a or a + b must be a factor
of it. Remember this is due to factor theorem read in high school. Similarly b + c and c + a must
be factors of it. As such the expression contains
(b + c)(c + a)(a + b) as a factor. The latter factor is of third degree whereas the expression to be
factorised is of 5th degree. So it contains another factor of 2nd degree. As the expression is
symmetric in a, b and c; so also all its factors must be symmetric cyclically. A general
expression in three elements and in 2nd degree would be
Now since this is an identity, the expression holds for any value of a, b and c. Putting each
equal to 1 and each equal to 2 in turn we get, A + B = 10 and 5A +
2B = 35.
Solving the equations, we get, the values of A and B , both equal to 5 and the complete
factorization becomes,
(a + b + c)5 - a5 - b5 - c5 =5 (b + c)(c + a)(a + b)(a2 + b2 + c2 + bc + ca + ab)
–[ a2 (b –c) + b2 (c –a) + c2 (a –b)], i.e., its own negative when any two of its variables are
interchanged with each other. Such an expression is said to be alternating or anti-symmetric.
More about symmetry and its uses shall be discussed from topic to topic later on; especially in
transformation of graphs.
Puzzle: In finding out factors of a 3 b 3 c 3 3abc one observes that the expression reduces to
0 if a b c is put into it. But neither of the expressions a b, b c , c a is a factor of it.
Explain how.
ans. assuming stand alone expression like a b etc, does not make the expression 0, it
becomes 0 only when all of a b c is assumed. So it indicates, neither of
a b, b c , c a is a factor of the expression a 3 b 3 c 3 3abc , but a factor of the
expression involves some combination of all of a b, b c , c a at the same time! observe
that a b c 3abc
3 3 3 1
2
a b c a b b c c a
2 2 2
© Page 10
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
for those who refuse to wait until then. Let us measure acceleration a of some object while we stand
v1 v 0
still on the ground. Acceleration is a , where v1 , v0 are its final and initial velocities and t is
t
time taken for this change of velocity. If we observe the same from object from a train with velocity u, do
not observe the initial and final velocities, but observe the initial and final relative velocities instead , v1 –
( v1 u ) ( v 0 u ) v1 v 0
u and v0 – u . Now acceleration observed from the train is a , again,
t t
which proves the proposition. One can change all these symbols except for time to vectors and prove the
proposition in case of vector velocities too.
© Page 11
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
that the totalities of quantities like mass, momentum, energy, spin etc before an event like
collision or explosion remains unchanged after the collision or explosion etc., as the event may
be. So total mass, momentum, energy etc. are invariants .The concept is similar to the
concept of identity. So the totals of these quantities in a system do not change i.e., they are
symmetrical about a point of event like collision or explosion etc. Total mass or energy or
momentum in a system of particles before a collision taking place in the system is conserved
after the process of collision. Similar is the case after a chemical reaction is completed. The new
theory of relativity has combined the laws of conservation of mass and conservation of energy
into one law, conservation of mass and energy together, by showing equivalence of mass and
energy. Not a single instance has been observed violating the these principles of conservation.
We would give an expression to illustrate the principle of conservation of momentum and
conservation of energy at appropriate place .The principle of equivalence in theory of relativity
has led to Lorenz transformation of coordinates which in turn, has led to the result of
equivalence of mass and energy. Some of the invariants in transformation of coordinates we
shall discuss later on in the chapter for transformation of graphs. The starting point in solving
problems involving equations of motion is these conservation laws which give the differential
equations of motion in a particular situation; one equation if got from law of conservation of
momentum, another is got from law of conservation of energy; the latter are then solved by
applying standard Mathematical techniques to get the equations of motion. By differential
equation we mean an equation involving physical quantities such as velocity etc. and their rates
of change; the latter called differential coefficients. A differential equation is solved when we get
equations involving the physical quantities only and not involving their differential coefficients.
Do the phrases “The principle of equivalence”, “The conservation laws in Physics” and “
Constants and invariants in Physics or in Mathematics” sound like the concept of identity
we just discussed. Decide for yourself.
Suppose two bodies of masses m1 and m2 with velocities u1 and u2 respectively collide and their
velocities get changed to v1 and v2 respectively. By Newton’s third law the force exerted by one body on
the other should be equal and opposite. Let them be F and – F respectively. Equivalently,
m1 (v 1 u1 ) m 2 (u 2 v 2 )
where t is the brief time for which the two bodies are in contact while
t t
colliding, or , m 1v1 + m2v2 = m1u1 + m2u2 ; i.e., the total momentum before collision is the total momentum
after collision , as expected.( vectors may replace scalars throughout, if you please)
Similarly , from the principle of conservation of energy, we can derive an expression of kinetic
energy of a body of mass m, the energy, W say, possessed by it by virtue of its velocity. Surely it would
be equal to the work done by it against a force opposing its motion until it comes to rest. If the body
2
travels a distance s in the process, then we have, the work done W = Fs = mas = ½ m 2as = ½ m1v
which is the expression of kinetic energy we sought after.
© Page 12
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
© Page 13
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
does not depend on the speed of its source. Mechanics at lower velocities was viewed as a
limiting case of the theory of relativity. Necessary Mathematics was already at hand , developed
by Maxwell in his electrodynamics theory and the simple idea of constancy of velocity of light in
empty space was acceptance of failure of the famous Michelson & Morley experiment aimed to
use difference of velocities of light in moving back and forth to measure absolute velocity of
earth. These great integrators like Newton and Einstein were motivated by the idea of sort of
identity, symmetry and invariance etc. What was fundamental belief driving behind these
principles of invariance and symmetry – it was the principle of economy – the way of Nature’s
doing things. It was as back as the days of Ptolemy and Aristotle when observations were made
regarding angles of incidence and angles of refraction when path of light changed mediums; but
the relationship between them eluded until some three hundred years until the days of Fresnel
who correlated them in the laws of refraction. About a hundred years later, Format gave the law
a firm footing; the law was deduced from the belief that light travels through the path in which
minimum time is taken. It is only through this principle of economy that Hamilton ‘deduced’ the
Newton’s laws again. Euler went further through the problems of maximization or minimization
and created a new discipline in Mathematics which is known as Calculus of Variations
Optimization theory today. The development of these topics are giving rise to Fuzzy Logic
and Neural Networks progressing in the direction of Artificial Intelligence and Industrial
Mathematics at large. Now any idiot can swear that if the grand unification theory is going to be
complete, it would be only through courtesy of belief in nature’s principle of economy – from
which the relative external features like symmetry and identity emerge.
The scientific world today is striving towards grand unification theory of the four
fundamental forces of nature or looking for a common origin of the four forces; namely,
electromagnetism, gravitation, the strong and the weak nuclear forces. It is the sense of beauty
only which enables integration of apparently contradicting theories such as the Classical and the
Quantum Mechanics, the wave theory and corpuscle theories of light, the classical and the
relativistic Mechanics and so on. It is the art and science of Mathematics only which formulates
and guides such endeavors. This is the dream idea of Einstein and we are nearing the idea year
by year.
Newton has given us a comprehensive concept for force, mass, energy, velocity etc.
Mm
FG
and explained the gravitational force of universal application with the formula r 2 for
interaction between any two (point masses or spherical bodies of) masses M and m at a
distance r from each other. So gravitational force has been recognized as a fundamental force
in nature. This force is responsible to hold together solar systems and nebulae as well as pieces
of any matter together to have some shape or size. it goes without saying that solids have
definite size and shape only because of small intermolecular distance between them; liquids
have only definite ‘size’ or volume as intermolecular distance is more than that in the solid state
and gasses have no definite size nor shape but for the large intermolecular distances. Similar
© Page 14
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
is the Coulomb’s law of electrostatic attraction or repulsion, describing the force between two
Qq
Fk
point charges Q and q at a distance r apart from each other to be r 2 . Electric currents
or moving charges showed magnetization as natural magnets and as such, all magnetism was
ultimately attributed to electric currents. Faraday imagined that , if a motion of electric charges
gives rise to magnetic poles in effect, a motion of magnetic poles must produce some electric
current and it was very much true. This led to the fact that electricity and magnetism are not two
different entities , but are manifestation of one thing, electromagnetism which also included the
m1 m 2
F
Coulomb’s law for magnetic force r2 between two magnetic poles m1 and m 2 at a
distance r apart.. So electromagnetic forces are fundamental forces responsible for binding
electrons to the nucleus to form atoms and are sufficient to explain away chemical properties of
matter. Though the electrostatic attraction and gravitational forces both vary inversely as square
of distances, the magnitude of the latter is 1038 times the former.
EXAMPLE 3: Calculate the forces between a proton and an electron in an hydrogen atom given
r 0.53 x 10 – 10
m, charge of one electron as well as that of proton being e = 1.6022 x 10 19
– 31
Coulomb. in magnitude; mass of electron m = 9.1093 x 10 kg, mass of proton M being some
11
1836 times that of electron; G = 6.673 x 10 Nm2/kg2, k = (1/ 40) = 9.1 x 10 – 19 Nm2/Coul2.
So much of data is absolutely not necessary to compare the forces; neither the distance of
electron from nucleus, nor its mass and charge both; only e/m is sufficient for the purpose , it
being 1.76 x 1011 Coul/kg.
What makes protons stay together inside the nucleus when they should have repelled
each other away ? It is the strong nuclear force which should be great enough to overcome the
electrostatic repulsion and in fact it is of the order of 1038 times the gravitational force between
two protons . or of the order of 100 times the electromagnetic force so that it overcomes
repulsive Coulomb forces between protons in the nucleus. But it is short ranged and almost
ineffective beyond a distance of 1015 m which is in the order of nuclear radius. Beyond the
nucleus the electromagnetic force reigns supreme , but it dies out fast beyond atomic or
molecular radius though theoretically it acts up to infinite distance. Beyond the atomic radius of
10-10m only gravitational force is visible as there are no charged particles to masquerade it. We
see it acts through great distances as known from its formula. The strong nuclear force is said to
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
act upon quarks and gluons of which the protons and neutrons are made up of, and thus
accounts for formation of nucleus and disintegration of nucleus too, for that matter. Radiation of
-particles has been successfully explained in terms of this force. An -particle is equal to
Helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons. Crudely speaking neutrons are
necessary to bind protons together in the nucleus on the face of electrostatic repulsion and
more and more of them is necessary as atomic number is increased, until the nucleus becomes
unstable and becomes radioactive to emit an -particle to become stable. For protons and
neutrons cannot be shed off unless they are in an unit of two plus two of each, i.e., an -particle.
More correct picture is of course, the one involving quarks and gluons, believed to be ultimate
particle of every matter . Protons and neutrons are believed to be made up of 3 quarks each of
different ‘colour’. Colour is a property of quarks and gluons analogous to charge , are of three
types, ‘red’ ,‘blue’ and ‘green’ and quarks with different colour attract each other and quarks of
same colour repel ach other. Gluons carry a colour and an anti-colour charge.. A proton
consists of three quarks of each different colour. Within a distance of less than 10-15m (a femto-
meter)or nuclear radius the strong force is repulsive and keeps the nucleons (protons and
neutrons) apart. Within a distance of 1 to 2 femto-meters the strong force is attractive force
overcomes the electrostatic repulsion being of the order of 100 times the electromagnetic force
Quarks and leptons were believed to be ultimate building blocks of all matter. The
leptons, which include the electron, do not “feel” the strong force. However, quarks and leptons
both experience a second nuclear force, the weak force. This force, which is responsible for
certain types of radioactivity classed together as beta decay, is feeble in comparison with
electromagnetism , of the order of 10-15 compared to electromagnetic forces and act in very
short range of 10-15m, within nuclear radius. In -decay, the nucleus emits an electron with high
energy and an antineutrino of no rest mass and a neutron is converted into a proton in the
process. Similar is the process of electron capture by a nucleus from the innermost shell and
similar is the process of positive electron or positron emission ; in all the three cases the week
nuclear force is involved. Much is to be done in the area of unification of forces or to have
closer look for symmetries and similarities though much has been done. To remind of history, it
was Sir Isaac Newton around 1687 who ‘unified’ celestial forces with ‘terrestrial’ forces, i.e.,
made it evident that the acceleration due to gravity is nothing but a manifestation of universal
gravitation. All magnetism was traced back to moving electric charges , thanks to the works of
Hans Christian Oersted and Michel Faraday , around 1825. It is J. Clark Maxwell who showed
that visible light was an ‘electromagnetic’ radiation; which paved the way to understand that
heat waves, ultraviolet, microwave, x-rays, -rays, radio waves , cosmic rays all are
electromagnetic radiations. Such unification brought about great confusion about wave nature of
particles and particle nature of waves and confusion about ether, the thinnest wall in the empty
space to lean on. So developed the quantum theory to unify waves and particles; a number of
scientists were involved , over many decades and ultimately the concept of ether was
discarded. Mathematics required it to be of very high density and nobody was prepared to
swallow the idea along the gut anyway. Nuclear physics and radio activity brought newer
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
phenomena to observation and again we were in the mesh of particles, particles and more
particles. Force, which was not due to contact, or action at a distance, whether gravitational,
electromagnetic, strong or week nuclear forces, were seen to be understood with ‘carrier
particles’ of forces; most successfully electromagnetic forces were explained, with exchange of
‘photon’ as carrier of electromagnetic forces; just as a play ball influencing the behaviour of a
pack of playing children. ( When two children run toward the ball to catch it, they seem to attract
each other). Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity postulated ‘graviton’ , photon-like
particle as carrier of gravitational force although quantum theory for it is yet to be fully
developed. ‘Gluon’ was postulated to be carrier of strong nuclear force or quarks exchanged
gluons on interaction under influence of strong nuclear forces. W-particles and Z-particles were
thought to be the exchange particles for week nuclear forces though big particles they were
indeed, the former with + or – charges and the latter neutral. A single ‘electro-week theory’ was
postulated by Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg around 1980 in order to look
for a common origin of electromagnetic and week nuclear forces and it worked very well. It was
verified experimentally by Cario Rubia and Simon Vander Meer around 1984 but the grand
unification is still a far cry. But the efforts in this direction are not discouraging ; Abdus Salam
had said that the unification is expected if proton decays at all, and it was found to be decaying,
with experiments carried out in the deepest mines e.g., the Kolar gold fields in India. A
significant improvement has been achieved in 2004 towards The Grand Unification Theory or
The Theory of Everything and Nobel prize for Physics has been shared by three physicists; for
the first time for theoretical research.
Three people shared the 2004 Nobel prize for Physics for a major development in the Grand Unification
Theory (GUT), or Theory Of Everything (TOE), or Quantum Chromodynamics (QC), by successfully
including gravitation into the common fold of the field theories.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
ultimate extended particles to explain all the four fundamental forces has been supported by
concept of super-symmetry, although it has problems to sort out. It works in a field of 10
dimensions, , 6 of which are assumed to be truncated to very short distances within which
quarks have a free play. This is rather strange and asymmetrical considerations to explain the
most recent ‘theory of everything’ TOE. But any asymmetry, as it were, promises of more
subtle symmetry. For example, Higgs suggested ‘ breaking of symmetry’ for explaining week
nuclear reactions where ‘parity’ did not seem to be conserved and this led to the concept of
super-symmetry in course of development. In Mathematics, we come across non-commutative
algebraic structures or operations more often than not. Not only it is tolerated with open mind,
but is sincerely accepted as it gives philosophical insight and is meant for theoretical
development after all.
b c
If , are the two roots of quadratic equation ax 2 bx c 0 , then , .
a a
The expressions are symmetric as , can be interchanged and the sum and product are still
the same. If one tries to solve the quadratic equation from the sum of product of the roots, one
again lands on the same quadratic equation. Same is the case with n-th degree equations, only
the n relations between the roots and coefficients does not help substantially in getting the
b 2 4ac
roots. But when we get from 4
2 2
. The sum and
a2
difference of the roots gives us the roots immediately. This is called ‘ breaking of symmetry’.
Galois carried further the argument and discovered that such process cannot be possible for 5th
degree equation and beyond, although an equation of n-th degree must possess n roots. The
roots only could be numerically calculated. Breaking symmetry although did not produce the
roots, it produced valuable knowledge!
To explain symmetry from a different angle , just imagine what would have been the situation if
both the roots of the quadratic ax bx c 0 been equal. Then the expression must have
2
been a whole square ! And what if the two roots are not equal in general; then we should try to
2 2
b b b
take out a whole square out of it i.e. x 2 x c removing the remaining
2
2a 2a 2a
terms whatsoever to the other side of the equation. And this is the whole square method taught
in high school. If the roots are not equal, they must differ from the average of the two roots by
b
the same amount and this is in fact so. The average of the roots is and the actual roots
2a
b2 4ac
differ from it by the same amount , namely . If (3 , 5) is an unsymmetrical division of
2a
8 , then they must differ from the symmetrical division of 8 i.e., 4 by the same amount 1 .
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 1 : Identity, Division ,Symmetry In Math
§4:Division:
Symmetry may be considered as a division of identity. Subtraction may be viewed as a division
into unequal parts and can be represented by ordered pair (a, b) standing for a – b.
A rational number is a division and can be represented by an ordered pair. An irrational number
is a continued fraction, again a division. A complex number can be represented by an ordered
pair, so it is some sort of division. So vectors and matrices are. Quaternions were discovered as
vector division. The sequences and series may be thought of as some sort of division . e.g,
1
1 x x 2 x 3 x 4 ............ . The entire Calculus may be viewed as some sort of
1 x
division, limits of division. In a locus in Coordinate Geometry the point varies but the scheme, or
the equation represents the entire locus; So it is a concept of entirety ,similar to the concept of
identity, invariants, constants fixed points etc. A function f(x) =0 may be written as x = φ(x); the
roots of the former are fixed points of the later. In short, the writer believes Mathematics and
Physics are visible with the telescope or microscope of identity–division–symmetry . The
difficulty and its removal together constitute a division of knowledge. Symmetry is a division into
symmetrical parts of a whole. Symmetry and identity are only different views of looking at the
same thing. By saying momentum is conserved in a collision is same thing as saying total
momentum before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision. It is the invariance
laws or conservation laws of momentum and energy produce differential equations of motion
which in turn, yield the equations of motion when solved. Thus identity – division – symmetry is
the only formula for ultimate knowledge of Nature.
Thus 'identity' and 'symmetry' are intimately connected with each other and the
connection is 'division'
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
CHAPTER 3:SYMBOLIC LOGIC, MATHEMATICAL LOGIC AND LOGICAL GATES
§1:Boolean Algebra
From the study of set theory you must be thinking that the operations like union, intersection,
symmetric difference etc. have some algebraic structure underlying them . In case it is so, we
can work out on them as if doing algebra and we could do some mechanical processing just as
we do with equations with brevity. For example, equal thing added to equal things give equal
results – is the underlying description of the process of transposition in equations. Imagine what
a load of literature we had undergone if transposition had not been used in symbols !. Similarly,
there is Boolean algebra in symbols, which not only takes care of set-theoretic operations but
connects logical whole sentences in an useful manner also. An wonderful application of the
subject is switching logic in electrical circuits.
Definition - A Boolean algebra is non-empty set B with two binary operations defined in it,
denoted by ‘ + ‘ and ‘ . ‘ ( in generalized sense, not always in arithmetic sense) , each having
closure, associative, commutative properties, either operation being distributive over the other,
not only ‘ . ‘ over ‘ + ‘ . but also vice versa. Also the operations assure an identity element , ‘0’ (
a symbol, not zero) of the operation ‘ + ‘ and ‘1’ , ( a symbol, not one), identity of ‘.’; and each
member x in the set has a complement ( or negation of x), denoted by x’ such as x + x’ = 0 and
x.x’ =0.
c) For x, y, z ∈ B, x+(y+z) = (x+y )+z , and (x.y).z = x.(y.z) both + and . associative.
d) For x, y, z ∈ B, x+(y.z) = (x+y ).(x+z) , and x.(y+z) = x.y + x.z both distributive.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
e) ∃ ( there exists) ‘0’ in B : (such that) x + 0 = x = 0 + x x ∈ B, ‘ 0 ‘ is called identity of +.
f) ∃ ‘1’ in B : x .1 = x = 1.x x ∈ B, ‘ 1 ‘ is called identity of ‘.’. (The left identity is the same
as the right identity because of commutative property; this is in case of both the
operations.)
Examples of the last property is relatively rare; at least it is not true in case B is the set of real
numbers and if + and . stand for addition and multiplication respectively. Remember that the
symbols ‘+’ and “.” are borrowed from Algebra to represent the binary operations they
stand for, and not addition or multiplication. Still then we continue to ‘call’ the operation
“+’ as ‘addition’ and ‘ . ‘ as ‘ multiplication’
Comparing with set theory, the operation ‘+’ is analogous to the set theoretic operation ‘U’ i.e.,
union and the operation ‘.’ Is analogous to the set theoretic operation ‘∩’i.e., intersection. The
symbol ‘1’ in Boolean Algebra is analogous to the universal set in set theory and the symbol ‘0’
in Boolean Algebra is analogous to the null set (Φ) in set theory. Just watch
A A' U , A A'
This does not mean that everything in set theory is just translated into algebraic symbols and set
theory may be dispensed with, never. The following examples shall illustrate which are Boolean
algebra and which are not.
Example1
Let P S be the set of all subsets in S. The operations ‘+’, ‘.’ and “ ’ ” are defined by
Not only the many instances of set theory, Boolean Algebra also takes care of a large part or
symbolic logic or mathematical logic ( see example 6 below). First let us be familiar with some
operators associated with symbolic logic or mathematical logic.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
§2:Symbolic logic
Let us see the analogy of union and intersection operations in set theory and the connector
operations disjunction (symbol , ‘or’) and conjunction (symbol , ‘and’), joining Statements
(sentences) in mathematical logic or symbolic logic with ∪ and ∩ , joining sets in set theory.
In symbolic logic, the symbol ‘c’ called ‘ contradiction’ plays the role of 0 in mathematics or φ
in set theory. If p denotes any statement, ~ p denotes negation of p which plays the role of
complement A’ in set theory. The symbol t stands for tautology plays the role of 1 in
mathematics or U , universal set in set theory .
REMEMBER
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
i) Corresponding to complement law A A ' U in set theory there is p ~ p t in logic.
It should be observed that there is some similar algebraic structure underlying both set
theory and symbolic logic . We can safely say that symbolic logic and set theory are both
instances of Boolean Algebra under proper operation. To further emphasize and illustrate
this point, see these typical examples.
Example2
The operations ‘+’ and ‘.’ And “ ‘ “are defined on the set of all logical statements, S say; as
A Boolean algebra is generally written in this manner, writing the set, the two binary operations,
negation, contradiction and tautology in a bracket.
We just verify
p q q p as p q q p
a) commutative property
p.q q. p as p q q p
p q r p q r as p q r p q p
b) associative property
p. q.r p.q .r as p q r p q r
p q.r p q . p r as p q r p q p r
c) distributive property
p. q r p.q p.r as p q r p q p r
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
p0 p as p c p
existence of identity elements for 0 and 1
p.1 p as p t p
e) For each statement p in S, there exists p ' ~ p in S such that p p ' 1 as p p ' t
(tautology) and p. p ' 0 as p p ' c , the contradiction element.
In logical statements one thing to note is that contradiction c plays the role of or null set in set
theory and 0 in arithmetic . One may be confused to reconcile to it in the elementary stage and
may ask how they are the same thing or equivalent. But the fact is, they are neither the same
thing nor equivalent but the corresponding things in proper context. Just remember that 0 and
are neither same nor equivalent but they correspond. In the same manner, tautology t in logic
corresponds to 1 in arithmetic and universal set U in set theory.
Example3
Take A 0,1 and let the binary operations “+” and ‘.” and “ ‘ “ be defined as on the tables
+ 0 1 . 0 1
‘ 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0
1 1 1 1 0 1
Table for “ ‘ “
Table for ‘+’ Table for ‘.’
The tables for ‘+’ and “.” themselves restate the closure laws , for, result of combination of every
member with every other is given and shown to be a member. Verify associative law with the
help of the tables for the two binary operations. Note that “ ‘ “ is not an operation , but tabulates
the existence of negation element for any element. Verify the distributive laws with the help of
both the tables taken together , i.e., like
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
Also verify that the zero element of ‘+’ is 0 and unit element of ‘.” Is 1.
The last table confirms existence of negation elements of every member, 0’ = 1 and 1’ = 0.
Example4
Denote D4 the set of all divisors of 4, i.e. D4 1, 2, 4 . Define ‘+’ and ‘.’ as
+ 1 2 4 . 1 2 4 ‘ 1 2 4
1 1 2 4 1 1 1 1 4 2 1
2 2 2 4 2 1 2 2
4 4 4 4 4 1 2 4 Table for “ ‘ “
Verify that criteria of Boolean algebra such as closure, associativity, commutativity are satisfied
for both operations. Verify that the ‘unit element’ or ‘ identity of addition ‘ is 4 and the ‘zero
element ‘ is ‘0’.
To verify distributivity, note that 1 +( 2.4) = 1 + 2 = 2 using tables for ‘addition’ and
‘multiplication’. Also verify similarly (1 + 2). ( 1 + 4) = 2.4 =2; so 1 + ( 2.4 )= (1 + 2).(1 + 4 ). So
the distributive law of + over . are verified.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
To find out complements, note that 1’ = 4 ( unit element of D4 ) and 1.4 = 1 (zero element of D4 ).
So 4’ =1.
From the table for “ ‘ “ we get 2’ =2. But from the other tables 2 + 2’ = 2 + 2 =2 nor 4.
And 2.2’ = 2.2 =2 , not 1. Thus 2’ is not 2. This is a contradictory result . Thus the structure is
not a Boolean algebra.
Exercise1
If D6 is the set of divisors of 6 and + means lcm of two numbers and ‘.’ means GCD of the
6
numbers, complement a 'of any element a is given by a ' = , show that the structure is a Boolean
a
algebra.
Exercise2
Show that D8 is not a Boolean algebra , D8 defined as the set of divisors of 8 and the operations
and
8
complement define as : ‘+’ means LCM, ‘.’ means GCD and complement a ' =
a
Exercise3
If S P 1, 2 the power set of 1, 2 , the binary operations ‘+’ stands for union, ‘.’ Stands for
intersection, ‘ stands for complement, null set stands for 0 element and the set 1, 2 stands for
unit element 1, show that the structure is a Boolean algebra.
Exercise4
Exercise5
For a set Sn 1, 2,3,........ the binary functions ‘+’ is defined as x y max x, y , the ‘.’ Function
is defined as x. y min x, y , verify that conditions of closure, associativity, commutativity are
satisfied.
Exercise6 (remember)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
In any Boolean algebra, the identity elements are unique.
Proof :
If not, let 0 be another identity element 0 . Since both are identities, 0 0 0 and 0 0 0 . Since
‘+’ is commutative, 0 0 0 0 . This implies 0 0 , i.e. the identity element is unique.
Similarly prove 1 1
In Geometry, there are many theorems which still hold good if ‘point’s in the theorem are
replaced by ‘line’s and vice versa. Such a relationship between points and lines is called a
Duality . In any Boolean algebra, if we interchange the two operations and interchange their
identity elements, the result shall still be another Boolean algebra.
Try finding the dual statements of 1) 1.x 0 x and 2) 1.x ' 0 x ' and verify that the dual
statements are 0 x .1 x and 0 x ' 1.x ' respectively.
This simple theorem is the result of commutativity, associativity and distributivity of the
two operations. The reader can work out the details as an exercise.
Exercise 7 (remember)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
First understand the validity of x x x . In the Boolean algebra B, x x x means p p p if x
in B stands for statement p and + stands for . More clearly,
x x0 (0 being identity )
x x.x ' as x.x ' 0
x x . x x ' distributivity of ' ' over '.'
x x .1 as x x ' 1
x x
We have
You would be delighted to compare the two proofs; just ‘+’ and ‘.’ Are interchanged and 0 and 1
are interchanged mechanically. This , i.e. symmetry is the beauty of dual statement.
Exercise 8 (remember)
Find the dual statements of the following:(the statements are not necessarily true, however just
work with them) . Hint : Just replace ‘.’ with ‘+’ , and ‘0’ with ‘1’ and vice versa .
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
i) x ' y . y ' z . x ' z ' 0
j) x y . x 1 x x. y y
Exercise 9 (remember)
stands for statement p and + stands for , where t stands for tautology. More clearly,
We have
Exercise 10 (remember)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
x. y x as x.1 x x x. y
We have
Exercise 11 (remember)
Now to prove the dual 1' 0 , take x.0 0 for all x in B.( by example 66)
Exercise 12 (remember)
It is trivial to note that x ' ' x and this statement itself is its dual statement.
Exercise 13 (remember)
To prove x y ' x ' y ' and its dual statement xy ' x ' y ' .
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
To prove x y ' x ' y ' , it is sufficient to show that x y x '. y ' 1 , i.e. x y and x '. y ' are
complements of each other.
Now
Similarly, for proving the dual statement xy ' x ' y ' , we need to prove x y . x '. y ' 0 , i.e.
x y and x '. y ' are complements of each other.
Exercise 14
Prove that
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
Remembering the principle of duality in Boolean algebra De’ Morgan’s laws may be stated in
this form:
Prove by showing that truth tables are same for both sides.
X Y X+Y (X+Y)'
0 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0
X Y X' Y' X'.Y'
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 0 0
You can observe the results are identical for both sides of a) . Similarly prove b).
We have seen how Boolean Algebra handles logical statements in Algebraic fashion. It is now
time to do some mathematics with statements themselves. We have already shown informally
what are logical statements and how they are connected by operators ‘AND’ and ‘OR’,
represented by symbols ( called Conjunction operator) and (Disjunction operator)
respectively and also have seen how they are analogous to the set theoretic operations and
respectively. Logically, all statements fall into one of the following two categories – True ,
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
False. We just want to bring under a structure, all sorts of ethics and beliefs included. Whenever
we accept some statement say p to be true, we assign a ‘truth value, i.e. T’ to it and similarly
when we accept a statement say q to be false, we assign a ‘truth value F’ to it. Sometimes
True is denoted by Yes or 1 and False is denoted by No or 0 also.
For example, let p: Hari is brother of Ram, q: Hari is son of Shiva. Then p q: Hari is brother of
Ram and Hari is son of Shiva. Similarly p q: Hari is brother of Ram or Hari is son of Shiva.
As told previously the statements p, q may be accepted as true or false by choice. If both the
statements p, q are true, then p q is true as well as p q is true. But in case p is true and q is
false, p q cannot be true (evidently both are not true). In this case at least one of the
statements is true obviously; i.e., p q. These facts could be listed in the following table called
‘truth table’ .
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Note that combination of both statements are false when each of them is false. ( it is
contrary to the notion negative of negative is positive, because here the statements are
joined, not one operating on the other)
p q p q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Closely watch the difference between the tables before proceeding from here.
There is another operator “NOT” apart from the operators AND’ and ‘OR’, called negation
operator, the negation of statement p is denoted by p. If truth value of p if T then that of p is
F and vice versa.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
The truth table for ~ p is obviously the following one. Here negation of negation of p is p.
p ~p
T F
F T
Remember
Two statements may be joined with the help of a conditional connector ‘if…….then’; in
symbols
p q and the statement p q is called a conditional statement. In this type of statements, p
is called antecedent and q is called consequent.
The same compound statement may also be written in many other ways. For example, the
pond cannot be dug if it rains today. When it rains today, the pond cannot be dug. The pond can
be dug only if it does not rain today. ‘It rains today’ is sufficient condition for ‘the pond cannot
be dug’.
Remember
The order in which the two statements are written is not important , but the writing should be
unambiguous so that p q . Further , in mathematical logic, statements are viewed objectively.
Even p and q are unrelated statements, one may choose to write p q , there is no bar, for we
are studying a structure only. For example one may write p : You see a falling star , and q: you
would pass the exam and one may connect the two such as If you see a falling star, you would
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
pass the exam. Still as another example, take p: 2 + 4 =8 and q : Ram would get a hat ; and
connect the two as : if 2 + 4 =8 then Ram would get a hat.
Remember
The above facts may easily be remembered by looking at the truth table for p q .
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Remember
p q is false only when truth value of p is T and truth value of q is F, otherwise it is true.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
In this way the symbol is different from i.e., “Implies”. The latter whenever connects two
statements, the combined statement is supposed to be necessarily true; but not in case of .
To carry the structure forward, let us work out some more truth tables, so that writing the
statements and connecting them only through symbols would be more facilitated.
( Perhaps now you understand when negative of negative is positive and when it is not)
This would show how ‘if… then ‘ i.e., is correlated to and . To this end, we copy the truth
table for p q in the first three columns in the table below, then take ~ p in the fourth column,
and q in the fifth column and work out ~ p q in the last. See for yourself the last column using
table for worked out in the beginning.
p q pq ~ p q ~ p q
T T T F T T
T F F F F F
F T T T T T
F F T T F T
Truth table for ~ p q
~ p q ~ p q
F T T
F F F
T T T
T F T
Remember
The truth table for p q is same as the truth table for ~ p q as evident from above and so we
Remember
p q ~ p q .
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
Let p : do not reach the station on time, q : you miss the train. Then p q stands for “ if
you do not reach the station on time, then you miss the train” and ~ p q stands for
“Either you reach the station on time or you miss the train”. This is a small but powerful result
and is required in many of the problem below.
Remember De’ Morgan’s laws in set theory, A B ' A ' B ' and A B ' A ' B ' . These
applied to statements become ~ p q ~ p ~ q and ~ p q ~ p ~ q respectively; as
~ p in logical statements correspond to A ' (complement of A in set theory).
Remember
The contrapositive of “ If you can gather 100 Rupees then surely you could gather 10 Rupees” is
“ If you cannot gather 10 rupees , you cannot gather 100 rupees.
The contrapositive of “ if you can swim across the river then you can swim the backyard pool” is
“if you cannot swim across the backyard pool, you cannot swim across the river”.
Further practice in the following paragraphs shall reinforce your understanding of symbolic
representation of mathematical logic.
Exercise 17
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b) If you are lucky you win a lottery
c) If you say no to tobacco you would not catch cancer
( The sentences are given only for exercise. Do not connect them to real life situation . for
example in
a) let p: you study well and q: you would get good results. We rewrite p q . In real life,
studying well is not sufficient for getting good results, it might be luck or situation too. Similarly in
b) if you don’t win a lottery, you might still be lucky otherwise. In c) you may observe that many
non-smokers also get cancer.)
Similarly you might observe that unrelated subjects are connected by ‘if….then’ in the following.
Remember that we are here only studying structure of mathematical logic, not ethics religion or
belief.
Exercise 18
a) p: 2 + 3 = 7 , q: 4 + 6 = 14 ( if 2 + 3 = 7 then 4 + 6 = 14)
b) p: 2 + 2 =5, q: Sita would get a chocolate. ( if 2 + 2 =5 then Sita would get a chocolate)
c) p: any integer is divisible by 3, q: sum of its digits are divisible by 3.( if any integer is
divisible by 3, then the sum its digits is divisible by 3)
Exercise 19
In the following the truth value of p is T, that of q is F and that of r is T. Find the truth value of the
logical expressions.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
Exercise 20
a) p q r
b) p q r
c) p q r
d) ~ p q ~ q
e) p ~ r q r
Apart from analytical proof, we could also prove a logical statement from truth tables. This would
be evident from the following exercise.
Exercise 21
To prove p q r p r q r
We do the common table here for all of a) ,b), c) ,d) and e) above and you can extract the
individual tables from it as an exercise.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
p q r pq pr qr p q r p r q r
T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F F
T F T T T T T T
T F F T F T F F
F T T T T T T T
F T F T T F F F
F F T F T T T T
F F F F T T T T
The reader should verify that the last two columns are identical, showing that
p q r p r q r .
Exercise 22
Exercise 23
Show that ~ q ~ p ~ p ~ q
(Just the contrapositive of the above)
Exercise 24
Using truth table method, show that p q and q p do not imply one and the same thing.
§8:Biconditional statements
Two logical statements may be combined with , i.e., “implies and is implied by”. For example
look at the following statements
Either side of each of the statements follow from the other side.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
In logic we generalize the concept as “if and only if” and denoted by , not by . The reason
is , the truth value of a combined statement joined by is always true; but the truth value of a
combined statement joined by is true only if both the sides are true and also true if both
sides are false.
Remember.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
It is easy to understand the fourth line, that one false statement follows from another false
statement and vice versa. The second and third line simply say that a true statement cannot
follow from a false one and vice versa.
For brevity we are giving here only the common table, the reader should draw individual tables
first and draw the common table from them as an exercise.
p q pq q p pq p q q p
T T T T T T
T F F T F F
F T T F F F
F F T T T T
Exercise 25
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
To prove ~ p q p ~ q ~ p q Remember
We can prove this with the help of truth tables. Also see the following for analytical approach.
p q p q q p by definition
~ p q ~ p q q p
~ p q ~ p q ~ q p by De ' morgan ' s laws
~ p q ~ q p ~ p q
~ p q p ~ q ~ p q
Exercise 26
Show that p q p q ~ p ~ q
Example4 ;
We construct a truth table for the hypotheses and the conclusion. If truth value all of the
hypotheses are true in a row and the conclusion is also true in that row, then the
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argument is valid. Such a row in which all hypotheses are true is called a critical row. There
may be more than one critical row in such a table. The conclusion should be true in every
critical row; otherwise the argument shall be invalid.
The last statement may be differently worded as follow; which gives an alternative test of
validity of any argument. The argument S1 , S 2 , S3 ,.....S n ; S is valid if the statement “if
S1 S2 S3 ..... Sn then S is a tautology” is true, else invalid.
If there is no critical row; i.e., there is no row in which all the hypotheses are true, the
argument is considered invalid.
Example 5;
Example6 ;
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Example7 ;
S1 S2 S1 S2 S1 S2 S S
p pq ~ p p q ~ p p q ~ p q q
T T F F T T
T T F F T F
F T T T T T
F F T F T F
The fifth column is seen to be a tautology. Hence the argument is valid.
Exercise 27:
Hypotheses Conclusion
p q pq p q
T T T T T
T F F T F
F T T F T
F F T F F
The first row is the only critical row and conclusion is also true. So the argument is valid
. S1 : p q r ; S2 :~ r; S : pq
Hypotheses Conclusion
p q r qr p q r ~r pq
T T T T T F T
T T F T T T T
T F T T T F T
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T F F F T T T
F T T T T F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T T F F
F F F F F T F
The fourth, sixth and eighth rows are critical rows in all of which conclusion is true. So the
argument is valid.
Exercise 29:
Hypotheses Conclusion
p q r ~r q ~ r pr p q ~ r q p r
pr
T T T F T T T T T
T T F T T F T F
T F T F F T F T
T F F T T F T T F
F T T F T F T F
F T F T T F T F
F F T F F F T T T
F F F T T F T T T
th th th
Mark the critical rows are the third, 6 and 9 and 10 rows. In the sixth row, the conclusion is F.
So the argument is invalid.
Exercise 30:
S2 S S1 S1 S2 S1 S2 S
p q ~ p ~q pq p q ~ p p q ~ p ~ q
T T F F T F T
T F F T T F T
F T T F T T F
F F T T F F T
Since the last column is not a tautology (not always having truth value T) the argument is invalid.
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The student should compare the two methods and understand the similar reason behind them.
In one method, all the critical rows must have conclusion T and in the second method, the
conclusion must be always true for being a tautology.
Misc Exercise :
31. S1 : p q; S2 :~ p; S :~ q (invalid)
32. S1 : p q; S2 :~ q; S:p (valid)
33. S1 : p q; S2 :~ p; S :q (valid)
34. S1 : p q; S2 : q; S:p (invalid)
35. S1 : p q; S2 : q p; S : p q (valid)
36. S1 : p q; S2 : p ~ q; S3 : p r; S : r (Invalid)
37. S1 : p; S : p q; (Valid)
38. S1 : q; S : p q; (Valid)
39. S1 : p q; S : p; (Valid)
40. S1 : p q; S : q; (Valid)
41. S1 : p q; S2 :~ q; S :~ p (Valid)
42. S1 : p; S2 : p q; S3 :~ q r , S : r (valid)
43. S1 : p q; S2 : p r; S : p q r (valid)
44. S1 : p ~ q r ; S 2 : p q; S 3 : q p; S : r (Invalid)
Example6:
Show that x1.x2 x3 is a Boolean expression and find its value if x1 0, x2 0 and x3 1
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The expression is a Boolean expression evidently as conditions a) and b) are satisfied. Its value
becomes x1 .x2 x3 0.0 1 0 1 1
Exercise45:
Show that x .x x ' is a Boolean expression and find its value when
1 2 3
x1 0, x2 0 and x3 1 . Ans. 0, as 1’ = 0.
§12:Boolean Function:
Example7
Remember the definition of function from the previous chapter, it is a single valued
correspondence between two sets A and B and is denoted by f : A B Its domain is the
subset of A for which the correspondence exists and the range or co-domain is the set of
corresponding values in B. The function f : 0,1 0,1 , is a Boolean function if
2
The right hand side expression is evidently a Boolean expression , hence it is a Boolean
function. Its
domain is 0,1 0,1 X 0,1 0,0 , 1,0 , 0,1 , 1,1 , the Cartesian product of
2
0,1 0,1 . We would use only Boolean functions whose domain is given by 0,1
n
and ,
where n is a natural number, and call it an n-place Boolean function. The structure of the
domain is by the number of variables in the expression. For example, in a function x1.x2 ' x3 , we
see that each member of the domain contains three variables, of the type x1 , x2 , x3 , which is a
member of 0,1 0,0,1 , 0,1,1 , 1,0,1 , 1,0,0 ,........... etc. as the variables can take only values
3
0 or 1.
Exercise46
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a) Find x1 '. x1. x2 ' x3 if x1 0, x2 1, x3 1 . Ans. 1
b) Find x1 '. x1. x2 ' x3 if x1 1, x2 0, x3 0 . Ans. 0
c) Find x1 '. x1. x2 ' x3 if x1 0, x2 0, x3 1 . Ans. 1
Exercise 47:
The input-output tables for Boolean functions may be represented by an arrow diagram. For
example, take the following table:
Input Output
x1 x2 x3 x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
We can take ordered triplets of the inputs such as (1, 1, 1), (1,1,0) etc. and construct an arrow
diagram connecting the ordered triplets of inputs to the respective output. Compare the arrow
diagram with the input-output table like the one given below:
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(1,1,1) 0
(1,1,0)
(1,1,1)
(1,0,1)
(1,0,0)
(0,1,1)
(0,1,0) 1
(0,0,1)
(0,0,0)
Verify that the arrow diagram is equivalent to the input - output table.
Exercise48
Input Output
x1 x2 x3 x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
§13:Boolean function from input-output tables.
The following example would illustrate how do we construct a Boolean function for a given input-
output table.
Input Output
x1 x2 x3 f(x1, x2, x3)
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
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0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Observe that there is 1 in the output in the 3rd, 6th and 8th row. We can take x1.x2 .x3 1 when all
input are 1 each. If any input x2 is 0 in any row, we can put x2 ' 1 in this case and still get the
result x1.x2 '.x3 1 . Thus we get x1.x2 .x3 1 in the 3rd row, x1.x2 '.x3 ' 1 in the 6th row, and
x1 '.x2 .x3 ' 1 in the 8th row. We can write x1 . x2 . x3 x1 . x2 '. x3 ' x1 '. x2 . x3 ' 1 for the rows where
output is 1. ( Note that 1 or 1 is 1, i.e., 1 + 1 = 1). Observe that this represents the complete
table; for it is automatically understood that the output is 0 for all other inputs. Thus
f x1 . x2 . x3 x1 . x2 . x3 x1 . x2 '. x3 ' x1 '. x2 . x3 ' is the Boolean function representing the table, as
you may verify that when any member in the bracket in the left side of the equation is 0, the right
side is 0.
We can now list the rules for finding Boolean function for an input output table.
Exercise49
Input output
x1 x2 y
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 1 0
Ans. f x1.x2 x1.x2
The other outputs except 1 are automatically taken care of, in the Boolean function thus arrived
at.
( observe)
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Exercise50
Input Output
x1 x2 x3 x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
Exercise51
Input Output
x1 x2 x3 x
1 1 1 1
1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
Switches lamp
p q On/off
closed closed on
closed open off
open closed off
open open off
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p q
battery
lamp
q
Switches lamp
p q On/off
battery
closed closed on
closed open on
open closed on
lamp
open open off
Look at the electrical circuits above; in the series circuit , first one, the lamp would be on
only when both the switches are closed (on) and the lamp would be off when any one of the
switches if open (off). Compare this with the truth table of p q denoting truth values 1 for T
and 0 for F. This is same as the Input-Output table for binary operation AND. Also mark here
that performing the operation AND is same as taking minimum of 1 and 0. See the table below.
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
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Exercise 52: remember
Show that if p, q etc have values x1 , x2 , which are Boolean variables 0 or 1, then the input- output
table for AND is represented by a Boolean function f x1 , x2 x1 .x2 , the Boolean expression
where ‘.’ represents AND.
In the parallel circuit , compare the table with truth table of p q , using 1 and 0 for T and
F respectively. This is same as the Input-Output table for binary operation OR. Also mark here
that performing the operation OR is same as taking maximum of 1 and 0. See the table below.
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Exercise 53: remember
Show that if p, q etc have values x1 , x2 , which are Boolean variables 0 or 1, then the input- output
table for OR is represented by a Boolean function f x1 , x2 x1 x2 , the Boolean expression
where ‘+’ Represents OR.
In electrical engineering and in electronics, large number of tiny electrical circuits are
integrated to give desired outputs. These are called integrated circuits or ICs. These ICs of chips
are having various uses today, in computers, music systems, cars , calculators, digital watches,
robots and industrial control systems etc. Depending upon their level of integration ( number of
circuit components or logic gates) the ICs are called SSI ( small scale integration, no. of ICs
10), MSI ( Medium scale integration, no. of ICs 100),LSI,( Large scale integration, no. of ICs
1000), or VLSI ( very large scale integration, no. of ICs > 1000).
A logic gate means a logical operation is performed on logical inputs and results in a
single output. The logic is commonly Boolean logic.
The AND gate and the OR gate is represented in the following symbols with their
input- output function shown in their side.
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x1
AND
AND x1 .x2
x2
x1
OR x1 x2
x2 OR
Logic gates are not necessarily series or parallel electrical circuits only. They may be
combinations of them or other electrical contrivances to meant to modify the input values of
currents or signals or bits to desired output. For example there is a NOT gate corresponding to
NOT function in Boolean Algebra, i.e. complement in set theory. This is a logical requirement to
develop logical tools involving gates and may not be represented by a simple series of parallel
electrical circuit. The gate concepts are useful in optical systems, even in mechanical systems.
The diagram or symbol for it is given below along with input-output table.
NOT x NOT x’ x x’
1 0
NOT gate converting signal x to x’ 0 1
Such a gate inverts the input signal, 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. In other words T to F and F to T. As such
it is called an inverter. Do not confuse it with home or office inverter which is used to supply
output current even if the input current is cut off; but not does not make out put current 0 when
there is input current in the mains. As an example of a NOT gate we can cite the example of a
burglar alarm or bank safety siren; it buzzes only when the circuit breaks. The small circle in the
symbol for NOT gate ( and in many other we would know later on) is called ‘bubble’.
The logical gates are primarily used theoretically to modify the pulse waveform of signals
apart from carrying out mathematical logical operations. It is explained below:
A and B are two square wave input signals taking values 0 ( at the lower level) and 1 (at the
higher level) at different times as given below. If the two signals are combined by the operation
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OR, the output signal Y = A OR B, i.e. A+B is calculated with the help of the two figures for A
and B as given below.
t1
t2 t3 t t6 t6
4
Input signal A
Input signal B
Output signal A OR B
SIGNALS t t1 t1 t t2 t2 t t3 t3 t t4 t4 t t5 t5 t t6 t6 t
Input signal A 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 It is
evide
Input signal B 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 ntly
unde
Output signal A OR 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 rstoo
B d
that
the output signal Y is clearly A OR B, i.e. A+B.
© Page 36
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
t1
t2 t3 t t6 t6
4
Input signal A
Input signal B
SIGNALS t t1 t1 t t2 t2 t t3 t3 t t4 t4 t t5 t5 t t6 t6 t
Input signal A 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 It is
evide
Input signal B 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 ntly
unde
Output signal A AND 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 rstoo
B d
that
the output signal Y is clearly A AND B, i.e. A.B
Exercise 54:
Construct input-output table for the combination of gates shown in the figure.
x1’
x1
x2 x
If x1 = 0 passes through NOT gateit becomes x1’ = 1, input for AND gate. If the other input for
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
AND gate is x2 = 0, then the output x = 0. Similarly work out output for all possible values of
x1 x1’ x2 x
1 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1
Exercise 55:
x1 x4
x4’
x2
x
x3
Exercise 56:
Hint.
Find the input-output tables for the following two circuits and show that they have the same
output s for the same inputs. Such circuits are called equivalent circuits.
© Page 38
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
x1
y1
x2
1st circuit
x1
y2
x2
2nd circuit
Exercise58:
Find out the input-output tables for the two circuits given below and show that they are
equivalent.
a)
x1
x2
1st circuit
x1
y
x2
2nd circuit
© Page 39
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 3:Symbolic logic, Mathematical logic and logic al gates
Hint: The input-output table for the 1st circuit is given below:
Input Output
x1 x2 y
1 1 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 0
b)
1st circuit
2nd circuit
© Page 40
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This section is not a part of the preview.
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
CHAPTER 5A: FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS PART I
§1:Functions
A function is either one to one relation or many to one relation or mapping. No member of A is
related to more than one member of B. If relation is a subset of the Cartesian product A x B,
function is a relation or mapping from A to B with restriction that no member of A corresponds to
more than one member of B. For example, if
A a , b, c , d and
B 1,2,3,4 and the subset
S a ,1 , a , 2 , b , 2 , c , 3
then S is not a function. Similarly y p x or
2 2 2
y p2 x2 y p2 x 2
is not a function of x, but is a function of x, as it is single valued.
The reverse case is admissible; more than one member of A may correspond to the same
member of B. In that case the mapping is many to one. So, only one to one mappings or many
to one mappings are functions, not one to many nor many to many mappings. Not only the next
chapter, Entire Calculus, most of Analytical Geometry, most of algebra etc. are only study of
functions. A member of B may correspond to even all the members of A, but a member of A
should not correspond to more than one member of B, in a function. We would return to the
subject in the next chapter onwards. A mapping or function f from the set X into the set Y is
f a b
written as f : X Y .It maps a member a X to a member b Y , written as . The
members of A for which this mapping is defined form a subset D of X, called domain , D of the
function and the subset of Y, called the range R, of the function. Unless otherwise stated we
f a
take D X as the domain. Every member b in the range is image of some member a in
the domain and a is called inverse image of b. The correspondence D R is necessarily
single valued as per definition of function. If the correspondence is also one-to-one we can set
up a single valued correspondence from R to D also just listing b a in place of every a b .
Evidently this correspondence shall be single valued and a function as such, from Y to X. This is
1
denoted as f : Y X and is called inverse function of f. Do not confuse
1
f 1 b with
f b
. If Y = R we say the function is onto Y instead of into Y. Note that if
replace Y with R, every one to one function has got an inverse function. Hence every one-to-
one and onto function admits of an inverse function.
f g f x g x
Two mappings f and g are said to be equal i.e. for all x in the domain.
If X is a subset of Y , a mapping
I x x
for all x X is called an identity mapping.
Exercise1
Show that if an identity mapping exists, then it must be unique.
Ans. Let I x x be an identity mapping and J x x be another, It follows that
I x x J x . So I x is unique.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Exercise2
1
Show that if an identity mapping I x x exists, then I 1 x x , i.e. I 1 I.
The proof is trivial , since, I 1 I x I 1 x ,
I x x
x I x x I
1 1 1
since . But I 1 I x I 1 x I 1 I
Exercise3
1 1 1
If f exists, verify by way of example that f f I ff
Exercise4
If f 1 exists, show that f 1 1
f ; the left inverse is same as the right inverse and it is unique.
Ans.
x f f .
1 1 1
If f 1 exists, then f 1 f x x f x f 1
And if f x y , then f
1
y x f f y f x y ff I . So
1 1
ff 1 f 1 f I .
Now f 1 is not unique, let there be another inverse function of f exist , g f 1 such that
fg gf I . Then, g gI g ff 1 gf f 1 If 1 f 1 , a contradiction.
Exercise5
If f : X Y for nonempty sets X , Y , be a onto function, show that there is an into function
h : Y X such that hf I
Hint : take all the inverse images and choose only one inverse image for any y Y .
called image of a and a is called inverse image of b. Similarly f A B means the set B is
the set of images of points in the set A and f 1 B A means the set of inverse images of the
members in the set B . More conveniently, f A f x : x A , f 1 B x : f x B .
Exercise7
If f : X X for nonempty sets X , Y , be a one-to one onto function, show that there is a
function h : X X such that hf I and also h is one-to-one and onto.
In other words, every one to one and onto function admits of an inverse function.
© Page 2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Exercise8
If f : X Y for nonempty sets X , Y , be a one-to one onto function, show that there is a
function h : Y X such that hf I and also h is one-to-one and onto.
Example1
There are functions which may not have any ‘formula’ of transformation . Such as f : X Y
where
X 1,2,3, Y a , b, c . The function may be defined only by the listing
f 1 b, f 2 c , f 3 a .
Exercise9
If A X , B X and f : X Y is a function from X to Y, show that f A B f A F B
.
Exercise10
Whether the following statements are true of false?
f (true)
f X Y for any function f : X Y (true)
Exercise11
Show that f i Ai i f Ai .Consider the following example.
A
f(A)
1
a
2
b
3
c
4
5 c
d
6 e
B f(B)
f A B f A f B , but f A B , and f A f B
Exercise12
f i Ai i f Ai f i Ai i f Ai
Is it true that . (false). The true statement is .
See the above example. Two disjoint sets A and B may not have disjoint images. So the images
of intersection is not necessarily equal to intersection of images.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
No such conclusion can be drawn about relating f A ' and f A '
Exercise13
Show that for a function f : X Y ,and both sets are non-empty
a)
f 1
b)
f 1 Y X
c) If
B1 B2 Y , then f 1 B1 f 1 B2
B Y for i I , then f i Bi i f Bi .
1 1
d) If i
B Y for i I , then f i Bi i f Bi .
1 1
e) If i
f) If B Y then
f 1 B ' f 1 B '
Exercise14
Show that for a function f : X Y ,and both sets are non-empty then ff 1 B B in general
and if ff 1 B B for all B Y then f is onto and vice versa.
Exercise15
Show that for a function f : X Y ,and both sets are non-empty then f 1 f A A in general
and if f 1 f A A for all A X then f is one to one and vice versa.
Exercise16
Show that for a function f : X Y ,and both sets are non-empty and for any A1 X , A2 X
if f A1 A2 f A1 f A2 i then f is one to one and vice versa.
Exercise17
Show that for a function f : X Y ,and both sets are non-empty and for any A X if
f A ' f A ' then f is onto and vice versa.
Exercise18
Show that for a function f : X Y ,and both sets are non-empty and for any A X if
f A ' f A ' then f is one to one and vice versa.
Exercise19
Any idea about total number of relations in A x D ? It must be the total number of subsets of
A x D. The Cartesian product A x D contains m x n members if A contains m members and D
contains n members. Total number of subsets of a set containing mn members is 2mn evidently.
Exercise20
Find the total number of one to one onto functions f : X Y if X has m elements and Y has n
elements.
© Page 4
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Hint : each member in X, say x1 can be taken to any member of Y in n ways. So the total
number of functions is nm.
Exercise21
Any subset of the Cartesian product XxY is a relation in general and it is a function only when
no
member of X is connected to more than one member of Y .If A1 X , A2 X and
B1 Y , B2 Y ,show that A1 xB1 A2 xB2 A1 A2 x B1 B2 .
Exercise22 remember
Any subset of the Cartesian product XxY is a relation in general and it is a function only
§2:Examples of functions
Take a sequence of fractions 1/2, 1/4, 1/8, 1/16……. as an example for covering a given
distance in successive steps. In 1st step, 1/2th distance is covered, in the second step half of
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
the rest is covered ,half of the rest covered in the next step and so on. One reaches the
destination in this manner albeit , but it seems never possible at first glance. We observe that,
’half of the rest’ is always left out, which of course, becomes smaller and smaller indefinitely.
One can neglect it as per one’s wish or purpose .Purposes may differ ,e .g. a grain of rice may
be looked upon as 0 by a grain merchant, but certainly it is not 0 for an ant, or a chemical
analysist. But Mathematics ensures uniform standards of development without bearing on any
individuals or their purposes; so we always talk of ‘ arbitrarily small’ instead of small for
any one or for any purpose. Look at the table
below n 1 2 3 4
Instead of this table, we could write t(n)=(1/2)n, in function notation, where ‘t’ is said to be a
function of ‘n’, varying in the domain , D ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,….} of natural numbers and the
values of the function form a set range R={1/2,1/4,1/8,1/16…..} of numbers.. thus the
numbers 1/2,1/4,1/8,1/16….. are just labeled by natural numbers 1,2,3,4….etc. This is a
function of natural numbers.
The domain and range need not be or natural numbers even be countable for making functions
in general . They can be intervals like ]2,5] with all the numbers between 2 to 5, 2 not included
,may be completely closed intervals [4,9] both 4 and 9 included or completely open intervals
like ]5,16[ both 5 and 16 not included, etc., may be entire set of real numbers R etc. e.g.,
f(x) = 2x., f(x) = cos 2x etc. ,where the domains are entire set of real numbers. The domain
is the set of all values of independent variable ( such as n in the above example)and
the range is the entire set of values of dependent variable(such as t(n)) . For our
purpose , we understand functions as single-valued functions and real-valued (range in
the set of real numbers), viz. , a number in the domain set shall not correspond to more than
one number in the range set. In this sense y2 = 4x is not a function in ] - ,[, but it is a
function in [ 0,[, but y = 4x2 is a function undisputedly. The entire edifice of Real Analysis and
Calculus stand on the assumption of single-valued-ness of function.
Such functions whose domain is the set of integers is called a sequence. The domain must be
the set of natural numbers and the range is countable in such functions. You know some
sequences are converging or diverging. An example of a diverging sequence is
1,2,3,4,5,6……….
Series is just a sequence of partial sums ( of first n terms ) of any sequence, like s1,
s2,s3………sn……..etc. Again, some series may be converging, diverging, some may also be
oscillating like 1, - 1, 1, -1, 1, -1 ..etc.
Example2:
If f n 1! 2! 3! ........... n 2 ! n 1 ! n ! , for n a being a positive integer, show that
f n 2 n 3 f n 1 n 2 f n .
Example3:
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Ans. : We have 2 x a x a x . By squaring,
4 x a x a x 2 a 2 x 2 2 x a a 2 x 2 . Squaring again, 4 x 2 a 2 4ax a 2 x 2
4a a a a
i.e., x since x 0 . Then the A.P . a x , x , a x becomes, ,2 ,3 . The
5 5 5 5
integer values of a must be 5n where n is a positive integer.
2) example of a function of many variables
We meet functions everywhere in all branches of Physics, Economics and Geometry and
in every discipline which would prefer to use a logical framework. Take an example of the
universal law of gravitation - the force of gravitation F between to bodies of masses m and M
Mm 1 Qq
FG 2
F
at a distance r apart is given by r (gravitation).[ 4 πε r 2 (electric charges)
μ m1 m 2
F
4 π r 2 (magnetic poles) Coulomb’s laws for electric charges and magnetic poles ]
The independent variables are masses of the bodies and distance between them in case of
gravitation , electric charges of the bodies and the distance between them in case of
electrostatic force and the pole strengths of the bodies and the distance between them in case
of magnetostatic force and the force is the dependent variable. We can vary the masses,
charges or poles or distance between the bodies as we wish and measure the force between
the bodies. This is the idea behind independent variable or we can think of them as control
variables.
This small expression has a world if information coded in it. It has occurred to Newton that two
point masses of one unit each at a distance of one unit apart ,attract each other with a force,
which remains the same wherever we place the system and whenever we observe them. This is
given by a constant G, called the constant of universal gravitation whose value depends upon
the systems of units we use. Suppose this arrangement of two point masses of one unit each at
a distance of one unit comprise one force system in which a force equal to G is observed. If we
take one of the point mass 4 units instead of one, we can logically think there are 4 force
systems of force equal to G in each system and the total force observed shall be 4G. in the
second step, if we replace the second mass of one unit by a mass of 3 units, logically the
arrangement shall be equivalent to 4x3 = 12 force systems together making the force 12 G. In
the third step, let the distance of the second point mass from the first point mass be doubled.
One may naturally think the force to be halved this time. But while we have increases the
distance of the second point mass from the first to double, we cannot keep the distance of the
1st point mass from the 2nd fixed and it would be doubled automatically at the same time. So
we should expect the resulting force to decrease to ¼ instead of ½ . The formula is fondly called
the inverse square law of universal gravitation which must have occurred to Newton while he
observed the apple fall. So forever let the apple fall and let our heads roll, roll on and on to
enlightenment. Gauss used simple Euclidean Geometry we all know, to show that the point
masses could be replaced by spheres of masses M and m apart from each other and the
formula still holds. Coulomb, Ampere, Gauss, Wersted, Maxwell thought in the same lines and
showed that the same inverse square law would hold for electric charges and magnetic poles
for forces of attraction or repulsion, with the G replaced by a constant involving permittivity of
the medium for electric charges and masses replaced by electric charges and for magnetic
forces, with the G replaced by a constant involving permeability of the medium for magnetic
© Page 7
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
poles and magnetic poles replaced by masses. Presuming the inverse square law for electric
charges or magnetic poles merely did not suffice though it perfectly stood to reasoning. The
effect of the forces were measured at different distances, taking different charges and pole
values and the results were compared to the assumed formula with values of which the
observations were fairly approximate. Then only the formulae could have been accepted. This is
the way experimental sciences are built up. Experimental observation is made measuring a
large number of different values of a variable upon which the quantity to be investigated is
supposed to depend upon,( here in this case force is measured at different distances) and the
process is carried on, in turn for all the variables that are supposed to be independent ( in this
case the charges and the poles) and then the results are compared to some known function of
the variables. If the measurements are sufficiently approximate to the functional values the
empirical formula is established. If no such function is found, the rates of change of the force
are calculated and recognized as close to a known function. From this function , (called the
derived function) the original function is reconstructed with the help of Calculus through the
process of integration (the inverse process of deriving or differentiation). Most of the time simple
integration is not possible as in case the derived function is presented as a relation among , or
is a compound combination of derivatives, called a differential equation. Solution of the
differential equation gives us the function of course. An entire branch of Calculus is devoted to
differential equations. A function contains infinite, nay, all values of independent variables and
the relationship from which the dependent variable’s value can be obtained. This can be done
with the help of an equation or a set of equations. Alternatively the sets of values of independent
variables combined with values of dependent variable could be presented in the form of a table.
The table becomes infinitely long very often , so a graph of it shows all the values at the same
time in a picture, a point representing a set of values for independent and dependent variables.
For a set of independent variables, the value of the dependent variable can be got easily from
the graph, but not sufficiently accurately for the scale used in the graph. But the interpretation of
a graph reveals much of the behaviour of the function. The equation is the ultimate recourse ;
put any value of independent variable , calculate and get the value of the dependent variable.
Thus it contains all the values of the function in a small code ! More wonderful is the fact that the
differential equation of the function ( an equation which may or may not contain the function
itself often) contains a finer code just like a seed contains the entire code of the tree or a set of
DNAs or genes in every cell contain entire code of the animal or plant. The code or the
differential equation of the tree also contains the information how the tree would grow if some
branches are cutoff at some point of time, or the tree is allowed to grow in a glass case or it is
planted in a pot (boundary values of independent variables or boundary value problems), or how
the tree would grow on different soils and climates and if planted in different seasons (initial
value problems). Now solutions of differential equations build Physics including Quantum
Physics, Astronomy, Economics, and all those sciences which use Mathematics as their
framework. Every branch of Mathematics such as Algebra, Theory Of Equations, Modern
Algebra, Coordinate Geometry Vector Analysis, Tensor Analysis, Topology, Functional Analysis,
etc. etc. aim at solutions of differential equations. What types of differential equations can be
solved, under what circumstances, their different kinds of solutions comprise what is called
existence problems. More often than not, the differential equations give solutions not in closed
and compact forms of algebraic or trigonometric functions but as in forms of infinite series of
functions, necessitating the study of circumstances under which these series converge and are
meaningful.
Functions of many independent variables like the one example, the formula for force
under universal gravitation, or Coulomb’s laws are functions of many variables and are more
© Page 8
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
abundant than functions of a single variable. There can be vector functions of scalar variables,
scalar function of scalar or vector variables and all sorts of them. Study of function of a single
variable enables us to study a function of many variables with respect to each of the variables in
turn. But all the while single valued-ness of the functions must be emphasized - the force can
be same for hundred different arrangements of masses and distances but for one arrangement
of masses and distance, there are not two values of force.
3) Function of a continuous variable
Suppose y = sin x , a function from the set of real numbers to the interval [0, 1]. The labels here
i.e., the independent variable are not natural numbers but real numbers.
We know a few values of the function from simple geometry like sin 300, sin 600, sin 900, etc.
if the function is a rule to associate the members between two sets, we should know sin 320, sin
210, as easily as we know sin 300. But this is not so easy. We have to study the nature of
the function from many angles . whether a small change in independent variable 300 to 31.20 will
result in a small change in the dependent variable so that we can at least have an approximate
idea about sin 31.20; i.e. whether the function is continuous or not. Then another question may
arise whether the function increases at a constant rate in a small interval or in approximately
constant rate . To be exact, suppose you know sin 300 and sin 310. . Can you just have
sin 300 sin 310 300 310
for sin ?. For these questions to be answered, we need to study rate of
2 2
change of functions or differentiation.
A function is essentially a correspondence between members of a set A, with the
members of the set B, written as f: A B. The members of the set A , related by the function
to B constitute the domain of the function D and the set of values of the function in B constitute
the range R. (We write f(x) = y when x and y are related as per rule(s) of the function f.). Take
an example f(x) = x2 or y = x2. We have been used to think that the variable x has underwent
some process called squaring or has been modified in a very complex manner such as
y = sin x. Though it codifies all the values connected by the relation, we are very much
distracted to interpret the relationship. From simple Geometric considerations we get the values
of sin /2, /4, etc. but tend to retreat when asked the value for sin 400. Now the approach is to
discard the notion that the angle is modified in a complex manner by the sin operator and it
would suffice for its study only remembering that y = sin x is only a set of pairs of values
mapped against each other and the tools of Calculus would take care of the function in its
entirety. The limiting process aims at getting value of the function at a particular point,
differentiation decides how rapidly it increases or decreases and Taylor’s theorem prepares its
table. Integration is reverse process of differentiation and attempts to construct unknown original
functions whose rates of change we happen to be known in studying a physical phenomenon. It
would be injustice to claim that Calculus has laid the foundation of Algebra, Theory of Equations
or Geometry, but it has enriched these disciplines; there is no doubt about it. The statement
shall be evident more prominently in the later chapters. Study of functions through the eyes of
Algebra or Coordinate Geometry or Theory of Equations shall be compared with study of the
functions with the help of Calculus and the statement we have made, shall be evident as we
proceed. Further, Algebra has attempted to include Calculus by including the process of taking
limits of functions and Geometry has attempted to complete itself without help of Calculus. But
under the umbrella of Calculus, a lot of simplicity and elegance can be achieved without
sacrificing rigor at the same time. A particular example shall be given under Taylor’s theorem. It
is the correspondence between the variables which is important which takes everything about
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
the function in its fold, including dependence of one variable upon the others or vice versa and
including modifications of the independent variables. So we forget about modifications or
dependence and only remember the set of functional values; the independent variables just
serve as labels attached on them.
A function f from a subset D (domain) of A to a subset R (Range) of B is a rule
or a set of rules by which a member of D is associated with a member of R. If no
member of D is associated with more than one member of R, the function is single
valued. If R is a subset of real numbers the function is real valued . In Calculus we are
interested only in single valued real valued functions. If R = B the function is onto .
Example4
Construct a function to express the area of the two portions of a square cut by a st line parallel
to one of its diagonals.
Ans. :
D
P
C D C
R
O O Q
P
R
A Q B A B
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
a
x2 , for 0 x
2
Combining the results, f x
2 2ax a 2 x 2 , a
for x 2a
2
a
Where AO , AC a 2
2
If, for any member in R, there is only one member of D, the function is one-to-
one. When the domain and range are interchanged, the new function got, is the inverse
function of the old one. For the inverse function to be single valued, the function has to
be one-to-one . As we mean functions have to be single valued always, a one to one and onto
function admits of an inverse function.
The point needs a little more clarification. The set B is often called the co-domain of the
function f; The range is always a subset of co-domain. The function is surjective if co-domain
is same as the range, i.e., if every member of the co-domain has a pre-image in A. The
correspondence between the variables (independent and dependent as they are called) may not
necessarily be one-to-one ,but if it is so, the function admits of an inverse function with the
domain and the range interchanged, e.g., y = sin x in the interval [0,900 ] admits of an
inverse function x = sin-1 y, y = 2x in the domain ]- , [ admits of an inverse function
x= y/2, y= 10 in the interval [0,[ has an inverse function x = log 10 y and so on. (sin-1 y
x
should not be confused with (sin y)-1;it is the angle whose sine is y ).
We represent a function in the form of a table of pairs of independent and dependent
variables as you have done a table of pairs of values before drawing a graph of a function.
Alternatively we represent a function with the help of an equation or set of equations, rule or a
set of rules. A function could also be represented by its graph. Of the three approaches to
represent a function, the set theoretic approach, is simplest, for it ensures the desired single
valued-ness. Tables would be containing generally infinite pairs and would be of little use except
while drawing the graph of the function. Graph of a function is pictorial visualization and is an
aid to understanding and interpreting the relationship between the variables.
EXAMPLES IN GENERAL
EXAMPLE 5:
A function “father of “ may be constructed between the set H = {All human beings} and
the set H = {All human beings}, denoted by f( H) H, aH, f(a) = b, bH.(Figure out the
domain and the range!)You wonder whether objects that are not numbers could be used in
functions; but they can be .Does this function admit of an inverse function ? No. (Why?)
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
We are rather interested only functions involving numbers only, although functions may be
formed between any two sets.
EXAMPLE6
Which functions are their own inverses? Try f(x) =|x| , x in [ 0,[. or g(x) = 1/x, x
in R. (Both of them are ) . The function is called ‘modulus function’ or ‘absolute value function’,
to be more fully described later on.
EXAMPLE7
Verify that the function f x 2 x in R is one-one and onto. Hint : Take any value of x and find
a unique value of y and vice versa.
Example10
Example12
Verify that any onto function a , b, c , d 1, 2, 3, 4 must be one-one.and any one-one function
a , b, c, d 1, 2, 3, 4 must be onto.
Example13
Give an example showing that the above result may not be true for an infinite set.
EXAMPLE 14 Function with a discontinuity or ‘hole’:
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Take another example. y = x, for x [0,1[, y = 2 – x, for x ]1,2] and y = 2 for x = 1.
(A single function described by an equation ,or a set of equations or a rule or a set of
rules). A function can also be represented by its graph. Let us draw the graph of the latter
function ( see the first figure below) Observe that when x is very near 1, y is also very near 1,
as seen from either of the two equations y = x, for x [0,1[, y = 2 – x, for x ]1,2], but y =
2 when x is exactly equal to 1. This leaves a hole or discontinuity in its graph at x = 1.
Y
. P(1.2) Y
(3,3)
(2,2)
(1,1)
X X’ O X
O (1,0) (2,0) Y’
Step Function
A function represented by a set of
equations.
It is denoted by [x] meaning the greatest integer not greater than x. If x= 3.76 , [x] = 3,
if x = 5.999, [x] = 5 etc. From x = 3 to 4 it remains 3 then suddenly changes to 4 when
x=4. The function suddenly jumps in steps and as such, is called a step function.
The step function y = [x] is also written in another notation y = Int(x) ; the integral part of a
number x. This is a simpler concept to understand and one should observe that it is equivalent
to the former definition. One can create as many step functions as one pleases; e.g.,
sin x x 4
y
log tan x
or any standard functions or expressions inside the square bracket would be a step
function.
Example16
Show that the greatest integer function is neither one-one nor onto.
Example17
1
Show that kx changes value at every integral multiple of , k being a non-zero rational
k
number.
Example18
2
Find the domain of f x x 2 x x 3 x if x 3 . Calculate the number of points in
3
the
range.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Hint : Value of x would change whenever x increases or decreases by 1; ie, the points at
which the function would change is 0, 1, 2.
Value of 2x would change whenever x increases or decreases by 2; ie, the points at which the
1 2 3 4 5
function would change is 0, , 1, , 2, , as x < 3.
2 2 2 2 2
2 3
Value of x would change whenever x increases or decreases by ; ie, the points at which
3 2
3
the function would change is 0, , as x < 3.
2
Value of 3x would change whenever x increases or decreases by3; ie, the points at which the
1 2 4 5 7 8
function would change is 0, , ,1, , , 2, , , as x < 3.
3 3 3 3 3 3
So the total number of points where the value of the function would change is 12
Exercise26
Find x if x 2 x 3 . Ans. x 1 .
Example19 remember
Verify that a function f : R R such that f x ax b ,called a linear function is both one-
one and onto.
Example20
n 1
2 , if n is odd
Verify that a function f : N N such that f n Is a
n , if n is even
2
bijective. Hint. For any n N , show that n f m for some m N and vice versa.
Example21
x 1
Verify that a function f : R R such that f x is one-one but not onto.
x 1
Hint. The point x = 1 does not belong to the domain.
EXAMPLE 22characteristic function
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Find a characteristic function describing your class, college, town.
x
A graph of f(x) = is given below.
P
Q
Y = |x|
y = |x|
X’ X
O
Properties of modulus function :
i) x a a x a
ii ) x a x a, or x a
iii ) x y x y triangle inequality; sum of two sides is greater than the third
iv ) x y x y triangle inequality; difference of two sides is less than the third
Example24
1, if x0
f x 0, if x0
1, if x0
A function f : R R such that is called a signum function. And
x x
sign x or sgn( x )
x x
can be written as .Verify that it is neither one-one nor onto.
MISC EXAMPLES
Examine whether the following statements are correct.(Write T for true, and F for false).
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
28) Every relation is a function.
Ans : a) T, b) F, c) T, d) T, e) T, f) T,
Example 33: A function y = [x] is integral part of x , ( greatest integer not greater than x) or
floor of x. Similarly a function y = {x} is called fractional part of x.
i) x x x is an integer
ii) x I x I I is an integer
iii) x y x y
iv ) x I x I take e.g . x cos ec x
v) x I x I 1
vi ) x I x I
vii ) x I x I 1
viii ) x is an integer x x
ix ) x is not an integer x x 1
x) x y x y x x
Exercise28
x n n 1
1 sin x 2 sin
x x
3 sin ........... n sin
Show that 2 3 n 2 if 0 sin x
Evaluate : a)
x 1 2 x 2 x , b) x 2 2 x 3 x 0, x 2,
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
1 0,1
Ans : a) 1, , b)
2
exercise30
1 1 1 1 2 1 100 1 1
2 2 100 2 100 ............ 2 100 100. 2
Show that
Hint :
1 1 1 1 2 1 49 1 50 1 51 1 100 1
2 2 100 2 100 ...... 2 100 2 100 2 100 ...... 2 100
1st 50 terms 51 st to 100 th term
1
0 0 0 ...... 0 1 1......1 50 1 50 100
2
1st 50 terms 51 st to 100 th term
exercise31 :
1 2 n 1
Show that x x x ............ x nx if n is an integer.
n n n
exercise32 :Solve the equations for [x + y]: y 2 x 5 and y 3 x 2 7
Hint : We have 2 x 5 3 x 2 7 2 x 5 3 x 2 7 x 0 0 x 1
So x x , fractional part of x; which gives, y 2 x 5 5 x y x 5 5 .
i) x x; if 0 x 1
ii ) x x; if x is an integer
iii) x 1 x; if x is an integer
iv) x x x I f , where x I , and x f
Example 34: A function y x x , meaning thereby the least integer greater than x or
ceiling of x. Thus 0.21 1; 2.23 3; 3.25 3; 0.2 0 etc.
Example 35:
Example 36:
1
Evaluate : x x 2 x .
2 2
Ans. : 0, n
2
Properties of y x x :
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
i) if x is an integer, x x
ii ) if I is an integer, x I x I x I
§3:Algebra of functions
If f : R R and g : R R be two real valued functions, we define the sum, difference, product,
quotient functions square cube etc. as the functions have to be added, subtracted, etc. point by point.
The domain of definition of the result shall evidently be the intersection of the domains of the two
functions.
Exercise 33
f b f a
If f x 1 x x 3 , find for ba
ba
f b f a 1 b b3 1 a a 3
Ans. 1 a 2 ab b2
ba ba
Exercise 34
1 x
If f x ln , find the domain and range, Ans. D ] 1,1[ and range = R
1 x
example 37
1 x ab
If f x ln , find f a f b and f . What do you infer?
1 x 1 ab
1 a 1 b 1 a 1 b 1 a b ab
f a f b ln ln ln . ln
Ans. 1 a 1 b 1 a 1 b 1 a b ab
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
ab
1
ab 1 ab ln 1 a b ab
f ln ab
1 ab 1 1 a b ab
1 ab
ab
f a f b f
Thus we have 1 ab
The following exercise shall lead you to composite functions.
Exercise35
x2
If f : R R is such that f x ,
x2
b) find f 2 x , 2 f x , f x 2 and f x
2
2
2x 2 x 1 2x 4 x2 2 x2
Ans. f 2x
2x 2 x 1
, 2 f x
x2
,f x 2
2
x 2
, f x
2
x2
Exercise36
1 1 1 1
y x x 2 2 , x3 3 , x 4 4
If x , find x x x
Hint raise the expression to the powers 2,3 and 4.
Example38
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
We may connect two functions f : A B and G : B C such as y 2 x 3 and z y so that
2
A to a member of C via B. The composite function fog shall be defined only when the
intersection of the range of f and the domain of g . It is not that the domain shall be domain
of f and the range shall be range of g . The domain of the composite function shall be the set
of inverse images ( some authors say, pre-image) of this intersection. You may verify this
aspect from the examples by finding out the domains and ranges of the functions such as
sin x 2 , sin 2 x , ax 2 b , ax b , ; examples so chosen in pairs like fog and gof , so as to
2
show an additional point, the inverse function of fog is not necessarily gof . When fog and
gof both exist and are equal to each other, and both functions are one-one and onto,
they are inverse functions of each other as shown below.
Composite functions always obey associative laws.( h(g(f(x))) = (hg)(f(x) )
Extras
If you regard composite functions or functions of functions as product functions, note that the
result appears in the reverse order; i.e. for computing g(f(x)), first compute f(x)and then
compute g(f(x)).
Exercise37
X as ix : X X which takes any member of X to precisely that same member and similarly an
identity mapping in Y is denoted as i y : Y Y .This is just to distinguish identity mappings in
different sets. Then show the following:
f : X Y is one to one, there exists a function g : Y X such that gf i .
a) If x
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
y=x
X’ X
O
Y
g) see the graph of the identity function y = x.
Exercise39
Let there be a function f : X Y , both sets being nonempty . Take A as a subset of X and B
as a
subset of Y. Then show the following results.
a) ff 1 B B
x
2
The functions x 2 and x are inverse of each other but x 2 as the functions are neither
Exercise40
x x
Find fofof x if f x . Ans. .
1 x 2
1 3x 2
Example40
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
We should show that if gof gof then . Now
gof gof g f g f
f f since g is one-one.
since f is one-one
Exercise41
Show that the sum and product of two monotonically increasing functions in an interval is
monotonically increasing.
Exercise46
x, x is rational
Find the inverse function of y .Is it monotonic?
x, x is irrational
Exercise47
1 x 1 y
Find the inverse function of y . Ans. x
1 x 1 y
Exercise48
l
Show that y is monotonically decreasing in the domain which does not include the point 0
x
and has an inverse function
Exercise49
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Find the inverse function of y 5 ln x
Example50
a b c d
A a , b , c , d B C
Take . Define f as
b c d a ,taking a to b, b to c, etc.
a b c d
Define g as
c d a b,
a b c d
gofA
a) what is gof ? Ans. d a b c
a b d
c
b) What is fog ? Ans. fogA
d a b c
c) How many such functions can be defined on A?
F f , g , h ,.......
d) In the set of these functions show that the operation of compositing
1
is closed, associative, and has an identity element and every member f has an inverse f .
Ans. If f g are any two functions, f takes a member of A to A and g takes a member of A
to A, so gof takes a member of A to a only. Thus the composition operation is closed.
a b c d a b c d a b c d
Now, take any three members f , g and h
b c d a d c a b c a d b
,find out
a b c d a b c d a b c d
fo goh fo go fo and fog oh and show
c a d b a d b c b a c d
that they are equal. Thus the operation is associative.
a b c d
The identity element is i , that takes any member to itself. and for any
a b c d
a b c d 1 a b c d 1 1
f , we have f as fof i f of (verify)
b c d a d a b c
e) Verify that the left inverse is the right inverse also .
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
g) Define f fof ,
2
f fof ,
3 2
f fof etc. and find them
4 3
The set of functions f on A with the binary operation of composition is called a permutation
group.
Exercise51
Distinguish between the domains of the functions. Are the functions identical?
x
a) y 1, z Ans. latter not defined for x = 0.
x
b) y ln x , z 2 ln x
2
Ans. latter not defined for x < 0
x ,
2
c) y x, z x2
Ans. z is not defined for x < 0, is not single valued
d) y 1. z sin 2 x cos2 x Ans. both are same
e) y ln x 1 x 2 , z ln x 1 ln x 2
Ans. y not defined for 1 x 2 , z is not defined for x 2
Exercise52
Exercise54
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Find the inverse function of y 2
x x 1
Exercise55
If f : X Y for nonempty sets X , Y , be a into function, and if f A ' f A ' then show that
f is onto.
§6:Increase and decrease of functions : preliminary investigation.
Sometimes mere inspection, finding our domain and range and preliminary investigation without
recourse to special tools of Calculus like limits continuity and differentiation etc. helps to take
stock of situation , especially in simple cases. For example, in a periodic function , we can
easily find out the interval of increase or decrease. A few examples would illustrate the point.
Example51
The well known quadratic function f x ax 2 bx c can be written as , taking out a perfect
2
b 4ac b 2
square, f x a x , we observe that
2a 4a
2
b
a) If a > 0, the expression shall decrease as x decreases, i.e. x in the interval of
2a
b b
] , ] b
2 [ , [
2a , and again increase as x 2a
increases , in the interval and thus its
2a
4ac b2 b
x
minimum value is 4a at 2a if a 0 . If a 0 the situation just reverses, the function
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
b b b
[ , ] x
increases in the interval 2a 2a , is maximum there at 2a and the maximum value is
4ac b2
4a .
Note: A function is monotonically increasing if x2 x1 0 f x2 f x1 0 . See next
example.
Example52
2 1
x x x1
2
2 x1 1 2 1 1
x x x 1 .
4 2 4 2 4
Since the expression under {} is positive, x2 x1 0 f x2 f x1 0 . Since this is so for
arbitrary choice of x2 , x1 , the function monotonically increases in R throughout.
Exercise59
Show that the function y log a x x 2 1 monotonically increases.
§7:LOGARITHM FUNCTION
Show that the inverse function of y log a x x 2 1 is x sinh y ln a
a y a y
Ans. we have a x x 1,
y 2
a y x x2 1 x sinh y ln a
2
EXAMPLE 53
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Take the implicit function x 2ax y 2by c 0 , where x is not expressed in terms of y
2 2
nor vice versa. Such is the definition of implicit functions. Sometime it may be possible in simple
cases, to derive y in terms of x. Take no botheration for solving this, only try to know where it
crosses x – axis, by putting y = 0 and where it crosses the y – axis , by putting x = 0. If x1 , x2 be
the x – intercepts and y1 , y2 be the y – intercepts , then show that
y1 y2 b
a) b) x1 x2 y1 y2 2c c) x1 x2 y1 y2
x1 x2 a
Exercise61
3x 4
f x
If f : R R be such that 5 x 7 and g : R R such that g x 7 x 4 find gof x and
5x 3
fog x . What do you infer?
Exercise62
Find the domain of the following.( for which the function has real values)
a) f x x a b x Ans. [a, b]
1
b) f x Ans. , for sin x 1
sin x 1
c) f x ln x 2 x 3 Ans. R] 3, 2[ , x 2 x 3 is negative in ] 3, 2[
3x x 2
d) f x ln Ans. [1, 2]
2
3x x 2 3x x 2
Hint. ln 0 1 x 2 3x 2 0 x 1 x 2 0
2 2
x 1
e) f x Ans. R = ] - ∞, ∞[
x2 2x 3
f) f x ln x 3 Ans. ]0,1[]1, [ , not defined for x = 1 or < 0 .
1
f x
1
g) 2sin x Ans. x 1 , 1 x 1 , so 1 x 1, i.e. ] 1,1]
x 1
1
f x 2sin x
1
h) Ans. , as 1 x 1, and x 3 incompatible.
x 3
i) f x ln sin x 3 Ans. sin x 3 0 0 x 3 3 x 3
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
k) f x ln cos x Ans. cos x 0 0 x 900 x ]0, ]
2
l) f x log 3 log 4 log 5 x Ans. log 4 log 5 x 0 log 5 x 1 x 5
m) f x x3 x 2
Ans. x >1
n) sin x Ans. 0 x
2
0, and the equation is satisfied for some value of x, say x = , then that value is called a root
of this equation. The highest power n of x here is called degree of the polynomial . We say y
is a function of x or y = f(x) where f stands for some operation or operations to modify x into y.
5
4 7
ax x
Expressions like 2 =y (say) = h(x) (say), ……………………(2)
4 3x 3
which are obtained from x with a finite number of algebraic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, raising to power, taking root etc. , are called algebraic
expressions or functions . Comparing the set theoretic definition of function with this meaning
of function in the traditional sense, the set theoretic definition gives an impression that the value
of a function is known as soon as value of the independent variable is chosen, but the algebraic
expression or closed form gives the impression that the functional value for any given value of
the independent variable can be calculated from the expression for the function. Anyway, we
can express a large class of functions ( continuous real valued and infinitely differentiable –
called smooth functions or smooth curves) into polynomials or infinite converging power series ,
and in both cases we can calculate the value of the function for a given value of independent
variable.
P x
As a most general example, an expression y x ………………………(3)
Q x
where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials and coefficients of P(x) and Q(x) are rational numbers and
degree of P(x) is less than that of Q(x), is called a rational algebraic expressions or
functions. Obviously the values of y are defined for Q(x) 0. If , ,, etc. are real roots of
Q(x) = 0, and = minimum of ||,||,||,|| etc., the function is clearly defined in the interval
x = ] - , [ without any controversy .
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
P x
To simplify the expressions like y x ,we need to factorise the denominator and convert
Q x
the expression into partial fractions. So that we could expand each partial fraction into an infinite
convergent series and add the serieses together term by term to get a final series
representation of the function. So we need study partial fractions first.
Functions are also mappings as stated in the beginning of the chapter and transformations for
the reason that they transform in the dependent variable. Expressions may be understood as
rules for describing a function, mapping as tabular representation and transformation as a
graph. However the concept of mapping is inclusive of all other concepts of function.
Many functions and many kinds of functions we have met so far confirm to this definition –
single valued mappings between two sets. If the domain is natural numbers, and the range is a
subset of real numbers, the function is what we call a sequence . If the domain is a finite subset
of natural numbers, we can list all pairs a→b and there is no need to give a formula for it or a
verbal description. But if the function is from the set of natural numbers to a subset of real
numbers, obviously we cannot list all the ordered pairs, and have to spell out a ‘rule’ ( or a set of
rules) to describe the function. Same is the case when the domain is an interval represented by
a continuous variable. So the concept of function although seems simple, it embodies a lot of
information, just like a seed has an entire tree hidden in it. Consider an example : let the real
numbers be represented by their decimal expansion in which infinite repetition of 9’s are
avoided, such as, ½ is represented by 0.5 , not by 0.499999……( which is just the same as 0.5).
If this number is x, take y as the integer in the sixth place of its decimal expansion ; (of x). This
is a perfectly respectable function, only described verbally, but sufficiently definitely. In contrast,
y = sin x is a function so useful that it has been given a special symbol! Again, y = x4 is a
function just described by a formula without any verbal description. However in all the cases, it
is the correspondence which takes care of the listing, the rule or the formula, or the graph of th
function so to say. There is no restriction about what the objects of the domain and the range
would be; they may not be numbers even. For example, let A be the set of all rectangles and B
the set of all circles superscribed on these rectangles. There is a natural correspondence
between the two sets which is obviously a function. What we are interested in algebra is real
valued sequences or integral functions and what we are interested in Calculus or in Analysis is
real valued or complex valued functions.
It is required now to tell something about zeroes of a function. Look at the function
f x x 1 x 2 defined in the domain of real numbers. In other words, take any real
number for x a , it gives a real number for f x , f x a 1 a 2 . The graph of the
function is given below.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
2.4
1.68 f(x) = (x-1)(x-2)
1.2
0.72
0.24 X
-1 0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2-0.48 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-0.96 y = - 0.25
-1.44
-2.16
Graph of f x x 1 x 2
The graph does not go below the horizontal line f x y 0.25 . So the range of the function
is [ – 0.25 , ∞[. Put any value of f x 0.25 you would get two values of x , e.g., taking
f x 2, we have x 1 x 2 2 x 2 3 x 2 2 x 2 3 x 4 0 which gives two
3 5
values for x. Now it is clear that the function can take any value 0.25 . Only as special
2
cases when the value of the function is 0, i.e., x 1 x 2 0 , i.e., x 1, or x 2 the
function becomes 0, i.e. f x 0 . Then the values of x i.e., x 1, or x 2 are called roots
of zeroes or solutions of the function f x . Remember that the function stands for its entire
graph, and the roots are only the points of intersections of the graph with X – axis.
f x 3x4 5 x3 2 x2 6 x 7
In Algebra we often come across functions of the type called
polynomial functions and the fundamental theorem of Algebra guarantees that any polynomial
of finite degree, has at least one zero (solution), real or complex. Further ahead we would know
that a polynomial of n degree has n solutions – an equivalent statement of the fundamental
theorem. It is Abel who pointed out that for a polynomial of degree 5 or more, roots cannot be
found out only by algebrical manipulation in general case, we have to find them out in numerical
method i.e., by algorithms developed for approximation and further approximation. In addition
to algebraic functions, we also come across all sorts of functions in Calculus, such as
f x sin x g x e x
, etc. and we have to study limit, continuity, derivative of functions etc in
general for locating the roots, finding their nature etc. A particularly important theorem may be
mentioned – Taylor’s theorem.
Example55
Find the roots of the function f x 10
3 x 2 7 x 4 2 2
2.10 x 3 x2 101 x x .
10
Ans. : Put f x 0 10
2 2 2 2 2
7 x 4 3 x 2
3x
2.10 x 101 x x 0 103 x 7 x 4
2.10 x 3 x 2
2
10 x x
10 104 x 1 2.102 x 1 10 .
2 2 2
7 x 4 x x 2 2
3 x 2 x x 2
103 x 2.10 x
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
2 x 1
2
Let z 10 , so the above equation reduces to z 2 2 z 10 0 z 1 11 . Since
z 10 2 x 1 , Z>0, so z 1 11 .Hence 10 2 x1 1 11 . Solving again,
2 2
x 1
1
2
log10 1 11 .
§12: Partial fractions :
Now ratio of two polynomials P(x) and Q(x) where degree of P(x) is less than that of Q(x)
P( x ) P( x )
y can be regarded as where b0 is leading coefficient of Q(x)
Q(x) b 0 ( x )( x )( x )...
and (x - ), (x - ) etc. are factors of Q(x). (if degree of P(x) is equal to or greater than that of
Q(x),we can always divide P(x) by Q(x) up to a number of steps as necessary to arrive at a
remainder R(x) whose degree is less than that of Q(x), and take R(x) in place of Q(x) for our
P( x ) A B
consideration). This further can be written as .... ,where A, B ..etc are
b0 x x
constants. The method is called breaking up the function into partial fractions One of its
P( x ) A AP( x ) 1
components , or which can be expanded into a infinite
b0 x b 0 x
1
AP( x ) x x2 x3
converging power series 1 2 3 ... for |x| < ||. The reader can verify
b0
1
1 x x 2 x 2 ........ by actual long division. The question whether it has any meaning
1 x
at all or not depends on whether the series on the right is convergent or not. The series
AP( x ) x x2 x3
converges for |x| < 1.The product
1 2 3 ... would be an infinite power
b0
series in x , convergent for |x| < || and this is why we had to define the polynomial for values of
P( x )
x less than minimum of absolute values of roots of Q(x).Ultimately would be a converging
Q(x )
power series in x. Tow special cases are worth mentioning here. When a root of Q(x) say is
P( x ) A C
repeated, the corresponding partial fraction shall be which again can
b 0 x ( x ) 2
be seen to be a converging infinite power series in x, as long as x < ||. If Q(x) contains a factor
like
Sx2 + Tx + V, which is not further reducible to simple factors, then the partial fraction is of the
Mx N
type where the denominator is irreducible any further. Nevertheless, the latter
Sx 2 Tx V
fraction can be turned into an infinite power series in x, converging for a certain range of values
of x to be discussed later ( see quadratic equations). The fact that the partial fractions
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
A C Mx N
, or 2
2
can be turned into infinite power series, can be verified by
x ( x ) Sx Tx V
actually dividing the numerator by the denominator; only conditions for convergence need be
considered then.
We can summarize the rules of decomposition into partial fractions through evident
examples :
Rule 1:
A
For a non-repeated factor (x - ) in the denominator, we can take a partial fraction like
x
sx t
where A is a constant. As an example, to break into partial fractions, put
(x )(x )
sx t A B
= + sx + t A(x - ) + B(x - ) for all values of x
(x )(x ) x x
A + B = x and A + B = - t. These two equations can be solved to get values of A and B.
Alternatively, putting x = and x = in turn we get, s + t = A( - ) and s + t = B( - ) which
gives values of A and B.
Example56
x 2 5 x 41 A B C
Let
x 3 x 1 2 x 1 x 3 x 1 2 x 1
Ax 2 5 x 41 A x 1 2 x 1 B x 3 2 x 1 C x 3 x 1
3 47
Putting x = – 3 , 1. And ½ respectively , we get A ,B , C 25
4 4
Rule 2:
A
For a repeated factor (x - )2 in the denominator, we can take two partial fractions like
x
B sx 2 tx v
and where A and B are constants. As an example, to break , put
( x ) 2 ( x ) 2 ( x )
sx 2 tx v A B C
= + + sx2 + tx + v A(x - )(x - ) + B(x - ) + C(x -
( x ) ( x ) x ( x )
2 2
x
)2.
Equating coefficients of similar powers of x from both sides, we get three equations in A, B and
C , which could be solved easily.
Example57
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
1 A B C D E F
Let 2 3
x x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
2 2
3
x x x
1 Ax 2 x 1 x 1 Bx x 1 x 1 C x 1 x 1
2 2 2
or ,
Dx3 x 1 x 1 Ex3 x 1 Fx3 x 1
2
Rule 3:
sx 2 tx v sx 2 tx v A Bx C
, put = + 2
( x )( x bx c)
2
( x )( x bx c) x x bx c
2
Simplifying and equating the coefficients of like powers of x from both sides we get three linear
equations involving A, B and c as unknowns which can be solved easily.
Example58
1 A B Cx D
Let 2
x 1 x 2 4 x 1 x 1 x 4
2 2
or , 1 A x 1 x 2 4 B x 2 4 Cx D x 1 .....................( a )
2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Since x 4 x 2i x 2i , we can also put x = 2i in (a) above to get,
2
Convert
x 1 x 2 into partial fractions.
2 2
x 3 x 4
2 2
Hint. Write
x 3 x 4 y 3 y 4 y 3 y 4
2 2
1
y 1 y 2 y 3 y 4 1 A B
y 3 y 4 y3 y4
Ans. A = 2, B = – 6
Misc.Exercise
2x 1
64) Ans. A = – 1/6 , B = – 1/3 , C = ½
x 1 x 2 x 3
1
65) Ans. A = 1/6 , B = – ½ , C = 4/3 .
1 x 1 x 1 2 x
1
66) Hint. Put x2 = y. Ans. A=½,B= –½
1 x 2
3 x 2
1 1
67) , Hint. Make it , Ans. A=B=C=–1,D=1
x x 1
2 3
2 y y 1
3
x4 1
68) Hint. x 1 Ans. A = ½ , B = – ½
x 1 x 2 1 x 1 x 2 1
x
69) Ans. A = - ½ , B = ½ = C.
x 1 x 2 1
3x 5
70) Ans. A = - 27/25 , B = 9/25 , C = 8/25 .
3x 2 x 1
2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
3x 5
71) Ans. A = – ½ , B = 4, C = – ½
x 1 x 1
2
x3 x5 x7 x2 x4 x6
32. sin x = x ........ 33. cos x = 1 ........
3! 5! 7! 2! 4! 6!
x2 x3 x4 x 3 2x 5
34. e = 1 x
x
........... 35. tan x = x ........
2! 3! 4! 3 15
where n! stands for 1x2x3……..n and called factorial n. (The values are arrived at using
trigonometry and De Moivre’s theorem later on).
1
1 x x 2 x 3 ............inf inite terms if x 1
1 x is an Algebraic function in contrast. See
that sin x, cos x, tan x, ex etc. cannot be obtained by performing a finite number of operations
1
on x; but is obtained by only 3 number of operations on x.
1 x
It is not out of place to mention these functions as examples of transcendental functions,
keeping their derivations until Taylor’s theorem. Each of these series taken up to a finite number
of terms is not transcendental function; nor any of these is equal to the function in the left of it,
though it may be regarded as an approximation to the function represented by the “name” given
in the left side. Again, ex is not to be confused as an algebraic function of x as it is ‘ a
transcendental number e raised to the power x’ and not ‘ x raised to some power’.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Polynomials are finite power series . Algebraic functions are obtained from x
(independent variable) by performing a finite number of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, squaring, cubing etc. but not extracting roots , otherwise the function is
transcendental. Trigonometric, logarithmic and hyperbolic functions etc. like sin x, ln(1+x),
cosh x etc. are transcendental functions. Since Real numbers are presented to us in many
forms, notably integers, rational numbers, Algebraic numbers and transcendental numbers so
also the functions are presented to us in corresponding forms. A comparative table between
numbers and functions is given below :
Positive integers, 0 and negative integers a0xn + a1xn – 1 +a2xn – 2 +…….+ an – 1x + an where a0,
a1,a2 etc. are rational numbers. A polynomial is a finite
power series.
2 Rational numbers – integers, terminating Algebraic functions in the form P(x) / Q(x) where
or non-terminating recurring decimals. P(x)and Q(x) are polynomials. Naturally this would be a
Satisfy yourself that any non-terminating polynomial or a converging infinite power series in x.
recurring decimal is a rational number. Converging because the sum of the series is already
Non-terminating recurring decimals can be P(x) / Q(x)
represented in closed forms with a line
drawn on the recurring part. e.g.
1
1 x x 2 x 3 ............inf inite terms if x 1
1 x
3 Algebraic numbers – either rational Algebraic functions – obtained from a finite number of
numbers or roots of polynomials polynomials P(x) , Q(x) etc. by a finite number of
Algebraic operations like addition, subtraction,
a0xn + a1xn – 1 +a2xn – 2 +…….+ an – 1x + an multiplication, squaring, cubing, division etc., not taking
where a0, a1,a2 etc. are rational numbers. roots. This would also be a converging power series in
This can be a rational number or irrational x . Converging because the sum of the series is already
number expressed as a combination of
1 x x4
finite number of known irrational numbers. y 3
an Algebraic expression in closed form. x
4 Transcendental numbers – irrational These are converging infinite power series in x which
numbers those cannot be expressed as a may be expressed in closed form such as
root of a polynomial as above. They cannot
be expressed as a combination of finite sin x, ex etc. or may not be expressed in closed forms.
number of known irrational numbers. , e, A new symbol is required for each new series.
etc. are examples of such numbers,
though Algebraic irrational numbers are
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
much more in number than rational x x5
3
We have now known linear and quadratic functions in a little detail. Graph of a linear function is
a straight line and graph of a quadratic equation is a conic section.In general a function or
polynomial like f x a0 x n a1 x n1 a2 x n2 ..................an .....................(1) ,(where the coefficients
a0 , a1 , a2 ................an etc. are rationals) is called a rational integral algebraic function .
P( x ) p0 x m p1x m -1 p 2 x m - 2 .pm
g( x )
Whereas a function or polynomial like
Q( x ) q 0 x n q1x n -1 q 2 x n - 2 .q n …....(2)
is simply called a rational algebraic function or simply algebraic function . If the coefficients of
(1) are simply real numbers, it is simply called a polynomial.(some authors like to restrict the
coefficients to integers and some others assume them to be rational numbers; but for our
purpose, they may be real numbers as well and even complex numbers if explicitly stated
somewhere) The terminology is quite analogous to integers and rational numbers. The
polynomials are analogous to integers and the algebraic functions are analogous to rational
numbers .In the study of functions in general, (perhaps the only purpose of Calculus), a little
special attention need be given to these two types of functions as they are most frequently met
with in Geometry and Physics. To have a closer look at rational algebraic functions consider the
f g
power series f ( z ) az 4 bz 3 cz 2 d .z e which can also be expressed as
z z2
p( z )
1
f (z)
z 2
az 6 bz 5 cz 4 dz 3 ez 2 fz g which is in the form f z
q ( z)
and consider another
power series g ( z )
1 sz
1
t z
az 6 bz5 cz 4 dz 3 ez 2 fz g . These are ratios of polynomials
just as rational numbers are ratios of integers , the denominators not being zero of course. The
latter expression g(z) shall be a convergent power series for |sz| < 1 and |z| < |t|, or simply for |z|
< min(|t|, 1/|s|). Expressions of the type 1/q(z) can be factorised into real or complex linear
1 n
factors in z like which can further be broken into partial fractions of the types
(1 sz)(t z ) (1 sz )
m
and which would result in converging power series for restricted values of z. Thus the
(t z )
algebraic functions are analogous to rational numbers which are convergent series of decimals
and the limit of the series is expressible as a ratio of integers.
Irrational numbers are also converging power series of 1/10; but the only
difference is that they cannot be expressed as ratio of integers. Similarly there are
transcendental functions of x which are convergent power series in 1/x but they cannot be
expressed as ratio of polynomials. Examples of transcendental functions are e x ,sin x,cos x,ln x,
etc.
© Page 37
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
It must be noted that values of ex may not be a transcendental number always
even if ex is always a transcendental function. In fact, any algebraic number, any rational
number and any integer is some power of e, i.e. ex for some value of x, which is equal to
logarithm of that number. And certainly this does not mean that every number is transcendental.
If f(x) is put equal to zero, f(x) = 0 becomes an equation , as we know; and the
values of x for which f(x) = 0 are called its roots or its zeroes; zeroes of the equation. The roots
of the equation f(x) = 0 are important .Not only they indicate that at certain points the function
becomes zero, but they are the only thing, out of which the function is constituted; as we shall
see a little later. That is, if 1, 2, 3, ….n etc. are roots of f(x) = 0 , f(x) itself is nothing but a0(x
-1)( x - 2)(x - 3)….(x - n)which would be proved a just a little after. A polynomial f(x) =P(x) /
Q(x) where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials of degree (highest power of x) m and n
respectively is called a rational algebraic function of degree m – n
When we consider expressions in a single variable x such as ax2 + 2x , sin x, px4 + qx + r etc.,
we carry out ‘some operation’ on x , which ‘modifies’ x into the value of expression concerned.
The expressions are called functions of x, as they are nothing but some ‘templates’ or ‘place
holders’ such as a[ ]2 + 2[ ] , sin [ ], p[ ]4 + q[ ] + r etc. , which hold different values of x to give
different values of the expressions on computation . The notion given to us in our early days of
high school appears somewhat complex or intricate and we are seldom able to study the
functions or different sets of operations performed on x in a simple manner. Suppose in these
place holders, one puts 2x + 3 instead of x and thus we arrive at a combination of operations or,
a function of a function ,which further makes the matter difficult to understand. Let us denote px4
+ qx + r by (x) and let us denote 2x + 3 by (x) so that the combined operation may be
expressed by ((x)) or (x)(o) which shall stand for p(2x + 3)4 + q(2x + 3) + r. Such is the
notation for writing functions as operators – from the right of the argument (x) to further right. In
general case, operators may not be commutative meaning thereby (x)o may not be equal to
(x)o depending upon the nature of and . If the two functions and are not commutative
according to the nature of expressions they stand for. It may so happen that (x)o may be
equal to (x)o for a particular value of x, but that does not make the operators or functions
commutative and we do not say o = o, if the expressions are such. But succession or
compounding of operators is associative in general. It means (x)(o)o = (x)o(o) for all x if
at all the functions are well defined. Different associations of the same operators or functions in
the same sequence of application do not matter.
Hitherto we have loosely used operators and functions synonymously; in fact they are so, to a
large extent. Had we called , , etc as functions, we would have written the notations in a
different manner. Such as (x) should have been written as (x); (x)(o) should have been
written as ((x)), (x)(o)o should have been written as (((x)) and so on; in right to left
manner It follows that grouping of functions in the same order is associative when we consider
function of functions.
To demonstrate a difference between an operation and a function in their inherent nature,
consider the following .
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
An operator is linear if (a b) = a b where is a binary operation such as addition,
multiplication etc. If the operator takes members a, b belonging to set A to members a and b
respectively in set B, we say the operation is preserved in set B as in set A , for the similar
operation can be carried out in set B when the members of set A are taken to set B. Such an
operator is called homomorphic and the relation it stands for is called a homomorphism. A
one-to-one homomorphism is an isomorphism or the corresponding operator is called an
isomorphic. Isomorphism is otherwise defined as a one-to-one and onto correspondence
between two sets. Prove that the latter concept is equivalent to what we have said just now.)
Function notation and terminology are slightly different. A function f:AB is called linear
or of first degree, if f(x) = Mx + N for some constants M and N for all x belonging to domain of f
in set A. Graph of this function is a straight line with slope M and intercept on Y – axis N. If the
members of set A can be added to one another in usual sense , we have,
f(x + y) = M(x +y) + N =( Mx + N )+ (My + N) – N = f(x) + f(y) – N f(x) + f(y) .
So a linear function does not define a homomorphism as a linear operator does.
Exercise 72
If f is a linear function such that f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) , prove that the graph of the function passes
through the origin.
Let f(x) = Mx + N for some constants M and N; ( as it is given to be linear function)
so that we have,
f(x + y) = M(x +y) + N =( Mx + N )+ (My + N) – N = f(x) + f(y) – N
But f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) as per the question.
So f(x) + f(y) – N = f(x) + f(y) . Hence it follows that N = 0 and thus, f(x) = Mx.
Putting x = 0, we get f(x) = 0 . That means that the point (0, f(0)) is on the graph or the graph of
the function passes through the origin.
Thus it may be understood that operator concept has wider scope and application than function.
It can operate on other algebraic objects not only on numbers, such as differential operators
operating on functions and numbers as well. (The example shall be evident on study of
differential equations).
§18: Graphs of functions:
Let the function be f(x) = 2x2 + 3 or let y = 2x2 + 3. The expression is equivalent to a ‘rule’ which
states that the function of a variable x is twice the square of the variable added to 3, for all
values of the variable. So a rule can be adopted in exchange of the expression. Still in another
manner, we might explicitly write down all possible cases how the rule works. This is done by
means of a table, listing all possible values of the function for all possible values of the variable.
As example we may use the following table instead of the expression or rule quite in an
equivalent manner. This table we were making before drawing the graph of the function in high
school.
x 0 1 -1 2 -2 3 -3 2 .. .. …. ….
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Still in another manner, the function can be represented by its graph as in the following
Y
N M
X’ X
O
Y’
figure.
Note that we are making sketches of graphs for illustration and not actually drawing the graphs
to scale.
The graph starts from the point (0, 3) on the y – axis, corresponding to the value x = 0, and
extends over to infinite distance along y – axis in two branches symmetrically placed around y –
axis. We can get the value at any point of the variable x by drawing an ordinate parallel to y-axis
at x. That finishes its equivalence with the table representation of the function or representation
by rule or expression. The different representations have their own different utilities and
advantages.
The table representation brings out one important aspect; that the function is nothing but
merely a correspondence between members x and y , symbolically x y of two sets X and Y
all values of x and all values of y in entirety. X and Y are called the domain and the range of the
function f and are subsets of real numbers.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
Y
2
x=y
y=x2
X’ O X
X’ O X
Y’
A graph of exponential function ax for cases a>1 and a<1 is given below. .Note
a0 = 1 in both cases ) (fig.2.5). Exponential function increases for a>1 and decreases for a <1.
Y Y
y = 2x
X’ X
O(0,0) X’ O(0,0) X
x
Y’ y= a , a < 1
Y’ y= ax , a>1,
© Page 41
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
10
8
y=(1/2)^x 6 y = 2^x
4
2 X
1
-1
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
If a > 1, say a = 2, y = 2x is shown in above figure. As 20 =1,so the point (0,1) lies on the graph.
y increases to as x increases to . For x < 0, -x > 0 and 2x = 1 / 2-x ,the fraction goes on
diminishing to 0
If a < 1, say a = 1 / 2, y = 1 / 2x is shown in fig.2.5b. As 20 =1,so the point (0,1) lies on
the graph. The fraction goes on diminishing to 0 as x increases. For x < 0, -x > 0 and 1 / 2x = 2-x
which goes on increasing to as decreases to - .
Y
10
8
6
4
2 X
1
-1
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-3
-5
-7
-9
Y
Compare the graphs of y 10
– e^x and that of y = e ^(-x) meeting at (0, 1)
8
y = e^(-x) 6
y = e^x
4
2 X
1
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
10
8 y = 4^x
y = 3^x
6
4 y = 2^x
2 X
1
(0, 1)
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
y = (1/4)^x
y = (1/3)^x Y
10
8
6
y = (1/2)^x
4
2 X
1
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-5
-8
-10
Compare the graphs of( ½)^x,(1/3)^ x, (¼)^x all intersecting at (0, 1) and compare them with graphs of2^x, 3^x, 4^x
c) Logarithmic functions
These are inverse functions of exponential functions. This is evidently from definition of
logarithms. For example, if a x y , then loga y x . Thus y is positive for all values of x if a > 1.
Y
10
8
6 x = log y
4
y = log x
2 X
1
-1
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
If a >1, a x has the domain R and range only positive real numbers; so logarithm of a negative
number is impossible ( imaginary).
© Page 43
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
2.5
2
y = log (-x) 1.5 y = log x
1
0.5 X
-1 0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
Y
y = ln x
X
-2 -1.5 -1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5
y = - lnx
ex – e-x ex + e-x
sinh x = cosh x =
Graphs of hyperbolic functions 2 and 2
are given here. cosh x is always positive and increases to as x (tends to) or x - .
cosh x =1 for x =0, so point (0,1) is on the curve . cosh x remains unchanged if x is replaced by
– x . So it is symmetric about y-axis.
Sinh x passes through the origin as it is 0 for x = 0. It tends to through positive values
of x and it tends to - through negative values of x. If x is replaced by –x, sinh x becomes - sinh
x ; so it is antisymmetric about y-axis.
Exercise73
Prove that cosh2 x - sinh2 x = 1 (Prove by just applying their definitions .Just
square up and subtract to prove it.).They are called hyperbolic functions (sinh x is read as sin
hyperbolic x).
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y Y
y=cosh y=sinh
x
X’ O X
(0,1
X’ O X
Y’ Y’
y=cosh x, graph of uniformly y=sinh x, passes through the
heavy chain hanging freely origin and is antisymmetric
under gravity. about y=axis.
sinh x 1 1
Similarly, tanh x = , coth x = , sech x = , and
cosh x tanh x cosh x
1
cosech x = Prove also that 1 – tanh2 x = sech2 x , coth2 x - 1 = cosech2 x ,
sinh x
Inverse hyperbolic functions are defined in the same lines of inverse circular functions e.g.
x = sinhy y = sinh-1x . Investigate the domains and ranges of the functions.
Verify and remember the following results by just using the definition x = sinhy y = sinh-1x .
e y + e-y
As an example, solve x = sinhy = for y and get the first formula in the following. See it
2
e y + e-y x ± x2 - 1
how. x = sinhy = e 2y - 2xe y +1= 0 e y . Only the + sign is to be
2 2
retained since x x 2 -1 and ln x function is defined only for positive values of x.
© Page 45
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
1 1+ x
sinh-1x = ln x + x 2 +1 , cosh-1x = ln x + x 2 - 1 , tanh-1x = ln
2 1- x
-1 1 1- x -11+ 1- x 2 -1 1± 1- x 2
coth x = ln , sech x = ln , cosec x = ln
2 1+ x x x
Let y sinh 1 x ,
e y e y
so that x sinh y e2 y 2 xe y 1 0 e y x x 2 1 ,
2
or, y ln x
x 2 1 . But since x x 2 1 is negative, its logarithm has no meaning. Also we
Similarly, cosh 1 x ln x
x 2 1 . But both values are positive here . cosh 1 x will not be
single valued , hence not a function, if both values are taken. To modify the definition of
cosh 1 x to make it a function, note that , for x 1 , x x 2 1 1 and ln x x 2 1 0 ; and
x x2 1
x x 1
1
2
1 , for which ln x x 2 1 0 .Hence the definition of cosh 1 x is
1 x 1
75) coth 1 x ln , defined only for x 1 ,
2 x 1
1 1 1 x2
76) sec h x ln only for 0 x 1 and
x
1 1 x2
77) cos ech1 x ln positive or negative sign is taken as x is positive or negative
x
respectively, for ,logarithm function is only defined for positive values of the argument.
Graphs of periodic or circular functions, sin x, cos x, tan x and cot x are given in Fig.1.9
& 1.10:(Note the domain and range in each case and the values of functions at 0, π/2, π,
3π/2, 2π. and -π/2, -π, -3π/2, -2π The values repeat at each interval of 2π. Such
© Page 46
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
functions whose values are repeated at definite intervals are called periodic functions
and the interval is called a period. In general if a function f(x) is periodic with a period τ
if f(x) = f (x + nτ ) where n is any +ve or -ve integer.
Y
(2,1) (0,1)
(-3/2,1) Y (/2,1)
X’ O X
(-2,0)
X’ X
(-,-1) (,-1)
Y’ Y’
y = sin x y =cos x
Note that the domain of sine or cosine functions is the entire set of real numbers. Each of their
range is [-1,1]; maximum value they can have is 1 and minimum is -1 (sin /2 =1 = cos 0, sin
3/2 = -1 = cos , sin 0 = 0 = cos/2) .Remember the formulae for complementary angles,
supplementary angles etc. from the previous chapter. Similarly cosecant and secant functions
being reciprocals of sine and cosine their domain is entire set of real number and range is ]-,
1] [1,[ and their absolute values are never less than 1. no trigonometric function, in fact ,
none of the periodic functions in general, can admit of an inverse function as many points in the
domain are taken to one point in the range by the function. When the domain and range are
interchanged, the correspondence is not single valued and therefore is no function; since we are
interested in single valued function only. If sin -1 ½ = /6 , 5/6 , 13/6 etc, which value should
we take? So sin -1 can be a function if the domain is taken [0, /2] , so that there is no periodicity
or repetition. Observe the figures and note suitable intervals in which each of the trigonometric
functions tan, cot, sec and cosec can suitably admit of inverse function.
Y Y
x=
x=-3/2
x=3/2
x=2
x=-/2
x=/2
x=-2
X=-
-/2 /2
O
X’ O X X’ X
-
Y’
Y’
y = tan x y = cot x
© Page 47
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Y
x=/2
Y
x=-
x=-/2
x=-3/2
x=3/
x=
y=1 - /2 y=1
X’ O X X’ O X
- 3/2
y=-1 y=-1
Y
Y’
y=sec x ’
y=cosec x
Note the distinction between the terms inverse (1/x, reciprocal) and inverse function.
In general, a function f x is called periodic if the functional values repeat after a definite
interval in the independent variable. In symbols, if f x f x T , it is a periodic function and
T is called the period.
There is no need to recount trigonometric functions already taught in high school. Only the
domain and range of the functions may be investigated and remembered
Example74
A function y A sin t , where t , time is independent variable for the displacement y of a
vibrating body. The displacement repeats back and forth starting from initial position y = 0 to
maximum displacement y = A, ( for maximum value 1 of sine function) , (called the amplitude)
from which point it returns back to the position y = 0 and moves back to a maximum distance
y = – A , (corresponding to minimum value – 1 of the sine function) and again returns back to
the 0 position. Such kind of motion is called a simple harmonic motion or SHM.
The period T is given by
2
A sin t A sin t T t T t 2 T
T is time taken to make a complete revolution. The reverse of it it number of revolutions per
1
second is called frequency. If y =0 is the starting point then 0 . Otherwise if we take
T
any other point as starting point 0 . It is called the initial angle or the phase angle.
Exercise78
If T is a period of any periodic function , show that 2T, 3T, – T etc are also periods.
Exercise79
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
a b
f x a cos x b sin x a 2 b 2 cos x sin x
a b a 2 b2
2 2
Hint.
a 2 b 2 cos cos x sin sin x a 2 b 2 cos x
a b
As we could take cos and sin , sum of their squares being 1.
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
Exercise80
Ex81: Show that maximum and minimum of two functions f x and g x can be defined as
f x g x f x g x
max f x , g x ,
2 2
f x g x f x g x
min f x , g x remember
2 2
Miscexercise remember
Find the periods of the following functions :
n
82) sin x , n is even integer Ans : π
n
83) sin x , n is odd integer Ans : 2π
n
84) cos x , n is even integer Ans : π
n
85) cos x , n is odd integer Ans : 2π
n
86) tan x , n is any integer Ans : π
n
87) cot x , n is any integer Ans : π
n
88) sec x , n is odd integer Ans : 2π
n
89) co sec x , n is odd integer Ans : 2π
90) sin x , cos x , tan x , cot x , sec x , cos ecx Ans. :π
Example75 remember
If two simple harmonic motions of the same frequency are executed on the same body in the
same line, show that their sum is also a simple harmonic motion in the same line.
Suppose y1 A sin t and y2 B sin t are two such SHMs on the same body
.Displacements of the same body in the same direction is to be arithmetically added.
Then we have
y y1 y2 A sin t B sin t A sin t B sin t cos B cos t sin
A B cos sin t B sin cos t
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
A B cos
2
B 2 sin 2 A2 B 2 cos2 B 2 sin 2 2 AB cos
Now
A2 B 2 2 AB cos A2 B 2 2 AB cos
A B cos B sin
We can put cos and sin , as sum of their
A2 B 2 2 AB cos A2 B 2 2 AB cos
squares is 1 and putting A2 B 2 2 AB cos C , we have,
y y1 y2 C cos sin t C sin cos t C sin t
So this is again seen to be a SHM in the same line with the same period , but with a different
sin B sin
phase tan and new amplitude C A B 2 AB cos
2 2
cos A B cos
If both the SHMs are in the same phase, i.e., if 0 , the resulting SHM is also in the same
phase and has maximum amplitude A B . If both the SHMs are in opposite phase ,i.e. if
then the amplitude is minimum A B but the resulting SHM is also in the same phase.
Exercise91
f x f x T f T f 0 f T
For a periodic function . Show that
Exercise37
If f x x [ x] , i.e. fractional part of x, show that it is periodic and has 1 as the period.
Exercise94
1 when x rational
The function f x repeats itself and so it is a periodic
0 when x irrational
function. But it has no period . verify.
Exercise95
If the function sin x cos px is periodic , show that p must be an integer or a rational number.
Hint. Use f T f 0 f T to prove sin T 0 T m , cos aT 1 cos 2n ,or,
© Page 50
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
n
am 2n a .
m
Exercise96
Show that a periodic function cannot have an inverse function unless the domain of the inverse
mapping
is restricted to a suitable half period.
Example76: Wave Functions
Suppose the particles in a medium vibrate in a vertical direction one after another. The
advancing wave propagates in the medium causing the particles farther and farther to vibrate .
Snapshot of a typical advancing wave shall be the graph of a sine or cosine function since not
all the particles in the medium are in same phase at the same time. Displacement of a particle
2
at a distance x from the origin at any time t may be given by y A sin x vt is such a
v
typical wave equation. The velocity v of the wave is given by T , where , or wavelength is
the distance of any two adjacent particles in the same phase. The wave has travelled precisely
this distance by the time any particle has completed one revolution in time period T. Also since
1
v
the frequency T , we may write T
Exercise97
Verify from the wave equation that is the distance travelled by the wave in time period T
Graph of inverse circular functions is given below ;(One expects X and Y coordinates
are interchanged . Of course, yes. But with one difference; these functions are not periodic and
the pieces of the graphs do not repeat themselves as the graphs of Trigonometric functions)
Y Y Y
(-1,)
O
X
X O
X’ X’ X’ X
O (1,0)
(-1,-/2)
y=-/2
Y=sin-1x
Y=cos-1x Y’ Y=tan-1x
Y’ Y’
© Page 51
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
( In all such cases, domain of inverse function must be chosen where the function is
one-to-one, so that the inverse function exists).
The formulae for inverse trigonometric functions can be translated easily from the corresponding
trigonometric functions just by using the definition of it e.g. if sin y x , then y sin 1 x .
Y
Y Y
(1,/2)
(-1,)
y=/2 X’
(0,/2)
y=/2 O X
X’ O X X’ O (1,0) X (-1,-/2)
Y’ Y’ Y’
-1
Y=cot x Y=sec-1x Y=cosec-1x
This is just as you derive the laws of logarithm from the laws of indices by just using the
definition of logarithm. One such example is illustrated below.
Example77
a
p q
M q a pq log a M q pq q log a M . Just with the definition and symbols.
b) To prove sin 1 x cos 1 x by using sin cos . Just from the definition
2 2
y sin 1 x sin y x cos y x y cos 1 x sin 1 x cos 1 x
2 2 2
Similarly try proving the following on your own and remember; in case of difficulty, see any
standard book on trigonometry for inverse circular functions.
Examples78
1 1 1
a) cosec -1x = sin-1 , cot -1x = tan-1 , sec -1x = cos -1 ,etc.
x x x
π
b) sin-1x + cos-1x = = tan-1x + cot -1x = sec -1x + cosec -1x
2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
-1 -1 2 1- x 2
-1 x 1 -1 1
c) θ = sin x = cos 1- x = tan = cot = sec -1 = cosec -1
1- x 2 x 1- x 2 x
-1 x y xyz
d) tan x tan y = tan , tan x tan y tan z = tan
-1 -1 -1 -1 -1 -1
1 xy 1 xy yz zx
e) sin-1x ± sin-1y = sin-1 x 1- y2 ± y 1- x 2 ,,,
cos-1x ± cos -1y = cos -1 xy 1- y2 1- x 2
f)
2sin-1x = sin-1 2x 1- x 2 , 2cos-1x = cos-1 2x 2 1 ,
2
-1 -1 2x -1 2x -1 1- x
g) 2tan x = tan = sin = cos
1- x2 1+ x2 1+ x2
Exercise99
Find the domain of tan 1 x 2 x sin 1 x 2 x 1 and solve it.
2
We have to restrict x x 0, 0 x 2 x 1 1 x 2 x 0 x 0, or 1
2
Hint. and
x y
Ex100: Show that f x f y f for a function f x in , , if f x tan x
1
1 xy
h) Cubical Parabola
X’ O X
Y’
cubical parabola, graph of y = x3
© Page 53
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Only for raising interest in the reader we give below a table of special curves.
© Page 54
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
Error function y e x
2
( We could eliminate from the two equations to get a relation between x and y, but the result
won’t be of any practical importance)
If the function does not change when x is replaced with -x, i.e. ,if
f(x) = f(-x) the function is called even. x2.,x4, cos x ,cosh x etc. are even functions. If
f(x) = -f(-x) the function is called odd function. x3, x5, sin x, sinh x etc. are odd functions
.If f(x) = f(-x) the graph is symmetric about Y-axis.
For example, signum x is an odd function, since signum (- x) = - signum x; as (-x ) is negative
as x is positive and vice versa. ( signum x = 1 for x >0, = -1 for x ,0)
x
Take another example, f x 1 . Note that if x is an even number, x is an odd
number and vice versa; so f x f x and therefore it is an odd function.
Note that if f(x) = g(x) + g(-x) does not change if x is replaced with -x, and hence, it is
even function.
Similarly f(x) = g(x) + g(-x) changes to -f(-x) when x is replaced with -x, hence it
f x f x f x f x
is odd function. Any function f(x) can be expressed f x =
2 2
i.e., as a sum of even and odd functions if defined in an interval like [– q, q] .A function
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
may be neither odd nor even e.g. y = ln x. lack of symmetry compels to seek symmetry at a
different level.
Exercise99
a) If f(x) is even, g(x) is even, f(x).g(x) is even.
Ex100 :
x y f x f y
Ans. Putting x 0 y in f we have,
P P
f 0 f 0
f 0 f 0 P 2 0 .
P
x y f x f y
Putting y x in f we have,
P P
f x f x
f 0 f x f x Pf 0 P.0 0 , by above. So f x is an odd
P
function.
Exercise101
Verify that product of any two odd functions is even, two even functions is even. Product
of an odd function and an even function is odd..
Exercise103
Put – x in place of x in the following and determine which are odd/ even functions.
© Page 56
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
a)
x
b)
x2 x
c) x sin 2 x d)
1
2 x e)
y log a x x 2 1
exercise104 :
x 1
f x f
Given that x 2 being an even function, find its domain.
f x f x
Ans ; Since as the function is even, we have
x 1
x ................(1)
x 1 x2
f x f f x
x2 x x 1 ...............(2)
x2
1 5 1 3
x ,
On simplification, 2 2
Exercise 105:
a x 1 1
n
x n a x 1 3
If the function is symmetric about Y – axis then show that .
If the value of a function is not changed by interchanging a pair of variables the function is a
symmetrical function. For example,x2 + y2 + xy(x+y), x3 +y3 +z3 +3xyz,(x-a)(x-b)(x-c) etc.
Evidently sum, difference, product and quotient of symmetric functions shall be symmetric also.
A function may totally change its sign when two of its variables are interchanged. For example,
(x + y + z){ (x2 (y - z) + y2 (z - x) + z2 (x - y)} will be negative without change in its structure, if x
and y are interchanged. The function is said to be an alternating function with respect to x and
y. This example also shows that product of a symmetrical function and an alternating function
shall be alternating function.
A function may neither be symmetrical or alternating.
But, If a x b ,or, b x a ,adding a+b to all sides, a a b x b (and some function f(x)
and f(a+ b - x)are both defined in the domain [a, b] and , then, we can replace any function
f(x) with f(a +b - x) anywhere in a problem by changing the variable x to a + b – x; for
the nature and structure of the two functions remains same and they have same domain
absolutely.
© Page 57
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
c) Implicit Functions :
A polynomial of second degree ax2 +2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy +c = 0 may be solved for y in
terms of x as follows.
ax2 +2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy +c = 0 by2 +2hxy+2fy + ax2 + 2gx +c = 0
by2 +2(hx +f)y +( ax2 + 2gx +c) = 0
hx f hx f 2 bax 2 2gx c
y ……………………..(1)
b
But sometimes such endeavor is not practical or just not possible. Nevertheless, there is no
difficulty in study of the eqn. in Calculus. Standard tools of differentiation and integration would
be sufficient to study the eqn. which we write in the form (x, y) = 0 where is regarded as a
function of both x and y and the fact that y is a function of x , is understood to be contained
implicitly in the eqn. (x, y) = 0. Such functions are called implicit functions.
The eqn.(1) can be written as hx by f hx f b ax 2 2gx c . In order that it may be a
2
linear expression in x, the part under the root should be a perfect square so that our eqn. (x, y)
= 0 may be product of two linear factors.
This implies (hx + f)2 – b (ax2 +2gx +c) should be a perfect square
x2(h2 – ab) +2x(hf – g ) + (f2 – bc) should be a perfect square
x2(h2 – ab) +2x(hf – g ) + (f2 – bc) =0 should have equal roots
its discriminant (hf – g )2 - (h2 – ab) (f2 – bc) = 0.
af2 + bg2 + ch2 – abc – 2fgh = 0
is the required condition that ax2 +2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy +c = 0 may be resolved into two
linear factors. Compare the case of quadratic equation in single variable where the discriminant
is not necessarily a whole square.
§64:Parametric equations of curves.
It is often to express the two variables x and y as different functions of a single variable so that
the functions could be worked upon easily with Calculus tools as implicit functions become
explicit in this way. However the economy of variables results in two equations for one.
Example80
Eliminate ‘t’ from the equations to show that they represent a parabola.
a) x = at2 , b) y = 2at.
Ans : y2 = 4ax it is equation of a parabola
Example81
Eliminate ‘’ from the equations to show that they represent an ellipse.
a) x = a cos b) y = b sin
Ans : x2/a2 + y2/b2 = 1 it is equation of an ellipse as we shall learn later on.
Example 82
A cycloid is a curve traced out by a point on the circumference of a wheel which rolls without
sliding ,along a straight path. The parametric equations are,
a) x = a( - sin ) , b) y = a (1- cos ).
Y
cycloid
T U V
© Page 58
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Z
C
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
In the picture, let P be the point on the circle which starts from the origin O , describing the
curve OPVS as the circle moves along the X-axis .While the point P moves from O to P along
the curved path OPVS the radius PC turns clockwise about the vertical direction and let it
describe an angle at the centre of the moving circle , = angle PCR . The point P is raised
from O on the ground to its present position as the points to the right of it on the circle touch the
ground (X-axis) successively. Thus the distance traveled by the circle OR should be equal to the
arc described by P, i.e., arc PR . If it is not understood, let the circle retrace its path to its
original position and as such, the point P is lowered back to its original position O. Hence OR =
arc PR = r , where r is radius of the circle. Now x = OQ = OR – QR = OR – PM = r - r
sin = r( - sin ). and y = PQ = MR = CR – CM = r – r cos = r(1 – cos ) . Taking a =3
what we get from graphing is given below.
Y
x = 3(t-sint), y = 3(1-cost)
Misc Exercise
t
106) x 4 tan 2 , y a sin t b cos t
2
107) x sin 1 t , y 1 t 2
108) x ln 1 t 2 , y t tan 1 t
© Page 59
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
y tan 1 2t 1
2
109) x e t ,
a sin t c cos t
110) x , y
1 b cos t 1 b cos t
t3
111) x t 2,
2
y t
3
Exercise114
Exercise115
Exercise116
1 x
Find the domain of the function . Ans. 2 x 1 and 1 x 2 .
x 2
Exercise117
f x a sin x b cos x c
Express 4 as a function of a single trigonometric ratio Sin or cos
and find its domain and range. Also specify when the function is onto, one to one and one to
one and onto.
© Page 60
Page 142 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
a a
f x a sin x b cos x c a sin x cos cos x sin b cos x c sin x b cos x c
4 4 4 2 2
a b 2 1
2 2
a b 2 1 2 2
sin x cos x c
2 2 2
a b 2 a
2 2
a b 2 a
2
2 2
2
2
b 2 a
2 2
a b 2 a 2 c A sin x c where
sin x tan 1
a
2 2
2
a b 2 1 b 2 a
2 cos and
2 sin , 2 b 2 a tan
2 2 2 a a
a b 2 a
2
a b 2 a
2
2 2 2 2
2 2
a b 2 a
A a b 2ab . The domain is R and the range is [c – A, c +A].
2 2
2 2
The function is an onto function if f : R c A, c A . The function is one to one in the sub-
domain 0 x 2 x ,2 . The function is one to one and onto if
f : ,2 c A, c A .
Exercise118 remember
There is one injective from A to B and one from B to A. If both are finite sets, show that there is
a bijective from A to B . Hint : 1st prove that they have same number of elements.
Exercise119 remember
There are two finite sets A and B having m and n number of elements respectively.
m
Show that the total number of mappings from A to B is n .
Exercise120
© Page 61
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This section is not a part of the preview.
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
Section 1: Identity, Division ,Symmetry, Set Theory, Numbers And Functions
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 5: Functions and Graphs Part I
There are two real valued bijective functions f x and g x which are mirror images of each
other about the line y = a. Then show that f x g x is neither one-one nor onto.
Exercise121 remember
sin x
Show that the function f x is a constant function.
x2 x 1
Exercise122 remember
n
Show that the total number of distinct functions from A to A is n if the set has n elements.
Exercise123
1 n 151
If f n
2 100
, find f n .Ans.104.
1
Exercise124
f 1 3, f 2 1, f 3 2
Ans. 2.
Exercise125
© Page 62
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 2: Limit, Continuity And Differentiation
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 8:The Concept Of Limit Of a Function Part I
CHAPTER 8:THE CONCEPT OF LIMITSOF A FUNCTION PART I
§1:Concept of Limit:
In the figure 2. 1. above, for all values of x less than 1 we have y = x i.e., when x is
very near to 1 remaining less than 1 at the same time, y is also near 1. Similarly when
x is greater than 1, but very near to 1 at the same time, y = 2 – x is also near to 1. So
y is nearing 1 from either side when x is near to 1. We say this fact in Calculus language
as “ limit” of y is equal to 1 when x approaches 1.No matter whether f(1) is same as that
limit or different ; even function at that point may not have been defined. The limit
does not depend upon the value of the function at the point in question.
A function f(x) is said to tend to a limit ‘L’ at x = a, if the value of f(x) can be made
arbitrarily near to L, if x is chosen sufficiently near ‘a’ [ f(a) may or may not be defined).
In symbolic notation, Limxa
f(x) = L. ](The word arbitrarily is stressed upon because, the statement
being true in the other direction may not suffice. Appropriate example shall be explained a little
later.)
In the above example, (fig.2.1) , we can make 1 – f(x) < if we take the values of x such that 1 –
x < as long as x <1;(for ,y = x for all x < 1) .This we write
Lim f(x) = 1 or say, f(x) tends to 1 from left or from below or say left handed limit of the
x (1 0)
function at x = 1. Similarly we can see that we can make f(x) –1 < if we choose the
values of x such that x – 1 < ( as f(x) = 2 – x for all x more than 1 but less than 2). We write
this as Lim f(x) =1 and say that the function f(x) tends to 1 from right or from above or
x (1 0)
say the right handed limit of f(x) at x = 1 is 1. Imagine what would have been the result if our
function had been defined as f(x) = 3 – x, instead of 2 – x for x values above 2; the right handed
limit would have been 2 instead of being 1.
© Page 1
that x – a < Only one case of failure would ascertain non-existence of limit of f(x) at
x = a . (Two symbols ‘ L’ and ‘a’ are per chance same ( 1 each) in the example taken, they
need not be the same in general).Note also the triangle inequality [ p < q –p<q<
p ] for understanding the combined statement.
The phrase ‘however small’ needs some explanation. Different people have different standards of
smallness. For example a grain of sugar may be negligible for a sugar merchant, but it is more than
own weight of an ant. The order of smallness or negligibility can be different for different purposes
too. For example, a small grain of copper sulphate is by no means negligible for spectroscopic
investigation. So, for Mathematics, the standard of smallness must be universal, for all people and
for all purposes; therefore the word ‘arbitrarily small’. ( do not confuse this with order of smallness ,a
totally different concept.)
Note : ε and δ may be thought of as small positive numbers unless otherwise stated.
x2 9
EXAMPLE 1: Find Lim y , if y
x3
x3
Straight putting x = 3 renders the expression in 0/0 form and is useless. One cannot
substitute x = 3 direct here. A great scientist Einstein had said that a problem is solved as
soon as it is correctly known. So let us take x = 3 + where the latter is a variable small
number near zero which can be made as small as we please .(Imagine this symbol to be
a box which encloses the arbitrarily small variable , we need not bother about the variable, we
could take the box anywhere we please easily and toss it away mercilessly at last, when
we could do so. This is the beauty of using symbols exactly where difficulty is met with) .
x2 9 2 9 6 2 9
= (3 ) 9 6
x3 3 3
The last can be discarded at last , then the answer = 6. So our arbitrarily small number (+ve
or –ve) has been enclosed within the symbol and we have chosen no standards of smallness
to be neglected; this can be made as small as one pleases.
The objective of this example is to show that , in working out problems, we may cancel out
common factors from numerator and denominator (for sake of short cut, for , while taking limits,
we may replace zero factors by non-zero infinitesimals, even if the functional value is undefined, as
there is no dependence of limit on functional value). This is by substituting the factor 0 by h,
an infinitesimal. But care must be taken to see that there is no division by 0. See the note below.
NOTE :
Division by 0 is an impossible operation, for example, if you divide a basket containing ten
apples to a number of people giving 0 to each, an infinite number of people you may count. But this
is not a division, since the basket of apples is never exhausted in the process. This is in contrast to
© Page 2
h3 3
lim
x 3
Example2 Find h
In this example, we cannot substitute 0 by h direct, as may be done in a variety of problems,
0
since t involves division by 0. Some manipulation must be done to avoid . This is done by
0
rationalizing the denominator. See below.
lim h 3 3 lim
x 3
h3 3 h3 3 lim h 33
1
1
x 3
h h h3 3 x 3
h h3 3 33 3 3 3
lim h3 3
x 0
Example3 Find h
lim h 3 3 lim
x 0
h3 3 h3 3 lim h 33
1
1
x 0
h h h3 3 x 0
h h3 3 03 3 2 3
There is a special significance of this problem. This limit is rate of change of the function h near
0.
© Page 3
Example4
ax a 1
Find lim . Ans. . Hint :Rationalize the exp.
x0 x 2 a
lim
ax a ax a lim x
1
x 0
x ax a x 0
x ax a 2 a
EXAMPLE5 : Find limit of f(x) = x2 /x2 at x = 0,
The function is identically 1 for all values of x 1 and is not defined for x =
2
Lim x
1.The latter fact does not prevent us from taking limit at x = 1. So, x 1 2 1
x
For this reason note here that the functions f(x) = x2 /x2 and f(x) =1 are different functions. Are
their domains different?
x
EXAMPLE 6 : Let y .We have x x for x 0 and x x for x 0 y = 1 for x 0 and
x
y = -1 for x 0 that the left handed limit is -1 and the right handed limit is 1 when
lim
x 0 . Hence x0 y does not exist . (If x1 and x2 are any two points in the opposite
sides of 0, we have f(x1) – f(x2) = 2, which cannot be made arbitrarily small, say < .3
whatever small interval for x1 – x2 we may choose. If we assume y1 y 2 < .03,in which
interval around x=0 which is not possible . Evidently we cannot get a for this case).
EXAMPLE7 : Consider the step function y = [x] ,the greatest integer not greater than x .
In the interval [2 , 3[ the value of the function is constant and = 2; but at x = 3, y = 3.So
the function’s value suddenly increased by 1, for virtually no increase of x. In other words, if
we imagine arbitrarily y to increase only by 0.01 around x = 3, we find no small interval
around x = 3, in which the function increases only by 0.01.For, however small interval we
Lim
take around x = 3, the function increases by 1.(Note also that x(2Lim
0 )
y 2 whereas x ( 20) y 3
and are different and hence the limit does not exist.)
EXAMPLE 8 : Can you construct another step function? Try y = [tan x] . Point out the
points where limit does not exist.
(Ans. x = tan-1 2, x = tan-1 3, x = tan-1 3 etc)
EXAMPLE 9 : Examine limit of sin(1/x) when x tends to 0.
When x tends to 0, 1/x becomes larger and larger and sin(1/x) takes all possible values
from -1 to 1. Hence no limit exists in this case.
EXAMPLE 10 : Examine limit of sin(1/x) when x tends to
When . x tends to , 1/x tends to 0 and sin(1/x) tends to 0 accordingly.
EXAMPLE 11 : If x= 1/y, x as y 0.An interesting outcome of this trivial result is as under:
A quadratic equation ax2 +bx +c =0, is supposed to have two roots anyway. Suppose c = 0, the
b 1
case gives, one root x = 0, and the other . Putting it in a different way, let x ; so the equation
a y
becomes a by cy 2 0 .If c = 0, the equation virtually ceases to be quadratic as it becomes
© Page 4
Note:
It is not always that we can not substitute the value of the variable direct for calculating the
0
limit. If the expression does not have indeterminate forms such as , ,00 ,1 etc, we could
0
direct substitute the value of variable to get the limit . It is only when the expression involves
indeterminate forms we resort to methods of avoiding indeterminate forms , such as
employing an infinitesimal ( є, δ definition), rationalizing, L’Hospital’s rule and other various
tools.
For example lim 3 x 2 2 3*22 2 3*4 2 10 , as it does not involve indeterminate forms.
x2
There may be limits of functions even when the independent variable tends to infinity, particularly
when the independent variable appears in the denominator. A minor modification must be made
in case the function f(x) tends to a definite number L when x tends to .
For any arbitrary ε , however small, we can find a number M, sufficiently
large, such that for all x, such that |x| > M , we get | f(x) – L | < ε true.
For example, f(x) = 1/x tends to 0 as x tends to . For |1/x – 0| to be less than 0.00025,
we can find a number 4000 such that , for all x, such that |x| > 4000, we have |1/x
– 0| < 0.00025.
You might think that the definition should have included something like |x - ∞| < δ . The phrase |x| >
M means the very same idea in a presentable manner.
§2a:A further extension of concept of limit; Infinite limits:
In a different situation, if f(x) tends to as x tends to ‘a’, then for any large positive
number M ,such that , we can find a sufficiently small number such that |f(x)| > M for
all x such that |x-a|< . .
(Please do not confuse here if you are a student. You are advised not to confuse
anywhere in fact. If at all you do, leave the point, proceed appreciably further ,then return
to a point prior to the point of confusion and proceed again leisurely . Either your confusion
shall dissolve or you may be able to find mistake/s at that point ! )
Infinite limits are only nominally limits as we do not have much to do with infinity.
Lim k
EXAMPLE 12 : Examine the x x when i) k > 0, ii) k = 0, iii) k < 0. i) When k
1
> 0, for any large number M, x k
> M x > Mk . So , for any arbitrary large number M
1
we can find a sufficiently large number N = Mk such that xk > M for all x > N. So in this
case, x
Lim k
x =
© Page 5
k< 0 .
p
EXAMPLE13: Examine Lim p z for cases i) z >1, ii) z = 1and iii) |z| < 1
Lim
i) for z > 1, zp increases indefinitely as p increases indefinitely. Hence p zp =
ii) for z = 1, zp = 1 for whatever p may be. Hence Lim p z
p
= 1
iii) for |z| < 1, let z = 1/y so that 1/y is either greater than 1 or less than - 1.Then zp or
(1/y)p decreases to 0 through positive or negative values. Hence Lim p
p z = 0.
EXAMPLE 14: Find lim tan . We know from its graph that tan θ = p/b and p increases indefinitely
2
and b decreases at the same time so that , for any large number M we can find a δ such that |π/2 –
θ| < δ.
Though the concept of limit is intuitive, it evolved through centuries since Leibniz and Newton
developed Calculus independently, even before that. It did not take shape until the last century and
the present form of definition was contributed by Cauchy and finally Weisstras formulated it. The
concept is so fundamental that it is at the root of all other concepts of Calculus like differentiation,
integration etc.
The concept itself does not give any method or clue to calculate any limit. But if we guess a limit
intuitively or by direct substitution, the definition only confirms whether the number is truly the limit
or not. So far we have had many typical examples and methods of finding limits as given above the
most common method , of course is a cautious guess by direct substitution and by practice only,
you would gain confidence of calculating limits. After the chapter on differentiation, a more formal
0
method due to L’Hopital would be introduced with wider applicability in , ,1 , 0 and 0 etc.
0
forms . For which standard technique of differentiation of numerator and denominator is used, such
as rationalization as mentioned above, or changing the variables, considering order of smallness (
explained towards the end of this chapter) or L’ Hospital’s rule ( explained after differentiation
chapter,).
§3:Algebra of limits
Infinitesimals are themselves not of any use (Are they?). But infinitesimally increasing or
decreasing sequences, if have limits, the limits are important and throughout Calculus we are
to only study these limits. So we need Algebra of limits to work with limits.(Proofs or
details may be omitted at first reading ;the results are obvious and useful for working
out problems)
Limits of functions behave like algebraic numbers in a manner (provided they exist) that if the
functions are added, limit of the addition function is addition of their limits and such other
results as follows:
© Page 6
Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, for each 1 and 2 such that │f(x) - L│< 1 and │g(x) - m │<
x a x a
2 we can find 1 and 2 such that │x - a│< 1 and │x - a│< 2 or can find a where
= min ( 1, 2) such that │x - a│<
Hence for every ε arbitrarily small, such that │(f(x) – g(x)) –( L + m) │ ≤ ε we can find a
such that │x - a│<
If Lim f(x) = L , for each 1 such that │f(x) - L│< 1 we can find 1 such │x - a│< 1
x a
Or for each │ p│. 1 such that │p │. │f(x) -L│ < │p │. 1 we can find 1 such
│x - a│< 1 (multiplying by a positive quantity does not change the direction of inequality.
Or for each such that │p . f(x) – p. L│ < │p │. 1 we can find 1 such │x - a│< 1
where we can choose 1 = / │p │.
Or for each such that │p . f(x) – p .L│ < we can find = 1 such │x - a│< setting
= │p │. 1 and = 1 which does not restrict any arbitrariness. (-ve value of p does
not affect │p │ , and for p = 0 the inequality holds good trivially)
(c) If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, Lim (f(x) - g(x)) = L - m (to prove)
x a x a x a
Setting p = - 1 in result (b) above, we get Lim ((-1) . g(x)) = ( -1) . m or, Lim -g(x) = - m
x a x a
And putting -g(x) in place of g(x) in result (a) above, we get, Lim ( f(x) – g(x) ) = Lim ( f(x) + (-
x a x a
g(x) ) )
© Page 7
If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, for any 1 and 2 such that, for │ f(x) - L │< 1 and
x a x a
│ g(x) - m│ < 2 ,we can find 1 and 2 such that │x - a│< 1 and │x -
a│< 2 or a such that = min( 1 2) where │x - a│<
For any arbitrary we can choose 1 and 2 such that 1 2 + m 1 + L 2 < where we
can find a such that │x - a│< (proved)
1
(e) If Lim g(x) = m, Lim = 1/ m (to prove) if m 0
x a x a g( x )
Let us prove this by disproving its contradiction .If Lim 1/ g(x) is not 1/ m let
x a
Lim 1/ g(x) = r Utilizing the result (d) Lim ( g(x) (1/g(x) ) = m .r , not equal to 1.
x a x a
But identically, Lim ( g(x) (1/g(x) ) = Lim 1 = 1 (Identically means ,independent of x or g(x))
x a x a
(f) If Lim f(x) = L and Lim g(x) = m, Lim (f(x) g(x)) = L m (to prove) if m 0 Lim
x a x a x a x a
(f(x) g(x)) =(f(x) x 1/ g(x)) = Lim f(x) x Lim 1/ g(x) ( by result (d)
x a x a
x g( x )
( In the example y if we set y = f(x), g( x ) x and h(x) = x, so that y f ( x ) ,
x h( x )
g( x )
0 h ( x ) but does not exist. The situation arises because division by 0 is
Lim
x 0 g( x ) 0 xLim Lim
x0
h(x )
not allowed. But nobody prevents us direct calculating the limit which is earlier shown to be 1)
© Page 8
Some call it Squeezing Theorem or Sandwich Theorem. The result is quite simple to
understand and is useful for working out problems. You can also work out a sketch proof by taking
Lim g(x) = M L and then arriving at a contradiction. is to show that limits of rational functions can
x a
Example16:
an
Show that for a > 0, lim 0.
n n !
Hint : If the limit exists, it must be 0 , being sum of all positive terms. Now take a positive integer
m such that m a m 1 . Now
a n a.a.......m times a.a....... n m times am a a a a a
. . . ... n m times , as etc.
n! m! m 1 m 2 .....upto n m! m 1 m 1 m 3 m 2 m 1
nm n m
am a am a a
The latter is . . For any m, is constant, but lim 0 as 1 . Hence the
m! m 1 m! n m 1
m 1
result.
The general results given below would serve as examples to illustrate the methods of limit
calculation.
Extend the algebra of limits to any finite number of sums, and products of functions step by step.
§4:Some Important Limits and methods of finding them: Remember the results
a) Find Lim [ x n – an ] / ( x – a )
x a
© Page 9
= [an – 1 + an – 2 a + an – 3 a 2
+ an – 4 a 3
….+…. + an – 1,, n terms] = n .an – 1
It is worth observing that limits of polynomials are found by substitution. ( in substituting, what
we tacitly do is cancel 0’s from numerator and denominator replacing 0 by h →0.)
xn an (a h ) n a n
Lim Lim
x a x a h 0 h
sin tan
b) Lim 1 Lim remember
0 0
© Page 10
Graph of sin x / x
Y
10
8
6
4 y = x / sin x
2 X
-0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-3
-5
-7
-9
Graph of x / sin x
sin tan
So Lim = 1 = Lim
0 0
Y
10
8
6
4
2 X
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
-3
-6
-9
Y(x) = tan(x)/x
© Page 11
sin x
Show that lim 1 . Hint : x x for x < 0.Remember
x 0 x
example 17
c) →
remember
x x
2 sin sin
Lim cos .x 1 cos .x cos 0 Lim 2 2 1 x 1.1.0 0
x 0 Lim
x 0 x0
x x x x 22
.
2 2
d) The exponential Series: remember
1 n
n
x
L
i n
m
1
+
2 3 4 5 x
→∞ = 1+ x + x / 2! + x / 3! + x / 4! + x / 5! ..upto = e
[ The symbol e stands for Napier’s number as introduced in Chapter 1.and the series is called
exponential series]
The Napier’s number, the exponential series, the logarithmic series introduced below are
enormously important in the field of Algebra, Trigonometry, Coordinate Geometry, Calculus, Real
and Complex analysis, Physics, etc. The results involving the exponential and logarithmic series are
extremely useful in series summations, preparing logarithmic table etc. It has given Mathematics,
tremendous insight and practical utilities.
1 nx
Lim (1 ) = Lim [1 + nx.1/n +nx(nx-1)/2!. (1/n2) + nx(nx-1)(nx-2)/3! . (1/n3)+..up to ]
n n n
( by Binomial Theorem)
© Page 12
n
Similarly, Lim ( 1 + 1/n ) = 1 + 1 + 1/2! + 1/3! + 1/4! ....................up to is denoted by
n
e (Napier’s number) by putting x = 1. The series definitely converges to a finite limit which is a
transcendental number between 2.71 and 2.80
L
i
m
L
i
m
L
i
m
x x
1
nx
1 n 1 n
So 1 = 1 = 1 = ex
n
n
→∞ →∞ →∞
n n n
Logarithms to the base e are called natural logarithms .In this manner, log e a is written as ln a . e)
x
Lim ( x + 1/x ) = e
x
The result has already been proved for x being any positive integer in the previous
section. If x is not an integer, we can find an +ve integer n such that
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1
n x n 1 1 1 1 (1 ) (1 ) x (1 )n 1
n 1 x n n 1 x n n 1 x n
1 n 1
(1 )
n 1 1 1
(1 ) x (1 )n 1
1 x n
1
n 1
1 n 1
(1 )
Lim n 1 Lim 1 Lim 1
(1 ) x (1 )n 1 for, n ...when... x
n 1 1 x x n n
n 1
© Page 13
n
Lim x Lim x n( n 1) x 2 n( n 1)( n 2) x 3
n 1 n 1 n .......upto...
n n 2! n 2 3! n 3
x 2 1 x 3 1 2
nLim
1 x 1 1 1 ..........upto...
2! n 3! n n
x2 x3
1 x ..........upto... e neglecting 1/n and its higher powers.
2! 3!
x a
1 Lim 1
x a
x
1 Lim
a
1
1 e We have, ,
Lim
g) Prove x x 1 xLim
1 . x 1 e.1 e
x x x x
x .a x
1 a
1 e 1
Lim a Lim
h) Prove x x
x x
a a
Lim 1
x .a x x
xLim 1 1 Lim 1 1 e a
x 1
x x x x
We have,
a
x
x
a x
Lim a Lim a a Lim a a
Again, x 1 x 1 x 1 e a ,
x a
x a x
h2
h 1 h ....upto 1
Lim e 1 Lim 2!
i) h 0 h0 = 1 neglecting h and higher powers.
h h
h 2a 2
ha 1 ha ....upto 1 eha -1
Lim e 1 Lim 2!
Similarly, h 0 h 0 a i.e., Lim
h0 a remember
h h h
© Page 14
, if a 1
Remember that lim a 1 a 1
x
if
x
0 if 0 a 1
ln(1 x ) ln(1 x ) Lim
1 1
k) Lim
x 0 1. , We have Lim
x 0 x 0 ln(1 x ) x ln Lim
x 0 (1 x ) ln .e 1.
x
x x
© Page 15
The logarithmic series provides the clue to prepare a log table, starting at ln 1 =0 and choosing
incremental values of x. But the series is not rapidly converging ,i.e., we cannot have good
approximation values of logarithms of numbers by summing only a few terms from the beginning.
But the logarithmic series provides us designing other series not only for preparing a log table but
opening up a number of possibilities in other areas.
Exercise2
Show that lim x 2 x 1 1
x 1
Exercise3
sin x
Show that lim 0 remember
x x
sin x 1 1
Hint ; Make sin x.
x x x
Exercise4
cos 2 x
lim
Find x x .Ans. 0.
Exercise5
sin 2 x sin 2 a
lim
. Ans. 1 Hint : sin x sin a sin x a sin x a
2 2
Find xa x2 a 2
sin x sin x
x 1 1 lim
x sin x x x x 1 0 1
lim lim
x sin x x x cos x x
2
cos x
2
cos2 x 1 0
x 1 1 lim
x
lim x x
Exercise6:Find
x x cos2 x .Ans.
lim 2 x sin 2 x
Exercise7:Find x .
© Page 16
c
lim e x sin
Exercise9:Find x ex .
c
sin
c e x sin ce x
lim e sin x c lim
x
c lim c
c x e x 1 x ce x
sin x 0 c x
Ans. Since e as x→∞, we have e
x 1
lim 2
Exercise10: Show that
x1 x 1
1
lim 1 x 1 x 2 1 x 3 ............ 1 x n
Exercise11:For |x| <1 show that n 1 x
c sin x x sin c
Lim
x c
Exercise12: Find cx .
Lim c sin x x sin c Lim c sin x x sin x x sin x x sin c
x c x c
We have c x = cx
sin x sin c sin x sin c
xLim Lim Lim
c sin x x c x x c sin c c Lim
x c sin c c cos c
= cx x c .
cos2 x
lim sin 2
Exercise13:Find
x 0
x . Hint :
lim
sin cos2 x
lim
sin 1 sin 2 x lim sin sin x lim sin sin x
2 2
x 0 x2 x 0 x2 x0 x2 x 0 x2
sin sin 2 x sin 2 x
lim lim
x0 sin 2 x x0 x 2
1
Lim sin x
. Put sin-1x = θ, so that x = sin θ, We have θ 0 when sin θ
x 0
Example 17 : Find x
0.
1
Lim sin x 1 1
x 0 xLim
0 1
x sin Lim sin 1
or x 0.
0
Now,
© Page 17
Exercise14:
lim 1 x x 1 1 x 1
Exercise17: Show that x1
Exercise19:
1 sin 2 x
lim
x 4x
Show that 4 does not exist.
1 sin 2 x 1 sin 2 x 1 sin 2 x 1 sin 2 x 1 1 sin 2 x
lim lim lim lim lim .1
x 4x x 4 x 1 sin 2 x x 4 x x 1 sin 2 x x 4 x
Hint : 4 4 4 4 4
1 sin 2 x 1 1 1
lim lim 1 sin 2 x lim 1.lim lim
x 4 x x x 4 x x 4 x x 4x
Now 4 4 4 4 . But 4 does not exist.
sin x sin x
lim lim 0
Exercise20: Show that
x 0
x does not exist, but
x 0
x .
© Page 18
Exercise21:
1 n 1n 22 n 2n 32 ...... n m 1n m2
Show that lim lim 1
m n m 2
2
Hint :
1
n
2
n
m 1
n
1 2 1 3 1 ...... m
n 2 n 2 n
1
lim lim 2 3 m lim 1 2 3 ... m lim m m 1 1
m n m 2 m m2 m 2 2
ax
Lim e e bx
x 0 ab
Example 19 : Prove x remember
ax bx ax bx
Lim e e e 1 Lim e 1
x 0 Lim
x 0 x 0 ab
We have x x x
Example 20 :
Lim
x f ( x )
a 0 x n a1x n 1 ........ a n
Examine where f ( x ) and, b 0 0
b0 x m b1x m1 ........ b m
remember
a a
x n (a 0 1 ..... nn )
x x x n m g( x ), say
a 0 x n a1x n 1 ........ a n b1 bm
f (x) m
x ( b0 .... m )
b0 x m b1x m 1 ........ b m x x
We have,
Lim a0 Lim Lim nm a0
x g( x ) Lim x g( x ) x x 00
b0 x f ( x ) b0
Now, ;So, if n<m, =
Lim Lim nm a0 a
Lim x g( x ) x x .1 0
x f ( x ) b0 b0
if n=m, =
if n> m, it would be or - according as a0/b0 is +ve or –ve.
an
x 0 g ( x )
Lim
Similarly bn .
Exercise22
ax2 b 0.x 2 b
Find lim when a 0 . Hint : If a < 0, by above formula, limit is - ∞. If a = 0, lim 0
x x c x x c
Exercise23
© Page 19
x2 1
If lim ax b c 0 , find all values of a and b.
x
x 1
x 1
2
x 2 1 a a b x 1 b
Hint : Since lim ax b c 0 lim c and the degree of
x
x 1 x
x 1
numerator should have been equal to the degree of the denominator. This is possible only when
1 a 0 a 1.
1 b x 1 b 1 b
Now, putting a =1 in the limit we get, lim c . But the limit is , so
x
x 1 1
1 b c b 1 c .Example 21 :
cos nx cos nx 1 Lim cos nx
Find nLim
, n N We have, 0 cos nx 1 0 So n 0, as, n
n n n n remember
Exercise26
1
ex 1
Evaluate lim f x if f x 1
x0
e 1
x
1 1
1 1
e h
1 1 / e 1
h 1
Hint : lim f x lim f 0 h lim 1
lim 1
1 , as h 0 eh 1 / eh 0
x 0 h 0 h 0 h 0 h
e h
1 1 / e 1
h
1 1
1 1
e 1h
1 1 / eh 1
Now, lim f x lim f 0 h lim 1
1
1 , h 0 e 1 / eh 0
h
x0 h 0 h 0 h
e 1h
1 1 / eh
© Page 20
Exercise27
1 cos2 x c
show that the lim does not exist.
x c xc
1 cos2 x c 1 cos2 c h c 1 cos2h sinh
Hint : lim lim lim 2 lim 2
x c xc h 0 chc h 0 h h 0 h
1 cos2 x c 1 cos2 c h c 1 cos2h sinh
But lim lim lim 2 lim 2 . So no limit.
xc xc h 0 chc h 0 h h 0 h
x2
e cos x
Example 22 : Find Lim
x 0
x2
2 x 4 x6 x2 x4
2 1 x ....... 1 ......
Lim ex cos x Lim
2! 3! 2! 4!
x 0 2 x 0 2
We have, x = x
1
x 2 1 higher.. powers..of ..x 2
2 1 3
Lim
x 0 2
1
x 2 2
Example23
sin sin 1 x
Find lim
x 1 . Ans. : 0. Note that RHL is not required as the function is not defined for
x > 1.
Example24
Show that lim cot x does not exist . Hint : Show LHL = ∞, and RHL = - ∞.
x 0
Example 25
Show that lim cot 1 x 0 . Hint take cot 1 x u
x
Lim f ( x x ) f ( x )
Example 26 : Immediate ‘rate of change’ of a function f(x) is given by x 0 and
x
is called differential coefficient of the function at any point x, where δx is difference in x
between two points x and x + δx .
If potential function in a gravitational field is given by V(r)= - GM/r, find the field strength E
= - space rate of potential. We have,
GM GM r ( r r )
E Lim r r r GM Lim ( r r )r GM Lim 1 GM
2 Differential coefficient , the next
r 0 r 0 r 0
r r ( r r )r r
Chapter, thus may be seen as an application of Limit calculation.
© Page 21
A function may be regarded as the output of an operation on the independent variable which may
be
regarded as input. For example mixing Ammonia and Hydrochloric acid would produce Ammonium
Chloride gas. The rate of reaction depends upon concentrations of inputs and of course,
circumstantial variables like temperature, pressure etc. in other words, The volume of Ammonium
Chloride at any time t , say, V(t) is a function F, say, of concentration of Ammonia CA, that of
Hydrochloric acid CH, temperature T, pressure P of the system . In symbols, V(t) = F(CA,CH, P, T, t),
where F is a function of many variables or may be a set of functions, different for different ranges of
temperature. At any particular time t1, with given values of CH, P and T, V(t1) is a function of CA. If
we set a target value L , can we be able to control the input CA near a control value CA1 ? In
other words, can we control the output to be within a range of prescribed error ε i.e. (VA(t1) – ε < L
< VA(t1) + ε) by controlling the input in a range within (CA1 – δ < L < CA1 + δ) ?. If this is so, we say
that V(t1) has a limit L at the point CA = CA1. If you closely observe the meaning, you would
understand that the actual output does not depend upon this L, which is a result of Mathematical
considerations only; it may be different, or altogether may be absent (when suppose, the factory is
under lock up) . Otherwise, when this L is equal to VA(t1), we understand that the production
process is smooth or continuous, a concept dealt in the next chapter.
b) For every ε we need a δ
Take the example y f x 2 x 2 3 and we are asked to find lim f x . We guess a limit L at the
x 5
point x = 5, by direct substitution , 53 and make back calculation for finding δ for every ε,
such that 2 x 2 3 53 .Proceed backwards as
50 50 50 50
2 x 2 50 , or , 50 2 x 2 50 , or , x , or , 5 x 5 5
2 2 2 2
50 50
We can take bigger of the two numbers 5 and 5 as a δ. We need not
2 2
look for
best possible δ but any workable δ would do.
To find a δ is thus solving a problem of inequality. Conversely, if we do not find a δ for any
one ε, the limit does not exist.
Take an example : show that the step function y = [x] , the greatest integer not greater than x does
not have a limit a x = 3. Observe that for values of x such as 2 x 3 , y = 2 and for x = 3, y = 3.
Take an ε = 0.1 and we try to put all values of y between 2.4 to 2.6 and observe that there is no
δ, which can make [x] lie between 2.4 to 2.6 as it suddenly changes from 2 to 3 at x = 3.
© Page 22
c) An example :a limit that does not exist anywhere : true meaning of definition of limit.
1 when x is rational
Try a function f x for investigating limit at a rational point. Obviously the
0 when x is irrational
function oscillates too much there and has no limit. You may remember that there is a rational
number
between any two irrational numbers and there is an irrational number between any two rational
numbers.
But for every δ > 0 such that x a some ε > 0 for which f x L , say , for example, ε = 1.1.
The definition of limit is certainly different from this consideration; it says for every ε (such that
f x L ) we can find a δ (such that x a ), and not the other way round. So the statement
that lim
xa f x L for any δ > 0 such that x a we can find an ε such that f x L , ε >
0 does not assure existence of limit at x = a.
So also the statement that for any ε > 0 such that f x L we can find an x near ‘a’ is not
sufficient for guarantying existence of a limit.
1 when x is rational
Note : The function f x is called characteristic function of rational
0 when x is irrational
numbers. It simply separates the rational numbers from irrationals simply by attaching different
labels 1 and 0 to them. It is also called Dirichlet function after the mathematician Dirichlet .
But the reverse of the above statements is always true. If an ε can not be found so that f x does
not lie near L, i.e. L f x L is not true or equivalently f x L is not true for when
x a , for some δ, then L is not the limit.
On first time reading , falsity of the above two statements may appear strange . For any δ we are
finding an ε and still the limit may not exist ! But we see that it is so. Do we have to always check is
backwards whether a suspected limit is actually so and there is no direct method. In fact there is
one, but of a little practical use. See how it is.
The independent variable x may tend to a in many ways, actually in infinite number of ways.
For example if x→0, we may imagine it is along the sequence
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ....................... n , n1 .....................infinite terms or
2 4 8 16 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
, , , ....................... n , n1 .....................infinite terms and through infinite number
2 1 4 1 8 1 16 1 2 1 2 1
of such sequences as you can see to it. And similarly x → a through infinite number of sequences
© Page 23
function f x L along every path of x leading to ‘a’. Can you practically test a limiting value in
this manner ? How many such paths can you take into consideration ? But there is one practical
utility in this development. If you want to disprove that a number L is not the limit of a function f(x) as
x → a, you can present a sequence x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,......................infinite terms along which lim f x L .
x a
Only one example is sufficient to disprove a proposition. But before giving examples for such a
method , it should be shown that the two definitions of limit are equivalent – the ε - δ method and
the sequence method, the definition is after the mathematician Heine.
Before that let us see a little closely the meaning of convergence of a sequence. A sequence
x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ,...........xn ...........infinite terms is said to converge to a limit ‘a’ if for every positive δ, we
can find an integer M such that |x – a| < δ for all n > M. The definition is for any sequence ,e.g.
the sequence f x1 , f x2 , f x3 ...... f xn .......infinite terms is said to tend to the limit L if for any ε >
0, we can find a positive integer N such that f xn L for all n > N.
Now the equivalence of Heine definition of limit and that due to Cauchy – Weisstras may be easily
seen to be equivalent, Starting from Heine’s definition , for any ε > 0, for f x L we can find
a sequence f xn such that f xn L assures a sequence xn such that |x – a| < δ, for some δ
, for some integer > N. Thus it leads to Cauchy – Weisstras definition. Then starting from the
Cauchy – Weisstras definition the Heine’s definition follows easily, for, if f x L , it tends to the
limit through every path or through every sequence xn leading to ‘a’.
2x 1
example27: To find lim in sequence method.
xa 3 x 2
2 x1 1 2 x2 1 2 x3 1
The limit would be limit of the sequence , , ,............ as n , i.e. xn a .So
3 x1 2 3 x2 2 3 x3 2
2 xn 1 xlim
n a
2 xn 1 2a 1
lim . (But this method is of little practical use; direct substitution
xn a 3 x 2
n lim 3xn 2 3a 1
xn a
method is preferable).
example28: To show that lim sin x does not exist.
x
To evaluate the limit, assuming it exists, let us evaluate it along the path or sequence xn n and
1
in another way, along the sequence yn 2n .
2
Now, along the path xn n , we have lim sin x limsin n lim0 0 .
x n n
© Page 24
Since the two limits are different, the limit does not exist.
Misc exercises
1
28. Show that the limit limsin does not exist. Hint see above example.
x 1 x 1
29. Show that the limit lim cos x does not exist. Hint see above example.
x
1
n , for n 2m 1
30. Find the limit of the sequence xn
n , for n 2m
n 2
1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 n 1
Hint : The sequence is precisely 1, , , , , , , ................ . Now lim 0 , But lim .
2 3 3 5 5 7 5 n n n n2 2
Thus the limit is not unique hence does not exist.
1
1 n 1 , for n 2m 1
2 2
31. Find the limit of the sequence xn . Ans. No limit exists.
1 , for n 2m
n2
2
an
32. For any positive number ‘a’, show that lim 0
n n!
remember
Hint : Take any natural number m 2a . Then , for n > m, we have,
n m
an a a a a a a a a a a a a 1 m 1
. . ............ . . ...... . . ...... a m 2a n
n! 1 2 3 n 1 2 3 m m 1 m 2 n 3 n 2 2
n
1 a
Now n 0 . So lim 0 .
n n!
2
33. Find lim n n . remember
n
n n 1 2
n 1 xn n 1 xn n 1 nxn
n
Hint : Since n
n 1 , take n
xn ..... xn n , xn 0 ,
2!
n n 1 2 n n 1 2 nx 2 2
n 1 xn n 1 xn 1 n xn . (As n >1)
2! 2! 2 n
2 2
As lim 0 , lim n n 1 lim 1
n n n n n
1
34. Find lim n a for a > 0. Hint : lim n a lim a n a 0 1 . remember
n n n
© Page 25
a x bx
38. Show that lim x x -1 if b a 1 . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by b x .
x a - b
a x bx
39. Show that lim x x 1 if 1 a b . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by a x .
x a - b
a x bx
40. Show that lim x x -1 if 1 b a . Hint : Divide both numerator and denominator by b x .
x a - b
41. Take n in place of x in above 4 consecutive questions and prove the results again, n +ve
integer.
1.n 2. n 1 3. n 2 ............ n.1 1
42. Show that lim .
n 12 22 32 ... n2 2
n n
Hint : 1.n 2. n 1 3. n 2 ............ n.1 n 1 r r 2 n 1 n 1 2n 1 as
2
2 6
the general term is r n r 1 n 1 r r 2
n n
1.n 2. n 1 3. n 2 ............ n.1 2 n 1 6 n 1 2n 1
2
Now lim
12 22 32 ... n 2 n
n 1 2n 1
n
6
n n
n 1 n 1 2n 1 3 n 1
2
2 6 3n 3 2 n 1 n 2 1
1 as n .
n
n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2n 1 2
6
© Page 26
1 12 4.1.a 1 1 4a
L2 a L L . Since a > 0, and a sequence of positive terms is
2 2
1 1 4a
positive, the minus sign is avoided. So L . Of course the sequence is bounded; that is
2
to be proved at first to ensure existence of a finite limit if at all. If a 0 , an upper bound is
a a a 2 , for a a, a a a a a 2, a a a a a 2 a 1 2 2a and so on
a a a. ... n terms 2a .
an 1
n
2am 1 2a 1/ m a
46. lim lim lim
bn 1 . Ans. If n is even, n = 2m, 2bm 1 2b 1/ m
n
Find n m m b.
2am 2a 1 2a 2a 1 / m a
lim lim
When n is odd, say n = 2m+1, m 2bm 2b 1 m 2b 2b 1 / m b also.
1 1
lim
sin 1 x 2 2 , then find all the values of x.
n n
47. If
1 1
lim
sin 1 x 2 2 nlim sin 1 x 0
n n
n
1
Ans. Since , . This is possible only when sin x is a proper
fraction, i.e., 1 sin 1 x 1 x 1,1
e) Do the following curves approximate st lines at large distances?
© Page 27
1
1
1 1 1 1
lim x 1 2 ax b lim x 1 2 ax b
2 2
x
x x x x x
11 1 1
lim x 1 2 ...... ax b 0, for a 1, b
x
2 x x 2
1
1 1 2
(expanding the binomial 2 and neglecting higher powers)
x x
x2 1 1
So the curves y and y x 2 x 1 are st lines y x 1 and y x when x or x
x 1 2
respectively.
Those st lines are called asymptotes of the concerned curves.
Example28 :
Choose a sequence xn 2n so that lim sin xn lim sin 2n 1
2 xn xn
2
Choose another sequence xn n so that lim sin xn lim sin n 0
xn xn
Since the limits are different in two different paths, the limit does not exist.
Exercise48
The use of Heine’ definition is not only useful for proving non-existence of limits. Take the following
example.
x 1
lim
Example29 : Find the limit x3 2 x 3
x 1
f x
Let us consider any sequence xx converging to 3 in the domain of definition of 2 x 3 i.e.
3
xn
avoiding any 2 which evidently is not in domain of f x , for, it makes f x infinite.
xn 1
Now consider the sequence , i.e.,
2 xn 3
x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 x 1
, , .................. n .........infinite terms
2 x1 3 2 x2 3 2 x3 3 2 xn 3
© Page 28
exercise49
Find lim sin 1 x . Hint : lim sin 1 x lim t 1 , putting sin 1 x t so that t as x 1
x 1 x 1 t
2
2 2
1 1
tan x sin x
exercise 50 : Find lim .
x0 sin 3 x
x
1 1
tan 1 x tan 1
tan x sin x 1 x2
lim lim 3
x 0 sin 3 x x0 sin x
x 3 lim 3
x 0 x
x
x
tan 1 1 x2 x 1 x2 x
1 x. x tan 1 x 1 x2 x x 1 x2 x
2 2
lim 1 x2 lim x 1 x lim x 2 1 x 2 1.lim x 2 1 x 2
ans. x0 x 3 .1 x0
x 1 x2 x x 0 x3 x 0 x3
x2 1 x2
1 x2 1 1 x2 1 1
lim
x0
x2 1 x2 1 x2 1 2
x2
x a b
Note that sin 1 x tan 1 and tan 1 a tan 1 b tan 1
1 x 2 1 ab
But definitely the Heine’s definition gives good theoretical insight into the problem of existence of
limits. It will help understanding the path concept we have introduced informally in case of function
of two variables z x, y . The domain of such functions is entire xy plane or some part of it. And
the graph of the function gives us a surface in a three dimensional (x, y, z) space as y f x gives
us a curve in two dimensional plane. For example x2 y 2 a 2 gives us the surface of a cylinder of
© Page 29
So far we are talking about ε and δ tacitly assuming them small positive numbers , but when it come
to a formal statement or definition , we are evidently avoiding the word ‘small’ ; on the pretext that
definitions and tools of Mathematics are independent of ‘order of smallness’ which may vary from
person to person or vary as purposes behind. Remember that a grain of rice is negligible for a grain
merchant but never for an artist who want to inscribe a whole book on it. Let us closely look at what
is meant by order of smallness and then formally proceed towards its definition.
First , by an infinitesimal function x as x → a we mean, lim x 0 . Similarly by an
xa
1
lim x . Evidently if x is an infinitesimal function as x → a or as x → ∞, then is an
x x
infinite function and vice versa.
1 1 1 1 1
Intuitively we know the series 3
i.e., 3 3 3 3 .......................infinite terms is more rapidly
n 1 n 1 2 3 4
1 1 1 1 1
converging than the series 2 ,i.e., 2 2 2 2 .......................infinite terms , i.e., for a desired
n 1 2 3 4
approximation , we can we can do with less number of terms of the former series than the later one.
Let us take two infinitesimal functions x as x → a and x as x → a. we say that they are
lim x
infinitesimals of the same order if x a
c if c is a non-zero constant. In that case we write
lim x
xa
lim x
x x If x a
0 then we say that x as x → a is of higher order than x as
lim x
xa
© Page 30
Example 30
x2 1 x2 1
a) Show that as x → 1 is infinitesimal. Evidently so, since lim 0
2 x3 3 x 1 2 x3 3
1
Show that f x x 2 cos
3
is an infinitesimal function as x → 2.
x2
1
The lim f x 0 , as lim x 2 0 and cos
3
can not be more than 1 or less than– 1 .From the
x 2 x 2 x2
latter example, it seems that using the concepts of infinitesimal may facilitate calculation of limits ;
yes it is so, we would return to that later on. Look at the following examples for understanding
comparison of infinitesimals.
Example 32
Show that both the functions f x 16 x 4 and g x x are infinitesimals for x → 0 and
compare their orders.
Taking limits of the functions for x → 0, we see that both the limits are 0 and hence both are
Example 33
© Page 31
The following propositions are easily proved and shall enable us to work with infinitesimals freely.
One infinitesimal can be replaced with another one of same order (taking into account the
proportionality constant , of course.)
a) An immediate consequence of the above is that , if x , x , x , and x , are
infinitesimals
such that x x and x x then
x x x x
lim lim .Also lim lim .
x a x x a x xa x x a x
b) If x x as x → a and x x as x → a, then x x .
c) If x x as x → a and the constant of proportionality is 1, then their difference is an
infinitesimal of lower order and vice versa.
x x x
0 lim 1 lim lim x lim x x x ,x →a
x a x x a x x a x a
d) Sum of two infinitesimals of different order is equivalent to the one of them which is of
lower order; for the other tends to 0 faster and is insignificant.
Example34 : 4sin 3 3 4 sin 4 , since 3 3 is an infinitesimal of higher order.
Misc. Exercise Using the above, prove and remember the following.
sin 3x
lim
x 0 ln 1 5 x
54) . Hint: use sin 5 x 5 x , ln 1 4 x 4 x and on simplification, the limit is 5/4.
© Page 32
2
1 2 1 x x x 0.009
so the error is 1 x 1 . If x = 0.03, 0.0011 , 0.11%.
2 2 2 8 8 8
1
58) Show that 1 x . as x 0
1 2x
Hint : 1
1
1 2x
1
1 2x
1 2x 1 1 1
1 2 x 1 x
1 0 2
3
59) Show that sin x x x . Hint use x sin x .
4
1 cos x
2
6 x3
60) Find the limit when x 0 of
5x3
x x4
Hint : 1 cos x 6 x 3 4sin 4
2
6 x 3 4 6 x 3 6 x 3 , the one with lower order in the sum of
2 16
two infinitesimals. Hence the limit is 6/5.
sin 3 x
61) Find lim . Hint : sin 3 x 3 x , arctan x x .
x 0 2
arctan x
ln 1 3 x
. Hint : ln 1 3 x 3 x , e5
3
62) Find lim 53 x
x
1 53 x
x 0 e 1
3
163) Show that 1 cos3 x sin 2 x .
2
3cos x cos3x 3 1 cos x 1 cos3 x
Hint : cos3x 4cos3 x 3cos x 1 cos3 x 1
4 4
2 2
1 x 3x 1 x 1 3x 3
3.2sin 2 2sin 2 .6. .2. x 2 . Also sin 2 x x 2
4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2
© Page 33
Cauchy’s necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a limit. The earlier discussion that
the limit, if it exists, does not depend upon any sequence along which the limit is calculated. The
idea is formally stated in the form of Cauchy’s necessary and sufficient condition for existence of a
limit of some function f x .
The lim f x exists if and only if for every ε > 0 such that f x1 f x2 , we can find a δ such
x a
Exercise65
1 1
Show that the following limits do not exist. a) lim cos b) lim 1
x0 x x0
2e x
lim m
h) x 0 x (Hint. take help from (c) and (g)
© Page 34
factorize
Exercise67
a x -1
lim ln a, a 0 , prove that when x→0 and f x 0 , remember
Using
x 0 x
a f x -1 f x
lim ln a lim if the latter limit is L. remember
x0 g x x 0 g x
a f x 1 a f x 1 f x
Hint. lim lim lim ln a.L
x 0 g x f x 0 f x x 0 g x
1
∞
Exercise68 Remember for further problems of form .
f x 1
If x→0 and f x 0 ,and lim L then lim 1 f x g x e L .
x0 g x x 0
f x
lim f x
1
1
x 0 g x lim
lim 1 f x lim 1 f x x
x 0 g
Hint. g x f x
e e
L
x 0
f x 0
g x
Exercise69: If x→0 and f x 0 ,and lim f x g x L then lim 1 f x eL . remember
x 0 x0
x
tan 2
a 2a
example35 : lim 2 e
Show that
x a
x .
x x
tan tan a x x a x h a h
a 2a a 2a lim 1 tan lim tan lim tan
lim 2 lim 1 1 e xa x 2a
e xa x 2a
e h 0 a h 2a
xa
x xa
x
h
Ans. lim
2a
lim 2a
h h h h h0 a h h 0 h 2a 2
lim tan lim cot tan .1
e h 0 a h 2 2a
e h 0 a h 2a
e 2a
e a
e
lim f x 1 lim g x
xa xa
Exercise70 When and , show that remember
f x -1
gx g x lim
lim f x lim 1 f x -1
g x
e
x a
x a x a
© Page 35
x x
1
1 1
lim 1 x e x lim 1 e lim 1 x e x
lim 1 e
x 0
b) ,
x
x , c)
x 0
, b)
x
x ,
Ex 71: Show that lim log 3 3 x x
log 3
e
x 1
1
1 log 3 x e
lim log3 3 x lim log3 3 log 3 x lim 1 log 3 x lim 1 log3 x
log x 3 log x 3 log x 3
log3 x e log3 x
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
Ans.
x c
xa
lim
x x b
Exercise 72: Find .
xa
Hint : As x→∞, we have x b →1, and x + c →∞. So
x c xc x c a b x c
xa x a a b lim x c lim a b
lim lim 1 1 lim 1 e x x b
e x x b
e a b
x x b
x
x b x
x b
1 1 1
a b x 2 x2 a b x 2
1
1 ax 2 x2 1 ax 2 x2 lim .
lim lim 2
lim 1 e x 0 1 bx 2 x2
e a b
Exercise73: Find
x 0 1 bx 2
. Ans. x 0 1 bx x 0
1 bx 2
2
1 1 1 tan x
1 1
lim tan 2 x . lim
2 x0 x
lim 1 tan 2
x 2x
lim 1 tan 2
x 2x
e x0 2x
e e 2
x 0 x 0
Exercise 74: Find . Ans.
lim sin x .cot x lim cos x
lim 1 sin x lim 1 sin x
cot x cot x
e x1 e x1 e 1
x 1 x 1
Exercise 75. Find . Ans.
1
x
lim tan x
Exercise 76: Find
x0
4 . Ans.
1 1 1
2 tan x 1 2 tan x 1
x 1 tan x x 2 tan x x lim lim
lim tan x lim lim 1 e x0 1 tan x x
e x0 x 1 tan x
e2
x 0 1 tan x
x 0
4 x 0
1 tan x
1
ln x
lim tan ln x e2
Show that
x 1
4
Exercise77:
Ans.
© Page 36
© Page 37
Y It is easier to understand
(1,2) discontinuity than to understand
*
continuity. We all understand what
continuity and discontinuity
concepts are. But the concepts are
to be formalised for mathematical
use. In Mathematics the concepts
y=2-x
y=x of continuity and discontinuity are
abundantly used. Let us start with
discontinuity. In the accompanying
X' X
graph, you may observe that you
O (x = 1) (x = 2) cannot draw the graph with a pencil
Y' in a single go, i.e., without lifting its
(Fig.2.1) head out of the paper even for
once. That is exactly continuity of
the graph. Now it remains to translate this idea into language of Mathematics. When x tends to 1
from below, y tends to 1,when x Consider the same graph of the previous section repeated
here and the same equation y = x, for x [0,1[, y = 2 – x, for x ]1,2] and y = 2 for x=1.When
x tends to 1 from above, also y tends to 1. But when x is exactly equal to 1, y = 2 ,as if leaving
a ’ hole’ in the graph at x = 1. This indicates two things, 1) the graph would have been
continuous if this ‘hole’ would not have been there and 2) we could make the graph
continuous by ‘plugging’ this hole by defining y = 1 instead of 2 , at x = 1.In other words,
the graph would have been continuous at x=a.
The statement Lim f(x) = f(a) can be restated as : for every such that
xa
f(x) – f(a) < ,we can find a such that x – a < (If definition of limit is applied by
taking L = f(a) as per above statement.
These are the two statements describing the concept of continuity in mathematical language; the
first one describes continuity in terms of the concept of limit . Though this is sufficient for the
© Page 1
A function which is continuous at any point of an interval is called continuous in the interval.
Example1
sin x
Show that e x is continuous in R, tan x is continuous at 0, 2 .
cos x
a) the limit of the function at x = a does not exist ( or the left and right handed limits
exist but they are not equal)
Example2 The function [x], the largest integer not larger than x at x = 3 , or at any
integral value of x is discontinuous, as lim[ x ] 2 , but lim[ x ] 1
x 2 x 2
b) when the limit exists but not equal to the functional value ,
x2 4
Example4 In the function f x lim f x 4 lim f x , but f 2 is not defined.
x 2 x 2 x 2
Example5 f x tan x at x . Here tan x and tan x
2
e) When there is a wide gap in the graph ( Horizontal, vertical or both. See the figure:
© Page 2
1
f) When there are too much oscillations at a point, e.g., the graph of the function y sin
x
at x = 0. See the following graph
Y
2.8
2.24
1.68
1.12 y= sin (1/x)
X
-1.8-1.6-1.4-1.2 -1 -0.8-0.6-0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
-
-1.4
-1.96
-2.52
1
Graph of y sin frequently oscillating near x = 0 and not defined there
x
We can proceed as near as 0 on the graph from both sides but there is no limiting value neither
1 1
the functional value there. Another example may be taken y x sin . Like the graph of y sin ,
x x
1
the graph of y x sin also goes through myriads of oscillations as x 0 from both sides, but the
x
oscillations become smaller ever in vertical width as we approach 0. See the graph below. So we
have a limiting value 0 of the function at x = 0. Still the function is discontinuous there as there is
no functional value defined there.
© Page 3
Y
0.99
0.81
0.63
0.45
y = xsin(1/x)
X
-0.82 -0.656 -0.492 -0.328 0.32 0.492 0.656 0.82
-0.36
4
-0.72
The topic of removable and non- removable discontinuity shall be dealt in detail subsequently.
The algebra of limits can be applied to continuous functions without any concern. Thus if f(x)
and g(x) are continuous functions , so also f(x) + g(x), f(x) - g(x), k. f(x) where k is a
constant, f x) . g(x) and f x) / g(x) would be continuous.(if g(x) is not 0)
Example6
sin x
Show that f x sin x cos x , g x 2sin x , x are continuous in 0, 2
cos x
A pitfall: Example7
f x
Give an example of a function which is discontinuous at x = a but both f x and g x both
g x
are continuous at x = a. Does it contradict algebra of limits? Why?
Exercise1
© Page 4
1, for x0
Ans. Try f x and g x 0
0 for x0
f x g x f x . g x
Algebra of limits says if and are continuous at a point so also but is it
f x . g x f x g x
never says that cannot be continuous if one of and or both of them are
discontinuous.
Exercise2
x
f x 1 g x
What is the difference between and x
Hint. The second function is discontinuous at x = 0, as it has limit 1 there but no value, not
defined there.
For every ε > 0 such that g f x g f a , we can find a δ such that f x f a , for g
is a continuous function of f. Further for every δ > 0, such that f x f a , we can find a ζ >
0 such that x a , for , f x is continuous at x = a. This gives, For every ε > 0 such that
g f x g f a , we can find a ζ > 0 such that x a which proves the function
g f x is continuous at x = a.
© Page 5
It won’t be difficult to see that the theorem could easily proved for g = f2
2
( Lim f(x) . Lim f(x) = Lim ( f(x) ) as per a result of Algebra of limits) .
xa xa xa
A pitfall: Example9
Consider the function z tan y .Evidently it is continuous at y = 0. Now let y sin x . This is also
2
continuous at x = 0. But z tan sin x is discontinuous at 0 as it tends to ∞ there. Does it
2
contradict the above theorem ? . No. because the argument of z is there, not 0 as required by
2
the theorem. Think a little hard.
Exercise3
1
The function f x has obviously a discontinuity at x = 1. show that f f x has no
1 x
discontinuity
x 1
Hint. f f x and f f f x x
x (verify)
Concept of continuity is used to study of functions , particularly at points where they are
expected to change suddenly. We are thus able to know whether near such points we
could smoothly extrapolate the curve . Actually ‘rates of change’ of a curve from point to
point is the tool required to extrapolate a curve, as you might have correctly guessed.
But in order to have ‘rate of change’ to exist, or to have any meaning, continuity is the
minimum requirement , as we would see later.
© Page 6
(x 2 a 2 ) (x 2 b2 ) (x 2 c2 )
Try or
x a xb xc
( x 2 a 2 ) ( x 2 b2 ) ( x 2 c 2 )
. (Functional values at a, b, c do not exist).
x a xb xc
Exercise4
Put the denominator equal to 0 and solve for finding the points of discontinuity.
tan x
e)
1
cos
sin x
Let f(x) = 1 for all rational values of x in [2,5] and Let f(x) = 0 for all
irrational values of x in [2,5] . Try taking limit of the function anywhere in the interval,
say at x = 3.2. The limit does not exist because in any small interval we may please to
take around x = 3.2, the function oscillates infinite times between 0 and 1. Because
between any two irrational numbers, there exists a rational number and between any two
rational numbers there exist an irrational number. So the function has no limit at any point
of its domain. The question of continuity does not arise. (This is called Dirichlet function.)
Exercise5
Hint :. f x h f x f x h f x
Exercise6
Find out the number of points of discontinuity of sin x cos x in the interval 0 x 2 , if a
denotes integer part of a. Ans. 5 points.
© Page 7
1
x sin. x , when..x 0,
Example 12: Examine continuity at x= 0, of f ( x)
and ..0..when..x 0
1 1 1
sin 1 x sin x x . sin x
We have , x 1 x x 1 1 which is f(0).
0 xLim
0 x sin Lim Lim
x 0 x 0 x 0 x sin 0 xLim
0 x sin 0
x x x
Hence f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Exercise7
sin cos x
, when x
2
x
Test for continuity of f x 2 at x . Ans. Continuous
2
1 when x
2
sin cos x
, when x
2
x
Test for continuity of f x 2 at x . Ans. Discontinuous
2
1 when x
2
sin x
Example 13 : Investigate f (x ) for continuity. Its limit is 1 as x 0 and it is
x
not defined for x = 0 ., so discontinuous there.
sin x
Further note that for f (x ) x = 0 is a point of ‘Removable
x
sin x
, for , x 0
Discontinuity’. For, if we define f(x) such that f ( x) x the function
1, for , x 0
becomes continuous at x = 0.
Lim sin ax
Example 14 : Find x0 what should be value of the function if the function is made
x
continuous there?
© Page 8
sin x sin a
Example15:Find xLim
a . How can you make it continuous?
xa
xa x a xa
cos sin sin
Lim sin x sin a Lim 2 2 Lim cos x a Lim 2 cos a.1 cos a
We have, x a x a x a
x a x a 2 x c x a
2 2 by defining
f 0 cos a
the function could be made continuous.
Exercise9
If
f x
1
1 x , find
f f f x
and discuss its continuity.
1 1 1 x 1
Hint.
f f f x f f f
1 x 1 f
x 1 1 x
x
1
1 x x
In a previous example, we have seen what is a removable discontinuity. It is a point at which the
functional value is different from the limit at that point or not defined, leaving a point hole there .
Find the 3 points of removable discontinuities yourself as an exercise and remove the three
discontinuities by suitably defining the function at those points.
But, instead of point hole, if there is wide vertical gap ( or horizontal gap or a gap in both
directions) in these functions . Examine from its graph and find where it is.
© Page 9
x2 for x2
x, for x 2
a) f x b) f x 3 for x2
x 1 for x2 1
for x2
Such a function with finite number of discontinuities is called piecewise continuous functions.
Such piecewise continuous functions have some useful and interesting properties. For example, if
the domain of the function can be partitioned into a finite number of open or half closed intervals,
and if it is continuous inside each of th intervals then we can find the area under the curve
or graph of the function bounded by the two ordinates at the extremities and the x – axis. This is
Riemann integration of the function ; the area is unaffected if a finite number of ordinates are
1, for x 2
removed. But if there is a wide horizontal gap such as f x , the function is
3 for x3
not defined in the interval [2, 3] and this is evidently not a piecewise continuous function. The
area under the curve bounded by two ordinates at the extremities has no meaning.
Example16
To look into the phenomenon of continuity a little closer, let us examine the Dirichlet function
x
1, if x is rational
0, if x is ir rational
which is everywhere discontinuous for non-existence of limit.
As in case of limits, remember the Heine’s definition the lim f x L should be unique
x a
∞.
Example17
x 2 , if x is rational
Show that f x 2 is nowhere continuous.
x , if x is irrational
converging to a, so that lim f x a 2 ; since there are two different along two different paths, the
x a
limit does not exist and hence it is discontinuous at x = a, and everywhere for that matter.
Example18
© Page 10
Ans. Try f x 1,
0,
for x 2
for x 3.75
a) f x x x at x 2 (jump discontinuity)
1
b) x sin at x0 (oscillating discontinuity)
x
1
c) x at x3 (infinite discontinuity)
x3
x2 9
d) x at x 3 (removable discontinuity)
x3
Misc. exercise10
b) If not, can you make these functions continuous by suitably defining functional values at the
point of discontinuity if any?
10 x 1 10 1
x
sin x
1) f x 2) f x 3) f x
x x x
1 x2 cos x
4) f x 3x 5) f x 6) f x
x2 cos x x
x x2
7) f x 8) f x 9) y cos ec 2 x
cos x x 7 x 12
2
x x2 1
10) f x tan 11) f x 12) f x 5 2 x
2 1 sin 2 x
2
1 1 x 1
13) z 2 , when y 14) y
y y2 x 1 x 1
© Page 11
1 tan 2 x 1 tan x
15) y
1 tan 2 x 16)
1
at x =0 17) x at x = 0
1 2 x
4 x 2 3x 1 x 1 sin 2 x
18) 5 x at x = 0 19) x when x = 0 20) 1 cos x
Answers 1), 2), 3),6), 9),17), 18), 19) continuous except at 0 4) continuous except
3
,
at 2 5), 7), 20) continuous except at 2 2 8) continuous except at 3, 4.
Exercise11
Whether the functions are continuous. If not, what is the type of discontinuity ?
[sin x ] [tan x ] x 1 x 2
a) b) c)
Exercise12
2, at x0
A function is defined like f x x 2 for x 2 . Find out whether the function is continuous at
x2 1 for x 2
x = 0, and at x = 2. If discontinuous, which kind of discontinuity it is?
Henceforth try to understand the statements making mental picture of the same. The
proofs may be omitted at first time reading and the results may be remembered to work out
problems. Thereafter the proofs shall boost confidence gathered by and by in course of
working out problems.
Ex13: Let y t 2 t t , x 2t t then define y in terms of x ; i.e. find y f x and discuss its
continuity.
2 x 2 , for x0
When t 0 , x 2t t 3t , and y t t 0 . Thus f x
2 2
.
0, for x0
© Page 12
x 1, x 0,
Ex15: Show that the function f x 1, x 0, is discontinuous at x 0 and the discontinuity
x 2 1, x 0
could be removed by defining f 0 1 .
When at least one of the limits lim f a h and lim f a h is infinite ( or both are) the
h0 h0
nd
discontinuity is called discontinuity of 2 kind.
1
Ex16: Show that the function f x has a discontinuity of 2nd kind. Find 10 examples like that.
x
§4:A little more about real number sets and sequences., limit points and bounded
sequences
The concepts of limit and continuity of functions are intimately related to sequences. So we must
spend some time investigating sequences which would , of course give further help in
understanding properties of continuous functions.
A number ξ is a limit point of a sequence T n if any neighbourhood of ξ , i.e., the open interval
]ξ – δ , ξ + δ[ contains infinite number of members of T n , for any δ > 0. It is easy to
understand that if only one limit point exists for a sequence, it is convergent to the limit point as
© Page 13
Exercise17
a) If ξ is a limit point of a real number set A, show that there is a sequence in A converging to ξ
and vice versa.
b) If ξ is a limit point of a real number sequence tn, n = 1,2,3……..∞, show that there is a
subsequence of tn converging to ξ and vice versa.
A sequence is bounded if there are real numbers A and B such that A f n B for all n. Next,
any infinite bounded sequence has a limit point- this is called the Bolzano-Weisstras
theorem. Consider the range of the integral function f n . If the range contains infinite number of
points, there would be at least one point f m , around which infinite number of points in the
range will remain in the neighbourhood ]ξ – δ , ξ + δ[ ,otherwise the range would not be bounded
if only finite number of points remain around neighbourhoods of all points in the range, as there
are infinite number of points in the range. According to the definition of limit point, this point ξ in
the range is a limit point.
There is a theorem on upper bounds and lower bounds ; the set of upper bounds of a set of
real numbers has a smallest number, and the set of lower bounds of a set of real numbers
has a largest number. Let D be a set bounded above and consider two subsets L and U of the
set of real numbers such that L = { x : x is not an upper bound of D} and U = { x : x is an
upper bound of D}. so that L U R , the set of real numbers , If x L and y U , then x y . By
order completeness property of R , either L would have the greatest member of L or U would
have the smallest member of U. ( order completeness property of R otherwise means that if
x, y R ,then either x y or x y or x y ; the two statements may be verified to be same). Let L
have the greatest number of it. Then is not an upper bound of D. So there is a number b of D
such that < b . Let ‘a’ be a real number such that < a < b. the number ‘a’ is greater than the
greatest number of L so a U . Also ‘a’ cannot be an upper bound of D since it is smaller than a
member b of D. Thus L and not to U. If L has not its greatest number of it, then U must be
having smallest number of it , because of order completeness property of R. Complex numbers
have no order completeness property.
The least of upper bounds of a set S bounded above is called supremum of S or sup S.
© Page 14
It is needless to say that sum, difference and product of continuous functions are
continuous. This is in view of Algebra of limits. ( prove them as exercises). Also if f x and
f x
g x are continuous functions in a domain and g x 0 then must be continuous in that
g x
domain. There are further important properties . These properties tell more about roots of
functions, their location and even help in estimating the roots approximately in some cases.
These are not only true for polynomials or n-th degree equations but transcendental
functions which are represented by converging infinite power series which cannot be
x 2 4ac
x4
expressed in ‘closed’ forms like 1 x 2 etc. , such as trigonometric, inverse
5 x3
trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions etc. Closed forms are not like sin x tan -1x etc,
they are only names given to infinite converging series they stand for. In contrast a converging
1
infinite series like 1 x x 2 x3 ................upto for |x| < 1, can be expressed as which is a
1 x
closed form. Both polynomials ( finite power series) and functions in closed forms are called
algebraic functions in contrast to transcendental functions. An algebraic function or expression
in x is one which is derived from x by a finite number of algebraic operations on it; algebraic
operations means addition, subtraction, multiplication, division , raising to power and extracting
roots. It may be noted in passing that transcendental functions may have algebraic irrational
numbers as roots, even rational numbers and even integers. For example, ln e x 0 has solution
x = 1. Only analysis of roots of a polynomial comprise a branch of Mathematics, called Theory Of
Equations. Some properties of functions would be revealed after the differentiation chapter also
© Page 15
To cheer you up, you can at least prove that a polynomial of odd degree with all of its coefficients
positive has a real root. See one exercise after monotonic functions given below.
Exercise18
Hint. Prove that x n is continuous everywhere by showing lim x n an . Use binomial theorem in
x a
n
h
expanding x h x n 1 for including all real values of x.
n
x
Suppose the range is not bounded . So we can have a sequence xn in [a, b] and a
natural number M such that f xn n for all n > M. Let be a limit point of this
sequence xn as the sequence is bounded. Since the function is continuous at , there is
a δ > 0 such that f x f 1 whenever x . This implies
A pitfall: example 20
© Page 16
B) A continuous real function f(x) in a closed interval [a, b] attains its maximum and
minimum values.
By the above theorem, the sup f = M and inf f = m , say both belong to the range of f as
the function is bounded. Then let f M and f m . Suppose the function
never attains the value M so M f x 0 . Thus from algebra of limits we have
1
is a continuous function in the same interval and hence bounded by the
M f x
previous theorem. Since M is the supremum, there is a number in [a, b] such that
1 1
f M for any given number k. it follows that k for any given number
k M f
1
k and hence is not bounded. This is a contradiction , so f x must attain its
M f x
sup M. Similar argument for m.
A pitfall: Example 21
interval [-1, 1] even if it is discontinuous at a point in the interval. There is no point in thinking
discontinuous functions cannot attain maximum or minimum when the function is discontinuous.
Exercise19
Show that the function f x x [ x] does not attain any maximum value even if it is bounded.
Hint. It is not continuous. (graph the function to see that it is a ‘saw tooth wave’).
Exercise20
2 x for x [1, 0]
Take a function f x 1 .Find its point of discontinuity.
x 2 for x ]0,1]
© Page 17
Exercise21
2x 1, for 1 x 0
x
2 , for x 0
Show that the function x
f x
2 1, for 0 x 1 in the interval [–1, 1] is bounded but never
attains bounds or never reaches maximum or minimum values because it has a discontinuity at
x = 0.
Since f x is continuous at ξ, for any given ε > 0, there is a δ > 0 such that
D) If the function f(x) is continuous at an end point of [a, b] , then there is a δ such
that f x and f have the same sign for all x such that x .
The argument of the previous proposition may suitably modified to get this result.
Do this as an exercise.
© Page 18
Exercise22
Exercise23
© Page 19
Does the negation of the above result assert that there is not root of f x in [a, b] ? give an
example.
Ans. consider y x 2
So the statement is not true backwards; i.e., the condition is sufficient, but not necessary.
Exercise24 remember
Let a continuous function f x defined in [a, b] have a finite number of roots in it, say
x1 , x2 ,......xn in it arranged in increasing order i.e., x1 x2 ...... xn .show that in each of the
intervals ]x1, x2[,]x2, x3[,]x3, x4[,…..the function retains the same sign.
Ans. The occurrence of changing sign in any interval results in existence of another root
there.
3 3
Hint : take a function f x sin x x 1 , then f 0 1 , f . So there is a root in
2 2
between.
Exercise27: Show that every odd function f x f x has at least one real root if it is
continuous.
Exercise 28: Show that any polynomial of odd degree has a real root. Hint : it direct follows
from above.
Exercise 29: Show that any polynomial of degree 3 (cubic equation) has a real root. Hint : it
direct follows from above
Hint. f 0 f 0 f 0 f 0 0
, so 0 is a root.
© Page 20
x 2 1 for 1 x 0
Exercise31 : Show that the function f x is discontinuous at x = 0 and
x 1 for 0 x 2
2
hence never assumes 0 value in the interval of definition [–1, 2] even if the function has opposite
signs at the end points.
( do it as an exercise)
Exercise32: There is one real root of x3 3 x 1 0 in [1, 2]. Divide the interval into smaller
subintervals and approach the root correct up to two places of decimal. Hint : apply the criteria of
odd function having a root, repeatedly to smaller and smaller subintervals.
Ans. 1.53
ab
what point the function attains the value a) .b) ab
2
© Page 21
Show that the function f x x [ x] attains minimum value in any interval of length greater than 1.
Exercise35: If f x is continuous in [0, 1] and | f x | < 1, Show that f x has a fixed point
in [0, 1], i.e. f x x there.
I) A fixed point mapping x x may be arrived in many ways from an implicit function
g x, y 0 . A solution of g x, y 0 is a fixed point of x x and vice versa, whereas
the former is easier to solve in some cases. The variables in g x, y 0 may or may not
be separable in g x, y 0 and that does not affect choice of x, y x , out of
g x, y 0 . In fact many choices may be available, some may be better than others in
finding the solution and even some may not lead into a solution. Details are dealt in a
separate section after differentiation including Piccard’s method of successive
approximation to a root of not only polynomial equations but any well behaved
function.
The results obtained above have far reaching consequences. For example, the intermediate
value theorem guarantees existence of a root in an interval at the ends of which the function has
opposite signs. The last theorem is used in proof of Rolle’s mean value theorem which is the
basis of a number of mean value theorems leading to Taylor’s theorem, which is reconstruction of
smooth functions as power series.
Exercise36: If a spring is stretched, each point of the spring in the old position is carried though a
mapping to a point in the new position. Show that there is a point on the new position of the spring
which is the image of the same point in the old position. ( fixed point mapping)
Exercise38: Show that the equation x5 18 x 2 0 has a real root. Does it belong to [–1, 1].
© Page 22
-6.6
This does not mean that a continuous function which does not change sign around a point should
not have a zero at the point. For example, look at the figure :
© Page 23
Graph of the function y = sin x +1 having zeroes even all values of it are positive
Y
9
7
5
3 f(x) = (x -1)(x -2)(x -3)
1 X
- - - - - - - - - -- 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1
-
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 11 0
-
3
-
5
-7
9
© Page 24
This is a small step towards visualising the fundamental theorem of Algebra – every polynomial
has a root. it is by and large a consequence of continuity of polynomials although generally we
read theory of equations in Algebra. The beauty of properties of continuous functions is that
existence of roots of not only polynomials but transcendental functions are also found out, albeit
under certain conditions. Another small step in the direction is - a polynomial of odd degree with
real coefficients has at least one real root; see a problem given below in theory of equations.
Another small step in this direction is - Every polynomial of even degree
p2 n x a0 x 2 n a1 x 2 n 1 ........... a2 n 0 whose absolute term is negative , has at least two real
roots following the above problem.
an
Exercise44: A sequence is monotonic and bn 0 . Show that the sequence
bn
a1 a2 x a3 x 2 ......... an x x
is monotonic.
b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ........... bn x n
an
Hint. Let bn be increasing , then
ai xi ai an 1
i
bn 1 a1 a2 x a3 x 2 ......... an x n an 1 b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ......... bn x n
bi x bi bn 1
a1 a2 x a3 x 2 ......... an 1 x n 1 a1 a2 x a3 x 2 ......... an x n
.
b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ......... bn 1 x n 1 b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ......... bn x n
an 1 b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ......... bn x n bn 1 a1 a2 x a3 x 2 ......... an x n
0
a a x a x
1 2 3
2
......... an 1 x n 1 b1 b2 x b3 x 2 ......... bn 1 x n 1
Exercise 45: Prove that a linear function f x ax b must be monotonic, either increasing
or decreasing.
© Page 25
Exercise46: remember
would show that it must be a constant multiple of x, i.e., there is some α, such that
f x x . (This is a st line and passes through the origin).
First, it may be seen easily that the operator carries additive identity and inverse to those
elements in the range. Taking x = y = 0, we have f 0 f 0 f 0 0 f 0 f 0 0 .
Now, if x is a positive integer n, then the result follows for positive integral values of x , as
It also follows for negative integral values of x also, as, if x is a negative integer, put y = – x , so
that f x f y f y y x .
p
If x , a rational number, then
q
p p p p p p
f p f q f .......q times f f ....q times qf .
q q q q q q
p p
Or f q qf . Thus the result is true for rational values of x also. Lastly, if x is a real
q q
number, let x1 , x1 ,.................xn be a sequence of rational numbers converging to x .
The importance of the result is quite wide as far as spaces with concept of open sets in
topological spaces, not only real numbers. The result is repeatedly applied below to find other
similar results useful to solve problems. There it means that the continuous mappings are
© Page 26
Exercise47 remember
Exercise48 remember
Exercise49 remember
2 f tan x 2 f sin x ln 2
show that lim .
x0 x 2 f sin x 2
Exercise52: remember
Exercise53: remember
© Page 27
Exercise54: remember
Exercise55: remember
f xy f x f y f x n f x
n
f x n f x n 1 f x f x n 1 x x n 1 f x f x n 1 f x x n 1 f x f x n 1 x n 1 f x z x z
f x y z f x f y f z
Ex56: If , is a continuous , derivable real valued function on R,
f 2 4, f ' 0 3 f ' 2
and if and , then find .
1n
f x lim n x 1 f xy f x f y
Ex57: Given n
for x >0, Show that for y >0.
1 1
Exercise58: f x f f x f f x
If x x and is a cubic expression only, then show that
f x 1 x3
© Page 28
1 a b c 1
f x ax3 bx2 cx d f 3 2 d 3 a bx cx 2 dx3
Hint : Let . Then x x x x x .
1 1
3
ax 3 bx 2 cx d a bx cx 2 dx 3 ax 3 bx 2 cx d 3 a bx cx 2 dx 3
x x . Expanding and
3 5 4 3
x , x , x , x .... 1
comparing the coefficients of etc. From both sides, d=1, c=0, b=0, a = . So,
f x 1 x3
.
Exercise59: remember
1 1
f x f f x f f x f x 1 xn
If x x and is of n-th degree polynomial, then show that
Exercise60: remember
1 1
f x x2 2
If x x find the function.
2
1 1 1
f x x2 2 x 2 f x x2 2
Hint : we have x x x
Exercise61 remember
f x y f x 0 f 0 y f 0 k , say f y k
We have for any x, y. Putting x = 0, or, for any
y.
1
Exercise62: Show that x has a root in [0, 1].
2x
Exercise63
Exercise64
© Page 29
b) Show that sum and product of two functions one of which is discontinuous may
be continuous.
Exercise65
© Page 30
(b, f(b))
(a,
y = f(x) f(a))
O
O X
Continuous functions assure small changes in the function for small changes in the independent
variable. Again , if the function is continuously differentiable in an interval, i.e., it has no sharp
points, that small change in the function is approximately proportional to the small change in the
independent variable and is the product of the small change in the independent variable and the
slope of the graph or derivative at that point. This linear approximation is only a first approximation;
having a bearing on the fact that a small part of a curve is a straight line. Though this is true for all
smooth curves, we need better approximations of the function for curves or functions which are a
little too much curved. Since the first approximation is in terms of the first derivative of the function,
better approximations must be in terms of higher derivatives. In fact we assume that a function
should be derivable as many times as we please in order that we may find out a derivative of any
order we desire for analysing approximation. For example, a polynomial in x ( a finite power series
with real coefficients) or a sine or cosine function are infinitely derivable. That is what we mean by
smooth curves.
When we have conjured up that curves approximate st lines in small intervals, we have to look for
turning points so that they become really curves in a finite interval. The Rolle’s theorem is towards
this end.
First let us consider a continuous derivable function f x which has a value f a at x = a, and
returns to the same value at x = b; i.e., f b f a . Explicitly we have assumed, continuity of the
function in the entire interval [a, b], derivability in the interval, may be except for the end
points, and equality of the functional value at the end points. Derivative at the end points have
no meanings unless the function extends beyond the points on either side, for we have to take
© Page 1
Now, the continuous function might have been constant throughout the interval [a, b] ; in that case
its derivative must be 0 throughout. Else, the function might have increased up to some point and
then decreased to return to the value f a . In that case, the derivative has been positive for the
portion the function has increased and negative for the portion the function has decreased. Loosely
speaking, the derivative may be expected to be zero somewhere as it changes from positive values
to negative values ( or vice versa) . But this expectation is an assurance only when the derivative is
continuous; for, a continuous function must attain every value between an upper and lower bound.(
the positive value an upper bound for the derivative and the negative value , a lower bound , say, so
that it must be zero somewhere). But we do not assume continuity of the derivative; but even then
the derivative takes the zero value at least once. Interestingly, this is how it is proved. The function
being continuous in the closed interval ( a consequence of its derivability) is bounded and assumes
f c M f d m
least upper bound M, say, and greatest lower bound m , say and . As
f b f a
both M and m cannot be equal to f b and f a them in general. (If it happens
f b f a M m
anyway, reducing the function to be a constant throughout the interval, as a
f ' x 0
result of which for all points in the interval.) Now, if f c M f b f a , then
a c b so that a c b .For this point, f c M , f ' c 0 .Otherwise, if f ' c 0 , there is a
0 for which f x f c for x ]c, c [ , in short, the function is increasing there, which is a
f c M
contradiction as is the supremum. So f ' c 0 is impossible. Then if possible, let
f ' c 0 . Then the function is decreasing in some interval i.e., there is a 0 for which
f c M
f x f c for x ]c , c[ . This is also impossible since is the supremum. This forces
f 'c 0 .
Thus the tangent to the graph must have been al least once parallel to the x-axis, or the derivative
must have a zero or a root in the interval. If the function has several cycles of increase and
decrease during the interval [a, b] then there would be several zeroes of its derivative; but at least
© Page 2
Actually the middle part of the proof may be stated as what is called Fermat’s theorem. It goes like
this, if a function f x is defined on a certain interval, and has a maximum or minimum at an interior
point x0, and if derivative of the function exists at this point , then f ' x0 0 . Actually a maximum or
minimum may exist at the point, without existence of derivative at the point. For example, f x x
has a minimum at x = 0, but it has no derivative at that point. Another example, the function
1
f x x, for 0 x 2
has a maximum at x = ½ , but has no derivative there. The proof is
1
f x 1 x, for x 1
2
already elaborated in the middle part of Rolle’s theorem and is left to the reader as an exercise.Now
dy
you understand why the points of a function at which 0 are called turning points of the curve.
dx
dy
( There may be other turning points of the curve apart from the points at which 0 and we would
dx ,
discuss about them later) the points where the function is maximum or minimum are included in the
dy dy
set of x – values for which 0 . For other points at which 0 , where the function is neither
dx dx
a maximum nor minimum, condition of Roll’s theorem is not satisfied in an interval containing the
point i.e. f a f b for any interval [a, b] containing the point . At such points the function is
stationary i.e. neither increasing nor decreasing around the point or the horizontal tangent crosses
the curve at the point (a point of inflexion) . See figures below.
Stationary point as a turning point Tangent crossing the curve at a turning point
© Page 3
Exercise1
Hint. The derivative of the polynomial is of degree n – 1 and thus can have at most n – 1 zeroes.
Exercise2
The curve (parabola) y x 2 bx c , or the quadratic polynomial has two roots; those are roots of
the equation x 2 bx c 0 , the points where y x 2 bx c crosses the x – axis or y = 0. The
roots are real distinct if there are two points of intersection; coincident if x – axis is a tangent to the
curve and imaginary if the parabola lies entirely above or entirely below the x – axis. Show that
b 4c b 2
the vertex of the parabola is the point , .if the roots are complex p iq, p iq , say,
2 4
the vertex of the parabola is p, q 2
.
dy
Hint. Vertex of the parabola would be at a point where 0 , i.e.,
dx
2
b b b 4c b 2
2x b 0 x , y b c . If the roots are complex p iq, p iq ,
2 2 2 4
then sum of the roots b p iq p iq 2 p b 2 p and product of the roots
b 4c b 2
c p iq p iq p 2 q 2 . So the vertex , 2
becomes p, q .
2 4
© Page 4
Y
f’(c) =
(c, f(c)) (b, f(b))
f b f a
(a,
α
f(a))
y = f(x)
O X
f b f a
tan
Lagrange’s Theorem: ba , just a rotation of axes through an angle α in Rolle’s theorem
Why Roll’s theorem and following others are called mean value theorems shall be evident from the
following theorem due to Lagrange. Now suppose that , of all the three conditions for Rolle’s
f b f a
theorem, the function does not satisfy the condition f b f a . Then is the slope of
ba
the secant of the function through the end points of the interval [a, b]. We take a function
f b f a
g x f x x a . It may be easily seen that g x satisfies all three conditions of
ba
f b f a
Rolle’s theorem ( verify) , so that g ' x 0 f ' x for at least
ba
f b f a
one point in the interval [a, b]. That is, f ' x for al least one point in [a, b]. This is
ba
Lagrange’s mean value theorem.
f b f a
After all what do you mean by ? It is nothing but the slope of the secant joining the
ba
points f b and f a .The function g x is nothing but the function f x rotated anti-clockwise
through an angle so that the secant joining the points on the graph at the end points of the interval is
parallel to the x-axis. In other words, there is al least one point in the interval [a, b] where the slope
of the function f x is parallel to the secant joining the end points. This is the reason these
theorems are called mean value theorems. Remember the average speed defined to be total
distance divided by total time whereas instantaneous speed was slope of the tangent of the distance
© Page 5
f b f a
Also you may understand g x f x x a
ba in this manner.. At any point x between
f b f a
the points a and b, proportional part of difference of ordinates , i.e.,
xa
f b f a f x f x
b a is deducted from ., in effect, the graph of the function is rotated
f b f a
g b and g a equal.
through an angle whose slope is ba .i.e., it makes
§3: A derived function cannot have discontinuity of the first kind. remember
This is a very powerful result jumps from Lagrange’s mean value theorem unexpectedly and is very
useful. We have to show that if f x is continuous at a point x = c, and lim f ' x l then
x c
f ' c l This means that f ' x has to be continuous at x = c if it exists.( however if f ' x does
not exist at x = c, then f x can have a discontinuity of second kind; e.g., at a sharp point on the
graph of a function, say two st lines intersecting at a point, f ' x does not exist at the point of
intersection and it is a constant , different at different sided of the point, i.e. a jump discontinuity
there)
f ' x
Let us take lim f ' x l ; so there is an interval ]c, c + h], h > 0, at every point of which
x c 0
f x f x
exists and therefore is continuous in the interval ]c, c + h[. In addition, is continuous at
f x
x = c also as given, then we have is continuous in the closed interval [c, c + h]. Applying
Lagrange’s theorem to this closed interval [c, c + h] we have a point ]c, x[ for which
f x f c
f x f c x c f ' f ' , for x c, c h .Taking
xc
© Page 6
could proceed to show lim f ' x f l also. Thus f ' c exists and l .
x c 0
If two functions f x and F x are continuously derivable in the interval [a, b], and F ' x 0 in
f ' x f b f a
that interval, then there is al least one point in the interval where when
F ' x F b F a
F b F a 0 Let us take a function g x f x AF x where A is a constant to make g x
satisfy Rolle’s theorem. Evidently continuity and derivability of g x in the interval is assured. The
f b f a
condition g a g b gives f a AF a f b AF b , or A so that
F b F a
f b f a
g x f x F x .and by Rolle’s theorem there is at least one point in the interval
F b F a
f ' x f b f a
[a, b] where g ' x 0 , or The fact that F b F a is never 0 is assured by
F ' x F b F a
.
the fact that A is finite and F ' x 0 in the assumption ; otherwise F x would satisfy conditions of
Rolle’s theorem and F ' x 0 for some point in the interval.
f x lim f ' x
(Compare this to L’Hopital’s rule lim
xa if the limits exist. To be treated later on.)
F x F ' x
xa
Cauchy’s mean value theorem may also be understood as Lagrange’s theorem taking parametric
equations y f t and x F t . (left as an exercise).
Cauchy’s mean value theorem may also be expressed in a different form. If two functions f x and
F x are derivable in the interval [a, a + h], and F ' x 0 in the closed interval, then there is at
f a h f a f 'a h
least one θ such that 0 < θ < 1, for which .
F a h F a F ' a h
A pitfall :Two functions f x and F x are derivable in the interval [a, a + h], and F ' x 0 in the
closed interval, then each one satisfies conditions of Lagrange’s theorem and there is a θ such that 0
< θ < 1, for which f a h f a f ' a h and F a h F a F ' a h so that
f a h f a f 'a h
. What is the mistake in this statement?
F a h F a F ' a h
© Page 7
Suppose that f ' x is continuous in the interval [a, b] including those at the end points, we are
looking beyond the end points and f ' x is continuous throughout before entering and after leaving
the interval also, then if f ' a f ' b then for any number between f ' a and f ' b would
also be f ' c for some number c in the interval [a, b]. This is evidently so, as a continuous function
f ' x varies between f ' a and f ' b , it would take every value between them, so also .
Then f ' c for some c [ a, b] .The theorem may also be differently worded as follows: if the
function is continuously derivable in the closed interval [a, b] and if f ' a and f 'b
are of
f 'c 0
opposite signs, then there is at least one point c between a and b such that .
We can dispense with the assumption f ' x is continuous in the interval [a, b] with the help of
a previous result that if a derivative exists in a closed interval, it is continuous too.
Exercise3
Verify whether the following functions satisfy all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem.
x
x f x x x 3 e 2
a) in [-2, 2] b) in [– 3, 0]
2
x y 1 x y 1 in [-1, 1]
3
c) in [-1 , 1] d)
5 x 2 ab
, ln
e) y ln sin x in 6 6 f) a bx in [a, b]
x a x b
m n
Verify whether conditions of Lagrange’s mean value theorem is satisfied by the following and solve
for f ' x 0 if so.
a) f x 3 x 2 5 in [– 2 ,0] b) f x ln x in [1, e]
c) f x lx 2 mx n in [a, b] d) f x e x in [0, 1]
e) f x x 2 9 in [3, 4] f) f x x 1 x 2 x 3 in [0, 4]
© Page 8
x for x 1
Show that the function f x 1 does not fulfill the conditions of Lagrange’s
x for x 1
theorem.
Ans. The function is not differentiable at x = 1 as there is a sharp point there.
Exercise7
x 2 x3 x 4
We know the logarithmic series ln 1 x x .................. , where x 1 .
2 3 4
In this manner we cannot have any idea of ln 1 e as e 1 . But we have Lagrange’s theorem to
help.
Apply Lagrange’s theorem
f x h f a hf ' a h , for some , such that 0 1 to f x ln x in the
interval [e, e 1] , ( i.e., a e, h 1 and show that
1
ln 1 e 1 , for some such that e e 1
Similarly apply Lagrange’s theorem to f x ln x in the interval [1,1 x ], x 0 and show that
x
ln 1 x for some , such that 1 1 x
x
Hence show that ln 1 x x, x0
1 x
Exercise8
1
n 1 n
Show that 2 N if n N 2
Hint. Apply Lagrange’s theorem to f x x in the interval [n, n+1],
1
to get f n 1 f n n 1 n for some such that n n 1 .
2
1 1 1
Now , if n N 2 , then N 2 and , i.e., n 1 n .
2 2N 2N
Exercise9
Applying Cauchy’s mean value theorem to the following pairs of functions, show that the arithmetic
a b
f '
mean of a and b i.e.,
ab
is a point in ]a, b[ where 2 f b f a
2 a b F b F a
F '
2
© Page 9
Hint :
x 0
2 ax x 0
2 ax
a sin
2 ax . a . 2 bx
2
2 sin cos lim
lim 2 ax 2 ax 2 ax 2 x0
sin
b 2 ax 2
a
e x0
e 2 bx
e b
a
2 sin cos
2 bx 2 bx 2 bx 2
Exercise11
1
Applying Cauchy’s mean value theorem to f x x, F x
x in [a, b] , a > 0,
f' ab f b f a c ab ,
show that F ' ab F b F a , i.e., the geometric mean of a and b.
Exercise12
1 1
f x , F x
Applying Cauchy’s mean value theorem to x2 x in [a, b] , a > 0,show that c is the
harmonic mean of a and b.
Exercise13
A function is continuous in [a, b] and derivable in ]a, b[ show that there is at least one c in ]a, b[ such
f a f b f ' c
that
a 2 b2 2c
Exercise14
© Page 10
Exercise16
f ' x 0 f x c
Show that a) in [a, b] means , a constant.
f ' x g ' x f x g x c
b) in [a, b] means , a constant
f ' x 0 f x f x 0
c) in [a, b] means 2 1
when x2 x1
the function is monotonically decreasing.
f ' x 0 f x f x 0
d) in [a, b] means 2 1
when x2 x1
the function is monotonically increasing.
Exercise17
© Page 11
Exercise19
sin x
Show that the function f x monotonically decreases in the interval [0, Л/2]
x
Exercise20
2x
Using the above problem, show that sin x x in the interval 0 x
2
Exercise21
f x 1 x p 1 x
p
1 1
. Then f ' x px p 1 p 1 x
p 1
Hint. Take p 1 p 1 p
0 , as
x 1 x
1 p 0 and x 0.
f x 1 x p 1 x f 0 0
p
a 1
Hint. use the above putting x , and p , n a natural number.
b n
Exercise23
x3 x3 x3
f x tan 1 x x tan 1 x x
Using derivative of the function 6 , show that 3 6
Exercise25
Find out the intervals in which the following functions are increasing and decreasing:
a) ex 5x b) ln x c) 2 x 2 ln x d) sin x cos x
ln 1 x 2
2x 2x
e) x cos x f) g) h)
ln x 1 x2
1
sin x
i) cosh x sinh x j) k) ex l) tan 1 x
x
© Page 12
Exercise26
Find the greatest and least values or both in the following in the specified intervals
a) xe x in [1, ∞] b) x 2 ln x in [1, e] c) sin x sin 2 x in ]- ∞, ∞[,
d) 1 2 x 1 x
2 2
in [– 1, 1] e) x x in [– 1, 1]
Exercise27
Show that the function f x cos x a increases monotonically and has one positive root for a>
1 and has no positive root for a < 1.
Exercise28
2
Show that the equation e x has only one positive root in ]0, 1[.
x
§7: Taylor’s theorem or generalized mean value theorem :The Lagrange’s theorem
f a h f a hf ' a 1h f a h f ' x
gives first approximation to . We can repeat this for ,
f '' x f '" x
, as we have assumed continuous differentiability of these functions to any order we
please. Thus
f a h f a hf ' a 1h f a h f ' a 2 hf '' a 1 2 h
f a hf ' a h 21 f '' a 1 2 h
f a hf ' a h 21 f '' a h31 2 f ''' a 1 23h
f a hf ' a h 21 f '' a h31 2 f ''' a
h 41 23 f '''' a 1 23 4 h .............up to
and so on up to infinity , provided the infinite series converges. (this is the only weakness of this
proof, we have to prove convergence for any particular function at hand.) the coefficients
1 , 1 2 , 1 2 3 , 1 2 3 4 etc. can be determined by comparing it with expansion of a known function
ex for f x .The convenience is that e x is unchanged under successive differentiation .Now,
compare the above series with
a h a h a a a h2 a h3
e e e e e h e e .....................................................up to
2! 3!
© Page 13
In course of Tailor’s expansion of a function f(x) around x = a, i,e, while writing terms of f(a +h) it
often so happens that the derivatives of f(x) are all zero at x = a , after a number of terms,
particularly when f(x) is itself a finite power series . If it does not happen, i.e., if infinite number of
terms have to be taken in series expansion of f(a +h), we may be interested in stopping the process
at some point, say we do not want to go beyond nth step. Then the n-th term shall not in general be
the n-th term of the corresponding infinite series unless the further derivatives of f(x) are 0. To find
the last term we want to stop at, say n-th step, we can design another function g(x) related to f(x) in
the following manner , designed to satisfy Rolle’s theorem.
Let
a h x a h x
2 n 1
g x f x a h x f x x ............. f n 1 x K a h x
m
1
f 2
2! n 1!
So that g a g a h may be true to satisfy Rolle’s theorem for some value of constant K.
We have g a h f a h and
h2 2 h n 1
g a f a hf 1 a f a ............. f n 1 a Kh m
2! n 1 !
for any arbitrary pre-assigned number m.
The condition g a g a h implies
h2 2 h n 1
f a h f a hf 1 a f a ............. f n 1 a Kh m
2! n 1 !
© Page 14
a h x
n 1
g ' x f n x mK a h x
m 1
But all other terms cancelling out.
n 1!
h n 1 1
n 1
n 1!
h n m 1
nm
i.e., K f n a h
n 1!m .
a h x a h x
2 n 1
g x f x a h x f 1
x f 2
x ............. f n1 x
2! n 1!
This gives
1 a h x
nm nm m
h
f n a h
n 1!m
Putting x = a + h, g a h f a h 0 and g a h g a gives,
h2 2 h n 1 hn n
f a h f a hf 1 x f x ............. f n 1 x 1 f n a h
n m
2! n 1! n! m
Since m is any arbitrary pre-assigned number, we may put m = n and get the following.
§9: The philosophy behind Taylor’s theorem
A tiny part of a curve about a point is a segment of a straight line. We find the slope of this straight
line to expect in what direction the curve would turn next when we leave the point. Also we get
approximate length of this tiny segment from Lagrange’s mean value theorem. Better approximation
would be if we regard a tiny part of the curve at the point of consideration as part of a circle, a
second degree approximation. A point a little ahead of the point under consideration and another
point behind it, form a triangle and a unique circle passes through these three points. The radius of
this circle is the radius of curvature of the curve at that point. We can generalize this thinking by
taking a general second degree curve , i.e., a conic section instead of a circle. This is done by taking
the first three terms of the Taylor’s series, as it is a second degree equation. But this is after all a
second degree approximation of the function of the curve at the point under consideration trying to
know , of what conic section our tiny segment of the curve may be. If this does not give us a fair view
of the tiny segment of our curve, or if we require better approximation for some purpose, we may
take more number of terms in the Taylor’s series to any desired degree of approximation( then the
comparison curve taken between any three adjacent points shall not be merely a conic section i.e.,
of 2nd degree, but a curve of higher degree equation, ensuring a better approximation). If we want to
exactly plot the next infinitesimal segment or a neighboring point in the curve, Taylor’s infinite series
is there, if the curve is smooth at all, whatever may be the scheme of the function for which the curve
stands. Since the Taylor’s infinite series coincides with the function exactly, after the Taylor’s series
for the particular function is worked out, we no more need any other forms in which the function
might have been expressed( we do not need any comparison curves, as the curve itself is accurately
described, i.e. to any degree of approximation). Thus a professor explained to the writer many years
© Page 15
h2 2 h n 1 hn n
f a h f a hf a
1
f a ............. f a
n 1
f a h
2! n 1! .
n!
We could well have assumed this from the beginning, and arrived at the derivation in a much simpler
way; but in that case we could not have derived what is known as
§11: Cauchy’s form of Taylor’s theorem in Remainder theorem for m = 1.
h2 2 h n 1 hn
f a h f a hf 1 x f x ............. f n 1 x 1 f n a h
n 1
2! n 1! n 1!
The method may look somewhat artificial to the student at first reading in comparison to infinite
series form.
But an elegant proof without use of Calculus would be given below which follows from simple
concept of a power series. The theorem is extended to include functions which are converging
infinite power series only through methods of Calculus such as one given above. Before that, a few
more important and interesting facts. First, the Taylor’s theorem in remainder form does not assume
that the function f(x) is infinitely differentiable( it should be only as many times as the number of
terms taken before the remainder) . In Mathematics, if a result is obtained with fewer assumptions
it broadens the scope of applicability of the result. The theorem in remainder form can be
applied to functions which are not infinitely differentiable !
One more interesting and useful result about Taylor’s theorem. If we take a = 0 and h = x, the
x2 2 x n 1 xn n
f x f 0 xf 1 0 f 0 ............. f n 1 0 f x
theorem assumes
2! n 1! n!
which
is Maclaurin’s series in remainder form, expansion of a function around the point x=0.
x2 2
And the infinite convergent Taylor’s series reduces to f x f 0 xf 0 f 0 ................
1
2!
,i.e. estimation of any function in terms of its derivatives! Suppose we take a function
f x sin x . Apart from a few values of sin x like when x = 0, x = 300, 600 etc. all of us must have
wondered in high school why should not we know sin 10 , sin 220 etc. Now for small angles say for
.0120 Maclaurin’s series would give value of sin .0120 and Taylor’s series would give the same for
further increments of the angle. in fact we could construct a whole sine table with the help of these,
formulae, at least in principle. And why sine values, values of all smooth functions may be got in the
same way. (by smooth functions we mean, continuously derivable functions, i.e., neither the function
has any sharp point nor its derivatives – this is not a too costly assumption) Of course better
methods are available for rapidly converging series (power series); however the Taylor’s an
Maclaurin’s series is the baseline. A few examples may be worked out easily enhancing your
confidence. Just you have to find out the derivatives at x = 0 in each case.
© Page 16
2! 3!
x 3 x5 x 7
35) sinh x x .......up to terms hyperbolic sine series.
3! 5! 7!
x2 x4 x6
36) cosh x 1 ..........up to terms hyperbolic cosine series.
2! 4! 6!
1
37) 1 x x 2 x 3 ..............................up to terms x 1
1 x
1
38) , for x 1
Find 1 x x
2
1 1 x3 1 3 x5
39) sin x x . . . ........................up to terms and carry on and
2 3 2 4 5
on.
, where
o x
n
stands for an
n
x
expression of order .
© Page 17
© Page 18
P Q
O M N
Convex upwards Concave upwards
© Page 19
P R
M N
Point of inflection
Such a point is called point of inflection . If f '' x at the point is 0, the Taylor’s theorem gives
h3
QN f x h f x hf ' x f ''' x h , for some , 0 1, as f '' x 0
3!
h3 h3
QN RN f ''' x h QN RN f ''' x h
3! 3!
which is of opposite signs corresponding to whether h is positive or negative.
The criteria for the point of inflection is f " x 0 and f '" x 0 at the point.
dy d 2x d 3x
Note : If , then consider and instead of f " x and f '" x .
dx dy 2 dy 3
© Page 20
f x h a0 x h a1 x h a2 x h
n n 1 n 2
.......................an . Simply expanding term by
term, according to binomial theorem and rearranging terms in ascending powers of x, we have,
f x h a0 x n a1 x n 1 a2 x n 2 .......................an 1x an
h na0 x n 1 n 1 a1 x n 2 n 2 a2 x n 3 ...........an 1
h2
n n 1 a0 x n 2 n 1 n 2 a1 x n 3 .........2an 2
2!
.................................................................................
hn
n n 1 n 2 ................2.1a0
n!
The expressions in the square brackets are easily seen to be f 1 x , f 2 x , ............. f n x and the
expression outside the bracket on the right side is seen to be f(x).
h2 2 hn n
Hence f x h f x hf x f x ......................... f x .
1
2! n!
Actually the argument is extended to all smooth functions; as they all are convergent power series
only, transcendental functions included.
Thought for you: write Taylor’s theorem for x = 0 . it would give
h2 2 hn n
f h f 0 hf 1 0 f 0 ......................... f 0
2! n!
So that you can get values of the function near x = 0. More surprises wait for you. Now h to x and get
x2 2 xn n
f x f 0 xf 0
1
f 0 ......................... f 0
2! n!
What does this mean ? you get the value of a function in terms of its value at 0, of course under
the assumptions of the Taylor’s theorem. This is not only true for polynomials also true for
transcendental functions also.
0
§16: L’Hopital’s Rule: limit of indeterminate form
0
dh ( x ) g( x )
if h( x ) 0 and lim
xa 0 and f ( x ) where g(x) and h(x) are continuously and
dx h( x )
successively differentiable in some domain and h(x) not 0, then
© Page 21
0
This is useful for finding limits of indeterminate forms which meet blind end while calculating with
0
standard techniques. Proof is obtained with the use of Lagrange’s mean value theorem
a a ' a for x a , x a means 0 for some 0 1 .
a a
(Remember
lim
0 ' a )
a a
We have g a g a g ' a 1 , for x a , x a means 0 for some 0 1 1
and
h a h a h ' a 2 , for x a , x a means 0 for some 0 2 1
so that
g x g a g a g ' a 1
h x h a h a h ' a 2
g ' a 1
, as g a 0 h a when 0 for 0 1 , 2 1
h ' a 2
g ( x) g '(a)
On taking the limits ,
lim
x a f ( x) lim
, if h '(a) 0
x a
h( x) h '(a)
This is of course assuming and are continuous at x a
g' x h' x
Example1 :
lim x 2 15 4
x 1
x 1
0
If x = 1, this is and cannot be calculated. But
0
d
dx
x 2 15 4
2 x 15
2x
2
1
4
and
d
dx
x 1 1 ,
1
x 15 4
2
1
for all values of x, and hence 1 for x = - 1 also. So lim
x 1 4 , a finite number even
x 1 1 4
if both numerator and denominator →0.
Exercise41
© Page 22
2
2 2 ln x
ln K lim ln x x lim lim x 0 differentiating numerator and denominator.
x x x x 1
Exercise43
1 1
Find lim e x ln x . Ans. If lim e x ln x K , then
x0 x 0
1 1
1 2
1
ln K lim ln e x ln x
lim ln e ln e lim x ln e lim x ,So K e 0 .
x 0 x 0 x ln x x 0 ln x x 0 1
x
Exercise44
1 1
ex x ex x
Find lim . Ans. Let K lim , then
x x
ln e x ln
1
ex x 1 ex x ln 1
ln K lim ln lim ln lim lim , differentiating numerator
x
x x
x x x x 1
and denominator form. So K e .
Exercise45
2 2a
© Page 23
lim 4 3sin x
Example2 :Find
x
2
7 cot x
d
0 4 3sin x lim 4 3sin x lim 3cos x
This is in 0. form i.e., in form. So,
lim
dx 0
0 7 cot x d x 7 cos ec 2 x
7 cot x
x x
2 2 2
dx
§19: Indeterminate form When both the limits
Lim
x a h( x) and Lim
xa g ( x) and
dg ( x ) dh( x) g( x )
lim
x a 0 lim
x a and f ( x ) where g(x) and h(x) are continuously and
dx dx h( x )
successively differentiable in some domain and h(x) not 0, then
dg ( x) d 2 g ( x)
dx lim dx 2 when dh( x) 0 and the argument can suitably be extended
x a f ( x ) x a
lim lim
x a
dh( x) d 2 h( x ) dx
dx dx 2
further forward; also backwards, i.e., lim f ( x ) lim g ( x)dx etc.(remember lim f ( x) limxa g ( x)
xa xa xa
h( x)dx
lim
x a h( x )
© Page 24
g '
constants and the limits
Lim
h( x) and Lim
g ( x) .We can make as near to
h '
x a xa
dg ( x)
lim dx l , by suitable choosing ε as discussed in the beginning. Hence the theorem.
x a
dh( x)
dx
Generalization follows by repeatedly applying the theorem
1
g x h x 0
The proof could have been much simpler by writing in form as conditions of
h x 1 0
g x
L’Hopital’s Rule would have been applicable, but the difficult route was taken to demonstrate an
application of Cauchy’s mean value theorem
lim 1 2 x 3x 2 4 x3
x
Example3 :Find ex
© Page 25
1 1 0
Example4 :Find lim
x2 Just a simplification reduces it to form. We have
ln x 1 x 2 0
1 1 lim x 2 ln x 1 0
lim
x2 is now in form
x2
ln x 1 x 2 ln x 1 x 2 0
1 1
lim
x2
x 1
on differentiating both 0 numm. and denum.
ln x 1 .1 x 2 1
x 1
x 1 1
lim
x2
x 1 ln x 1 x 2
1 1 1
lim , again on differentiating both 0 numm. and denum
x 1 . 1 1.ln x 1 1
x2
x 1
1 1
lim
x2
1 ln1 1 2
§21: Indeterminate form 00, ∞0, 1∞ etc.
g x
Let y x f x f ( x) 0 and Lim
x a g ( x ) 0
Lim Lim
and we have to consider x a y( x) when x a
Example5 :
x 0 y x x . This is in 0 form
Find Lim x 0
© Page 26
So Lim
y x e0 1
x
2
Example7 :
x
1
1
lim
x
Find x in the form 1∞.
x
1 1
y ( x ) 1 ln 1
Previously we have calculated it to be ex. Now, let x so that ln y ( x) x is in 0
1 0
x
1
1 lim 1 1
x ln 1 x 1 2
lim
x x x 1
form. Then x ln y ( x)
lim
lim 1 lim 1
x x 2
x x
x
1
1
lim
x
Hence , x = e, confirmation of our derivation earlier.
Example7 :
Find lim ln sin x sin 2 x . Ans. Evidently the limit exists only when x >0.
x0
1 2x 2x
2cos2 x cos2 x
ln sin 2 x cos2 x
lim ln sin x sin 2 x lim lim sin 2 x lim sin 2 x lim sin 2 x lim 1.1 1
x 0 x 0 ln sin x x 0 1 x 0 x x0 x x0 cos x
cos x cos x
sin x sin x sin x
Example8 :
© Page 27
Example10
1
1
f x e x2
sin for x 0
x f 0 0
Analyze continuity and differentiability of and
1
1 1
x2 e x2
sin 0
e 1 1 x
f ' x 3
2sin x cos if x 0 f ' 0 lim
x x x x 0 x
Differentiating, and
© Page 28
1 1
2
2
e x 1 1 e x
x 0 f ' x f ' 0 3 2 sin x cos 3
x x x x
2 x
When ,
1
1
ex f ' x f ' 0 2 x 2 x lim f ' x f ' 0 0 f ' x
4
2 x4 x 0
As , we have, so that is
continuous at x = 0. So the function is continuous and derivable at every point.
2
x f ' x
Now, for
2n 1 , is positive or negative according as n is even or odd, it must vanish
2 1
,
at least once between
2n 1 n .i.e., it vanishes infinite times in any small interval around 0.
Example11
xm
lim 0
x e x
Show that for m > 0, α > 0.
f x x m
g x e x
Take , and [m] = n , the greatest positive integer not greater than m.
And see that
lim f x , lim f ' x , lim f '' x ,..........all , lim g x , lim g ' x , lim g '' x ,..........all
x x x x x x
f x
n 1
x m
lim 0 lim 0
x g n 1 x x e x
And , so,
Example12
Show that there is one and only one positive root of cos x = 0 between x = 0 and x = 2 and it is π/2.
cos x 0 for 0 x cos 0 1
2
We know , and
2 2 2 2 4
2 6
2 2 26 22 22 2
22 1
cos 2 1 ............... 1 1 1 ......... 1 1
2! 4! 6! 2! 3.4 6! 7.8 2! 3.4 3
, So
cos 0
2
there exists one number α between 0 and 2 so that evidently .
© Page 29
lim x ln x 0
m
lim
0
x x x 0
Show that a) b)
Exercise49
1
f x e x2
Show that the function possesses continuous derivatives of every order at x = 0, but still
cannot be expanded in Maclaurin’s series.
(hint . all derivatives are 0)
§25: Value of n-th derivative at x = 0 without differentiating repeatedly
Exercise50
d n m sin 1 x
dx n
e
Find x 0 .
m
1 x 2 y12 m 2 y 2 . On differentiation,
1 1
Let y e m sin x
. Then y1 e m sin x
1 x 2
1 x 2 y1 y2 2 xy 2m yy1 1 x 2 y2 xy1 m2 y
2
1
2 2
1 x y 2nxy n n 1 y xy ny m y 2
n 2 n 1 n n 1 n
2
n
Applying Leibnitz’s theorem,
1 x y 2n 1 xy m n y 0 2
n 2 n 1
2 2
n
At x = 0, y 0 n m y 0 . Also
2 2
n2 n
y 0 1, y 0 m, y 0 m , y 0 1 m y 0 m 1 m
1 2
2
3
2
1
2
y 0 2 m y 0 m 2 m
4
2 2
2
2 2 2
y 0 3 m y 0 m 1 m 3 m
5
2 2
3
2 2 2
y 0 4 m y 0 m 2 m 4 m
6
2 2
4
2 2 2 2 2
So, in general
m 2 2 2 m 2 4 2 m 2 ....... n 2 2 m 2 for n even
yn 0
m 1 m 2 32 m 2 ............ n 2 m 2 for n odd
2
Exercise51
© Page 30
e x e x 2 ln 1 x
lim
x 0 x sin x
ln 1 x 2
1
x
e e 2x
x
e 1x2
g) lim h) lim i) lim
x 0 x sin x x 2 tan 1 x 2 x 0 cos3x e x
e ax e ax
xe x ln 1 x ln 1 x 2 lim
x 0 ln 1 bx
j) lim k) lim l)
x 0 x2 x 0 ln cos x
e x sin x x x 2
lim
cos 2 x 1 1 x 0 x 2 x ln 1 x
k) lim l) lim 2 ln 1 x m)
1 2 x 2ex
x e
2
x 0 x x
cosh x cos x x 2 2 cos x 2 tan 2 x x 2
n) lim o) lim p) lim 2
x 0 x sin x x 0 x sin 2 x x 0 x tan 2 x
q) lim
sin x ln e x cos x
r) lim
sin 2 x 2sin 2 x 2sin x
s) lim ln 1 x cot x
x 0 x sin x x 0 cos x cos2 x x 0
1 sin x cos x ln 1 x 1 1 1 1
t) lim u) lim v) lim 2
x 0 x tan 2 x x2 x 2
ln x 1 x 0
x x 1
1 1
lim cos x x2 lim x a
x a
w) x) y) lim x x z) lim x 1 x
x 0 x a x 0 x 1
A pitfall
Apply L’ Hospital’s rule in the following to fall in a loop. Calculate the limits direct otherwise.
1
x 2 sin
sec x sin x x tan x
a) lim b) lim c) lim d) lim
x tan x
x 1 x 0 sin x x
sec x
2 x 2 sin 2
x
Exercise52
x 1 a cos x b sin x
For what values of a and b the lim 1?
x 0 x3
© Page 31
x 2
1 x sinh x
lim sin x
tan x
h)
i) lim j) lim
x
2
x 1 ln x ln x x 0
x
a 1 x ln x 1
k) lim x 2 cosh 1 l) lim m) lim x x 2 ln 1
x0
x x 1
1 2 x x2 x
x
a x a x 1 f ' x 1
n) lim x 1 1 o) lim 2 cot 2 x p) lim
f x f a x a
x 0 x
x
x x xa
1
a x a2x ............anx x
lim 1
n x 0
n tan x x
q) lim cos mx x2 r) s) lim
x 0 x 0 x sin x
1
t) lim ln cot x
tan x
u) lim sin 1
xa
cot x a v) lim
1 x x e
x 0 x a a x0 x
Exercise54
1
f x e x2 for x 0
f n 0 0 for all n f 0 0
Show that if
Exercise55
Compare the order of largeness between the two functions f x x n and F x log a x when they
tend to infinity.
log a x
Hint. Show that lim 0 , so that F x log a x tends to infinity faster.
x xn
Exercise56
Prove the Taylor’s formula if f x is continuous and has continuous derivatives of order 1, 2,….upto
n -1, in the interval [a, b], then
x
- 2
a !
x n
- -
a 1
x
- n
a !
2
n !
-
1
n
f
x
=
f
a
+
f
'
a
x
-
a
+
f
'
'
a
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
f
+
f
a
+
x
-
a
n
-
1
θ
where 0 1
This is expansion of a function f x around a point ‘a’.
© Page 32
x3 x5
x .........
sin x 3! 5!
We have tan x a0 a1 x a2 x .....
2
2 3
cos x x x
1 .........
2! 3!
x 2
x 3
x 3 x5
0 1 2
a a x a x 2
..... 2! 3!
1 ......... x .........
3! 5!
Or,
Now you could equate the coefficients of similar powers of x from both sides,
x3 2 x5
tan x x ................
And get 3 15
© Page 33
1
np p 1
n
Show that a1 2a2 3a3 ................np.anp
2
Exercise62
Using Maclaurin’s series in remainder form, expand ln 1 x upto 9th power of x and remainder
involving x10 in the domain [0, 1]. Give an idea of the error if remainder is ignored.
Hint. Find the derivatives of ln 1 x of orders 1, 2, 3,……upto 10 at x = 0. Then as per
Maclaurin’s formula,
f 10
10
x2 x3 x9
ln 1 x x ......... R10 x , where R10 x x , 1
2 3 9 10!
f 10 10 9! x10 1
R10 x x x10
.
10!1 10 1
10 10
10! 10
Exercise63
Expand the following functions in the ascending powers of x , and find the region of convergence.
sin x e x sin bx
1 2
a) , b) c) ax d) sinh x e) cosh x
1 1
f) g) e x in powers of x 1 , h)
1 x2 1 x x2
Exercise64
1 1 x2 1
1
Show that 1 x 1 x 1 x , Hint. expand 1 x 2 as 1 x R2 x and
2 2 8 2
1 11
1 x 1 x 2 R3 x and compare.
2 22
Exercise65
Verify the following identities.
1 1
ln x x 1 x 1 x 1 .............
2 3
a)
2 3
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2 8
x2 5x4
d)
sin e x 1 x
2 24
........
x 2 x3
Use the known series e 1 x .......... , so that , let e x 1 y
x
Hint.
2! 3!
3 5
x 2 x3 x 2 x3
x ..... x .....
y 3
y 5
x 2
x 3
2! 3! 2! 3!
sin y y ...... x .......... ...........
So 3! 5! 2! 3! 3! 5!
x2 5x4
x ..............................
2 24
1 1 1
e) x 1 x 2 cos x ln 1 x x 2 x 3 x 5 ..........
2 3 5
exercise72
Expand ln sin x in ascending powers of x 3
Hint. ln sin x ln sin 3 x 3
Exercise73
Find the limits of the following by expanding the functions, or applying L’Hopital’s rule or otherwise,
combining the methods and show that:
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Exercise77
x tan 2 x 2 x tan x
Find lim .
1 cos2 x
x 0 2
8 2 4 64 4 6 8 2 64 4 2 8 2
x x .... x ....
lim
3 3 15 15 lim x 4 3 3 15 15
3 31
4 4
x0
x3 x5 x 0
4 x2 x4 4 2
4 x ...... 4 x 1 ......
3 5 3 5
Exercise78
a sin x bx cx 2 2 x 3
lim
If x0 2 x ln 1 x 2 x x is finite, find a,b, c, .
2 3 4
© Page 37
a
a b 0, c 0, 2 , i.e., a b 12, c 0.
3!
Exercise79
lim cos ecx 1 lim cos ecx K
x x
x0
Show that .Ans. Let x0 ,
Exercise80
lim sin x 1 lim sin x K
x x
x0
Show that .Ans. If x0 ,
then
1
ln sin x cos x
sin x x2
ln K lim ln sin x lim x ln sin x lim
x
lim lim 0 K 1
x 0 x 0 x 0 1 x 0 1 x 0 tan x
2
x x
Exercise81
Find the derivative of the polynomial f x x 1 x 1 x 2 x 3 and show that it has three
real roots.
f x x 1 a cos x b sin x
Ex82: Given that lim 1 and lim 1 , find a and b.
f x
3
x 0 x x 0
© Page 38
x3
x
f x
using lim 1
x 0 x
1 a b a b 2 9 b 2
lim 2 x higher powers of x 1 ( Given)
x 0
x 2! 3! 4! 5!
a b
For the limit to exist , we must have 1 a b 0 and 1 , comparing coefficients in LHS and
2! 3!
RHS.
5 3
Solving the equations, we get, a , b .
2 2
Exercise83
If f x and F x are two continuous functions equal to each other at all rational points, show
that they are equal to each other at all points.
Hint. between any two rational numbers there is an irrational number and vice versa.
Exercise84
If f x and F x are two continuous functions whose derivatives are equal to each other at all
rational points, show that they are equal to each other at all points.
Thought for you
A transcendental function such as cos x , sin x etc. is an infinite converging power series, as
visualized through Taylor’s series or from lessons of Trigonometry. Can a polynomial i.e., a finite
power series approximate it ? In other words can a given transcendental function and a polynomial
of degree n , agree at a number of points. The answer seems to be yes. Not only an ‘yes’, the
polynomial so found shall be unique, for a particular n; and the process is called interpolation.
© Page 39
P(a, b)
Q(c, d)
T
X’ X
O R S
Y’
Fig. 1.4.1a:rectangular coordinates
Rene Des’ Cartes’ , an ailing boy, developed Coordinate Geometry while lying confined to bed
and watching a spider moving about its cobweb to catch its trapped prey. Although , according to
some, Fermat had proved many results of Coordinate Geometry earlier , the time was that of a great
social turbulence known as the renaissance period in the History of France or the French revolution
and Des’ Cartes’ came to be known as the inventor of Coordinate Geometry. However, details of
History is not our point and we should have enough respect for either of them.
In the plane of the paper we fix a point for reference O, called the origin of coordinates and
two intersecting straight lines XOX’ and YOY’ intersecting at O at right angles. Such a system of
reference is called a rectangular Cartesian system of coordinates. If a particular point P in this plane
is reached by going through a distance ‘a’ from the origin towards X-direction (towards the right) from
the origin O and then going through a distance ‘b’ in Y-direction (upwards from there), then the
coordinates of the point P with reference to the set axes and origin are denoted by the ordered pair
(a, b) and b are called x-coordinate (called the abscissa) and y-coordinate (called the ordinate) of
the point P. The point P is written as P(a, b).The point is unique if and b are given numbers. and b are
lengths of perpendiculars from the point on the x-axis and y-axis respectively.
A point in three dimensional space can be represented by an ordered triplet (a, b, c) where a,
b and c are lengths of perpendiculars from the point on the yz plane, xz plane and xy plane
If the angle between them is not a right angle, the system is called oblique Cartesian coordinate system. Majority of results of rectangular
system also hold good in oblique coordinate system with suitable modifications.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
respectively. The point can be reached by proceeding through a distance a (= OR) from the origin O
of reference system along the rectangular Cartesian coordinate x-axis in the direction of X, then
through a distance b (= RQ) in the direction of Y, parallel to Y-axis and then through a distance c (=
QP) in direction of Z parallel to Z axis where the three axes perpendicular to each other meeting at O.
The convention is that the axes are mutually perpendicular in the sense that, if fingers of right hand
point straight in the direction of X, then turned towards the direction of Y making a fist, then the thumb
pointing upwards from the fist should be in the direction of Z.
In contrast with two dimensional Coordinate Geometry, if perpendiculars are dropped from the point
on the axes of X, Y an Z their lengths are not the lengths of the coordinates ! (verify from the figure
1.5a that PT, the perpendicular from the point on z-axis = OQ = (OR2+RQ2) = (x2+y2) z). Actually,
the perpendicular from the point on xy-plane, is the z-coordinate if this plane passes through the
origin. Similar statement may be made for x and y coordinates.
But the distance of the point from the origin OP = (PQ2+OQ2) = (PQ2+OR2+RQ2)
In the figure above, in a typical rectangular Cartesian coordinate system two points P(a, b)
and Q(c, d) are shown joined to each other and to the Origin O.
Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2, z2) are any two points with coordinates (x1, y1, z1) and
(x2, y2, z2) respectively as in fig. Fig.1.5b . Drop perpendiculars PT and QS on the
xy-plane and let PR be the perpendicular on QS. Drop perpendiculars TU and SV on the x-axis and
let UW be the perpendicular on SV.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
§5: Polar Coordinates :
In the same figure, instead of the X and Y axes of coordinates, if we keep the fixed point O
(called the pole) and the fixed line OX, called the initial line, we can reach the points P by advancing
through a distance r from O in X direction, and then turning through an angle anticlockwise = angle
XOP. Thus the point P is uniquely determined here also with polar coordinates, (r , ) , the system of
coordinates being called polar coordinate system. In this system the line OX is called the initial line
and the angle is called the vectorial angle.
Y
P(a, b)
Q(c, d)
T
X’ X
O R S
You never need cramming the equations in the study of Calculus, nor the process which
generated it. It is just needed to understand that a curve is the locus or path of a point changing
according to a given equation and is completely described by the equation involving the coordinates x
and y, which is arrived by applying the criteria describing the curve..
There is nothing holy about Cartesian coordinates or polar coordinates or any particular system of
coordinates in particular. One can easily note the relations
or = tan -1 (y / x)
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Thus (r,) can be replaced by (x, y)
(For any point P(x, y), x =OQ = r cos , and y = PQ = r sin where OP = r and angle POQ = and
as such the above relations are evident .)
Y
P
O X
Fig.(1.4.2) Q
Suppose the two points are P x1 , y1 and Q x2 , y2 respectively. By changing to polar coordinates,
x1 r1 cos 1 , y1 r1 sin 1 , x2 r2 cos 2 , y2 r2 sin 2 . Then,
PQ 2 x2 x1 y1 y2
2 2
Direct application of cosine formula from trigonometry also could have given this result. Join P, Q to
the origin O and apply cosine formula to ∆ OPQ to get PQ.
Example 1:
To understand how equations of curves are derived, consider the locus (path) of a point always at
same distances from two given points.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Y
S
P(x, y)
B(c, d)
A(a, b)
X’ X
O
S’
Y’
Fig. (1.4.1b),deriving equation of a curve
Denoting the point by P(x, y) which is equidistant from both fixed points A(a, b) and B(c ,d) we have
the distances of P from A and B ,
(( x – a)2 +(y – b)2 ), and (( x – c)2 +(y – d)2 ) respectively
Hence, (( x – a)2 +(y – b)2 ) = (( x – c)2 +(y – d)2 ) , which, on simplification shall give us the desired
equation of the locus of the point equidistant from A and B.
Note the symmetry of expressions in both sides and correspondence of 2x to a + c and that of 2y to
b + d. Any one can see that this is a straight line bisecting the segment AB.
Example 2:
To find the locus of a moving point and equation to the corresponding curve, when the moving point
is at a fixed distance r from a fixed point (h, k). The distance between the moving point (x, y) and the
fixed point is x h 2 y k 2 r or x h 2 y k 2 r 2 The locus is a circle at (h, k) as we
understand and this is its equation. Any one can see that this is a circle with radius r and having its
centre at (h, k).
Example 3:
Consider two fixed points (a, b) and (h, k). To find the locus of a point whose distances from these
two points is always in a given ratio, /1. If the coordinates of the point be denoted by (x, y), we have,
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
or, ( x – a)2 +(y – b)2 = 2(( x – h)2 +(y – k)2 ) = 2( x – h)2 +2(y – k)2
or, (1 + 2)x2 + (1 + 2)y2 + 2(2h – a)x + 2(2k – b)y + (a2 + b2 – 2h2 – 2k2) = 0
§8: Vector Algebra : Numbers were basically used for counting. Then we derived another major
utility of numbers – measurement of quantities. In this process we had to define units of measurement
for all quantities we wanted to measure. In Physics, we defined only three fundamental units . They
are, units of length, mass and time in metric system (or length, weight and time in British system)
and expressed other units as multiplication or division of these fundamental units, although each
different unit has a different name. e.g., force has dimensions (mass) x ( length)x(time)-2 and so on.
Thus the measurable quantities are expressed with a number and a unit combined.
Mathematics designs concepts and tools for different purposes, for Physicists, Economists and all
others. Some quantities in Physics required a direction to be mentioned along with a number and a
unit to express certain quantities. These quantities are called vectors. For example, force is one
such quantity , because, force in one direction is not equal to another force of equal magnitude
(number and unit) in another direction, as the two would have different effects when applied on a
body. Displacement is on such quantity. If one starts from a point A and straight moves up to another
point B, the line segment in that direction is displacement from A to B. If one proceeds the same
distance even, in another direction, one does not reach at point B. So displacement in one direction is
not same as an equal distance in another direction .
Explanation
Suppose you have to fly down from New Delhi to Chennai to attend a meeting at 2.00 p.m. Direct
morning flight is available at 7.00 a.m. and it takes 4 hours. But it is too early at Delhi to rise and
catch a flight at 7.00 a.m. Rather you decide to take a 2 hours’ flight to Kolkata at 8.30 a.m. and go
for the connecting flight from Kolkata to Chennai at 11.00 a.m. and reach Chennai by 1.00 p.m. , still
well in time for the meeting. This you have decided because
Whatever may be the cause, you have reached Chennai in time and that has served your purpose.
You may take the decision out of compulsion or merely by choice, the purpose is served, i.e.
displacement from New Delhi to Chennai has been achieved. The two displacements , New Delhi
to Kolkata and from Kolkata to Chennai together is equivalent to displacement from New Delhi to
Chennai .And you don’t care for the distance travelled extra. his is the story of vector quantities.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
As another example, consider you reach your school when you travel straight ½ miles in North-East
direction. Would you reach your school if you travel the same ½ miles in any other direction, say in
the direction of East ? Evidently no. so the two displacements are different.
Boldface type letters like a, b, A , B (ref. fig. 1.9a, 1.9b)or arrow superscripted letters such as
a , b , A, B etc, or arrow headed line segments such as AB,CD,etc. (ref. fig. 1.9c,1.9d etc) are used in this
book to indicate vector quantities at relevant places. Plane letters such as a, b, A, B etc. or Italics like
a, b, A, B etc. are used to denote magnitude of the vectors a, b, A, B etc. respectively. If PQ or PQ is
a line segment, PQ denotes the vector and PQ denotes its magnitude. Symbols like â , b̂ etc. are
used for vectors of unit magnitude, called unit vectors in different directions. Bold faced letters could
not be handwritten, so in writing we use arrow headed letters or segments for vectors.
If an unit vector â is in the direction of the vector a , the unit vector has magnitude 1 and the vector
To know what is the nature of vector quantities and for what purpose they were designed
consider the following. Suppose a body of weight F is raised from a lower level to a higher level see
figure below.
N’ N
P Py
R C P Py
M M’ Px
B
A L L’ Px
O O’
We have to lift the body by applying a force equal and opposite to its weight in the upward direction
.We require to calculate the work done on the body while lifting if from the point the point O to the
point N through the path ON. If we lift the body straight from the point O to the point N through the
path ON, we have to multiply F with only the vertical part of the distance moved ON’, which is the
difference of heights between the initial level and final level. For , this is the distance through which
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
the point of application of force has moved in the vertical direction, i.e., in the direction of the force.
The point of application of the force, i.e., the body has also simultaneously moved through the
distance N’N while moving through the distance ON’ so that it has reached the point N. But no work is
done in moving though the distance N’N, as work is done only when the point of application of the
force moves a distance in the direction of force. Now, if we suppose that the body, instead of
moving direct through the distance ON, has moved to the point N through three stages, first, from O
to L, then from L to M and finally from M to N. To calculate the work done, we have to multiply force F
with the vertical parts of the distances moved, namely, O’L, L’M and M’N in turn and add them up.
They evidently add up to ON’ , exactly as in the previous case, and calculation of work is same in
both the cases, as we expected. Calculation of work done by moving a body between two points does
not depend upon the path through the body is moved. Now the point to ponder is, what symbols
should we adopt and what rules we have to design in order that we may add them so that their
vertical and horizontal parts are added up simultaneously (we are discarding the horizontal parts
here, that is a different thing) and what sort of multiplication process we have to design so that only
vertical parts of the distances moved are multiplied to the force and added up together and horizontal
parts are discarded. The answer is cutely provided by the concept of vectors, their addition and dot(.)
product perfectly fit for these requirements as to be seen in the lines below. We note that the sum of
the distances OL, LM and MN is equivalent to the distance ON for our purpose (of calculating the
work done) even if they are not equal arithmetically.
Y R Y R
Q
Q
P
P
O X O X
OP OQ OR OP PR OP OQ QP
OR2 = OP2 + OQ2 + 2OP.OQ cos (- ) OR2 = OP2 + OQ2 - 2OP.OQ cos (- )
from tail of 1st, OP to head of the last,PR (=OQ) from head of 2nd,OQ to head of 1st ,OP
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Q
Y P
P
Q
R
O O X
OP OQ QP OP OQ OP OQ OP PR OR
As in figure above, if one moves from the point O to point L, from L to M and M to N
successively, one undergoes displacements A, B and C in succession. This is , in effect, same as if
one has direct reached the point N from O undergoing straight through displacement R. Here only
reaching the point N is concerned, and time, distance, cost or labour do not matter. This
consideration gives us the cue to vector addition. If two or more vectors are drawn successively in
tail-to-head order, the resultant would be represented by joining the tail of the first vector to the
head of the last, completing the vector polygon. This is in the same way as we add two real
numbers 7 and 2. (mark off a length of 7 units from origin of the real line, then proceed two units
further and finally measure the whole length from the origin (from the tail of the first segment) to the
farthest point (head of the last segment). Here R is called the resultant of A, B and C while A, B and
C are called the components of R. Similarly, if one subtracts 2 from 7, one marks off 7 units from
the origin, then marks off two units again from the origin and then measures length from this point to
the end of 7 units marked off earlier.. Same is the case for subtraction of vectors, ref. fig. above; the
difference of vectors O P and O Q is the vector Q P from Q to P, from the head of the second to
the head of the first. Otherwise, to subtract, O Q from O P we can add the negative of O Q to O P ,
as in fig. where PR OQ . This is just like proceeding 7 units from the origin, then returning two
units backwards and measuring how far one is now from the origin, as in the case of subtracting 2
from 7.While adding or subtracting vectors, it must be remembered that they must be of
similar types; i.e., a displacement may be added to a displacement of the same body, a force may
be added to another force acting on the same body. There is no point in adding a displacement of
one body to that of another body or a force acting on one body to that acting on another body or
adding a displacement to a force.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
In short you can say AB BC CD DE AE even without making any figure and in the
same way AB AC CB with your eyes closed. Just remember and verify drawing a figure that the
process obeys the polygon method of addition of vectors.
M L
R
With a view to further clarify vector addition let us see what is called parallelogram law of addition.
(see fig.) above. The vectors OP and OQ are drawn from a common origin O , the origin of a two
dimensional rectangular coordinate system ( Suppose they are forces on a boat going downstream in
a river, exerted through ropes by two persons, L and M, on each bank of the river both running
upstream, balancing the force of water on the boat OS downstreem. Since the two forces are acting
upon the same point, the boat, we can draw a vector OP and another PR OQ and OR is the
resultant as per polygon law or triangle law. But we can complete the rectangle OPRQ so that OR is
the diagonal of this parallelogram. Thus the vector sum of OP and OQ , can be represented by OR ,
the diagonal of the parallelogram included between the two vectors, when they are drawn from a
common origin instead of head to tail manner. This is parallelogram law of addition of two vectors. For
more than two vectors , e.g. forces acting on the same mass point, the process may be repeated , but
it is cumbersome. A powerful method is the component method explained below.
A pitfall
Electric current is a quantity which has magnitude and direction also, as a current has the direction of
the conducting wire carrying it. But suppose three conducting wires , carrying different currents in
different directions are joined at a point from where a single output wire emerges. The resulting
current would be only algebraic sum of the component currents irrespective of whatever directions the
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
wires have. Hence the quantities having magnitude and direction not obeying the polygon law
of vector addition are not vectors !
Exercise1
Find unit vectors in the directions of the vectors i j k , i 2 j 3k and the sum of them 2i 3 j 4k .
i j k i 2 j 3k
Also the sum of the unit vectors in the directions i j k , i 2 j 3k . Ans. , ,
3 14
2i 3 j 4k
.
29
i j k i 2 j 3k
Sum of the 1st two unit vectors is . So the sum of unit vectors may not be the
3 14
unit vector of the sum of two vectors.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
traveling in a train , or observing difference of velocities of the trains when both are running in
O
P
Before giving the component method of vector addition, it may be observed that the vector
addition is associative, i.e. A+(B+C)=(A+B)+C=A+B+C and commutative i.e.
A+B= OP PQ OQ , B+A = OR RQ OQ . It would be clear from the figures below.
A
R Q
C A-B
A+B+C
B+C A+B
B
A+B B B
A O P
A
Zero vector
A zero vector 0 is one of magnitude 0 and having any chosen direction. ( so that the difference of any
two equal vectors in any direction is a zero vector )
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Z
O B
Y
Pz
Px
A Py B’
X
OP P Px i Py j Pz k Px Py Pz
Vector
Q
Y P
P
Q
R
O O X
OP OQ QP OP OQ OP OQ OP PR OR
Y
(Left):Component method of addition (or
R subtraction) of vectors .
P + Q + S = R,
Px = P cos , Py = P sin ,
S
Qx = Q cos, Qy = Q sin ,
Q P
Sx = S cos , Sy = S sin .
O X
Any vector P as in fig. 1.9b can be thought of as resultant of its rectangular components (they add
up to give rise to original) Px and Py, the projections of P along a chosen set of x-axis and y-axis , as,
the vector P joins the tail of Px to the head of Py.
If be the angle of inclination of P with x-axis, magnitudes of Px and Py are given by,
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
In three dimensions, P = Px + Py + Pz
Example4
The velocity of a boat on a very wide river is 2i 3j relative to the stream and the velocity of the
stream is 3i 2 j relative to the ground. What is the ground velocity of the boat ?
Ans. 5i j .
Exercise2
A cyclist races towards East at a speed of 10 kmph and observes the wind blowing from North to
South. On doubling his speed, he observes that the wind direction has changed and it is blowing
from North East. Find the ground speed of the wind.
Let the velocity of the cyclist be 10i and the velocity of the wind be ai b j , where i and j are unit
vectors due to East and due to North respectively.
The relative velocity of the wind is ai b j 10i j as it appears to flow from North to South.
i j i j
An unit vector in the direction from NE to SW is .
1 1 2 2
2 2
i j
On doubling the speed the relative velocity of the wind becomes, 10i b j 20i .
2 2
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
The velocity of the wind is 10i 10 j , which is 10 2 units from NW (verify).
Exercise3
A airplane is travellint towards South at a ground speed of 15km per minute and experiences the wind
velocity appearing to come from the West. Changing the ground speed of the airplane to 25 km per
minute the pilot notes that the direction of the wind changes from West to South West. What is really
its direction ?
3
Ans: at an angle tan 1 North of West.
2
§13:
Components In two dimensions
Rectangular components may be taken advantage of, in case of addition of two or more vectors. We
can add two or more vectors by adding their x-components and y-components and the sums thus
arrived at, shall be x-component and y-component of their resultant. See fig.1.7g. If P,Q, and R are
drawn from a common origin, and P + Q + S = R, and ,, respectively are their angles with chosen
x-axis,
Px = P cos , Py = P sin ,
Qx = Q cos, Qy = Q sin ,
Sx = S cos , Sy = S sin .
So Rx = Px + Qx + Sx , Ry = Py + Qy + Sy ,
In case of two vectors only P an Q, take the X – axis and Y –axis in the plane containing the two
vectors and get, for R = P + Q,
= P2(cos2 + sin2 )+Q2 (cos2 + sin2 )+2PQ(cos cos +sin sin ))
and tan = (P sin + Q sin ) / (P cos + Q cos ), gives its direction.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
S2 = (P cos - Q cos )2 + (P sin - Q sin )2
= P2(cos2 + sin2 )+Q2 (cos2 + sin2 ) -2PQ(cos cos +sin sin ))
and tan = (P sin - Q sin ) / (P cos - Q cos ), gives its direction.
The magnitude and the direction of the resultant, or that of any vector for that matter, shall be same
whatever may be the axes, two dimensional or three dimensional in whatever direction you choose,
only the axes should be mutually perpendicular . If the axes chosen are changed, the
components are changed, but not the vectors.
For sake of simplicity, for sum and difference of two vectors P an Q, take a two dimensional
Cartesian coordinate axes , taking the direction of P as X – axis. If the angle between the vectors is
, putting 0 and in the above formula, the magnitude of R = P + Q is
Q cos
R P 2 Q 2 2 PQ cos , direction is given by tan -1 if is the angle made by the
P Q sin
resultant with the first vector.
§14: Explaining Position vectors, norm or magnitude of a vector and coordinates of a point.
Taking any fixed point O as the origin, we could specify the position of any other points A , B, C etc by
a, b, c etc. ( bold letters indicate vectors ) i.e. a OA , b OB , c OC , etc. They are called
position vectors of points A, B and C respectively. These are Clarendon symbols and the main
advantage of this convention is exhibited as AB OB OA b – a. We could straight write BC c –
b, etc. Also we understand a a OA etc. called magnitude of length or norm of the vector a i.e.,
OA . Magnitude of the vector a is a ax 2 a y 2 a z 2 and it may be noted that ax , a y , az are
components of vector a , as well as coordinates ax , ay , az . We prefer usually writing a1 , a2 , a3
as components of a instead of ax , ay , az .
An advantage with position vectors is , you can choose any origin O , O’ whatsoever, and the position
vectors of the points A, B and C change as a, b, c etc. change; but there is no difference in a – b ,
b – c, and c – a as they represent vectors BA, CB, and AC respectively.(verify) . The vectors a – b
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
, b – c, and c – a are displacement vectors BA, CB, and AC whereas a, b, c etc. position
vectors of points A, B, C. Even without figure it can be easily written and understood that
AB BC AC the vector joining the tail of the first to the head of the last in addition process and
AB AC CB ; the vector joining the head of the second vector to the head of the first.
Just as we understand P(x, y, z) as the point P in Cartesian coordinates having coordinates (x, y, z)
we could also write P a for the point P whose position vector is a x, y, z xi y j zk . Also a
is usually denoted by a a1 , a2 , a3 a1i a2 j a3 k .
In two dimensions, we could also write P z for the point z a ib in complex plane ( Argand plane)
Though the position vectors of two points may be added together vectorialy, it has no physical
meaning. But the difference of position vectors of two points is the displacement vector
between the two points.
Z P(x, y, z)
γ
β
O Y
α
R
Q
X
Direction cosines,
l cos , m cos , n cos
If P is any point P(x, y, z) draw PQ parallel to z axis and , QR parallel to y-axis meeting the x –
axis at P and let OP make angles , , and γ with the axes respectively.(above figure). Note that the
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
sum of any two of these angles is not /2 as in case of two dimensions. But we do have a simple
relation among them which would prove useful as we proceed. We say
l cos , m cos , n cos to be the direction cosines of the vector OP . Taking OP r ,
i.e., OP = r, we have r 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 r 2 cos 2 r 2 cos 2 r 2 cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 cos 2 1 ,
cancelling r2 from both sides. i.e., l m n 1
2 2 2
Thus l, m an n determine direction of a line or line segment in a three dimensional space and as such
are called direction cosines. When the direction cosines of a line are given its angles with lines
parallel to the axes through any point on it are known hence its direction with respect to the axes of
reference are known. Any line parallel to it would have the same direction cosines; so a further
data, such as a fixed point on this line is needed to be known to completely determine the line. Along
with the direction, any line has also a sense i.e., forward or backward in its direction. Direction
cosines do uniquely determine the sense of the line, for if it makes an angle with z-axis in forward
direction it makes an angle - with z-axis in backward direction and cos = - cos ( - ).
In two dimensions, the same relations as above hold. There, if and are angles of a
straight line with the x-axis and y-axis respectively, so cos sin ; so thatcos2 + cos2 =1 for , in
this case, = /2 - .
Any three numbers proportional to direction cosines of a line also are sufficient to determine the
direction of a line . let a, b and c be any three numbers proportional to l, m and n respectively, i.e.,
a b c a b c a 2 b2 c2 a 2 b2 c2
k l , m and..n ;and k 2 2
l m n k k k l m2 n2 1
So any three numbers proportional to the direction cosines are called direction ratios. A further
advantage with direction ratios is that they need not be each less than 1 with their squares adding up
to 1. But we face another caution while working with direction ratios. Suppose if both b and c are 0 for
a line, we have a/l = a or l = 1, which results in the fact that the line is parallel to x-axis. When one of
them say c = 0, we have, n = 0 /k = 0 which results in the fact that the straight line is parallel to z-axis.
All of them cannot be 0 at the same time for l2+m2+n2 = 1 .
For any two lines to be parallel, they must make same angles with lines drawn parallel to the
axes drawn through any one point on the either line. Hence they must be having same direction
cosines for being parallel. In other words their direction ratios should be proportional as each set of
them are proportional to the same set of direction cosines.
Exercise5
Find the direction cosines of a st line making equal angles with the coordinate axes
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
l m n, and l 2 m2 n 2 1
Ans. l 2 m2 n2 1
lmn
11 1 3
Exercise6
For any line with direction cosines l , m, n show that sin 2 sin 2 sin 2 2 .
Exercise7
If l , m, n are direction cosines of a line equally inclined to three mutually perpendicular st lines with
direction cosines li , mi , ni ,
i 1, 2,3 , then show that l
li , m mi , n ni
.
3 3 3
l m n
2 2 2
Hint : Use li mi ni 1 and li l j mi m j ni n j 0 to deduce
2 2 2
i i i 3
In the figure, PQ, QR and RS are line segments. Drop perpendiculars from P, Q, R and S being
respectively PP’,QQ’, RR’ and SS’ on the x-axis and drop perpendiculars PT, QU and RV on QQ’,
RR’ and SS’ respectively from P, Q, and R. PT, QU and RV are respectively equal to P’Q’, Q’R’ and
R’S’ and are called projections of the segments on x-axis. If , , and be the angles QPT, RQU and
SRV, and the lengths of the segments PQ, QR, and RS be respectively r1, r2, and r3. Let the
projections P’Q’, Q’R’, and R’S’ be denoted by p1, p2, and p3 respectively,
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
S Q
S’
R T
Q
V
U P S
P
T
R
O X
P’ Q’ R’ S’
O’ P” Q” R” S” X’
p1
We have cos α etc. or, p1 r1 cosα,similarly, p 2 r2 cosβ,and, p3 r3 cos γ,
r1
If the projection of PS, i.e., P’S’ and denoted by p, we immediately see that
or, projection of segment joining initial and final points of consecutive segments on x-axis is sum of
their projections on x-axis. Similar considerations for projections on y-axis and z-axis. Had OX not
been the x-axis but any other st. line, there would not have been any change in the situation; (verify;
proceed as in the above proof from the beginning by supposing OX being any line instead of x-axis
and follow the same steps exactly).
1) So in general, if there are a number of consecutive line segments starting from a point
P and ending at a point Q , the sum of their projections on any other line is equal to the
projection of PQ on that line
2) Further , if O’X’ be another line || to OX, it can be proved easily that the
projection of PS on O’X’ would be equal to its projection on OX. (Extend the
perpendiculars PP’ and SS’ upto P” and S” respectively on O’X’ so that PP” O’X’ and
SS” O’X’ and hence P’S’ = P”S”)
3) This immediately yields the result, Projection of PQ on RS (see
fig.1.5.4b) is projection of PQ on OS’ where PS’ || RS and is equal to RS cos , where
is angle between PQ and PS’. Angle between PQ and RS is also defined as angle
between PQ and PS’, a line drawn from P || RS. (This holds even if PQ and RS are
skew, i.e., they are on different planes parallel to each other and as such do not meet
to define an angle between them. )
4) If a straight line PQ makes an angle with another st.line RS or PT, the
latter makes an angle - with PQ. And since cos = cos (-),
5) Projection of PQ on RS = Projection of RS on PQ
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
§17: Comparison with imaginary numbers:
Coordinate geometry is comparable to vector analysis on one hand and comparable to complex
analysis on the other. To obtain the full advantage of complex analysis , let us recapitulate some
formulae.
The reader is advised to work out the following to brush up memory and remember the same.
(Assume all non-zero numbers)
1) a ib c id a c, b d
2) z a ib z a ib, zz
a b c a b c
b
4) z a ib z a ib a 2 b 2 r , a ib a 2 b 2 r , tan
a
Also z a ib a ib r ,
2
2
z z
z a 2 b 2 a ib a ib z z Re z Im z
2 2 2
5)
6) z z 2 Re z, z z 2 Im z arg z arg z
,
z1 z1
8) z1 z2 z1 z2 , z1.z2 z1.z2 , , if z2 0
z2 z2
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
9) if u f z ,
u f z f z
x2 x1 y2 y1
2 2
AB z2 z1 .
z1 z2 z1 z2 2 z1 z2 cos 2 1
2 2 2
11)
, so that complex numbers are added or
subtracted just as vectors.
C(x1+x2,y1+y2)
B(x2,y2)
A(x1,y1)
X
O
Note that
2 2 2
z1 z2 z1 z2 2 Re z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2
2 2
z1 z2 z1 z2 cos 2 1 0 2 1 z1 and z2
12) If then 2 , the radius vectors of are
perpendicular to each other.
z1 z2 z1 z2 cos 2 1 1 2 1
On the other hand, if then , the radius vectors of
z1 and z2
are parallel to each other.
z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2
.
16) Triangle inequalities – a) ,b) c)
The same old thing – sum of two sides of a triangle is greater than the third and difference of two
sides is less than the third. ( the latter is a deduction of the former, got just by subtracting a side from
both sides !)
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Exercise8
Show that
2 2
z1 z2 z1 z2 2 z1 z2 2 2
which is Appoloneous theorem.
Exercise9
The complex numbers are expressed in the following manner in polar form.
i
Let a ib re , c id se i then a ib c id rei sei rse
.
c id
a ib rei , ei results in just rotating the radius
Simply multiplying by a complex number s
i
vector by its argument , for re e re
i i
Division by a non-zero complex number yields a complex number whose magnitude is division of the
magnitudes of the two numbers and its argument is difference of the two. We have
a ib rei rei a ib a ib c id ac bd i bc ad
i
c id se s .In ordinary form c id c id c id c2 d 2
z1 z z
So, z1 z2 z1 z2 1 arg z1 z 2 arg z1 arg z 2 arg 1 arg z1 arg z2
z z2 z2
, and 2 , , .
z1 r1 i1 2
z1 z2 r1r2 e 1
i 2
z1 r1ei1 , z2 r2ei2 e
,then
z2 r2
To see clearly,let
§19:
Work out and remember
2 2 2 z1 z1 z z
z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 z1 z2 0 0 1 1 0
then so that z2 z z2 z 2
1) If 2
z1
is imaginary
z2 .
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
z1 r1 i1 2
z1 r1 z2 r2 e ei1 2 . i.e., z1 is obtained by giving z2 a rotation
2) If
z
then 2
r2
Explanation
If a + ib and c + id are two complex numbers, their sum and difference are
(a + c) + i(b + d) and (a - c) + i(b - d). This is just the way as if two vectors P and Q having their x-
components and y-components (a, b) and (c, d) respectively and we see that the complex numbers
are just added (or subtracted) in the same way as two vectors are added; x-component
with x- component and y-component with y-component. This component analogy (real and imaginary
parts) also leads parallelogram rule as in vector addition ‘from head of the second to the head of the
first’ rule of vector subtraction. The only thing specially to note is that there were many different types
of vectors such as force , displacement etc. but only same type of vectors could be added or
subtracted; there is no meaning of addition or subtraction of two vectors if they are of different types.
But complex numbers are numbers only and as such any two complex numbers can be added to or
subtracted from each other. Fig. 1.7c and 1.7d can just be reproduced by assuming the line segments
OP and OQ to be representing the complex numbers a + ib and c + id ; The sum would be
represented by OR representing the complex number (a + c) + i(b + d) ;where (a + c) and (b + d)
are its real and imaginary parts and tan = (b + d) / (a + c) is its angle of inclination with the x-
axis.
Also they could well be represented by Points P and Q with co-ordinates P(a, b) and Q(c, d)
as in Coordinate Geometry and there is no meaning of addition or subtraction of points in Coordinate
Geometry . Mathematics has seldom invented or discovered anything .It has designed different tools
of logic and developed different frameworks for different purposes and requirements in other fields
which Mathematics supports. All the three considerations as above, Complex Numbers, Vectors and
Coordinate Geometry are abstractly the same thing in essence. But the subjects are developed
differently because they were designed for different purposes. Complex numbers were developed for
Algebra, Theory of Equations , Analysis etc. whereas Coordinate Geometry was developed for
Geometry etc. Vectors were developed for both Geometry and Physics. Still in another manner, the
points P(a, b), Q(c, d) ;or the vectors P, Q ;or the complex numbers a + ib , c + id , can be
represented by just the ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d) in a way very similar to matrices (they are array
of independent numbers arranged in rows and columns behaving as a single block . Some operations
can be done on them collectively; but they are not single numbers ). (These ordered pairs could have
been thought of as one row and two column matrices. But no. Rule of products do not allow.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Because when two matrices are multiplied, rows of the 1st are multiplied into columns of the 2nd and
then added. Had there been a complete correspondence, it would have been great indeed. For,
vectors would have been easily replaced with matrices and there would have been no more
necessity of any diagrams!) Let us see in detail as below how complex numbers are multiplied..
(a + ib)(c + id) = ac + aid + ibc + i2bd = (ac – bd) + i(ad + bc) as i2 = -1.
Meaning of argument
C(z3)
Y
C’(z3 –z1)
B(z2)
A(z1)
B’(z2 – z1)
X
O
A) The triangle ABC formed by the points A z1 , B z2 , C z3 is congruent to OB’C’ where the
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
OC ' z z z z
angle B ' OC ' is given by arg arg 3 1 . But B ' OC ' BAC ; so BAC arg 3 1
OB ' z2 z1 z2 z1
z3 z1 OC ' iA AC iA AC
.Thus e e cos A i sin A remember.
z2 z1 OB ' AB AB
z3 z1
Note - if the points A, B anc C are collinear, A 0, cos A 1,sin A 0 , so is real
z2 z1
number.
z z
Note - if AB and AC are perpendicular to each other,, A , cos A 0,sin A 1 , so 3 1 is
2 z2 z1
D(z4)
Y
θ
B(z2)
A(z1)
C(z3)
X
imaginar number. O
B) Using the above, it may be shown that the angle , of the intersection of AB and CD where
z1 z2
their coordinates are A z1 , B z2 , C z3 , D z4 is given by arg .
z3 z 4
z1 z2 z z2
Hence the two st lines are parallel if is a real number and perpendicular if 1 is
z3 z 4 z3 z 4
imaginary.
Exercise10
A scalar is a quantity meaning a number and with a measuring unit only without having any
directional properties; e.g., mass, speed, density etc. Let a be acceleration of a body or change of
its velocity with time , a vector quantity, which has components ax , ay along any chosen mutually
perpendicular x-axis and y-axis. Let m be mass of the body, a scalar, and let a force F, a vector be
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
acting on the body producing the acceleration a, then as per Newton’s 2nd law, F = ma, an example
of product of a vector with a scalar. If F is represented by (Fx, Fy) and a is represented by (ax, ay), or
ma is represented by (max, may), we see that Fx= max ,and Fy= may. So multiplication by a scalar,
multiplies all its components by the same scalar in effect, whatever components it might have. This is
the same situation when a complex number say a + ib , multiplied by a real number say t, which
gives ta +itb , another complex number as the product. But the difference is that the complex number
a + ib can also be multiplied with t when t is a complex number, and give the same result, ta + itb,
which is also a complex number; but two vectors cannot be multiplied in the same fashion even when
they are of same type. Two special multiplications are designed for vectors ,for two different
purposes. These are described as dot product and cross product as explained below. We multiply two
complex numbers with each other easily as they are numbers only. But vectors are not only numbers,
they are quantities. A quantity has a number and a unit associated with it. This is the distinction.
Again, a vector may be multiplied by a complex number exactly as it may be multiplied with a real
number or a scalar quantity, which is of rare use.
B’
A’
O A
m a b ma nb
In this case, two vectors are multiplied to give a product which is a scalar. Let F be the force
(vector) ,equal to the weight of a body which is pulled up against gravity(vertically upwards) through a
displacement vector s which is at an angle with the direction of force (at an angle with the vertical)
.Work is done on a body only when the point of application of force moves in the direction of the force
and no work is done when the point of application does not move or when it moves in a perpendicular
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
to the direction of force, Since the work done on the body W (say) is force times the distance moved
along the line of force, then work done
This work done against the direction of gravity is supposed to be stored in the body when it is
raised to higher altitude so that it can fall automatically . While falling the gravitational field does the
work automatically spending the energy stored. So the convention is that work done against the field
is positive work, thus capable of being stored, and spent afterwards. Similarly work done on a body
by a field e.g. by gravity when it falls down , or say a charge is being repelled by another charge , the
field does the work , i.e., spends the work already stored by some external agent and this work is
negative. Work done is zero when no component of force is parallel to the displacement. e.g. a body
taken round the world without any work being done on it , if only gravity is considered.
Not only work, but if any two vectors are perpendicular to each other, no one of them has a
component along the other, and hence their dot product is zero.
s = sx + sy + sz then F.s = (Fx . sx) + (Fy . sy) + (Fz . sz) = (Fx.sx)+(Fy.sy)+(Fz.sz) = F s cos
We may take products of vectors of different types; like displacement and force etc. but sum and
difference of dissimilar types of vectors has no meaning.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Prove the following by breaking up into components in i, j , k and remember.1)
A.B Ax i Ay j Az k . Bx i By j Bz k Ax Bx Ay By Az Bz
2) A.B B. A commutative law of scalar product
3)
C . A B C . A C . A distributive law of scalar product
as 1 = I . i = j . j = k . k and 0 = I . j = I . k = j .k
a b a b
2 2
a 2 b2 2a.b
4)
If a and b are perpendicular to each other,
a b a b . a b a.a a.b b.a b.b a b
2 2 2
a 2 b2 ,as a.b b.a 0 .
But a b is the diagonal of the right angled triangle with sides a and b . So this is another
proof of Pythagoras theorem .
5) a b. a b a 2
b2
6) The cosine law or the generalized Pythagorean theorem for any triangle which is also
known as generalized Pythagorean theorem, which was used to derive magnitude of sum or
difference of two vectors can be an interesting consequence of dot product. See how it is.
If we denote BC a , CA b, AB c , since BC CA AB 0 completing the polygon, or
a b c 0 ,or, a b c .Squaring both sides, a.a b.b 2a.b c.c , or
a 2 b 2 2ab cos C c 2
( since the angles of inclination are measured counterclockwise) .or,
a b 2ab cos C c which is precisely the cosine law.
2 2 2
We can have cross product of two vectors 0 even if neither of them is a 0 vector, obviously if they are
parallel and dot product of two non-zero vectors may be 0 if they are perpendicular to each other.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
7) If a b a b , then prove that they are mutually perpendicular; i.e. the diagonals of the
parallelogram with sides a , b are equal in magnitude.
a b gives a
2 2
We have a b 2
b 2 2ab cos C a 2 b 2 2ab cos C which shows
C C 2C C .
2
8) If a, b, c are any three non-zero non-coplanar vectors, any vector p can be expressed in
terms of them in a unique way.
First let us see that any vector q in the plane of vectors a, b can be expressed as a unique linear
combination of a, b , if a, b are not parallel to each other, since we can draw a parallelogram whose
sides are scalar multiples of a, b say a b respectively and q is the diagonal. So q a b .
Now, c is not in the plane of a, b . So any vector p can be expressed as a unique linear combination
of c and q . So we may have a unique resolution of p as
p q c a b c a b c in a definite way.
9) The result has the following consequence – if p.a p.b p.c 0 for any vector p , when
a, b, c are any three non-zero non-coplanar vectors, then prove that p 0 .
Hint. by the above result, p.aa p.bb p.cc p 0 0 0 0 .
10) If a b c p 0, a , b, c, p are coplanar
a ib
Another difference between product of complex numbers and vectors is that if is a complex
a ib a ib a ib
2
number, its modulus is given by , product of the number with its conjugate;
but in case of scalar product of two vectors, but square of a vector is its product with itself.
2
p
2
p. p pxiˆ p y ˆj pz kˆ . px iˆ p y ˆj pz kˆ px 2iˆ.iˆ p y 2 ˆj. ˆj pz 2 kˆ.kˆ px 2 p y 2 pz 2 p
To distinguish displacement vis-à-vis distance take the example of a runner who has just taken a
complete round of the field of 300 m. The displacement is a clean 0 whereas the distance travelled is
a good 300 m.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Then velocity is time rate of change in displacement, again a vector quantity. We must distinguish it
from speed which is time rate of distance travelled. The word has accompanied from good old
childhood. It seems ‘speed’ may be the magnitude of ‘velocity’. The statement sometimes true and
sometimes false. Understandably the two are same , nay, equal in magnitude if the motion has been
all through in a straight line. But take the example of running around the field, there is no
displacement, hence no average velocity, which is total displacement upon total time taken. The
average speed is however, 300m upon the real time taken.
In Physics we are more concerned with instantaneous velocity and instantaneous speed.
A freely falling body travels distances 10m, 40m, 90m, 160m,… at the end of 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th ,…
seconds respectively. Certainly it does not travels in uniform or constant velocity. How do we
determine velocity at the 3.5th instant ? this instantaneous velocity is found by measuring the distance
travelled between the instants of 3rd and 4th seconds and dividing by 1 sec. but this is not correct. If
we take a smaller time interval of 0.05 sec. both sides of 3.5 sec and measure the distance travelled
during that small time interval, we would have better approximation. Actually we require excellent
approximations when a rocket dashes up @ 18000 miles per hour to escape the earth’s gravitational
s ds
field. Literally we have to take instantaneous speed v lim and instantaneous velocity
t 0 t dt
s d s
v lim . Where s is the displacement, s is the distance travelled and t , the time taken.
t 0 t dt
Though both the equations are different from case to case, they are written side by side for
comparison and as we are discussing motion is a st line only, s is magnitude of s, and hence there
should be no confusion.
Magnitude of instantaneous velocity is now instantaneous speed .and there can b no difference
between the two , except that the direction of instantaneous velocity should be specified. But
magnitude of average velocity is never magnitude of average speed. For example, let a point move at
constant speed in a circle. By the time it reaches the starting point again, the average velocity is 0, for
there has been no displacement. But the average speed is same as the constant speed. Thus it is a
case where the distance travelled is a perimeter of a circle, but displacement is 0.
v d v
Acceleration (instantaneous) is time rate of velocity a lim . We generally meet constant
t 0 t dt
acceleration ( e.g., acceleration due to gravity g = app. 10m/s2 within small distances from the surface
of the earth) or constant in magnitude ( uniform circular motion) so that we do not have to distinguish
instantaneous and average acceleration at the elementary level and can safely use the word
acceleration for both vector acceleration and magnitude of it.
If velocity is uniformly increasing or decreasing from v0 to v1 over a time interval t, we can write
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
v1 v 0 v v
a v1 v 0 at , also a 1 0 v1 v0 at in scalar terms. Such motions are
t t
necessarily in a st line as a is constant the direction too, must be constant) and are called uniformly
accelerated motion.
v0 v1
Another term we use in uniformly accelerated motion is average speed v or in vector terms
2
v 0 v1
v . Remember in an AP series, average term is the average of only the first and the last
2
term. The distance travelled is product of average speed and time , so s vt . This is also true in
vector form since distance is magnitude of displacement in motion along a st line.
v0 v1 v v
Taking product of v and a 1 0 we have 2avt v12 v0 2 2as
2 t
v 0 v1 v v0
In vector form, we take the dot product of v and a 1 and we have
2 t
2 a .v t = v12 - v0 2 = 2 a . s using the fact 2 a . s = 2as , as s, v and a are in the same direction (
in the same st line) and v 0 v1 . v1 v 0 v 0 .v1 v1.v1 v 0 .v1 v 0 .v 0 v12 v 0 2 v12 v0 2 as we
have , from rule of dot product, v1 .v1 v 0 .v1 and v0 .v 0 v0 v0 . The complete equation is
2 2
v12 - v02 = 2 a . s v12 v02 2as . If v1 = 0, a is negative acceleration , s gives stopping distance
of a vehicle on road which varies as square of initial velocity.
v0 v1 v v at 1
The last equation in the row is s vt t 0 0 t v0t at 2 .in vector form
2 2 2
v0 + v1 v + v0 + a t 1
s= v t= t= 0 t = v0 t + a t 2 . Make an one stop shop for equations
2 2 2
for uniformly accelerated motion i.e. motion with constant acceleration
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
For Distance For Displacement
s vt s = vt
v v v v1
v 0 1 v 0
2 2
v1 v0 v1 v0 .................................(1 )
a a
t t
v12 v0 2 2as v12 - v02 = 2 a. s
1 1
s v0t at 2 s = v0t + at 2
2 2
Note here that we could convert the scalar equations to vector equations immediately because the
displacement, the velocity and the acceleration are on the same st line.
Acceleration of a body does not take place without an net external Force and this is Newton’s
first law, i.e. ,inertia of rest or inertia of motion. There is no change in velocity either in magnitude
or in direction without any net external force. The requirement of force to change the velocity is
because of inertia.
Then acceleration produced by applied the force is proportional to the force and inversely proportional
to mass of the body. This is Newton’s 2nd law. In symbols,
1 F
a F and a a k F kma ma , units of length, mass and time are designed to
m m
make k 1 .Evidently force cannot be applied on something having no mass. This fact is used in
problems, e.g., net force on a pulley of negligible mass is 0, as F must be 0 when m = 0. So the
mass is the cause which requires an external force to change motion; the more the mass, the more is
requirement of force to produce a given acceleration. So mass is the measure of inertia.
Thus the Newton’s 1st law gives the definition of force and the second law gives the measurement of
dv F v v0
it. We can use a in problems. which is also a 1
dt m t
The force on the body may be whatever force, force of collision, gravitational, electromagnetic,
strong nuclear or weak nuclear, etc.
If two interacting bodies exert some kind of force on each other and if we consider both of them
together as one system of bodies, then there is evidently no external forces . Then the mutual forces
are only internal forces. Evidently they must balance each other so that there should be no external
force. This is Newton’s 3rd law , two interacting bodies exert only equal and opposite forces on
each other.1
1
There are exceptions to Newton’s third law, or so called exceptions, one is in the case of mutual forces of
currents on each other, though they are equal and opposite, they are not along the same lines. No doubt the
Vector sum of the action and the reaction is 0 in this case. Another apparent case is when a door is pushed or
pulled with a force perpendicular to itself. The equal reaction is given by the hinge in the opposite direction and
the vector sum is also 0 here. Further both the forces are on the same body, i.e., the door which does not move
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
We have the law of conservation of mass of any body .i.e., mass cannot be created or destroyed.
In a chemical reaction , such as burning, the matter changes form, but total mass of the reactants is
same as that of the products. In chemical reactions, the equations are balanced, for this reason, for,
the total number of atoms of an element in the reactant, must be same as that in the final product.
mv1 mv 0 p1 p 0
The Newton’s 2nd law could now be redesigned as F ma time rate of
t t
dmv d p
change of momentum .or F ma instantaneously. Net external force 0 means
dt dt
dp
0 p is a constant. Which is called the principle of conservation of momentum.
dt
The concept of momentum also enables us to write the same Newton’s 2nd law when the mass is
variable, as in Einstein’s special theory of relativity. ( for, mass is bundled into it). Mass was
observed to be destroyed and converted to energy as per Einstein’s formula E = mc2 ( c being
velocity of light in empty space) in nuclear chain reactions and mass was observed to be created
when cosmic rays (energy) were destroyed when they strike the Earth’s atmosphere ( an electron
and a positron are created). In case the law of conservation of mass broke down, in case of nuclear
reactions, for example, still we have a conservation law at a higher level – law of conservation of
mass and energy in the system. For, the lost mass has appeared as energy or vice versa.
Conservation laws are concepts like invariants or identities.
We have seen the dot product of force and displacement , two vectors is work a scalar quantity and
need not repeat the discussion. One of the purposes of designing vector concept . Mechanical work is
out of its place; only it experiences a rotation. Therefore this case is not strictly taken as an exception of
Newton’s law. The case of electromagnetic forces should also not be considered as exception . Rather
Newton’s third law should be formulated so as to include this case; such as, the third law could have been just
stated as the vector sum of any force and its reaction is 0.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
converted to other forms of energies like electromagnetic energy, e.g., rotating a coil inside a magnet
produces electric current, electrical energy is converted to light energy in a bulb and so on. So it is
like a currency of exchange . Energy, a scalar quantity may be termed as capacity for doing work
and may be regarded as work itself. Principle of conservation of energy is an important concept
that ruled Physics until the advent of special theory of relativity of Einstein which renewed the concept
with the concept that mass is also a form of energy.
Let us calculate kinetic energy , KE say, of a body being uniformly accelerated from rest to final
1 1
velocity v , e.g. take a freely falling body from a height H. KE F.s ma.s m v 2 - 0 mv 2 , a
2 2
scalar quantity. Similarly potential energy at a height h from the ground is mg.h = mgh, positive if
raised by somebody because it would fall automatically consuming this energy. Therefore the
convention is - work done by the field is negative and that by some external agency is positive. The
principle of conservation of energy can be demonstrated by saying that at any height h, if the body
1 2
has velocity v or speed v, the total energy is mv mgh , which is a constant equal to mgH just
2
1
before falling or mV 2 where V is the velocity when it strikes the ground.
2
The principle of conservation of momentum give a differential equation and so also the principle of
conservation of energy. Solving these two differential equations we solve general problems in
mechanics , fluid dynamics, acoustics, etc. Solving the differential equation means getting the
equations of motion.
Unless any vector is localized, i.e., not bound to a point , we assume that any vector parallel
to it and of same length is equal , at least for sake of vector addition or subtraction. Such vectors are
called free vectors. Localised vectors (bound to a point )are also no problem. See the
Q
R
S
O P
A localized vector OP QR at
at O can be replaced by an equal vector
another localized vector QR and a couple of 0 vector sum OP QS
figure.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Suppose a OP is localized at O. There is no harm
vector adding two vectors
QR OP and QS QR at any other point Q. Now we can think the vector OP , in all its effects, is
equal to QR and a moment due to OP and QS , whose vector sum is 0. A zero vector is of
magnitude 0 and may be taken to be in any direction that does not matter. If the vector is a force, the
moment has a rotating effect or torque as we would discuss later on. But here at least, it may be
noted that a bound vector can be shifted to another point if a moment is also taken into account. The
moment is proportional to product of the vector and the perpendicular distance between the original
and shifted vectors as we would see later.
Do not confuse - a position vector of a point is not a localized vector, since it is different for different
origins chosen.
ds lim s da d
v t 0 a a where δs = aδθ is the arc travelled during time δt , and ω is
dt t dt dt
d
angular speed . Since the particle faces every direction in the plane of the circle, if we make
dt
angular velocity a vector quantity, it cannot be represented by any vector in the plane of the circle. So
the direction of the angular velocity vector is taken perpendicular to the plane and conventionally, in
the direction of advancement of a right handed screw. Similarly if a rigid body rotates about an axis,
every point of the body moves around a circle of radius equal to its distance from the axis of rotation
and every point is moving with the same angular velocity, the direction of which is along the axis of
rotation per right hand rule. It is represented by a vector in the direction of the axis of rotation and
magnitude equal to angular speed ω. For rotational motion we have s s0 r and speed
s s0 v v0 r 0 r
v r r and a r may always be used only if s s0 r is
t t t t
considered arc length travelled. For rotation around a fixed axis, we can safely use
s s0 r ,
v r, ....................................................(2 )
a r,
With these the equations of motion can be developed similar to the equation of linear motion from first
principles and they would be as follows.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
A pitfall - Do not try to derive these equations from the corresponding equations for linear motion.
Derive them in the process just given above, i.e., from 1st principles, just as it is done for linear
motion.
0 t ,
1
0 ,
2
1 0 t , ................................................................( 3 )
1 0 2 ,
2 2
1
0 0 t t 2
2
the vector notations are avoided as all the vectors involved , , are along a st line.
Note that the similarity with the equations of unifomely accelerated motion is because, the angle
travelled, the angular velocity and the angular acceleration are all in the same direction.
When a rigid body is being acted upon by a force with a fixed straight line inside it or outside it
but rigidly connected to it, called the axis., there is no net force on the body . Because according to
Newton’s third law, the axis gives an equal and opposite reaction on the same body as it is rigidly
fixed and the vector sum of the forces is 0, as the body is not displaced due to the rigid axis. But the
two equal and opposite forces are along parallel lines and the applied force turns the body into
rotation. For example when a door is opened or closed note that a force is applied on it having a
perpendicular to the plane of the door at a distance from the hinge. More the force the easier it is to
turn the door, or more the distance of application of force from the hinge the easier it is to turn the
door. The effect is proportional to magnitude of the force and also the distance of the point of
application of the force from the hinge (axis).
When two equal and opposite forces F and - F act on a body with displacement s between them
(from F to –F acting at different points on the body), the arrangement gives the body a rotational
acceleration due to
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
in a direction perpendicular to F, then magnitude of s x F is Fs sin . No work is done by a torque
and as such, Fs cos does not contribute anything to it. In short, if i, j and k be unit vectors in x-
direction ,y-direction and z-direction respectively, we have,
i x j = k, j x k = i, k x i = j, j x i = -k, k x j = - I, i x k = - j, 0 = i x i =j x j =k x k
§26: Moment of any vector about a point Moment of any vector about a line.
Moment of any vector F about a point O is r x F where r is the displacement vector joining
the point of application of the vector Z from O. It is a vector perpendicular to both r and F and is in the
direction of the tip of a right handed screw perpendicular to both r and F and rotated in the circle of
radius r turning towards F. It may still be better understood by right hand rule; Align the fingers of
your right hand in the direction of r and curl them in the direction of F the thumb pointing upwards.
The pointing thumb gives the direction of r x F. If the vector F represents a perpendicular force
on a swing door to open or close it ( changing its rotational speed from 0 to something) and r
represents the distance of point of application of this force from the hinge, r x F is in the direction of
the hinge, giving the door a rotation and is called torque on the door.
Moment of any vector F about a line l is component of r x F along the line l where r is the
displacement vector joining the point of application of the vector F from O, O being any point on the
line l. Thus it is r x F . a , where a is a unit vector along the line l. Thus the moment of a vector
along a line l is a scalar quantity.
Q F
P
r
α
Angular velocity vector
O
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
QP F along the line OQ , or along a . So moment of force F along a line l is the component of
cross product QP F along the line , where PQ is perpendicular from the point of application
of force on the line.
Suppose a rigid body rotates anticlockwise in the direction represented by the circle in the figure
r
above. The angular velocity vector is represented by .If O be any point on the axis of rotation OQ
,is taken as the origin and is the position vector of a point P on the rotating body, drop a
r
perpendicular PQ from P onto OQ. Velocity of the point P is a vector perpendicular to the plane of the
paper and its magnitude is given by PQω = r sin α ω. Then evidently v = x
……………………….( 4 )
P
r’
o’ r
s
o
Consider a point P on a rigid body with position vector r relative to origin O. If the angular velocity of
the body relative to O is A and the velocity of the origin O is v , the velocity of P is
V v A r.........................(a) .
Consider another point O’ having s position vector relative to O then its velocity is given by
v ' v A s . Now r s r ' ( see the figure) and so V v A r ' s v A s A r ' v ' A r '
.If A ' is angular velocity of P with respect to O’ about a parallel axis, then V v ' A ' r ' . Comparing
the two, we have, A ' A .
The angular velocity of any point is same about any point around parallel axes………. (6)
Because of this fact a body can have simultaneous angular velocities added up as vector addition.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
§29: Vector addition of rotations
Suppose a body has two angular velocities A11 and A22 at the same time about two parallel axes,
through two points with position vectors s1 and s2 respectively. The vector sum of velocities produced
by the two angular motions for the point with position vector r is,
s s
A1 r s1 A2 r s2 A1 A2 r 1 1
2 2
1 2
(proceed from right to left if not understood)
This tells that the resultant motion is a angular velocity A1 A2 in the same plane through a parallel
1s1 2 s2
axis at between the two axes. Evidently this divides the distance between them in the
1 2
ratio 1 : 2 .
However, when the angular velocities are equal and opposite, their sum is found from the left side (ab
initio) to be A1 s2 s1 for all particles in the body and it is a translational velocity perpendicular to
the plane containing both axes.
v
v
L
=
r
x
F
d
t
Using and r ,( r ) ,
L
,
r
,
F
,
v
r
x
v
=
L
,
L
=
and taking ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ as unit vectors in respective directions, and noting that ˆ ˆ ˆ and ˆ ̂ ,for
a rotating body about a fixed axis, (being unit vectors in the same direction),we have,
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
r
d
v d
v
d
v d I
d
v d
d
v
d d r
v t x
m m ˆ
r
L
=
r
x
F
r
x
r
x
r v
x
r
x
ˆ ˆ
2
m
d
t
t
m m ˆ ˆ
d d
d d
r
r
r
x
v
L
+
0
=
L
=
L
2
2
ˆ
t
t
m ˆ ˆ m ˆ m ˆ m ˆ ˆ , say;
d d
v t
d d
-
r
ˆ
t
as is parallel to ˆ , and , angular acceleration.
ˆ
Thus L = I L...........................................(6)
This is the relation between L and α we were looking for, to compare it with F = ma.
r
=
I
2
In parlance, m ……………………………………………………………..……..( 7)
Since it is a scalar quantity, for rigidly connected mass points we can take summations and write16(a)
r
=
I
2
as m ………………………………………………………..(8 ).
Integrals would replace summations for continuous distribution of matter in a rigid body rotating
r
d
=
I
2
L
=
L
=
d dH
Drawing the analogy with translational motion further, I ˆ I I may be written as
dt dt
where H I may be called angular momentum of the system, evidently a vector quantity.
L
L
r
x
F
d H dH
Now, combined with gives
dt dt
r
x
r
x
r
x
r
x
v
x
v
=
0
L
r
x
F
r
x
v
x
v
x
v
dp d p d d p d p d p
p p m as m being
dt dt dt dt dt dt
cross product of the same vectors.
r
x
So that H p …………………………………………………………………….……..( 10 )
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
The meaning of inertia is clear from Newton’s laws for rotation, a rigid body shall continue to rotate
with a constant angular velocity around a fixed axis until acted upon by a net torque. The axis would
not also be disturbed without a net torque. This is the reason when the trainer tells a bicycle rider to
pedal hard when the bicycle is tilting; to maintain the angular velocity eroded by friction, so that the
axis of rotation is not disturbed by gravity.
L
=
I
L
What about Newton’s second law? This is ˆ for fixed axis. We can also include small
rotations of the axis also in this equation. Large rotations are beyond the scope of this book as they
cannot be exactly vector quantities. Angular displacements and velocities for that matter cannot
be regarded strictly as vectors even if they are assigned magnitude and direction. In fact they do
not obey the rule of vector addition. For example, take a parallelepiped , give it two 900 rotations, first
, about a horizontal axis, then about a vertical axis; the resultant position would not be same if the two
rotations are given first about the vertical axis and then about the horizontal axis,(verify). Thus the
commutative law of vector addition does not apply! But for small rotations, they can be regarded as
vectors. As far as the rotations take place along one axis, they can be algebraically added and we
can use the formulae developed so far just as we treated uniformly accelerated motion in a st line, the
velocity and acceleration being also in the same line.
Center of mass is a suitable mathematical tool to facilitate use of the principle of conservation of
linear momentum in mechanics .It brings a system of bodies in the framework of Newton’s laws.(
details given below towards the last of the chapter). Similar is the role of moment of inertia in
connection with the principle of conservation of angular momentum. A circus girl rotating on a disc
stretches her arms to decrease speed of rotation. A diver jumping from a dash board traces a
parabolic path into the waters; somersaults if any , do not affect the path. When there is no external
L
dH
torque on a rotating body 0 H constant , in words, angular momentum is conserved
dt
in absence of net external torque.
§34: Equilibrium
When the vector sum of all forces acting upon a small body is zero, we say the body is in
equilibrium, as no acceleration is produced. This is ideally true of point masses. But practically all
bodies are of some size and even when the sum of all forces acting upon it is zero, it may not be in
equilibrium if all the forces acting upon it do not pass through a single point in it. For example, two
equal and opposite forces acting upon a body the couple of forces has some rotational effect on the
body even if there is no linear acceleration in any direction. The couple or torque is measured by
r F , where r is the radius vector of the point of application of one of the two equal forces in the
couple with respect to an origin taken on the other vector. The radius vector need not be of
magnitude of minimum distance between the two vectors in the couple. , for, if not so, it could have
two components, one parallel to the forces and one perpendicular to the two forces. The component
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
which is parallel to the two forces contributes nothing to the couple, as cross product of two parallel
vectors is 0. (verify). It is not also necessary that the origin must be located on a particular vector.
Verify after drawing two figures that the cross product r F is same and is in the same direction in
both cases when the origin is taken on the line of action of the first force or on that of the second
one.(The couple is in the direction into the paper in both cases). In fact we use the term couple to
mean two equal and opposite forces acting on different points of a single body . Also couple means
the torque due to the couple. This torque of the couple or moment of the couple , in other words the
couple itself remains same if the two forces act on a different pair of points on the same body
not changing the distance between them (verify). This is also in viee of the fact that angular
velocity of a point remains same with respect to any origin. If a different origin is chosen , not on any
one of the lines of actions of the two forces, the couple calculated is the difference of torques
produced by the two forces with respect to the origin chosen and thus remains same as before.
(verify).
- F p
- F p
r1
r2 F
F
- F
ϴ
r1 rsinϴ
O
r2-r1=r
r2
F
r2 F r1 F r2 r1 F r F
where r2 r1 r
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
It is clearly understood that the couple does not depend on the origin since it depends upon only
r2 r1 which remains the same if origin is changed or r2 , r1 are changed. This is the difference
between a torque and couple.
Localised force
Any localized force F (say) acting upon a body at the point P can be replaced with an equal
force at another point Q on the body along with a ‘couple’ consisting of the original force and
one force equal and opposite to the second force. (See the figure below.) . This is because the
two equal and opposite forces F and – F at Q make no material alteration to the body, but together
the three forces constitute one force Q at the point together with a couple consisting of two forces F
and – F at P and Q respectively.
- F
P
Q
F
F
For the body to be in equilibrium, total torques or couples acting on the body should also be zero.
This is second condition of equilibrium.
In the figure below, if the top of the body is turned a little and left, it would again come back to its
original position. This is stable equilibrium condition. The same body at B , if turned a little at the
top, would eventually fall to the ground and take the position shown. This is unstable equilibrium
condition. If the body in the position C is turned , it would roll and cannot fall further. This is neutral
equilibrium. The classification of the cases is according as a little torque applied to the body results in
restoring the centre of mass, bringing the centre of mass down and making no change in the level of
centre of mass as in the third case.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
A B C
At the lowest position of centre of mass, the potential energy is minimum. If V h is potential
dV h
energy above a height h , it is the function of only the variable h and we have the force F dh .
dV h
For V h to be minimum, dh
should be 0, i.e., the net force on it should be 0. But the sufficient
d 2V h dF
condition is, that 2
0 , i.e., 0.
dh dh
Exercise11 remember
Show that cross product of any vector with itself is 0, and so is cross product of two parallel vectors.
Conversely when cross product of two vectors is 0, the vectors are parallel.
3)
A B Ax i Ay j Az k Bx i By j Bz k
Ay Bz Az By i Az Bx Ax Bz j Ax By Ay Bx z
i j k
Ax Ay Az
Bx By Bz
i j k , j k i, k i j, i i 0 j j k k
As
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Exercise12
A force i j k is acting on a body at the point 2i 3j k . Find its moment about i 2 j 3k .
Hint : F i j k ,
r 2i 3j k i 2 j 3k i j 2k . Then
r F i j 2k i j k 3 i j .
Exercise13
A 30kg force is acting at a point 4i 2 j 5k in the direction of a vector 12i 4 j 3k . Find its
moment about a st line through the origin in the direction of the vector 2i 2 j k .
r 4i 2 j 5k 0 4i 2 j 5k and
r F 4i 2 j 5k
30
13
12i 4 j 3k
30
13
14i 48 j 8k .This is moment of the force about the
origin. The line through the origin is parallel to the unit vector
2i 2 j k 2i 2 j k 1
2i 2 j k
4 4 1 3
2i 2 j k . Moment about this line is component of the moment (about
Exercise14 Remember
F
Forces 1
2,3 , F2 4,1 ( you could also write
F1 2,3 , F2 4,1 )act upon a rigid body at the
points A 1,1 , B 2,4 . How much is the resultant and at what point of the rigid body it is supposed
to act upon ? Also find the equation of the st line along the resultant force.
Hint: Adding the forces componentwise, the Resultant force F 6,4 ; yes, it is that simple to add
vectors. Let P x, y be any point on the resultant force. The force F1 at A 1,1 may be replaced by
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
an equal force though the point P x, y on the resultant plus a couple PA F1 , since it is a
localised force, not a free one. Similarly the force F2 at B 2,4 may be replaced by an equal force
though the point P x, y on the resultant plus a couple PB F2 , since it is a localised force. These
couples are perpendicular to the plane containing the vectors F1 , F2 , and F and their algebraic
sum must be 0, for otherwise, the two forces cannot completely be replaced by the resultant .
MA F1 MB F2 0 1 x i 1 y j 2i 3 j 2 x i 4 y j 4i j 0
Now 3 1 x k 2 1 y k 2 x k 4 4 y k 0 as i j k, j i k
3 1 x 2 1 y 2 x 4 4 y 4 x 6 y 13 0
Since this is true for any point on the st line of the resultant force, this is the equation of the line of
action of the resultant.
§37: An interesting Example of using cross product : To derive compound angle formulae in
Trigonometry.
An equation in vectors is same as two independent equations in 2- dimensions geometry and three
independent equations in 3d geometry and yet is is far easier to work with. For example, a vector
Q
addition like R P Q contains the relation R 2 P 2 Q 2 2 PQ cos and tan inside it
P
implicitly. Just writing the vector equation makes analyzing the hidden relations redundant. You can
develop topics in mechanics, geometry etc. plainly with vectors and complicated relationships are
automatically taken care of , in the background. When the background is explored, small details come
out as a surprise; just as we have derived Pythagoras theorem and generalized cosine law above.
One such example the Trigonometric formulas for compound angles reveal themselves when dot
and cross products of unit vectors are taken.
Let â î cos α ˆj sin α and b̂ î cos β ĵ sin β be two unit vectors with directions or angles and with x-
axis . Their dot product is
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
taking the product from left hand side. Taking the product from the right hand side,
â.b̂ î.î cos α cos β î.ˆj cos α sin β ˆj.î sin α cos β ˆj.ˆj sin α sin β
Taking - in place of and remembering that sin ( - ) = sin and cos (- ) = cos ,
But since â and b̂ are in xy-plane, and ĉ is perpendicular to both, ĉ k̂ , a unit vector along ( -)z-
direction( if we assume there is no loss of generality and âxb̂ k̂ ). Then taking cross product of
right sides of â and b̂
âxb̂ î x î cos α cos β î xĵ cos α sin β ˆjx î sin α cos β ˆjxˆj sin α sin β
Taking - in place of and remembering that sin ( - ) = sin and cos (- ) = cos ,
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
§38: Magnitudes of dot and cross products, components along any two directions:
If e and f are two mutually perpendicular unit vectors, then it is easy to see that
cB cos c c c
Component of vector B along a vector c is B. 2 B.c B on c .
c c c c , i.e. projection of
c
Component of vector B a vector c is B B.c , as the two components of B make the vector
c2
B.
Exercise15
Hint.:Take s ai bj ck , t pi qj rk . Now s.t s . t cos s . t s.t
ai bj ck . pi qj rk ap bq cr,
Expanding both sides
ai bj ck a 2 b 2 c 2 , pi qj rk p2 q2 r 2
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
§39: Direction cosines and dot and cross products, angle between two lines
Let OT and P’S’ be two st. lines and draw a st. line OS || P’S’ from O. Angle between st. lines OT
and P’S’ is defined to be the angle between OT and OS. Let it be . Let OT be equal to r and let it
l ri m r j n rk if is a unit
have direction cosines l1, m1 and n1. . If OT r , then OT r 1 1 1
Z
T
Q
O Y
R
P’ S
S’
X
.
Just take their dot product
cos 1.1cos cos
Taking their expansions, l1 i m1 j n1 k . l2 i m2 j n2 k l1l2 m1m2 n1n2
. 1.1cos 0 1 .
Another important thing about direction cosines would be revealed if we take
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
. l i m j n k . l i m j n k l 2 m 2 n 2
Taking the expansions, 1 1 1
2 2 2
i.e., l +m +n = 1…………………………………………(b)
If direction ratio’s g , h, k are taken instead of direction cosines, the direction cosines are
g h
g
+
+
k
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
In two dimensions, for a st line inclined to x – axis at an angle α, the direction cosines are cos and
sin and sum of their squares are identically equal to 1.
l i m j n k
If and l2 i m2 j n2 k are two unit vectors including an angle between
1 1 1
1.1sin l1 i m1 j n1 k l2 i m2 j n2 k i m1n2 m2 n1
i m n m2 n1 m n m2 n1
2
or , sin 1 2 1 2
l m - l2 m1
2
or,sin 1 2
l m l m
2
sin 1 2 2 1
And tan
cos l l 1 2
If direction ratio’s are used, first direction cosines may be found out before using the formula by
dividing the direction ratio’s by modulus of the corresponding vector.
Note -Value of .b is positive implies angle between them is acute and otherwise it is obtuse.
a
Exercise16
A line segment has its projections 3, 4, 5 on the axes respectively. Find its direction cosines.
PQ x2 x1 i y2 y1 j z2 z1 k 3i 4 j 12k
Hint: The line segment .Then
PQ 3i 4 j 12k 3 4 5
PQ 2 32 4 2 12 2 52 12 2 132 . So PQ , ,
PQ 13 13 13 13
Exercise17
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
A vector makes an angle 60 with j k and 450 with 2i 2 j k . Find an unit vector in the direction of
0
j k
Hint: Take the unit vector li m j nk . Its dot product with unit vectors
1
is cos60 and that
0
2 2
2i 2 j k 1
with is cos450 . This gives two equations in l , m, n . The third equation is
3 2
l 2 m2 n 2 1 .
1 1 1 4 1
In fact two vectors ,0, and , , satisfy the conditions,, one in each side of
2 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
the plane defined by the given vectors.
Exercise18
Determine the range of ‘a’ if the angle between two vectors axi 6 j 3k and xi 2 j 2cxk is obtuse.
4
Hint : cos 0 if is obtuse. Ans. a 0 .
3
Even before derivation of equation of a straight line, the above formulae are sufficient to find criteria
for two straight lines of two vectors for that matter may be parallel or perpendicular to each other.
Easily enough, when two st lines are parallel, the angle between the st lines is 0 i.e.,
l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
It could also be derived from the other condition cos l1l2 m1m2 n1n2 1 , just in the manner sin θ
is derived from cos θ as above. Do it as an exercise.
This is the angle between two st lines tacitly assumed to be intersecting each other.
If two non-parallel straight lines do not intersect each other we call them skew to each other And the
angle between them is given by the angle between two st lines drawn parallel to them from any point.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
If the st lines are perpendicular to each other then cos 0 cos l1l2 m1m2 n1n2 0
l1
If the vectors or st lines are on the xy plane, l1 cos 1 , m1 cos 900 1 sin 1 tan 1
m1
l2
which is called slope of OT. Similarly if 2 be the slope angle of P’S’ or OS, then tan 2 . The
m2
l1 l
condition for the two st lines being parallel reduces to 2 tan 1 tan 2 .
m1 m2
We need not even refer to the formula in three dimension, simply two st lines or vectors would be
parallel only if their slope angles are equal.
The condition of perpendicularity is that their slope angles differ by 900. Hence if
i.e., the slopes are negative reciprocals of each other. In terms of direction cosines it becomes
l1 m
l1l2 m1m2 0 2 tan 1 cot 2 which is the same thing as above.
m1 l2
In most books of coordinate geometry for two dimensions, the letter ‘m’ symbolizes slope. Do not
confuse this m with direction cosine.
To find projection of a line segment AB on another line segment CD whose direction cosines are
(l, m n).
In terms of vectors
We can write AB b a and l1 , m1 , n1 e , a unit vector. The projection shall be just b a . e .
b a . e x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 . l1 , m1 , n1 l1 x2 x1 m1 y2 y1 n1 z2 z1 (remember)
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
The projections of AB on the axes are x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z2 z1 respectively which are precisely
x2 x1 y y1 z z
direction ratio’s of AB. Hence the direction cosines are l2 , 2 m2 , 2 1 n2 ,say,
AB AB AB
respectively.
x2 x1 y y z z
Since angle between tow lines is cos l1l2 m1m2 n1n2 l1 m1 2 1 n1 2 1
AB AB AB
Example5
If a , b, c a bc
are equal in magnitude and mutually perpendicular, show that is equally incline to
each of them.
2 2 2
a b c
Since they are equal in magnitude, .
a .b b.c c.a 0
Since they are mutually perpendicular, .
2 2 2 2
Now
a b c a b c . a b c a.a b.b c.c 2 a.b b.c c.a 3 a 0 3 b 3 c
2 2
Then
a b c .a a.a a.b a.c a 0 0 a b c a cos a if is angle between a b c
2 1
and a an that 3 a a cos a cos
3
1
Similarly it may be shown that cos cos
3
p’
O’ P
a p
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
What happens to the position vectors of points when the origin O is shifted to another point O’ , say,
when the position vector of O’ is a with reference to the old origin O, or having coordinates h, k , l ?
The point P which has position vector p or coordinates x, y , z in the old coordinate system or with
respect to the origin O, will evidently now change to p’ or coordinates x ', y ', z ' and the two are
related by p = p' + a or, p' = p - a .
This is the formula to change into new coordinates from old or old coordinates from new coordinates
respectively. The ease with which these formula have been derived for linear transformations of
coordinates is far more in comparison to traditional methods of coordinate geometry of two and three
dimensions reiterated below.
Equation of any plane curve is a relation between x and y coordinates in two dimensions.
This relation would not be preserved if the system of coordinates are changed. But what would be the
new equation , it may be found out by taking x x ' h, y y ' k , z z ' l in general. As an
example, what would be the equation of a circle x 2 y 2 25 if the system of coordinates are
changed to X x h, Y y k ? We have x X h, y Y k . The same equation shall not
y Y k in x 2 y 2 25 , i.e., X h Y k 25
2 2
hold in X and Y. But we can put x X h,
would be the new equation.
From this point onwards perhaps in every treatment you would find such an alternative derivation
without involving vectors. This is because we are simultaneously studying vectors and analytical
geometry which were taught for a long time as two separate subjects. Though theory is integrated to
a large extent there are a few problems left which are easily solved in traditional methods. It would be
apparent by and by.
In the figure, let the axes and the origin be shifted to O’X’ and O’Y’, coordinates of O’ being (h, k) in
the original axes, OR =h, O’R=k and origin, so that the coordinates of P change from (x, y) to (x’, y’).
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Y Y’ P(x, y) or P(x’, y’)
S
X’
O’(h, k) Q’
R Q
O X
y = y’ + k, i.e., when the coordinate system is changed by changing the axes by distances, h and k
respectively, x and y should be replaced by x’ +h and y’ +k respectively.
If the new coordinate system X’O’Y’ , instead of being fixed, moves in the X-direction with a
speed say v, we have, x’ = x – vt at any time t , as
h = vt and y’ = y as k = 0. (suppose OX be the ground and an observer is sitting in a train with speed
v in X-direction and X’O’Y is his new coordinate system inside the train).Such moving frames of
reference find frequent use in Mechanics.
So that the vector p xi y j becomes
p p. p.
p. p.
x cos y sin x sin y cos
.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
If x’ and y’ are the new coordinates, are unit vectors along their directions, and hence
and
p x ' y '
. Thus, x ' x cos y sin , y ' - x sin y cos
Note that the old x – axis is making an angle –θ with the new axis and
sin sin , and cos cos
. The old coordinates in terms of the new are necessary
x y 2
when we transform an equation to new coordinates. For example, may be transformed to
x x 'cos - y sin , y x 'sin y 'cos . The equation x y 2
the new coordinates using
x 'cos - y sin x 'sin y 'cos 2 x ' cos sin y ' cos sin 2 in the new
becomes
coordinate system, preserving the relation between x and y in the old system.
Without vectors
When the origin is not shifted but the axes go through a rotation of angle , (see figure 1.4.4) , let any
point P with coordinates, OQ and OP i.e., (x , y) in the old system be assigned new coordinates OT
and TP, i.e. (x’ , y’ ) in the new system. Produce PT to meet OX at R and drop a perpendicular TS on
PQ, and drop a perpendicular TV on OX. If is the angle TOR, angle ORT is /2 - and since angle
PQR is /2 , angle QPR = . Now x = OQ = OV – VQ = OV – ST = (OV/OT)OT – (ST/PT)PT
Y
Y’
P
S T X’
O QV R X
transformation of coordinates
Under rotation
Similarly, y = PQ = PS + SQ = PS + TV
= (PS/PT)PT + (TV/OT)OT
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Or, y = (PS/PT)y’ + (TV/OT)x’
x’ cos - y’ sin
As an example, try the expression ax2 +2hxy + by2 . Putting x = x’ cos - y’ sin and
a (x’ cos - y’ sin ) 2 +2h (x’ cos - y’ sin )(x’ sin + y’ cos )+b(x’ sin + y’ cos )2
or, (x’)2(acos2 +2hcos sin +b sin2 ) + 2x’y’{h (cos2 - sin2 )+(b – a)cos sin }
We at once see that the degree of the expression remains unchanged in the procedure. We
proceed a little further to explore what else remains unchanged about the expression of look for
invariants.
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or sum of coefficients of x2 and y2 remain unchanged under any rotation of axes in a
homogeneous equation of second degree in x and y. (By homogeneous we in mean each term
sum of powers of x and y remains the same).
= (a + b)2 – (a – b)2(1 – sin2 2) – 4h2(1 – cos2 2) - 4h(a – b)sin 2 cos 2
So ab – h2 is another invariant.
y2……………….anyn = 0,
But we can always get rid of a particular term, especially 2hxy, i.e., the xy term . That term in
expression ax2 +2hxy + by2 + 2gx +2fy +c, can be removed under a transformation of coordinates x =
x’ cos - y’ sin and y = x’ sin + y’ cos and the expression can be put to a form like AX2 +BY2 +
2GX +2FY +C, by a suitable rotation of axes through an angle and to prove that tan 2 = 2h/(a – b).
This is left as an exercise.( Hint . put h’ = 0 in c) above).
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Observe that the expression ax2 +2hxy + by2 is changed to a’x’2 +2h’x’y’ + b’y’2 , same in form and
unchanged in values a + b and h2 – ab. Therefore the latter are called invariants for the expression.
Matrix Method ( Matrices are introduced in the last chapter of this section)
The formula x ' x cos y sin , y ' x sin y cos could be got by matrix multiplicationsuch as
x ' cos sin x
x ' x cos y sin , y ' x sin y cos , where the marrix
y ' sin cos y
cos sin
T
sin cos is called the transformation matrix.
cos sin
Where the transformation matrix T ' sin cos is easily seen to be transpose of the
cos sin cos sin 1 1
transformation matrix T ; for TT ' T ' T , the identity matrix.
sin cos sin cos 1 1
The method is explained in more detail in case of three dimensions below.
We may take z x iy , z ' x ' iy ' . Since z ' is obtained by rotating the axes by , we may take
z ' as rotating z by angle in the same old axes. (Imagine when the axes are rotared, the radius
vector of z is left behind by an angle relative to the new axes .) Since a rotation of angle is same
as multiplication by e i , then
z ' zei x iy cos i sin x cos y sin i x sin y cos x ' iy ' .
So x ' x cos y sin , y ' x sin y cos . It is left to the reader as an exercise to show
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Like 0, like identities, invariants seem to be trivial and of no importance. No. They are
precisely what we look for in every branch of mathematics and Physics. After all what is in a formula
or in a rule ? Take for example the rule of demand and supply in Economics; the product of demand
and supply of a commodity in a given market situation is a constant or invariant. Simply this statement
gives a lot of information encoded in it. Take any typical problem in Mechanics. The procedure is
simply set up the equations and solve them through standard methods in routine manner. But to set
up the equations is no routine affair. Some mind is to be applied of course. Here the invariants come
to help. The most familiar invariants are : a) the principle of conservation of momentum; expressed as
an invariant – momentum of the system before collision = momentum after the collision and b) the
principle of conservation of energy – total energy before collision = total energy after collision. Just
close your eyes and invoke the two invariants and the equations of the problem are set up ! One such
invariant in Quantum Mechanics is Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle – the minimum product of
errors in simultaneous measurements of position and momentum is equal to Plank’s constant.
According to Schrödinger, a founding authority in Quantum Mechanics, invariants encode internal or
intrinsic beauty in them. It goes without saying that beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder and a
thing of beauty is a joy for ever.
Similarly if the direction cosines of y – axis in the new system are m1 , m2 and m3
In the same manner if the direction cosines of z – axis in the new system are n1 , n2 and n3 then
z n1 x ' n2 y ' n3 z ' .
If θ is the angle that x’ – axis makes with x – axis, the – θ is the angle x – axis makes with the
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
l1 , m1 and n1 respectively. And six similar results ( verify). So we deduce
x ' l1 x m1 y n1 z
y ' l2 x m2 y n2 z
z ' l3 x m3 y n3 z
The structural symmetry in these two sets of expressions can be remembered as in the table below.
T x y z
l1 m1 n1
x ' l1 m1 n1
l2 m2 n2
y ' l2 m2 n2
l3 m3 n3
z ' l3 m3 n3 , or the transformation matrix .
The symmetry also reveals that the direction cosines are not independent of each other and derive
the following relationships by first transforming the Cartesian orthogonal coordinates x, y , z to
x ', y ', z ' and again back to x, y , z ; and making the corresponding coefficients of both sides of
identities equal.
l12 l2 2 l32 1
m12 m2 2 m32 1 ......................................(c)
n12 n2 2 n32 1
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
l1m1 l2 m2 l3m3 0
m1n1 m2 n2 m3n3 0 .................................(d )
n1l1 n2l2 n3l3 0
Hint. If the coordinates of a point (x, y, z) in the old system is transferred to the new system (x’, y’,
z’), then we have,
x ' l1 x m1 y n1 z
y ' l2 x m2 y n2 z
z ' l3 x m3 y n3 z
x l1 l1 x m1 y n1 z l2 l2 x m2 y n2 z l3 l3 x m3 y n3 z
y m1 l1 x m1 y n1 z m2 l2 x m2 y n2 z m3 l3 x m3 y n3 z
x n1 l1 x m1 y n1 z n2 l2 x m2 y n2 z n3 l3 x m3 y n3 z
Or, x l1 l2 l3
2 2 2
x l m l m
1 1 2 2 l3m3 y l1n1 l2 n2 l3n3 z
Since x, y and z are independent, we derive from this, l1 l2 l3 1 and l1m1 l2 m2 l3 m3 0 and
2 2 2
Similarly find the other relations. Also transfer (x’, y’, z’) into (x, y, z) and back into
Also verify that the relations (c) and (d) are not independent of (a) and (b) and can be deduced
algebraically from them. Once try or see the next article for vector methods.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
i' l1 i m1 j n1 k
j ' l i m j n k
2 2 2
k' l3 i m3 j n3 k
Since angle θ of any unit vector j say , with any other unit vector k' , the angle of k' with j is – θ ,
and cos cos ,we have,
i l i' l
1 2 j ' l3 k '
j m i' m
1 2 j ' m3 k '
k n i' n
1 2 j ' n k'
3
Since they are unit vectors, 1 i'.i' l1 i m1 j n1 k . l1 i m1 j n1 k l12 m12 n12
Similarly, 0 i'.
j ' l1 i m1 j n1 k . l2 i m2 j n2 k l1l2 m1m2 n1n2
Complete the exercise and mark the edge over traditional method.
Example6
A vector has a fixed magnitude and direction in space. Only the components change as the axes of
coordinates change. Suppose a vector a
has components
2 p,1,0 in a rectangular Cartesian
coordinate system. The axes of coordinates have turned though an angle about the z – axis, so that
Note here that we have not used here any formula for coordinate transformation, but only
elementary knowledge of vectors. Most of the vector analysis problems can be solved just
applying elementary knowledge of vectors without using intricate formulae. Even you can
solve the problems of st lines and planes using the concepts of this chapter only without
using the techniques developed in the chapters for st lines and planes hereafter.
Exercise19
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
If l1 , m1 , n1 , l2 , m2 , n2 , l3 , m3 , n3 are three mutually perpendicular unit vectors (direction cosines of
three mutually perpendicular st lines,) then show that so are l1 , l2 , l3 , m1 , m2 , m3 , n1 , n2 , n3 .
Exercise20 remember
Show that if two st lines are perpendicular to each other, the relation between their directional cosines
is
l1 m2 n3 m3 n2 m1 n2l3 n3l2 n1 l2 m3 l3 m2 1 .
There are invariants of this transformation analogous to the two dimensional transformation
(rotation) such as the following.
Step I
Let us find out on what condition the homogeneous expression ax 2 by 2 cz 2 2hxy 2 fyz 2 gzx
can be factorised into two linear factors. So let
ll ' a, mm ' b, nn ' c, lm ' l ' m 2h, mn ' n ' m 2 f , nl ' n ' l 2 g
Eliminating l, l’, m, m’ , n, n’ etc. from these six equations, the relation among the coefficients a, b, c
etc is found to be abc 2 fgh af 2 bg 2 ch 2 0 .(do it as an exercise - Hint. Put
a b c
l' , m ' , n ' and eliminate l’, m’, n’ from the rest three equations. Then solve the rest
l m n
three equations for l and m, in terms of n and put these values in one of the last three equation which
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
is not twice used for elimination. Easier process would be using determinants.). This is the condition
for the homogeneous expression ax 2 by 2 cz 2 2hxy 2 fyz 2 gzx may be expressed as product
of two linear factors.
Step II
Next we see that x 2 y 2 z 2 x '2 y '2 z '2 , being the modulus2 or r2 of any particular point (x, y, z)
ax 2 by 2 cz 2 2 hxy 2 fyz 2 gzx a ' x '2 b ' y '2 c ' z '2 2 h ' x ' y ' 2 f ' y ' z ' 2 g ' z ' x ' , we get
ax 2 by 2 cz 2 2hxy 2 fyz 2 gzx k x 2 y 2 z 2
a ' x '2 b ' y '2 c ' z '2 2h ' x ' y ' 2 f ' y ' z ' 2 g ' z ' x ' k x '2 y '2 z '2
The expression on the left or right does not resolve into two linear factors 2for all values of k. But by
symmetry of structure, if the left side can be product of two linear factors for a particular value of k, so
also the right side would be, for same value of k.
a k b k c k 2 fgh a k f 2 b k g 2 c k h 2 0
And a ' k b ' k c ' k 2 f ' g ' h ' a ' k f '2 b ' k g '2 c ' k h '2 0 .
k 3 k 2 a ' b ' c ' k b ' c ' c ' a ' a ' b ' f '2 g '2 h '2
And
a ' b ' c ' 2 g ' f ' h ' a ' f '2 b ' g '2 c ' h '2 0
2
If it is resolved into two real linear factors, either factor set to 0 gives you a st line; then it is the joint equation
of two st lines. Otherwise it is a curve, because complex factors do not give st lines.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
As the last two equations have the same roots, they have the same factors, except, maybe, for a
numerical factor. But the numerical factor is 1 only since both the coefficients of the leading terms is 1
each. the Thus the two expressions must be identical .and hence the coefficients of corresponding
terms must be equal as the . This gives,
By the way, remember that if two equations of any degree in one variable have the same roots,
the corresponding coefficients of terms of similar degree shall be proportional.
Exercise21
Two mutually perpendicular st lines have direction cosines l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 . Find the direction
cosines of a line perpendicular to both of them.
Ans.: Let l , m, n are direction cosines of the line. As it is perpendicular to both the given lines, it is
parallel to their cross product,
Since it is a unit vector also, s m1n2 n1m2 n1l2 l1n2 l1m2 m1l2 1 .
2 2 2 2
But m1n2 n1m2 n1l2 l1n2 l1m2 m1l2 sin 1 where is the angle between the given
2 2 2 2
Exercise22
Find the value of for which 5,2,4 , 8, 7, , 6, 1,2 are collinear.
Hint: The direction ratio’s of the lines joining the pairs of points must be proportional. Ans. 2 .
§49: Section formula in vectors and in coordinate geometry of two and three dimensions
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
A
R
B
a r
b
O
Section formula
A straight line segment AB is divided in a ratio m/n internally at a point R . We can get the coordinates
of the point R perhaps most easily in vector method. Take any point O as the origin of coordinates
and join the points A, B and R to O. Now, the vectors
a
-
r
r
-
b
RA and BR , though cannot be divided one by the other, as there is no vector division
a
-
r
r a
-
as such, still we could take n m b since they are in the same direction. Transposing,
a
n mb
n m b m n .
mn
Thus the coordinates of R is given by r , with respect to any set of Cartesian axes with origin at O. We
can separate the coordinates easily by writing the coordinates of the points r x, y , z ,
a = ax , a y , az b = bx , by , bz , so that
Similarly if the point R divides the st line AB in ratio m/n externally, or equivalently in the ratio 0 – m/n
, we could just modify the above formulas by putting –m in place of m.
Midpoint : Midpoint of a line segment joining two points whose position vector are a and b
a
r
b
respectively is given by as m = 1 = n.
2
ax bx a y by a bz
In terms of coordinates, x ,y , z z .
2 2 2
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
a
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
a
r
m b
n
In view of ,or, m n n m b 0 an useful criteria for collinear points is obtained.
mn
a
Set m n u , n v and m w , so that u v w 0 and m n n m b 0 becomes
r
u v w b 0 . It is clear that the vector r divides the st line connecting the tips of vectors a and b
in some ratio; i.e., the vectors r, a and b are collinear if u, v and w can be found such that
r
u v w b 0 if u v w 0 .
Conversely if the vectors r, a and b are collinear, then the vector r divides the st line connecting the
a
r
n m b
tips of vectors a and b in some ratio , say m/n, so that , i.e., there are u, v and w , not all
mn
r
Exercise23
If P r1 , Q r2 , R r3 are three collinear points with position vectors r1 , r2 , r3 respectively ( we can
denote the point P as P r just as P x, y ) and r3 lr1 mr2 , show that l m 1 .
Hint : Since r1 , r2 , r3 are position vectors of three collinear points, we may have r3 r2 r2 r1 .
i.e. r3 r1 1 r2 lr1 mr2 . Equate the coefficients of r1 , r2 and get l m 1 .
Exercise24
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
What is the value of for which 2 a b, and 2 3 a 2b are collinear, if
a and b are non-collinear vector.
Hint : take 2 a b 2 3 a 2b and equate the coefficients of a and b both
sides, which gives x 2 3 2 x 0 and 1 2 0 , whence 1 / 2 and x 1/ 4
Exercise25
Three non-zero vectors a, b, c are such that each pair of them are mutually non-collinear. If a is
collinear with b 3c and c is collinear with a 2b then find the relation among a, b, c .
Hint: take b 3c a and a 2b c , so that 3 a 2b 3 c a b . Equate the coefficients
of a and b from both sides and get the values of , and derive from these equation
putting these values a 2b 6c 0 .
Example7
Two forces on a body represented by nOA and mOB , m and n being positive. Show that their
resultant is given by m n OR where R divides the st line AB internally in the ratio m:n.
nOA mOB
We have OR , when R divides AB in the ratio m:n. Hence nOA mOB m n OR
mn
and the resultant of the forces is nOA mOB .
Exercise26
PR PQ PS
In the following figure prove that
PC PA PB
S R
B
C
A
P Q
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Hint : Convert PQ, PS and PR into vectors from origin P. Then PR PQ PS . Since PQ, PA are co-
linear, PQ xPA . Similarly PS yPB and
PR zPC PQ PS xPA yPQ zPC xPA yPB
PC PA PB
zPC xPA yPB PR PQ PS
PC PA PB
PQ PS PR
PA PB PC 0
PA PB PC
Since the points A, B, and C are collinear, then for some , , such that 0 we can have
PQ PS PR
PA PB PC 0 . Now since PA PB PC 0 , and PA PB PC 0 ,we have
PC PA PB
PQ PS PR PQ PS PR
, , and 0 gives 0.
PA PB PC PA PB PC
Let us see how the above result is also derived without recourse to vectors. Let P be the point (x1, y1)
and Q be the point (x2, y2) and the point R (h, k) divide the line segment PQ in the ratio m : n.(see
fig.1.4.5a). In other words PR / RQ = m /n. Drop perpendiculars PS, RT and QV from points P, R and
Q onto the x-axis and drop PL perpendicular to RT and RM perpendicular to QV (QV produced in
fig.1,4.5.b)
Q
Y M R
Y
R Q
P M
L
P
L
O S T V X
X
O S V T
Fig.1.4.5a:dividing PQ Fig.1.4.5b:dividing PQ
internally externally
PL = ST = h – x1 and RM = VT = x2 – h .
From the fact that RL || QM and PL || RM , the two triangles QRM and RPL are similar and their
sides are proportional.(RPL = QRM and PRL = RQM).
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
So, PL / RM = PR / RQ (h – x1) / (h – x2) = m / n .(in fig.1.4.5.a) This gives,
mx 2 nx 1 my 2 ny 1
h and similarly, k
mn mn
mx 2 nx 1 my 2 ny 1
h and similarly, k
mn mn
if R divides PQ internally in the ratio m/n (meaning that it externally divides PQ in the ratio – m/n. (If m
> n, R is on PQ produced, if m < n, R is on QP produced).
In particular, the middle point divides the segment in the ration 1:1, so its coordinates are
(x1 + x2)/2 and (y1 + y2)/2.
This is a beautiful feature in coordinate geometry, a particular case and the general case have the
same calculations though they have different diagrams apparently.
In three dimensions , find the z coordinate from the following figure and similarly find out the other two
coordinates.
Z
Q
R
H
K
P
X
O
L N M
Exercise27
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
a c b d
AB b a , AD d a , CB b c , CD d c e f ,
Hint: We have, 2 and 2
b d a c b a d c
EF f e
2
2
2
.Then AB AD CB CD 2 b a d c
§52: Division formula or section formula in 3 dimensions without vectors:
Let P and Q be any two points with coordinates, (x1,y1,z1) and (x2,y2,z2) respectively and let
the point R(x, y, z) divide the segment PQ in the positive ratio m/n. Drop perpendiculars PP’, QQ’,
and RR’ on xy-plane, coordinates of P’, Q’ and R’ become (x1, y1, 0), (x2, y2, 0) and (x, y, 0)
respectively. Drop perpendiculars PN and RL on QQ’ and the coordinates of N and L become
(x2,y2,z1) and (x2,y2,z) respectively.
The triangles PMR and RLQ are similar as angles PMR and RLQ are right angles and angle
MPR = angle QRL as the lines PM and RL are parallel lines cut by the same transversal line PRQ.
Hence their sides become proportional and we have
z1 z
m/n = PR/RQ = MR/LQ = ,or, m(z – z2) = n(z1 – z), which gives,
z z2
nz 1 mz 2 ny my 2 nx mx 2
z , similarly, y 1 and x 1
mn mn mn
the formulae are same as in case of two dimensions. Similar consideration for external division of the
segment PQ gives us
nz 1 mz 2 ny my 2 nx mx 2
z ,, y 1 and x 1
mn mn mn
if R divides PQ externally in the ratio m/n , meaning that it divides PQ internally in the ratio –m/n. (If m
> n, R is on PQ produced, if m < n, R is on QP produced).
Section formula – if P z is a point between the points A z1 and B z2 dividing AB in the ratio m :
mz2 nz1 mx2 nx1 my2 ny1
n, then z , just combining x and y through z x iy etc.
mn mn mn
z1 z2
Note that the midpoint of A z1 and B z2 is given by z .
2
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Example 8:
Xa Yb
X’ X x , y …(2)
O 2 2
X = 2x – a , Y = 2y – b
Note that - C/A and – C/B are intercepts of line (1) on the coordinate axes whereas
(Aa + Bb – C) / 2A and (Aa + Bb – C) / 2A are intercepts of the required line on the coordinate axes.
Example 9:
Q(X, Y)
P(x, y)
R(a, b)
X2 + Y2 = r2……………………………………(1)
where r is its radius and Q(X, Y) is any point on it. It R(a, b) be a fixed point outside it and P(x, y) be
the middle point of QR, we have,
Xa Yb
x , y …………………………………..(2)
2 2
To find a relation between x and y, we have to eliminate X and Y from (1) and (2) and this relation
shall be the eqn. to the locus of the point P. From (2) we have,
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
X = 2x – a , Y = 2y – b
2 2 2
a b r
y – which is , in words,
To find its centre and radius, convert it to x –
2 2 2
a b r a b r
distance of any point (x, y) from , is . Hence , is the center and is the radius.
2 2 2 2 2 2
Exercise28
Show that if two sides of a quadrilateral are parallel and equal, the quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
Hint. In the quadrilateral ABCD let AB = CD. Then b a d c . But this implies
a c b d AC BD .
Exercise29
Exercise30
Exercise31
The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other. Using the fact , show that if z1 z3 z2 z 4 ,
where z1 , z 2 , z3 , z 4 are vertices of a quadrilateral in order, it is a parallelogram.
z1 z3 z2 z4
Hint. Since the diagonals bisect each other at their midpoints,
2 2
Exercise32
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Hint : The diagonals are equal
Exercise33 remember
The st line segment AB is divided in the ratio m n at P and in the ratio m n at Q. P and Q are called
harmonic conjugates of A and B . Show that the points A and B divide the line segment PQ in the
nm
ratio . In other words, A and B are harmonic conjugates of P and Q.
nm
na mb na mb
Hint. Given p and q in terms of a and b ; i.e. p , q , Solve for a and b in terms
mn mn
of p and q .
Exercise34 remember
2 2 2
2
Show that p q p q p.q .
2 2
q sin , q cos . Hence the result.
2 2 2 2
Hint.: p q p p.q p
2 2
Exercise34 remember
p q
Any two vectors and and their cross product p q are non-coplanar as p q is perpendicular to
the plane of p and q . Any third vector r can be expressed as a linear combination of the three
vectors
r p q pq
. Find , , .
r. p q
2
Ans. : r. p q p. p q q. p q p q . p q 0 0 p q ,so 2 .
pq
Now p p q is perpendicular both to p and p q .
r . p p q p. p p q q. p p q p q . p p q 0 q. p p q 0
So 2
q. p.q p p. p q p.q p. p q.q p.q p q p q
2 2 2 2
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
i.e.
r. p p q
. Similarly
r .q q p
2 2
pq pq
§53: The Section formula promises an equation for a st line; also one for plane.
nz 1 mz 2 ny my 2 nx mx 2
The section formula z , y 1 and x 1
mn mn m n dividing the line segment between
Q x1 , y1 , z1 and R x2 , y2 , z2
the points itself is an equation of a straight line if we wildly vary
P x, y , z
m and n; for , any point on the st line QR must divide the segment in some ratio m : n.,
:1
positive or negative . if we put in place of m: new have, the coordinates of any point P on the st
line as
x1 x2 y y2 z z2
x ,y 1 ,z 1
1 1 1 which may be taken as a parametric equation of any st line
with two given points with a variable parameter λ. Introduction of λ reveals additional freedom; it can
be any real number, not only a rational number as m : n wrongly indicates. Because we have not set
n0
any criteria for m and n to be integers, so they can be real numbers too. Of course is tacitly
understood.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
k : n l m : n . Since l , m are arbitrary, so is k and hence no loss of generalization. So the
lx1 mx2 ly1 my2 lz1 mz2
m l m l nx3 m l m l ny3 m l m l nz3
, ,
l m n l m n l mn
coordinates of P are
lx mx2 nx3 ly1 my2 ny3 lz1 mz2 nz3
1 , ,
l mn l mn l mn
Of course division by 0 must be excluded and it is tacitly understood that any three points are in a
plane.
§55: More about Linear combinations of vectors in 2-D and 3-D, Components or resolutes
B’ C
B c
A’
O
a A
c = ma + nb
a) Any vector c in a plane can be expressed as a unique linear combination of two non-
parallel given vectors. Otherwise said, any three coplanar vectors are linearly
dependent. Still in another way, any two non-zero and non-co-linear vectors are linearly
independent.
Let a and b be two given non-parallel vectors in a plane and let c be any
other vector , all drawn from a common origin O. The vectors a, b, and c are position vectors of the
points A, B and C respectively. Draw lines parallel to OA and OB from C and let them meet OB and
OA at B’ and A’ respectively. Prove that OA’CB’ is a parallelogram and thus c = ma + nb, a linear
combination of a and b .
If this resolution of c is not unique, let c = pa + qb be another resolution. Now subtracting the two, we
have (p – m)a = (n – q)b . This is impossible since a and b are not parallel.
b) Any vector c in 3-D can be expressed as a unique linear combination of three non-
coplanar given vectors. Otherwise said, any four non-coplanar vectors are linearly
dependent. Still in another way, any three non-zero and non-coplanar vectors are
linearly dependent.
Prove it as an exercise
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Hint . Complete the parallelepiped as completed the parallelogram in a) to prove the resolution
unique, use the fact that no linear combination of three non-coplanar vectors can be 0, i.e., in
other words, sum of two vectors can not be a third one in a different plane.
corollary
As a corollary, it follows that three points ( always necessarily in a plane) are collinear if position
vector of one of them are non-zero and can be expressed as linear combination of the other two in
two different ways.
Do not confuse Any vector has a different set of components in different axes of coordinates.
The fact is entirely different from the above, which states that the vector cannot be resolved into
components in different ways in any particular set of coordinates.
Let r = λa + μb + νc + ξd+ ……. be a linear combination of the vectors. It would be proved that this
relation also holds when a, b, c, d ……. are changed as a result of change of origin (shift of axes) if λ
+ μ + ν + ξ+ …….= 1 and vice versa.
O O’
It is presumed to be well understood that a shift of origin from O to O’ effects in shift of coordinate
axes and vice versa. Any position vector a of the point A may be written as sum of vectors p + a’
where p is position vector of O’ and a’ is position vector of A with respect to the new axes or wrt the
origin O’. Now the linear relationship transforms to
r a b c d .
r' + p a ' p c ' p d ' p .
b' p
r' a ' b ' c ' d ' . p . 1 ..........( a )
if and only if each side is 0 , for the expressions on the left and right of the equation (a) above are
different vectors in general. They are equal only in case each side is 0.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
0 a ' b ' c ' d ' . 0
If we take only two terms in (a), i.e. write r a b , the point r is the internal divider of AB if
1 . , i.e., r, a, and b are collinear. Obviously the point of division of a line segment in a
particular ratio does not change if the origin is changed or axes, for that matter.
It would be shown below that center of mass of a body whether it is inside the body or outside it ( e.g.
a ring shaped body or an L shaped body) does not change as the coordinate system changes, as it is
expected. Not only so, but if we consider a system of moving particles is having a dynamic center of
mass moving with a constant speed in a particular direction, there is no net external force on the
system of particles as a whole.
Exercise36
l a n b n c l a n b n c
If a, b, c are non-coplanar vectors, then position vectors of the points 1 1 1 , 2 2 2 ,
1 1 1 1
l1 l2 l3 l4
0
m1 m2 m3 m4
l3 a n3 b n3 c and l4 a n4 b n4 c are coplanar, if n1 n2 n3 n4
.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Hint; The four vectors are coplanar if there are , , , such that 0 and
l1 a n1 b n1 c l2 a n2 b n2 c l3 a n3 b n3 c l4 a n4 b n4 c 0 such that.
Equating the coefficients of a, b, c each to 0 in the above equation , ( as the four vectors are linearly
independent) , we have l1 l2 l3 l4 0 , m1 m2 m3 m4 0 , n1 n2 n3 n4 0
1 1 1 1
l1 l2 l3 l4
And of course 0 .The eliminant of these equations is 0 . So this is
m1 m2 m3 m4
n1 n2 n3 n4
the required condition.
We know that , in a plane, any non-zero vector r can be expressed as a unique linear combination of
any two constant non-co-linear vectors a and b, i.e., r = λa + μb. Similarly in three dimensions, if a,
b and c are any three non-c-linear, non-coplanar constant vectors, any non-zero vector r can be
expressed as a unique linear combination of a, b and c . This fact is expressed by saying that a, b
and c for a basis or base for the family of vectors r = λa + μb, and the family of vectors represented
by r = λa + μb for any scalars λ and μ, is called a v Exercise
Hint. Just show that a, a – b and a +c are linearly independent. If otherwise, λa + μ (a – b) + η(a +c)
=0
for non-zero constants, λ , μ , η . Then λa + μ (a – b) + η(a +c) = (λ + μ + η)a + ( - μ)b +( η)c =0 i.e.,
a, b and c are linearly dependent, which is a contradiction.
Let us begin with an example. In a triangle ABC the points A, B and C have position vectors a, b and
c respectively. If the position vectors of the midpoints of BC, CA and AB
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
F E
B C
D
Centroid of a triangle
c
+
a
a
+
b
d
=
,
e
=
,
f
=
a
+
b
+
c
2 a
2 .
which divides AD in the ratio 2 : 1 is given by 2 1 3
The result would be same had we made the calculation for the point dividing BE or CF in the ratio
2:1. Any vertex joined to the mid point of the opposite side is called a median of the triangle and the
a
+
b
+
c
point dividing any median in the ratio 2:1 is the same point i.e., . In other words, medians
3
of a triangle are concurrent and this point is called the centroid of the triangle.
In this manner we can extend the concept of mid point of a line segment to centroid of a triangle to
centroid of n points not necessarily in a plane. What we do is, if A, B, C, D…. are n points, we join
a
+
b
the point A to B and take the middle point as , then join this point to C divide the st line in a
2
a
+
b
+
c
ratio 1:2 to get the point C , obviously given by . Now join this point to D and divide this
3
a
+
b
+
c
+
d
line segment in the ratio 1:3 to get . And in this manner the process can be
4
extended to n points not necessarily all lying in a plane. This point is called the centroid or mean
center of the system of points. If we consider four points and one of them is not in the plane of the
other three ( any three points lie on a plane) joining the four points give us a solid what is called a
tetrahedron. Some examples and exercises on tetrahedrons follow.
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Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
pa qb rc sd
We have a concept of weighted mean or weighted average something like when a,
pqrs
b, c and d are repeated p, q, r and s times respectively. This is no different from the ordinary average
as you may see to it. Even if p, q, r and s are not positive integers, we retain the concept, evidently p,
q, r, s become weightage of a, b, c, and d respectively in that case. In this parlance we call a vector
pa qb rc sd
OP
pqrs
It is apparent that the centroid of a number of points or centroid associated with some numbers
depends upon relative positions of the points and therefore it should be independent of the choice of
origin. Yes it is.
a–t
O’ A
t
a
Let P be the centroid of a, b, c and d etc. with associated numbers p, q, r, s etc. where the origin is at
t
pa qb rc sd
the point O and let the centroid be OP . If O’ is another point and OO ' , then
pqrs
we have the position vectors ( of A, B, C , D etc) i.e., a, b, c and d etc. changed to
a t , b t , c t and d t etc. so that if P’ is new centroid, we have.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
p a t q b t r c t s d t
O'P'
pqrs
pa qb rc sd p q r s
t OP t OP
pqrs pqrs
§61: Centroid of two clusters of points is the centroid of all points taken together
This is also apparent as, centroids are vector averages and average of averages of two groups is the
real average of all. Let us see.
These discussions indicate that the sum of some position vectors repeated p, q, r etc. times or
weighted by those factors are together equivalent to one position vector repeated or weighted p + q +
r etc. times which is the centroid . This leads to center of mass concept for a system of different
masses or a continuous distribution of masses, the point at which the entire mass seems to be
concentrated.
a) Mean center or centroid or midpoint of two points whose position vectors are a and b is their
a b
mid point .
2
b) Mean center or centroid of a triangle ABC is is the point of concurrence of its medians
a b c
.( Proved just in the earlier article)
3
c) Instead of medians, if we take st lines joining vertices to points on the opposite sides ,dividing
the sides in a constant ratio, the three st lines so got also form a triangle and the centroid of
this triangle is the centroid of of the triangle ABC. For, A point P on BC dividing it in the ratio
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
nb mc nc ma
m:n is given by , a point Q on CA dividing it in the ratio m:n is given by and
mn mn
na mb
such a point R on AB is given by . The mean center of these three points is
mn
nb mc nc ma na mb
mn mn m n a b c .this is the point where medians meet, for , the point
3 3
remains same even if we started with any alternative pair of sides.
a
+
b
+
c
+
d
d) The mean center of a tetrahedron ABCD or skew quadrilateral is given by 4
(proved above). Note that this point bisects the lines joining any two opposite sides, i.e.
a
b
c
d
a
c
b
d
a
d
c
c
a
b
c
d
2 2 2 2 2 2
. Also it shows that the three st
4 2 2 2
lines joining midpoints of opposite sides are concurrent.
e) If G1 is the centroid of A1, A2,A3……………….An with associated numbers
p1, p2,p3……………….pn, and G2 is the centroid of B1, B2,B3……………….Bn with the same
n
Ai Bi
associated numbers, then G1G2 i 1
n
. ( Hint Ai Bi bi ai )
p
i 1
i
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
A PA B PB C PC ..................
PG .
A B C ..................
i) With the help of the above prove the following. A particle at P is acted upon by a number of
forces PA, PB, PC,.................. where the points A, B, C … etc. are equally dividing a circle into
n parts, ( the point P not necessarily on the circle), then show that the resultant is nPG, ,G
being center of the circle.
Exercise37
Vertices of a tetrahedron are joined to the centroids of the opposite faces. Show that these st lines
are concurrent.
bc d
Hint : If ABCD be the tetrahedron the centroid P of BCD is
3 . The point dividing AP in the ratio
bcd
a 3
3 a bc d
3:1 is 1 3 4 .The same point would be obtained dividing BQ , CR and DS in
the same ratio if B is joined to centroid of CDA etc.
Exercise38
B C
In the tetrahedron OABC, opposite edges BO AC, and AO BC. Show that AB CO.
Hint : take D as the origin of coordinates, BO AC b. c a 0 b.c a.b
Similarly,
OA BC a. b c 0 a.b a.c
So we get
b.c a.b c.a .From the last
equation, b.c c.a c. a b 0 CO AB .
Exercise39
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
2
So BO AC a b c 2b.c a b c AO2 BC2 . And similarly the other one.
2 2 2 2 2 2
Exercise40 remember
Exercise41 remember
If masses m1 , m2 , m3 ........... are places at points whose position vectors are r1, r2, r3,… then center of
mass of the system of particles, where the total mass seems to be concentrated is given by
m r m r m r m r ........ m r m r m r m r ........
r 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4
where M is the total mass
m1 m2 m3 m4 ........ M
m1 m2 m3 m4 ........
It can easily be proved that the center of mass is independent of choice of origin or coordinates
for that matter. ( as it is the centroid associated with masses).
In vector analysis we have a concept called moment of mass, moment of force etc. if we choose
the center of mass as the origin, the body would not turn down to fall if supported only at the one
point, i.e., the center of mass. For we have m1 r1 m2 r2 m3 r3 m4 r4 ........ 0 , as we have chosen the
origin O at the center of mass..The vectors m1 r1 , m2 r2 etc. are turning effects on the mass points
(rigidly connected to one another) about the pivotal point as more the distance r or the more the mass
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This section is not a part of the preview.
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
m, more is the turning effect and sum of all the turning points about the center of mass is 0. This
statement implies that the entire mass of a rigid body is equivalent to a point of equal mass at the
center of mass. The center of mass is the point in a rigid body where the entire mass is supposed to
be concentrated for consideration of any net external force. If a planet explodes into pieces, there is
no net external force on it and the center of mass becomes the dynamic center of mass, unaffected
by the explosion. So the quantities m1 r1 , m2 r2 etc. are called moments masses m1 , m2 , meaning
thereby product of masses with corresponding radius vectors.
Note: 1) Mass is otherwise called inertia, but moment of inertia is different from moment of
mass as we would study later on.
2) Moment of force F or that of any other vector is different, moment of force around a
point O is defined as rX F , where r is vector OA , where A is the point of application of force F .
Details later on.
Exercise42
Masses m1 , m2 , m3 ........... are placed at points A, B, C, …… etc. respectively having the point G as the
2 2 2 2
center of mass. For any point P show that m1 AP AG m2 BP BG ........... MPG where
2
m1 m2 ........... M .
Hint: Taking the C.M. as origin, and position vectors of A, B, C, …… P etc.as a , b , c.............. p
respectively,
2
2
We have AP 2
AP p a p 2 a 2 2 p.a .
So that m1 AP 2 m2 BP 2 ........... m p m a
i
2
1
2
m2b 2 ..... 2 p. m1 a m2 b ..... .
as m1 a m2 b ...... 0 , being sum of moments of masses about C.M., and total mass M m , we
i
© Page 88
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
b and c . So we can take b bjˆ , c ˆj kˆ , and a iˆ ˆj kˆ . Then
b c bjˆ ˆj kˆ 0 b iˆ and P a b c iˆ ˆj kˆ b iˆ 0 b kˆ b ˆj
bjˆ b ˆj kˆ a.c b a.b c . Alternatively, taking dot product of
a b c b c , we have 0 a.b a.c , as P a b c is perpendicular to a . Putting
u
a.c
u
0 a.b a.c or a.c a.b u , , in a b c b c , we have,
a.b
u
a.b
u
a.c
u
a b c b c b c a.b c a.c b .
a.b a.c
Now taking b bjˆ , c ˆj kˆ , and a iˆ ˆj kˆ and putting the values in
u
a bc
a.b a.c
a.b c a.c b , we get, a.b u a.c 1
Finally a b c a . c b - a .b c.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Similarly we may study scalar triple product a. r F , their product evidently being a scalar. The
vector r F is a vector perpendicular to both of them numerically equal to the area rF, and its dot
product with the vector a is the volume arF, i.e., the volume of a parallelepiped whose sides are a,
r, and F respectively.
Since the volume of the parallelepiped may also be written as rFa or Far, we expect that
a. r F r. F a F . a r . Yes, it is (of course if the cyclic order is maintained). For the volume
of a parallelepiped must be unique. Note that if the cyclic order is broken, a negative sign would
result, as F a a F (prove as an exercise).
For this reason, a. b c b. c a c. a b is denoted by abc , .
§68: Work out and remember
a a1 , a2 , a3 , b b1 , b2 , b3 , c c1 , c2 , c3 ,
1) If then
abc a. b c a1 , a2 , a3 . b1 , b2 , b3 c1 , c2 , c3 a1 , a2 , a3 . b2 c3 b3c2 , b3c1 b1c3 , b1c2 b2 c1
a) a1 a2 a3 a1 b1 c1
a1 b2 c3 b3c2 a2 b3c1 b1c3 a3 b1c2 b2 c1 b1 b2 b3 a2 b2 c2
c1 c2 c3 a3 b3 c3
b)
1) Verify abc cab bca a c b cba using components.
2) If the three vectors a a1 , a2 , a3 , b b1 , b2 , b3 , c c1 , c2 , c3 , are coplanar, then
a1 a2 a3 a1 b1 c1
abc b1 b2 b3 a2 b2 c2 0a
c1 c2
a3 b3 c3 c3
and vice versa.
3) For any scalar k, k abc k abc akbc abkc abck
4) a b cd acd bcd .
5) so that the dot and cross can be interchanged in scalar triple product without changing the
order of the vectors.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
bc
a '
abc abc 0
There is no concept of division by vectors as such. But if and , note that
a. b c
a.a ' 1 a '.a . The vectors a and a ' are called reciprocal vector of each other and due to
abc
this property, a system of vectors a ', b ', c ' are called a reciprocal system of vectors for noncoplanar
vectors a, b, c such that a.b b.c c.a 0 .
§70: Work out and remember
a) If i, j , k are unit vectors in x, y and z directions respectively, show that they are self-
j k
reciprocal, i.e. i ' etc. and i.i ' 1 i '.i etc.
i jk
j k j k
Hint: i.i ' i. 1 since 1.
i jk i jk
b) For a reciprocal system of vectors a ', b ', c ' of a, b, c , show that
a '.b ' b '.c ' c '.a ' 0 b '.a ' c '.b ' a '.c ' and abc a ' b ' c '
bc ca
Hint: Take b c d so that a '.b ' .
bc b c .ca c a
bc 2 aa .b
2 0 as
2
abc bca abc abc
a .b 0
c) For a reciprocal system of vectors a ', b ', c ' of a, b, c , show that abc a ' b ' c ' 1 .
b c c a a b b c c a a b abc
2
1
Hint: a ' b ' c ' 3 3
abc bca cab abc
abc abc
Example10
Find vectors reciprocal to a, b , a b .
2
Ans. Denoting a b c , we have abc a b .c a b . a b a b and let the reciprocal
b c c a a b
system of vectors be denoted by a ', b ', c ' so that a ' , b ' , c ' .
abc abc abc
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 , PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 14: CO-ORDINATES AND VECTORS
Tehn we have a ' 2 ,
b a b
a b a
b' 2 ,
a b
c ' 2 as the set of vectors
a b
a b a b
reciprocal to a, b , a b
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
CHAPTER 19_ TIPS, TRICKS AND PROBLEMS ON VECTORS AND PHYSICS
§1: Observation
While doing Physics problems, it is often advised as under.
Draw a rough figure for the problem.
Choose one set of axes and one origin .
Select a single body and draw all the forces acting upon it ; make a vector figure and explore
what Geometrical facts may be derived from it to help in the problem.
The draw a vector figure to find the resultant or resolve all vectors into Cartesian components
to find the components of the resultant.
For example, there is one problem asking when two arrows , one shot from the top of a building
and the other shot from the ground should meet and at what height above the ground. Here we
1 2
chose one origin, the ground . If the formula s v0t at is applied crudely to both the arrows
2
simultaneously, one makes unwanted mistakes, mistake of choosing multiple origins and two y
–axes , once vertically upwards and once vertically downwards and creating confusion. If only
one set of axes and only one origin is chosen, there is no confusion, just we have to apply the
formulas in proper context.
For another example, there is problem asking what equal horizontal forces are necessary on
the two adjacent pipes when another pipe is loaded on them. See the figure.
Here the typical mistake made is not choosing only one body and the confusion enters. When
one body is chosen , and vector figure is drawn, the problem is easily solved.
In vector analytic methods as shown in the examples above, the idea of choosing one origin and
one set of axes is automatically followed. This is because of a fact we have proved in the earlier
chapter that linear relations among vectors, if any, is preserved if origin is changed and the new
axes are parallel to the old.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
Exercise1
B
C
P A
If the resultant of forces PA and PB on a body drawn from a variable point P pass through a
fixed point C, then show that the locus of P is the st line passing through C and midpoint of AB.
Ans : Take another point Q, apart from P such that the sum of the vectors QA and QB is the
vector QC. As the resultant of these two vectors pass through the fixed point C QBCA is also a
parallelogram. But QA must be parallel to BC and QB must be parallel to AC, as A, B and C are
fixed points. From similar triangles BPC and BQC , the point Q must be on the st line PC, i.e., it
itself must be a st line. Apart from a fixed point C, another fixed point is necessary to identify the
st line . This fixed point may be taken as the midpoint of AB, through which the diagonal QC
passes.
Exercise2
C
Q
P
A B
In the figure, if P is a variable point on BC of the triangle ABC, and if PQ AP PB PC
Then show that Q is a fixed point, ABQC forming a parallelogram.
Ans.: In the triangle ABC, and if PQ AP PB PC , then we have
AP PQ AP PB AP PC AB AC AQ . Then AB AC AQ shows that Q is a fixed
point, ABQC forming a parallelogram.
Exercise3
Laws of reflection and refraction in vectors :
Let n , a , b be unit vectors in the direction of normal to the surface of reflection or interface for
refraction, in the direction of incident ray and in the direction of the reflected / refracted ray as
the case may be.
n a n
a .n
i
r b a
a
i a .n
b
b
The law of reflection can be stated as a n b n stating that the three rays are coplanar and
sin i sin r i.e. i r , being the angles of incidence and reflection respectively.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
The law of refraction can be stated as a n b n stating that the three rays are coplanar
sin i
and sin i sin r i.e. refractive index of the 2nd medium wrt the 1st ,and i, r , being
sin r
the angles of incidence and refraction respectively.
a n b n shows that a b n 0 a b and n are parallel to each other.
From the figure between that for reflection and for refraction, b a 2 a .n n .
From the same figure show that a .n b .n .
From above, a b .n 0 , i.e., a b and n are normal to each other.
§2: Vector Differentiation and Components of Position vector, Velocity and Acceleration
Y Q
s
r
P
r+r
Y
r s /2+
y
T
r
X
O x R X
Fig 1:Resolution of radius vector into components
(Vectors are written in bold face type of letters or ordinary letters with arrow mark on the top.
Unit vectors whose magnitudes are unity are denoted by bold face letters or ordinary letters with
a cap.)
Position vector r of a moving mass point may be resolved into x and y components in Cartesian
coordinates as r cos and r sin respectively. We write
On differentiation, we get,
dr d x d y
v = or , v = vx + vy…………………………….(2)
dt dt dt
d x d y
where vx and vy as and respectively and velocity is vector differentiation of
dt dt
position vector.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
Eqn.(2) makes an important statement that the components of velocity in Cartesian
coordinates are time derivatives of the components of position vectors. This result
appears too obvious, but as we would see later, it may not hold in other system of
coordinates .
d2 r d v d2 x d2 y
a= 2 2 2 or , a = ax + ay…………………….(3)
dt dt dt dt
d vx d vy d2 x d2 y
where ax and ay as and respectively or and respectively and
dt dt dt 2 dt 2
acceleration is vector differentiation of velocity vector.
Show that
4)
d uv du dv
dt dt dt
d t u du d
5) u
dt dt dt
d r d r ds
6)
dt ds dt
7)
d u.v
du d v
.v u.
dt dt dt
8)
d u.u
du du
.u u.
du
2u.
dt dt dt dt
2
d d u du du d u
9) . 2 . 2
dt dt dt dt dt
10)
d uv
du d v
v u
dt dt dt
d dr da dr
11) If a is a constant vector,
dt
a r a
dt dt
r a
dt
0,
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
dr
12) Evenif r r 0, r 0 may be false, for it has nothing to do with
dt
d rr dr dr dr dr
r r r r 0,
dt dt dt dt dt
dr dr 2 dr dr
r , for r.r r r , so 2r. 2r
2
13) r.
dt dt dt dt
dr da dr
14) In view of the above, if r r a , a constant, 0 , so r. 0 which implies
dt dt dt
dr
r and are perpendicular to each other. For example motion in a circle.
dt
dr
r. 0
This is also true if ds if s is any other independent variable, e.g., arc length.
d dr dr dr dr dr dr dr
15) r r r 0.
dt dt dt dt dt dt , since dt dt
dr dr
16) In view of the above, if r 0 , then r , are in the same direction, for example
dt dt
dr
motion in a st line. This is also true if r 0 if s is any other independent variable.
ds
d r 1 d r r dr
17)
dt r r dt r 2 dt
d d p d q d r
18) pqr qr p r pq
dt
dt dt dt
d d p d q d r
19)
dt
pqr dt
qr p
dt
r pq
dt
Exercise20
A, B and C are three points on an expanding balloon with position vectors r1 , r2 , r3 are moving
with velocities v1 , v2 , v3 respectively. Show that the rate of expansion (increase) of the vector
1
area of the triangle ABC is r1 v2 v3 r2 v3 v1 r3 v1 v2 .
2
Exercise21
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
If a particle moves around the circumference of a circle with constant angular speed , i.e.
constant rate of turning of radius vector then r i cos t j sin t (uniform circular
motion) show that
d2r
a) 2
r , acceleration is centripetal, along the radius vector, towards the center.
dt 2
dr
b) r. 0 , so the velocity vector is perpendicular to the radius vector. ( Naturally, since it
dt
is a vector along the tangent to the circle)
dr dr
c) r
i j k , angular velocity vector is cross product r v r 2. Vector
dt dt
area swept by radius vector.
d) v r For motion in a circle of radius r
2 2 2
Coordinate systems moving at constant velocity to one another are called inertial frames of
reference. For example, a man sitting inside a railway carriage which moves in uniform
velocity, throws a ball vertically upwards. Due to inertia of motion the ball has also the same
horizontal velocity as that of the man or as that of the train and as a result, it returns into the
hand of the man. The man sees it straight going up and coming down, for the vertical motion is
controlled by force of gravity, it is independent of the horizontal motion. A man on the ground
sees the ball travel in a parabolic path and return to the hand of the man in the railway carriage,
as he could see both the horizontal and vertical motion of the ball, whereas the man in the
carriage cannot observe the horizontal velocity of the ball , there being no relative velocities
between them. However there is no change in acceleration due to gravity either on the ground
or inside the train; it is left as an exercise for the reader to show that. . The two frames of
reference , the ground and the train moving at constant velocity are called inertial frames of
reference and since the acceleration does not change in either of them it is said that The laws
of mechanics do not change if an inertial frame of reference is changed; it is called the
principle of equivalence. This was established from the days of Newton. Only Einstein
changed the existing world view by generalizing it as the laws of Physics do not change if an
inertial frame of reference is replaced by another, while propounding his Theory Of
Relativity. Do you think the ball would return to the thrower if the train accelerated or stopped ?
Why?
§4: Radial and tangential components of velocity and acceleration in polar coordinates:
Centripetal force
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
Remember that θ is the angle covered during the time interval t; for a circular path of radius r,
the arc travelled is θr, as per definition of radian measure of angle.
If we set out to represent an angle by a vector, then the length of this vector shall obviously
equal to the radian measure of the angle. As to the direction of this vector, we cannot take any
direction in the plane, for the moving point faces all directions in the plane while turning a full 2Л
radians. So, a direction perpendicular to the plane should be taken as the direction of angular
displacement vector, which also may be taken as the direction of the plane. Now, which
direction perpendicular to the plane we choose, is a matter of convention and we abide by the
convention of right hand rule, i.e., if you make a fist of your right hand with thumb pointing out,
then the curled fingers give the direction of the angle and the thumb gives the direction of the
vector. Similar consideration is done for direction of angular velocity vector. Similar
consideration is also done when we need area to be a vector quantity, as sometimes we do, as
would be evident later on. Then we take the measure of the area as the length of the area
vector and the direction of the perpendicular to the plane of the vector as the direction of the
area vector. The side of the plane is determined again with right hand rule; if the curled fingers
indicate the direction in which, the boundary of the area is described, the pointing thumb gives
the direction of the vector area.
dr dr d dr d
cos r sin i sin r cos j since i and j are constant vectors;
dt dt dt dt dt
dr dr
or, v cos r sin i sin r cos j ……………….(4)
dt dt
d r d
where velocity v and is angular speed (magnitude of angular velocity) .
dt dt
vy
dr d r
cos r sin and sin r cos respectively.
dt dt
But the process would involve long expressions and two new variables may be introduced to
further shortcut the process. Further why should we need resolutes of r in X and Y directions at
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
all? Rather we need the components of velocity and acceleration, one in the radial direction
and the other in the direction perpendicular to radius vector in the plane containing r and r or v.
d r
(Since v , r or v have the same direction) .
dt
Let r be a unit vector in the direction of the position vector r (see in the second figure to the
right above), and be a unit vector perpendicular to r in the direction of increasing .We have,
r = cos i + sin j and = - sin i + cos j ……………………….(5)
as the unit vector r makes an angle with the x – axis and the unit vector makes an angle
/2+ with the x – axis and both the unit vectors have obviously magnitudes unity. Mind it that r
and are unit vectors continuously changing in direction and are not constant vectors as such;
whereas i and j are constant vectors.
Differentiating the unit vectors with respect to time t, we have,(from (5) above)
dr d d d d d
sin i cos j and cos i sin j
dt dt dt dt dt dt
respectively
d d
or,
d r
dt
sin i cos j dt
dt
d
cos i sin j ddt r ddt respectively,
and
dt
d r d
or and r respectively…………………..……….(6)
dt dt
d
where , the magnitude of angular velocity of the moving particle around the point O, or
dt
the time rate of turning of .
dr
It is important to see here that is parallel to , i.e., perpendicular to r , i.e., in a direction
dt
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
d
tangent to the unit circle. Also is parallel to r , i.e., along the radius and towards the
dt
d2 r
d
center, and thus it is perpendicular to . Thus 2
is parallel to , i.e., parallel to r .
dt dt
A unit vector r describes a circle APQA’ changing in direction from point to point , at P let it be
r and at point Q let it be r + r making angles φ and θ + φ respectively with the x – axis , as
shown in the right side of the circle. The perpendicular unit vector also changes from point P
to + at the point Q, as shown in the extreme right. Magnitudes of be r and r + r and
and + all are equal to unity as they are unit vectors . the angle between and +
is same as the angle between r and r + r as the former pair are respectively perpendicular
to the latter pair. And for small θ, becomes perpendicular to both and + in the
direction from tip of to the tip of + and thus towards the center of the unit circle in the
direction of r in the limiting case. Thus the derivative is in the direction of r or
centripetal.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
.
Further, let us denote a time derivative of a variable just by putting a dot on the variable, like
.
d . d r .. d r
= , r = ,r = etc. With these notations, and observing that r = r r and = and
dt dt dt
d r d v d2 r
velocity v = and acceleration a = 2 , we proceed to differentiate r. Using (6)
dt dt dt
d r dr r dr d r .
v r r r r r ………………………………..(7)
dt dt dt dt
.
so that the radial and tangential components of velocity are r and r respectively. One may try
to differentiate r direct and arrive at long expressions ( at the stage of second derivation the
expressions are too long to manage or to simplify). Physics books go a step further to arrive at
(7) in simplified manner. They take an element of length r along r and an element of length r
in the direction perpendicular to r or in the direction of so that the components of velocity vr =
.
rd
r and v = or r respectively. (see figure 2) above. The reader should try to correlate the
dt
two approaches.
a= 2 r r r r r r r r r ,
dt dt dt dt dt
.. . . .
= r r r r r r r
2
or,
d v d 2 r ..
2 = r r 2 r 2 r r …(8)
. .
a=
dt dt
.. . .
hence the radial and transverse components of acceleration are r r and 2 r r
2
respectively, as we have taken the unit vectors one along the radius and the other along the
tangent.
These expressions for velocity and accelerations are quite general and applicable in all
cases of motion .
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
§5: For uniform circular motion,
We put a constant as angular velocity is constant, and r also a constant ‘a’, say, as the point
mass moves in a circle with constant speed, then eqn. (7) becomes
d r dr r dr d r
v r r r a …………………………………..(7a)
dt dt dt dt
d v d2 r
a= 2 = r 2 r a 2 r ………………………….………………….(8a)
dt dt
In the second figure of Fig. 2 above, if we assume the speed v or the magnitude of velocity
v v is constant we have and if r a , a constant, the body goes round a circle with constant
speed. The direction of the velocity and that of the radius vector a a always changes. Instead
of unit vectors r and r + r we take r and r + r where | r | = | r + r | = a , and instead of
unit velocity vectors and + we take the velocity vectors v and v v . Corresponding
to it , v and v v are velocity vectors at P and Q respectively along the tangent to the circle,
and v v v v . The direction is always tangent to the circle because , if at any point
the force breaks down, e.g. if the body is whirled around by a piece of string OP fixed at the
center and the string suddenly breaks, the body would fly away in a st line which is a small part
of the circle, i.e., in a direction tangent to the circle, because of inertia of motion and the
tangent is perpendicular to the radius at any point of the circle. Thus the angle θ between the
two position vectors r and r + r is same as the angle between the two velocity vectors v
and v v . Now arc PQ = aδθ, by radian measure of angle, and the corresponding arc
between the two velocity vectors v and v v is approximately the chord ST = vδθ the
magnitude of the difference between the two velocity vectors v and v v or PS and PT
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
being the vector from the head of th second vector to the head of the first. And evidently it is
towards the center, along r or centripetal. Now
a d
v v v v limt a a and |acceleration| =
t dt
dv lim v d
t 0 a a 2 ………..(9)
dt t dt
Its direction is negative of that of r and the direction of v a is that of
A force on a particle which acts always in a direction towards a fixed point is called a
central force. The origin of coordinates is generally taken as this point or centre. The tangential
components of acceleration is 0 as required. Examples of central forces are
6) Projectile motion when a body without moving power of its own has been shot into the
air and describes a parabolic path. Etc.
The purpose for treating central forces is, to include uniform acceleration, projectile
motion, uniform circular motion, planetary motion and simple harmonic motion
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
within the broad category of central forces, with a view to show that these are merely
special cases of central forces , and to relive the burden on the student to study the
topics separately. If the particle is always acted upon by a force directed towards a fixed
point O, the moment of the force about the point O is zero, since the perpendicular
from O on the line of action force is zero. If H is the moment of momentum of the
particle about O, i.e . r x mv , we have,
dH d d v
( r m v ) v m v r m 0 r F r F =0…..(10)
dt dt dt
since r sin is the perpendicular from O onto the line of action force, where is the
angle between r and F. Since v x mv is always 0, being cross product of a vector with
itself; we have r x mv or H is thus a constant vector. But H is also the angular
momentum of the particle about O. In analogy with linear motion where time rate of
change of momentum is called force, in case of rotational motion,
But the latter is the time rate of change of H. Hence H is the angular momentum. Thus
the angular momentum is same as moment of momentum. Now, if its time rate of
change is 0 as in (a) above, H is constant in this case, i.e., r x v is a constant vector as
m is constant. Also this constant vector is perpendicular to the plane of r and v. In other
words, the plane of r and v is fixed. When the plane of the position vector and velocity
vector of the particle lie on a fixed plane, the entire motion of the particle takes place in
this plane and as such, all motions under central forces are motions in a plane only.
This is a great advantage and simplification in solving differential equations (eqn 8;
adapted into different forms different for uniform circular motion, simple harmonic
motion, planetary motion, projectile motion etc.)to obtain equations of motion in case of
central forces. The reverse is not necessarily true. All motions of a particle in a fixed
plane, have the feature that angular momentum is 0 in all these cases.; but not all
of them are motions under central forces. The central forces include the motion in a
circle with constant speed (uniform circular motion), motion in orbits under force of
universal gravitation, and in fact, under any force which varies inversely as square of
distance , such as Coulombs forces in Electrostatics and Magneto statics . Of course,
SHM. where the particle is subjected to a restoring force towards the center proportional
to the displacement at any moment is also a central force.
Moment of any vector P is r x P. It may be observed that moment of velocity is 2 x areal
velocity, moment of force is torque, moment of momentum is angular momentum etc. refer to
appropriate definitions in this chapter.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
A further useful fact to note here is, that
dH d d d d r d 1 d r d dA
( r m v )m ( r v )m ( r )2m ( r ) 2m ( )
dt dt dt dt dt dt 2 dt dt dt
...(12)
1 d r d A d A
where r , or r v 2 , the rate of area swept by the radius vector and
2 dt dt dt
as such r x v is twice the area swept per unit time by the radius vector which is called areal
velocity. So the moment of velocity is the 2x areal velocity and momentum is twice the
mass times 2 x the areal velocity. Do not confuse with dot product or scalar product of
dr
r and .
dt
Now
d r r
dA 1 d r 1
1 dr d r 1 d r 1 d r
r r r r r r r2 r r2 r
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt dt 2 dt 2 dt ,
1 1 d
r 2 r r 2 r
2 2 dt
(adding r r 0 to it),
1 2
d d
i.e., A r2 r ………………………………………………………….(13)
dt dt
d
The areal velocity A is in the direction of product of r and , i.e. in the direction of r
dt
x .
d d
Now 2m A mr 2 r I r ……………….………………………..(14)
dt dt
The vector area and areal velocity mentioned above need a little explanation.
Though area is a scalar quantity, we sometimes need it to be a vector quantity. Take a
plane area bounded by a curve and the boundary curve assigned a direction, say
anticlockwise. Then we take a vector of magnitude equal to this area and perpendicular
to this plane upward in direction as the equivalent vector area. The convention is the
right hand rule or the cork screw rule if the boundary is taken in the direction of the curl
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
of the fingers of the right hand fist, the vector is in the direction of the thumb pointing out.
It is same as the direction in which the right handed screw advances when screwed.
Two vector areas can be vectorially added or subtracted. Apart from the need in
mechanics, vector areas are also used in electricity and magnetism, optics etc. Suppose
The Sun’s rays pass through a curved surface . if the rays are quantified by assigning
some unit to it, we need the effective area perpendicular to the rays, not the total area of
the surface to measure the effect of the rays. For this, we may take a small elementary
area anywhere on the surface, the dot product of its vector area with the vector quantity
representing the rays passing though it may be summed up or integrated over the entire
surface for measuring the product of the effective rays and areas of the total surface or
flux of the rays through the surface. It is interesting to note that the total flux through any
closed surface is zero if the area does not enclose any light source and it may easily be
proved geometrically that the total flux through a closed surface is the total lamination
emanated from all the sources of light enclosed inside. The total flux enclosing electric
charges , magnetic poles or masses equal total charges, poles or masses respectively in
appropriate units. This would be explained later.
d H d H d d A
Since 0 2m 0
dt for central forces as derived above and dt dt dt ,
d A
constant , i.e. equal areas are swept out by the radius vector at equal
we have, dt
times, which is Keppler’s 2nd law for planetary motion; we see here that it is true for
any central force.
§8: Motion of a rigid body reduces to a rotational motion, when one point is fixed.
This is a result similar to the fact we have earlier shown that motion under central
forces reduces to motion in a plane.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
A
F
E
B C
Consider there is a fixed point O in a rigid body ( not shown in the figure) and
construct a sphere of unit radius taking O as center. Join any point A’, B’ on the surface
of the rigid body to the fixed point to this fixed point O . Let the connectors shall cut the
surface of the unit sphere at A and B respectively . In this way, we get a unique point on the
surface of the sphere for any point on the surface of the rigid body and vice versa. Only
consider the points on the surface of the rigid body may be included in this consideration.
(once we have established the desired result for points on the surface of the rigid body and can
generalize for other points.) After a little while, let the points A and B move to positions C and D
respectively when the points A’ and B’ on the rigid body have moved to C’ and D’ respectively.
Two great circles on the unit sphere may be suitably chosen bisecting the arcs AB and CD
perpendicularly in turn and obviously the two great circles meet at some point P on the surface
of the unit sphere. Since the body is rigid there is no relative motion between any two parts, so
A’B’ = C’D’ i.e., AB = CD and since PE and PF are perpendicular bisectors of AB and CD, then
PA = PB and PC = PD. Again , since the body is rigid, so also the unit sphere, and the area
PAB is moved to the area PCD and the two areas are equal. Two isosceles spherical triangles
PAB and PCD have equal base arcs and equal areas, then the spherical triangle can be cut and
pasted on the spherical triangle PCD for that matter. Discover that the point P has not moved
while AB has moved to CD ! This implies the straight line OP has not moved so that the sphere
is rotating about the st line OP as axis, and the rigid body is rotating about OP as axis of rotation
for that matter. The result is not far from being visualised now. Once the surface of the rigid
body rotates , around a fixed axis, all other points do so, as they are rigidly connected to the
surface.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
In fact, planetary motion, Kepler’s laws, simple harmonic motion, projectile and other two
dimensional motions etc. are dealt under central forces and are particular cases of central
forces. The orbits of these motions are conic sections or sections of a cone like, parabola,
ellipse, circle, hyperbola etc. though study of conic sections is not strictly necessary for study of
these motions ( they can in fact be studied to some extent in elementary methods), we keep the
same pending until then, after some lessons on integration and differential equation is taught.
Rivers flowing north - south in northern hemisphere deviate in a direction opposite to the
direction of rotation of earth and vice versa in southern hemisphere. Similar deviation is marked
in atmospheric air flow rocket propulsion and projectile aviation. This is due to the fact that the
Earth is a rotating frame of reference, not an inertial frame. So Newton’s laws for inertial frame
of reference must be adapted accordingly. We take the simple case of a particle moving radially
outwards from the center of
y
j
b
b’
x
i
a rotating disk, If b be a unit vector in this direction the position vector r t r(t) of the particle is
given by
r t tbˆ.............................................(a)
let the disk rotate counterclockwise with angular speed 1 and be a unit vector rotating with
the disk. Since 1 , b̂ can be written as
where iˆ, ˆj , kˆ are unit vectors in x, y and z directions respectively. Differentiating (a) wrt time t,
d r d tbˆ
v ˆ
bt
d bˆ
bˆ tbˆ '.............................(c)
dt dt dt
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This section is not a part of the preview.
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
dr
Had b̂ been a constant vector, the velocity would have been b̂ itself, as v ; thus tbˆ ' is the
dt
additional velocity component due to rotation. Differentiating again,
a
d v d bˆ tbˆ '
ˆ
dbˆ d tb '
bˆ ' t
dbˆ ' ˆ
b' t
dbˆ '
2bˆ ' tbˆ 2bˆ '..................( d )
dt dt dt dt dt dt
dbˆ '
since tbˆ , centripetal acceleration since 1
dt
Now 2bˆ ' is the extraneous force per unit mass in tangential direction opposite to direction of
rotation. This is called Coriolis acceleration and the corresponding force accordingly and hence
the north south motion in northern hemisphere and vice versa in southern hemisphere ( since
the motion is clockwise from the bottom, i.e. 1 . The particle on the disk describes a spiral
as shown in the side figure. Since the tangential acceleration is the component of acceleration is
dr
perpendicular to the direction of r and also v is perpendicular to r , then
dt
v v
2bˆ ' tbˆ . bˆ tbˆ '
a tan a.
vv 2
bˆ tbˆ '
1
t
t 2
bˆ tbˆ ' since b̂ and bˆ ' are to each other.
bˆ tbˆ '
This is a pseudo force due to rotating frame of reference. It is not to be found in inertial frames
of references , which move at constant velocities to one another. Einstein’s general theory of
relativity reduces force of universal gravitation also to a pseudo force, due to curvature of space
– time continuum.
Exercises21
Find the pseudo force due to motion of a particle constrained in the following paths.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
a) r t b cos t iˆ b sin t ˆj c kˆ (helix) Ans. a tan 0 , a nor b cos t iˆ b sin t ˆj
(centripetal)
b) r t 3tiˆ 3tjˆ 2tkˆ Ans. 0
d 2 r t
c) r t cos t iˆ 2 sin t ˆj (ellipse) Ans. cos tiˆ 2sin tjˆ
dt 2
Find normal and tangential components.
Exercise22
As a simple case, suppose a body moving in the air parallel to the surface of the Earth in North
– South direction along a meridian. If the angular speed is along a meridian at the center of
the Earth the angle travelled being t with respect to the equator, The position vector is given
by
r t R cos t bˆ R sin t kˆ ...................................(a)
where t 0 for the northern hemisphere and vice versa for southern. And unit vector b̂ is
rotating with the Earth in the equatorial plane with , angular speed of the Earth, i.e.,
iˆ, ˆj being fixed unit vectors in the equatorial plane and k̂ perpendicular to both of them.
d r t
We have v R cos t bˆ ' R sin t bˆ R cos t kˆ ...................( c )
dt
dbˆ
where bˆ ' is a unit vector perpendicular to b̂ and sin t iˆ cos t iˆ bˆ '
dt
Differentiating again,
d v d 2 r t
a R cos t bˆ '' 2 R sin tbˆ ' 2 R cos t bˆ 2 R sin t kˆ..............( d )
dt dt 2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
The term R cos t bˆ '' is centripetal acceleration due to rotation of the earth, 2 R sin tbˆ ' is
Coriolis acceleration, and R cos t bˆ is centripetal acceleration due to motion of the
2
particle.
From (d),
d v d2 r t
a 2 R sin t bˆ ' 2 2 R cos t bˆ 2 R sin t kˆ............(e)
dt dt 2
d 2bˆ
for, 2
2 cos tiˆ 2 sin t iˆ 2bˆ .
dt
The velocity u1 of the point P wrt S1 may be viewed in another manner. If P’ is a point fixed in
S2 which coincided with P say at time t = 0, and then the frame of reference S2 moved away,
PP '
then u1 is the vector sum of the velocity u 2 of P wrt S2 ( i.e. )and the velocity of the of the
t
fixed point P’ wrt origin in S2 , which is nothing but angular velocity of the frame of reference S2
times (cross product) the radius vector p OP of P’ in S2 and of course the velocity v 0 of S2 wrt
S1 . In symbols,
u1 u 2 v 0 A p ................................(b)
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
Looking at the velocity of the point Q in similar manner, where the radius vector q OQ of Q’ in
S2 ,
v1 v 2 v 0 A q ................................(c)
From (b) and (c),
v1 u1 v 2 u 2 v 0 v 0 A q p
i.e. v1 u1 v 2 u 2 A r................................(d )
as r q p
d r d r
Applying (a) in (d) , it becomes A r................................(e)
dt 1 dt 2
This is the rule which governs any vector differences with respect to the frames of reference S1
and S2 .
Now, let a1 and a2 be accelerations of the point Q wrt the frames S1 and S2 . Putting p 0 we
have r q p q and (c) becomes
v1 v 2 v0 A q or v1 v0 v 2 A r....................( f )
Note that we interchanged the terms to keep consistency with (e) and (d) as a generalization.
d v dv d
Now from (f), a1 v 2 A r ............................( g )
1 0
dt 1 dt 1 dt 1
Since (e) is the rule for differentiation of any vector is frames S1 and S2 , applying the same rule
to (g)
d v d d v d
a1 0 v 2 A r 0 v 2 A r A v 2 A r ..............(h)
dt 1 dt 1 dt 1 dt 2
d v0
If a 0 ,the acceleration of O, then from (h), we may write,
dt 1
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
d v 2 d A d r
a1 a 0 r A A v 2 A A r.............(i )
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2
d A d A d A dA dA
But A A 0 , say, ( applying (e) to ), and let
dt 1 dt 2 dt 2 dt dt 1
d v2 dr
a 2 and v 2 then (i) can be written as
dt 2 dt
2
d A
a1 a 0 a 2 r 2 A v 2 A A r.............( j )
dt
The 4th term is Coriolis acceleration , 2nd and 3rd terms are acceleration of Q in S2 (linear
acceleration and acceleration due to angular velocity) and the 5th term is the acceleration due to
(constant rotation A of a rigid body about O) if all other accelerations are absent.
In formulation of special theory of relativity, there was a classic experiment by Michelson and
Morley to measure absolute motion of earth wrt to some stationery medium, ether, then it was
called and was believed to be medium of transportation of electromagnetic waves. The
experiment was a confirmed failure , giving rise to new era of modern science and formulation of
special theory of relativity by Einstein. There were volumes of controversies on the theory of
ether and after the experiment, the concept of ether was discarded. The fundamental units of
measurement , the units of length, mass and time which were assumed to be independent
variables, had to be redefined to accommodate for constancy of velocity of light in empty space,
i.e., it independence from the velocity of its source; a result of the Michelson and Morley
experiment. This is evidence of the most vivid glory of failure, its grandeur and galore. Speed ,
rather than the other three fundamental variables of physical equations was believed to
influence them in the following manner.
1 v.r c
r ' r 2 v.r t v, t ' t 2 ,
v c c2 v2
Where c is speed of light in empty space, and the asterisks denote a change in inertial
coordinate system from r , t to r ', t ' moving at constant velocity v relative to it.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3, Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 19Tips, Tricks, and Problems on Vectors, Physics
1 v.r ' c
r r ' 2 v.r ' t ' v, t t ' 2 ,
v c c v2
2
Which shows that the formula remain same for transforming coordinate systems back again to
the original system as expected, as all motions are learnt to be relative .
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
a
R
r Q
O
Equation of a st line through A || to
As we have discussed in earlier chapter, vectors do oversimplify things. You would like to see derivation of
equation to a st line and planes are almost axiomatic. To find the equation of a st line, suppose a st line
passes through a given point A (with position vector a a1 , a2 , a3 , being the coordinates of the point) and
li m j nk (in terms of its direction cosines). Any point R on the st
it is in the direction of unit vector
line would be given by its position vector OR r x, y, z which would be r a AR and AR as the
last two vectors are in the same direction, where is any variable real number ( length of the vector AR ) .
So the equation of the st line is
r = a +λα...................................................(a)
Note : when we write some letter in bold, either it may be a vector or it is just to emphasize , depends
upon context. When writing vectors in bold, no arrow mark is needed over it.
The equation of a st line is got with almost no effort. And this is the equation in two and three dimensions .
This is just translating a plain statement into the language of vectors. To find the equations in two and three
dimensions as read in traditional coordinate geometry, call it Cartesian form, for convenience, we just
separate the coordinates and we are done. See below: Putting a x1 , y1 , z1
x, y, z x1 , y1 , z1 l , m, n x1 l , x2 m, x3 n
or, x x1 l , y y1 m, z z1 n
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
or, ....................................(b )
l m n
This is the same equation as above read in traditional analytical solid geometry, only this is in bold just to
highlight the formula and no vectors are there. Remember that is the vector AR , is the length AR
(distance between x, y , z and x1 , y1 , z1 ) and l , m, n are its projections on the axes respectively.
© Page 1
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Note that the direction cosines may be replaced by direction ratio’s since they are proportional to them
so this equation is not affected as λ is any real number. But if l, m, n are not direction cosines, , is not the
length AR (distance between x, y , z and x1 , y1 , z1 )
Note that a st line is completely determined by any two parameters, such as , a point on it and a
direction, two points on it, passing through a point and perpendicular to a given line , etc.
§2: Intersecting st lines
x -1 y - 2 z - 3
Let this be explained with an example. To show that the st line meets the st line
2 3 4
x - 4 y -1
z .This is easy to test. Take any point on the first st line as x 1 2 , y 2 3 , z 3 4 .
5 2
If some point on this is also a point on the second line, then x 4 5 , y 1 2 , z . If so, then
4 5 1 2 , 1 2 2 3 , 3 4 ; or, 4 5 3 4 1 2 , 1 2 3 4 2 3 ,
Solving the equations, 1 . So the two st lines intersect at x 1 2 , y 2 3 , z 3 4 ,
1 , i.e. at the point 1, 1, 1 .
If the equations are inconsistent the st lines do not meet and are called skew lines.
Exercise1
x -1 y 1 z -1 x-3 y
Given that the lines and z intersect, find the value of .
2 3 4 1 2
9
Ans.
2
Exercise2
Show that the points 3, 2, 4 , 5, 4, 6 , 9,8, 10 are collinear . Find the ratio in which the point 5, 4, 6
divides the line joining the other two.
Ans. ½ .
Exercise3
Find the st line passing through 3, 4, 2 parallel to the vector 9, 6,2
x 3 y 4 z 2
Ans. ( Distinguish clearly between position vector 3, 4, 2 and free vector 9, 6,2 .
9 6 2
Do the problem again in 3D coordinate geometry without vectors as derived below.
x x1 y y1 y y1 m
§3: In two dimensions, it may be written as or M , slope of the st line. Do
l m x x1 l
not confuse m with M, we are using the symbol m in connection with direction cosine, and M in connection
with slope whereas m is the standard symbol for slope in the traditional books of coordinate or analytical
geometry. We reiterate the traditional methods below not just only to show the vector methods are so easier
vis – a – vis traditional methods, but to get a different view and also to have substantial help in problems.
x x1 y y1 x - x1 y - y1
In a better way, can be written as r.........( b )
l m cos sin
putting a x1 , y1 , z1
.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Y
P L
A
N
L’
X
O M
Look at the accompanying figure A x1 , y1 is a fixed point on the st line LL’ and P x, y is any point on it . If
length of AP = r and θ is the angle it makes with the x – axis , we put x1 , y1 for ax , ay . Naturally the
direction cosine with Y – axis m cos 90 sin then x x 1 r c o s , y y 1 r s in and the
0
above equation follows. The formula gives us a further useful information x x1 r cos
and y y1 r sin ; coordinates of any point on the st line can be stated in terms of the angle and
distance from a fixed point.
Results for two dimensions deduced from three dimensional considerations are consistent with those results
derived independently for two dimensions as given hereafter.
§4: St line through a given point parallel to a given direction in vector form:
S
T
R
e
A
Suppose R with position vector r is any point of a st line passing through a particular point A with position
vector a and parallel to a given vector e . The origin may be chosen anywhere. For any point R on the line
passing through A and parallel to e the vector r – a is parallel to e so that their cross product is 0. Then
the equation to the st line is
r -
a e 0....................................................(d )
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
= te........................(d ) r - a
r - a and e
( also as are parallel to each other)
Which is equivalent to saying that e is in the direction of r – a , i.e., r – a is a numerical (scalar) multiple of e.
or, r – a e , which we have already derived in the previous article. You can mark here how easy these
derivations are and just separating the coordinates gives the corresponding formula in three or two
dimensions.
There is no need of a figure as such we have made below.
§5: Length of perpendicular and foot of it on this line from an outside point P
But the figure is to illustrate another point or another aspect in the equation. Cross products are called upon
generally we have two vectors are perpendicular or one has a perpendicular component on the other. ( else
the cross product is 0). So this form of equation to a st line may be called to be in perpendicular form.
To find the length of perpendicular ST from a point S from outside of this st line, we note that it is
numerically equal to the perpendicular component of the vector AS s a . So we have,
p s a e ................................................................(e )
since the perpendicular component is magnitude of its cross product with a unit vector.
The position vector n foot of the perpendicular N is given by
a AT a e. s - a ...............................................( f )
since the parallel component is magnitude of its dot product with a unit vector.
Aliter
P
Aa
B
L a b
If the st line AB is given by the equation r a b , this is the point for some value of . We have
PL a b and a unit vector in the direction is b . Perpendicularity condition gives
a .b
a b .b 0 a .b b.b 0 2 so that the position vector of the point L is given
b
a .b
by a
a .b
a .b
2 b, i.e., a 2 b 2 b
b b b
.The length of the perpendicular is
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Aliter
P , ,
A x1 , y1 , z1 L
B
x x1 y y1 z z1
Let the st line through A be a b c .If PL is perpendicular from P , , ,then the
coordinates of L may be taken as x1 a , y1 b , z1 c so that the direction ratios of PL is
as it is on AB,
given by x1 a , y1 b , z1 c . Since the PL and AB are perpendicular to each other,
x1 a y1 b z1 c
x1 a a y1 b b z1 c c 0 .The foot of the
a 2 b2 c 2
perpendicular would be given by putting this value of in x1 a , y1 b , z1 c and the length of the
perpendicular would be given by distance between the points P and L. As an exercise, show that it is given
b x1 a y1 c y1 b z1 a z1 c x1
2 2 2
by PL
2
a 2 b2 c 2
2 2 2
x1 y1 y1 z1 z1 a x1
a b b c c a
Or , PL
2
a b c
2 2 2
Though the formula is not convenient or useful to remember, the process can be remembered and the
process is very useful in numerical problems to find out foot of the perpendicular or length of the
perpendicular.
T
R
e
A
Let the coordinates of S be S , , and that of A be A x1 , y1 , z1 and direction cosines of the line AT be
x x1 y x2 z x3
l , m, n whose equation is .
l m n
© Page 5
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
We have p 2 ST 2 AS 2 - AT 2 x1 - y1 - z1 - - l x1 - m y1 - n z1 -
2 2 2 2
So from angle only we can not determine whether the lines intersect or are skew. If solution exists, then they
intersect otherwise they are skew.
§8: Vector Equation of straight line between two given points in 2-D and 3-D:
A
R
B
a r
b
To find the equation of a st line between two given points A and B with position vectors a and b respectively
as an example, take the position vector of any point on the st line R with position vector r ( with respect to
whatever origin O chosen), we observe , AR r a and the vector AB b a
are in the same direction wherever R may be on the st line, and they must be scalar multiples of each other.
So we have the vector equation of the st line AB as
r a b a for some real number , i.e., r a b a
Or , equivalently, r a b a r a 1 b r a b where 1 , where is any
real number.
1
Do not confuse same r in both cases. They are different equations just as x+3y =4 and 2x-y =3.
© Page 6
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
A standard technique to translate the vector results into coordinate geometry, especially in the area of st
lines and planes is just separating the rectangular components.
As an example, putting a x1 , y1 , z1 , b x2 , y2 , z2 rewrite r a b a in terms of its components as
x, y, z x1 , y1 , z1 x2 , y2 , z2 x1 , y1 , z1
or, x, y, z x1 x2 x1 , y1 y2 y1 , z1 z2 z1
or, x x1 x2 x1 , y y1 y2 y1 , z z1 z2 z1
x - x1 y - y1 z - z1
or, .................................................( a )
x2 - x1 y2 - y1 z2 - z1
Y P(z) B(z2)
A(z1)
O X
A ' z1
P' z
B ' z2
AP A ' P ' z - z1 z - z1
also AB A ' B ' z2 - z1 z2 - z1
© Page 7
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
which may be taken as the equation of the st line devoid of parameter. In other words
z z1 z2 z z1 z2 z1 z2 z2 z1 0
.
z z 1
Equivalently, the st line between A z1 and B z2 z1 z1 1 0
may be taken as
z2 z2 1
which is got on simplification of the above.
A(x1,y1,z1) L B(x2,y2,z2)
If R , , be any given point with position vector r , , and AB a given line between the points
A x1 , y1 , z1 and B x2 , y2 , z2 with position vectors a x1 , y1 , z1 and b x2 , y2 , z2 respectively, we
have to find RL, the length of perpendicular from R on AB; we have
AR r a x1 i y1 j z1 k ,and
b a
AB b a x2 x1 i y2 y1 j z2 z1 k .A unit vector in the direction of AB is and the
b a
r . a
b a b a a b
component of AR in this direction is r a . b a . So
b a b a 2
b a
r
a .
b a
RL r a b a ...........................() .
2
b a
An alternative approach .
Find the perpendicular distance from a point R on a st line PQ.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
P S Q
1
qr r p pq
Hint : The vector area of the triangle PQR is 2 which is ½ base . height .The base of the
qr r p pq
triangle is q p . So height is , as the vector PQ q p .
q p
§10: In Cartesian form
R( , , )
A(x1,y1,z1) L B(x2,y2,z2)
AL l x1 m y1 n z1 and as
RL2 AR 2 AL2 x1 y1 z1 l x1 m y1 n z1
2 2 2 2
And this can be calculated in numerical problems.
Exercise4
Find the equation of the st line through the points 2, 3, 1 and 8, 1, 2
x 2 y 3 z 1
Ans. .
6 2 3
Exercise5
x 1 y 2 z 3
Find the point on the line 1, 2,3
2 3 6 which is at a distance 3 units from the point .
1, 2,3
Ans. It is observed that the point is on the st line itself (each member 0 putting the values).
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
1 lr, 2 mr,3 nr r 3 . But l , m, n must be the direction
Let the desired point be on the line where
cosines of the line, . The direction cosines must be
6 6 2 3
2 3
l , m, n , , , ,
6 2 3
2
6 2 32 2
6 2 3 7 7 7
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 5 39 13 23 3
Putting th values the point is , , , or , , , .
7 7 7 7 7 7
§11: The Straight Line in two Dimensions; Linear function in one independent variable
(Without vectors):
A function f(x) is called linear function if it is of one degree in x, such as y = Mx + C or f(x) = Mx + C.
P(x, y)
Q
R
X’ X
S O T
Straight line : slope and intercept form
Y’
The angle made by any st line with the positive direction of the X – axis is called its slope angle
PR
generally denoted by the symbol and tan is called its slope or gradient and denoted by the
OR
symbol M in this book . Verify that this slope is a constant for any st line, for, you may choose two points P
and Q anywhere on the st line e.g., at Q and S and by similar triangles PQR and QSO slope is observed to
be a constant for the st line. In fact a st line may be fixed if the slope is given and a point on it is given. If q is
the given point with coordinates (0, C) i.e., OQ = C, called intercept on Y – axis or Y intercept. If a straight
line has slope M and its intercept on the Y-axis is C, we can find its equation. Let P(x, y) be any point on it,
draw the abscissa OT and the ordinate PT and draw perpendicular QR on the ordinate PT from the point of
intersection Q of the straight line with the Y-axis. We have, y = PR + RT =(PR/QR) x QR + QC = (PT/ST) x
OT + OQ = Mx + C . Thus the equation of the straight line is y Mx C or f x Mx C. To find the
intercept on the X=axis, put y = 0 in the equation , so that 0 = Mx + C which gives, x = - C/M
Alternatively,
sin cos 90
0
tan m
Since Slope of the st line is cos
cos , and
cos 900
is its direction cosine with
y – axis and cos is its direction cosine with x – axis, an unit vector in the direction of the st line may be
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
x 0 yc
taken as
cos ,cos 90 0
. A point on the st line is (0, c) and its equation is cos cos 900
,
which simplifies to y x tan c .
Conversely,
A function of the type y = Mx +C or f(x) = Mx + C , equation of first degree in one variable is called a
linear function as its graph is a straight line as shown below.
It can be verified that the intercept of the graph on the Y-axis is C ( Put x = 0 in the equation, which gives f(0)
= C, so that (0,C) is a point on the graph, the point Q on the graph; see fig. 2.12a). m is the tangent of the
angle the straight line makes with the X-axis ,say, or tan . (For any point P(x, y) on the graph, drop a
perpendicular QR on the ordinate PT ; angle PQR = angle PST where the line intersects the X-axis at S, so
tan =PR/QC = (PT- RT)/OT = (f(x) – C)/x = M, which is a given constant no matter whatever point (x, y) we
may choose).
It immediately follows that two straight lines y = Mx + C and y = Nx + D, (lines L1M1 and L2M2 in fig.
2.12.d) , are parallel to each other if their slopes are equal, i.e. , if tan 1 = m and tan 2 = n, then
M = N is the condition that the st. lines are parallel.
If the two straight lines are perpendicular to each other, ,(lines L2M2 and L3M3 in fig. 2.10.d) , 1 - 3 =
1 cot 1 cot 3
/2 , so, cot (1 - 3) = cot /2 =0 = 0 ,or
cot 1 cot 3
1 + cot1cot3 = 0 , or cot1cot3 = - 1 , or tan 1tan 3 = - 1 or
M1 M2= -1, which is the condition for the two st. lines to be perpendicular.
P(z)
P(z)
Q(z0)
α
O X O X
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
ax iay ibx by ax ibx iay by 2c 0 a ib x iy a ib x iy 2c 0
Az Az C 0 where a ib A, x iy z, C 2c
So the general equation of a st line in complex numbers can be written as Az Az C 0
Exercise10
Find the equation of a st line cutting off intercept 2 from the y axis and making an angle 1200 with the x-axis.
Ans. y x tan120 2 y 3x 2
0
Exercise11
Find a unit vector in the direction of the st line y 3x 2 .
2
Hint. Take any two points on it, e.g. 0, 2 and , 0 on it, by assigning arbitrary values to x and finding
3
2 2
y from the equation. The vector joining the points shall be 0,0 2 , 2 . Find it modulus
3 3
2
2 4 2 4
2
2
and divide the vector , 2 by the modulus to get a unit vector
3 3 3 3
2 4 4 1 3
/ , 2 / 2 , 2 . You may verify whether it is a unit vector or not, by finding out its modulus.
3 3 3
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
By the previous result, the coordinates of P are h r cos , k r sin . This also satisfies Ax By C 0 .
A h r cos B k r sin C 0
So, Ah Bk C
AP r ................................................( c )
A cos B sin
B) sinψ and cosψ
y2 y1
Slope of a st line AB whose coordinates are x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 is tan
whereas the distance AB
x2 x1
y -y x -x
x2 x1 y2 y1
2 2
between them is d . So sin 2 1 ,cos 2 1
d d
Exercise12
2
Find the st line which passes through (1, 2) and meets the st line x y 4 at a distance . Hint. Find
3
x - x1 y - y1
the slope angle from the above formula, and then use
cos sin
Exercise13
A st line passes through the point 3,1, 4 and is parallel to the vector 6, 2,3 . Find the length of the
perpendicular upon it let fall from the point 4, 2,3 . Ans. 6.058
§15:
Exercise14
Join the two points 8, 6, 8 and 2,3, 4 and drop a perpendicular on this st line from 1, 2, 6 . Find the
length of the perpendicular, foot of the perpendicular and its equation.
Let A be the point 8, 6, 8 and B be the point 2,3, 4 so that
AB b a 2,3, 4 8,6, 8 6, 3,4 . A unit vector in the direction of AB would be
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
6, 3, 4 6, 3, 4 . If P be the point
e 1, 2, 6 , then
6 3 4 2 61
2 2
4 26, 48,3
p a e 1, 2, 6 8, 6, 8 6
61
,
3
,
61 61 61
Ah Bk C Ah Bk C
with this value, we get the length of the perpendicular AP r
A cos B sin A2 B 2
Ax By C 0 just replace (x, y) with (h, k)
Remember – to find the length of perpendicular from (h, k) on
Ax By C
in its normal form , of course taking the absolute value. ( for normal form see below, that is
A2 B 2
simpler and easier to understand).
In the same line of deduction perpendicular from (h, k) on x cos y sin p 0 is h cos k sin p
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Actually Az Az B 0 a ib x iy a ib x iy B 0 2ax 2by B 0 which has
2ah 2bk B A A B
perpendicular from (h, k) as .
4a 2 4b 2 2A
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
y Mx C and My x D are two perpendicular st lines.
Exercise 16 remember
Find the equation of a st line passing through (h, k) and perpendicular to yk 2a x h
Ans. 2a y k k x h 0
§20: Equation of a st line whose intercepts with axes are given :intercepts form:
We can find the graph of the straight line if its intercepts on X-axis is given to be a and that on the Y-axis is
given to be b. (see fig. above) . For any point on the line P, draw its abscissa OQ and ordinate PQ. The
triangles TSO and TPQ are similar and as such, their sides are proportional. OS / PQ = OT / QT
b / y a / a x which gives
x/a + y/b = 1 ,
which is in a symmetrical form.
By manipulating this equation , we get y 0 – bx / a b so that slope M b / a and y – intercept C
= b.
P
R
X
O Q T
Equation of st line in intercepts form
If the st.line is in y = Mx +C form , its intercept with x-axis is given by putting y = 0 , which gives x =
x y
0 – C/M . Intercept with y-axis is C. It can be verified that 1 is the same equation as x/a + y/b = 1,
C C
M
thus there is nothing special in one particular form or other and we can change the equation to the form we
like. Thus we can compare the forms and get the intercepts if the slope is given or get the slope if intercepts
are given.
A A C
The equation Ax By C 0 has the slope as it can be written in the form y x and has
B B B
C C
intercepts and on the on X – axis and on Y – axis respectively as the equation can be rewritten as
A B
x y
1 and the intercepts may be found by putting y = 0 and x = 0 respectively.
C C
A B
The equation could otherwise been derived by equating the area of the triangle OST with the sum of the
areas of ∆OSP and ∆OPT ; i.e., ½ OT.OS = ½ OS.RP + ½ OT.PQ . Since RP = OQ = x, and PQ = y, also
OT = a and OS = b, we have
1 1 1 x y
ab ay bx 1
2 2 2 a b
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Alternatively,
The st line passes through two points S(0, b) and T(a, 0) and if P(x, y) be any point on it, the equation is
x a y 0 x y
given by as x1 , y1 a ,0 , x2 , y2 0, b , which gives 1.
0a b 0 a b
Alternatively,
x y x y
Position vector p xi y j OT OS a b .
OT OS a b
x
But p a t b a a 1 t tb for some t. Comparing the coefficients, 1 a,
a
y
b
a . So for any
x y
point 1
a b
Example17
Find the equation of a st line passing through the point (3, -4) and cutting off equal and opposite intercepts
from both the axes .
x y 3 4
Let the st line be 1 as the intercepts are equal. As it passes through (3, 4) then 1 a 7
a a a a
, which gives the equation of the st line x y 7 .
Exercise18
The intercept of a st line between the axes is divided in the ratio 1:2 at the point (-5,4). Find its equation.
Hint. Let the intercepts on axes be a and b respectively. Find the coordinates of the point which divides the
segment between (a, 0) and (0, b) in the ratio 1:2.
Ans. 5 y 8 x 60 .
Exercise19
x y
Derive the equation 1 from the fact that sum of the areas of the triangle POT and the triangle POS is
a b
the area of the triangle SOT.
§21: Equation of a straight line if perpendicular on it from origin is given: Normal Form
Y
M
R
p P
X
O Q L
Equation of st line in perpendicular form
Let the straight line be ML as in fig. .above, where perpendicular drawn onto it, OR = p, and the
angle made my the perpendicular with the X-axis be = angle ROL. Let P(x, y) be any point on it, draw its
abscissa OQ and its ordinate PQ.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Now the x – intercept OL of the st line ML is (OL / p) . p = p sec α, and its y – intercept OM is p sec (900 – α)=
x y
p cosec α. Hence the equation is 1 x cos y sin p
p sec p cos ec
Note that = - /2 as angle MLX = angle ROL + angle ORL.
Equation in this form immediately yields the following useful results, although the results may be derived
otherwise.
Aliter
p sec 0 1
x y 1 0
L p sec ,0 , P x, y , M 0, p cos ec 0 p cos ec 1
The points are collinear. So
which simplifies into the formula x cos y sin p .
Misc. Exercises
Find the equation of the st line in the following conditions.
3
20) X intercept – 3 and slope angle tan 1 Ans. 3 x 5 y 15
5
21) Slope angle 300 and y – intercept – 2 . Ans. x y 3 2 3
22) Intercepts – 5 and 6 from the x and y axes respectively. 5 y 6 30
23) Equally inclined to the axes and y – intercept - 5 . Ans. x y 5
24) Passes through (h, k) and the intercepted portion between the axes is bisected there.
Ans. xk yh 2hk
25) Passes through (g, h) and the intercepted portion between the axes is divided in the ratio k:1 there.
x y
Hint. Let the st line be 1 . The point which divides the segment (a, 0) and (0, b) in the ratio
a b
1 a k 0 1 0 k b a bk
k:1 is , , . Then a nd b can be found from the condition that
k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1
a bk
this is the point (g, h). So g, h a g k 1 , b h 1 1/ k .
k 1 k 1
26) The st line bisects the distance between st line joining a, b , A, B and also the line joining
a, b , A, B . Ans. 2ay 2 Bx ab AB
27) The st line passes through the origin and divides the portion of 3 x y 12 between the axes in the
ratio 1:2 or 2:1. Ans. y 6 x or 2 y 3 x
28) The st line passes through (4, - 5) and parallel to 3 x 4 y 5 0 .Ans. 3 x 4 y 8 0
1 1
29) Find the angle of the line with x – axis, which is having slope . Ans. tan 300
3 3
30) Show that the line joining the points 7, 1 , 0,3 is parallel to the line joining the points
5,1 , 2,3
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
35
31) Find the value of k if the slope of the line joining k ,3 , 2,5 is 2. Ans. 2 k 1.
k 2
d c
32) Find the slope of the line joining a, b , c, d . Ans. .
a b
33) Test if the points a, b , s 1 a, s 1 b , t 1 a, t 1 b are collinear.
Ans.
s 1 b b b t 1 b b ; the slopes of the lines joining 1st, 2nd and 1st, 3rd are
s 1 a a a t 1 a a
equal. So they are parallel st lines meeting at a, b , i.e., coincident st lines.
34) Find , for which 1, 2 , , 2 2 , 4 , 6 2 are collinear. Ans. 1 (equate two
slopes).
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
parallel to it, and the length of the perpendicular from the point (h, k) onto Ax + By + C = 0 would be the
distance between the two lines.
Since the line Ax + By + D = 0 passes through (h, k), Ah + Bk + D = 0 and subtracting this from the
former gives, A(x – h) + B(y – k) = 0, or, Ax + By – Ah – Bk = 0. The distance between this line and Ax + By +
C = 0 is given by difference of perpendiculars from origin onto them, which is obtained by just converting the
C ( Ah Bk ) Ah Bk C
equations to perpendicular forms. p p1 p2
A B
2 2
A B
2 2
A2 B 2
Aliter
Let the perpendicular from P(h, k) meet the st line Ax + By + C = 0 at M at a distance r from P. If PM makes
an angle with x – axis, the coordinates of the point M are h r cos , k r sin and since this is a point on
Ah Bk C
the st line, A h r cos B k r sin C 0 PM r p.
A cos B sin
B A
Now, the slope of PM is tan since it is perpendicular to the given st line whose slope is . So
A B
B A
sin , cos .
A B2
2
A2 B 2
Ah Bk C Ah Bk C Ah Bk C
Now p . Of course the positive value, i.e.
A cos B sin A
A
B
A A2
B 2
A2 B 2 A2 B 2
the absolute value should be taken.
Corollary
Example34
x y
Find the slope of 1
a b
x y b b
Ans. By transforming it to slope and intercept form 1 y x b , so that the slope is .
a b a a
Example35
Find the intercepts of y Mx C on the axes.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Ans. You can put y = 0 for getting intercept on x – axis and x = 0 to get intercept on y – axis. In other
words find solution of the pair of equations y Mx C and x = 0, or the pair y Mx C and y = 0.
By merely transforming the equation to intercepts form would also solve the problem.
Mx y x y
y Mx C Mx y C 1 1
C C C C
M
C
So the intercepts are and C respectively. The earlier method is certainly easier.
M
Example36
Find the length of perpendicular from the origin onto y Mx C .
Ans. Transforming the equation to x cos y sin p , or pedal form,. we have,
M 1 C
Mx y C x y we see that absolute values of
1 M 2
1 M 2
1 M 2
M 1
and are certainly less than 1, and sum of their squares is 1, so they can be taken as
1 M 2 1 M 2
C
cos and sin respectively and hence p
1 M 2
Note that , since p must be positive always, it is OK if C is negative. Otherwise make C negative by
writing y Mx C as y Mx C .
C
Similarly length of perpendicular in Ax By C 0 is p and must be positive always.
A2 B 2
Example37
Find the intercepts of x cos y sin p on the axes.
x y p p
Ans. Transforming it into intercepts form, 1 so the intercepts are and
p p cos sin
cos sin
respectively.
Example38
x y
Find the length of perpendicular from the origin onto 1.
a b
Ans. Instead of transforming it into x cos y sin p form, just transfer it into
x y
form, Ax By C 0 linear equation of 1st degree in two dimensions, i.e. 1 bx ay ab 0 .Now,
a b
C ab
with the formula p from above, we have p .
A B
2 2
b a2
2
Note still it must be seen that ab is negative if the problem is numerical. Otherwise the equation must be
written as bx ay ab 0
C
To avoid confusion, take p always.
A2 B 2
© Page 21
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Exercise39 remember
Y
P
B
-
C
A R
Q
O X
oblique coordinates
In the figure, AB is a st line cutting oblique coordinates with angle ω at C(0, c). If the angle it makes with the
x – axis is α, Show that its equation is given by y nx c where
sin sin PR y c
n . Hint. From law of sines, . mark the difference from
sin sin CR x
rectangular coordinates.
Exercise40 remember
In the above oblique coordinates, show that the equation of a st line passing through x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 is given
y y2 y1 y2
by , in the same form as in rectangular case.
x x2 x1 x2
Exercise41 remember
x y
Show that the equation of the st line in intercept form 1 would still be valid in oblique coordinates, i.e. if
a b
angle between the axes in not a right angle.
Hint. Derive the equation in oblique coordinates from use of similar triangles.
A point (h, k) may lie on the same side of line Ax + By + C = 0 in which the origin lies or shall lie on
the opposite side. A line drawn through (h, k) parallel to
Ax + By + C = 0 is given by Ax + By – Ah – Bk = 0 . if the length of perpendicular from origin onto this line is
less than that onto Ax + By + C = 0, the origin and (h, k) lie on the same side of Ax + By + C = 0 , otherwise
they lie in opposite sides of it.
Ah Bk C
So, if < or Ah + Bk < C or Ah + Bk + C < 0, the point (h, k) lies on the same side of
A B
2 2
A 2 B2
the st.line in which the origin lies. Similarly , if Ah + Bk + C > 0 the origin and (h, k) lie in opposite sides of
Ax + By + C = 0. It is trivial to observe that if
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Ah + Bk + C = 0, (h, k) lie on the st.line. All the points represented by(h, k)such that Ah + Bk + C > 0 lie on
one side of the st.line and all the points represented by (s, t) such that As + Bt + C < 0 lie on the opposite
side.
y – k = M(x – h)
on subtraction. (Putting x = h in the above yields y = k; so the straight line passes through (h, k) for whatever
real value M might have. We can also choose M to satisfy some other given condition for the straight line
along with the condition that it passes through (h, k). Note that out of the two parameters m and c of the
straight lines, one parameter is eliminated. A line in the form Ax + By + C = 0 or in any other form has two
parameters only even if it seems having three parameters. Actually these three parameters are not
independent since we can divide the equation throughout by one of them.
If the straight line passes through another point (f, g) also then,
g-k
g – k = M( f – h) which eliminates the second parameter or gives the value of M , or, M , so that the
f -h
equation becomes,
gk y-k g-k
yk ( x h ) .or,
f h x-h f -h
x y
We could also have taken the equation of st line 1 .As (h, k) is a point on it, so
a b
h k x-h y-k
1 0 is any st line passing through any point (h, k). Here there are not two
a b a b
parameters a and b to be determined to completely specify the equation, only a/b would suffice as we could
multiply the equation throughout by a.
f -h g -k
If the st line passes though another point (f, g) then 0 . Taking a /b from the last equation and
a b
x-h y-k y-k g-k
putting the value in 0 also gives the equation as before.
a b x-h f -h
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Note :We could also have taken the equation of st line x cos y sin p . As (h, k) is a point on it, so
h cos k sin p x - h cos y - k sin 0
May be taken as the equation passing though (h, k). Then α may be found if the st line is made to pass
though another point or made to satisfy another condition .
Note :If a family of st lines Ax By C 0 pass through a fixed point a , b , then Aa Bb C 0 . By
subtraction, Ax By Aa Bb .This equation passes through a , b whatever real number A and B may
be.
For example, 2cos 3sin x 3cos 5sin y 2cos 3sin
2 1 3cos 5sin
2 1 is
a family of st lines passing through 2 1, 2 1 . In other words , if
2cos 3sin x 3cos 5sin y is assumed to be a family of st lines passing through a point,
then 2cos 3sin 2 1 3cos 5sin 2 1 2 1 5cos 2sin .
Exercise42
If the family of st lines 2cos 3sin x 3cos 5sin y 5cos 2sin pass through a fixed point, find
it.
Ans. By simplification, 2 x 3 y 5 cos 3 x 5 y 2 sin 0 . Since this is true for any value of , by
putting cos 0 we get, 3 x 5 y 2 0 and by putting sin 0 we get 2 x 3 y 5 0 . By solving these two
equations, we get, x, y 1,1 . This is the fixed point ( verify).
Exercise43
Show that the family of st lines 2cos 3sin x 3cos 5sin y 5cos 2sin pass through a fixed
point, x, y 1,1 .
Ans. The equation can be rewritten as
2cos 3sin x 3cos 5sin y 2cos 3sin .1 3cos 5sin .1 .
By comparing it with Ax By Aa Bb so we find a 1, b 1 .
Exercise44 Remember
x y 1
A x1 , y1 , B x2 , y2 y1 1 0 .
Show that the equation of a st line joining two points is x1
x2 y2 1
Exercise45 Remember
Show that the equation of a st line joining two points A cos , sin , B cos , sin is
x cos y sin a cos .
2 2 2
a sin a sin
Hint : simplify y a sin x x cos also remember in this form.
a cos a cos
Exercise46 Remember
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Find the st line joining the mid point of line joining the points A cos , sin , B cos , sin to the origin and
show that the two lines are perpendicular to each other.
Ans. The line joining A cos , sin , B cos , sin is x cos
y sin a cos and its slope is
2 2 2
cos sin
2 . So the slope of a line perpendicular to it is 2 and the eqn of st line passing through the
sin cos
2 2
sin
origin and perpendicular to the given line is y 2 x x sin y cos 0 . Now find out the
2 2
cos
2
cos cos sin sin
intersection of the two lines and show it to be , . Hence the line from the origin is
2 2
perpendicular bisector of the line joining A and B.
x y 1 BR QC RA CP
,..OR,...x , AND..y
BR QC RA CP AQ BP AQ BP AQ BP
Earlier the lines are shown to be parallel when AQ – BP =0 . But then both x and y both and as such,
parallel lines are said to be meeting at .
Exercise47
Find the equation of the st line through the following points
a) 0, a , b, 0 Ans. ax by ab
b) at , 2at , as , 2st
2 2
Ans. s t y 2 x 2ast
c) a cos , a sin , a cos , a sin
Ans. x cos y sin a cos
2 2 2 remember
d) a , b , a b, a b Ans. a 2b x by a 2 2ab b 2
Exercise48
Find the equation of the st line if it is diagonal of the rectangle formed by x a, x A, y b, y B
Ans. y A a x B b Ab aB ,and x B b y A a AB ab
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Exercise49
Find the equation of the sides of the triangle whose vertices are
a) 0,1 , 0, 2 , 1, 2 Ans. x 2 y 2, y 3 x 1 , 2 x 3 y 4
b) 1, 2 , 1, 4 , 2, 3 Ans. y 3 x 1, x 2 y 2, 2 x 3 y 4
Exercise50 REMEMBER
Find the eqn of st line which is passing though (h, k) and parallel to ax by c 0.
Hint. A st line parallel to ax by c 0. may be taken as ax by d 0. as the slopes are to be
equal. If this passes through (h, k) then ah bk d 0. Subtracting the two, a x - h b y - k 0. is the
equation so note that it is not necessary to find out d. In fact d is eliminated in the process.
Exercise51 REMEMBER
Find the eqn of st line which is passing though (h, k) and perpendicular to ax by c 0.
Hint. A st line perpendicular to ax by c 0. may be taken as bx - ay d 0. as the slopes are to be
negative reciprocals of each other. If this passes through (h, k) then bh ak d 0. Subtracting the two,
b x - h a y - k is the equation so note that it is not necessary to find out d.
Exercise52 REMEMBER
Find the equation of a st line passing through (h, k) and making an angle α with the st line
ax by c 0.
Hint. Let Ax By C 0 be the equation. If it passes through (h, k) then Ah Bk C 0 .
Subtracting the two we have A x h B y k 0 The angle between this and the original st line
A a
A
should be α. So tan B b From which could be found out; we need not find A and B separately.
Aa B
1
Bb
A a
A a a A a b tan
In fact tan B b 1 tan tan
1
Aa B b b B b a tan
Bb
y k a b tan yk xh
So 0 0
x h b a tan a cos b sin b cos a sin
Exercise53
Find the perpendicular bisector of the st line passing through (a, b) and (c, d).
bd ac bd
Hint. The st line must have slope as negative reciprocal of and shall pass through , .
ac 2 2
Exercise54
Find the st line perpendicular to x sec y cos ec a and passing through a cos , a sin .
2 2
Ans. x cos y sin a cos 2 .
Exercise55
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Find the pair of st lines at right angles to each other and such that the st line x y 2 makes equal angles
with each of them. Find the area of the triangle formed by them.
Hint. The st lines make 450 angle each with x y 2 . Ans. x = 3, y = 4. Area 4.5
Exercise56
xx ' yy '
The following st lines xx ' yy ' a 2 , 1 and x ' y xy ' a 2 are tangents to a circle x 2 y 2 2a 2 ,the
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
ellipse 2
2 1and hyperbola xy a 2 at the point (x’, y’) on the curve. Find the normals to the curves
a b
(perpendicular to the tangents) at the point.
Ans.
xy ' yx ' 0 , a 2 xy ' b2 x ' y a 2 b2 x ' y ' , and xx ' yy ' x '2 y '2 respectively.
Exercise57
Find the equation of st line joining a cos , a sin and a cos , a sin and the length of the perpendicular
from the origin upon it.
Ans. or , x cos y sin a cos a cos
2 2 2 2
The perpendicular from the origin is a cos since it is already in the form x cos y sin p .
2
Exercise58
In the above problem show that the perpendicular from the origin on the st line joining
a cos , a sin and
a cos , a sin bisects the segment between them.
Hint. The perpendicular from the origin makes an angle 2 and has the equation
y tan x x sin y cos 0
2 2 2 .
x cos y sin a cos
Find its intersection with 2 2 2 and show that it is
cos cos sin sin
a ,a
2 2 .
Exercise59
x y a 2 ab b 2
Find the length of perpendicular from b, a onto the st line 1. Ans. .
a b a2 b2
Exercise60
Find the equation of st line passing through (1, 2) and perpendicular to x 3 y 4 0 .Then find the length
of perpendicular from the origin onto that line.
Hint. Take the line as 3 x y k 0 . Pass it through (1, 2) to find k and then find its distance from origin.
Ans. 1
2 2 3 .
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Exercise61 remember
Show that the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
Ans. Let the coordinates of vertices of the triangle ABC be A x1 , y1 , B x2 , y2 , C x3 , y3 .The st line AD
1 x x
passes through A and is perpendicular to BC. So its slope must be slope of BC y y and it equation
3 2
3 2
x3 x2
must be y y1 x x1 x x2 x3 y y2 y3 x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 0 .
y3 y2
Similarly the equations of the other two altitudes are, x x3 x1 y y3 y1 x2 x3 x1 y2 y3 y1 0
and x x1 x2 y y1 y2 x3 x1 x2 y3 y1 y2 0 .Adding up the three equations so got we get the
identity 0 =0. Thus the third equation is not linearly independent of the other two, and as such, the st line
representing it passes through the intersection of the other two.
Exercise62 remember
Find the perpendicular bisector of the line segment between (a, b) and (c, d).
bd
Hint. The st line through the points is y d x c . We have to find a st line passing through
ac
ac bd ac
, , and having slope ;
2 2 bd
bd ac ac
so it is y x 2 a c x 2 b d y a b c d .
2 2 2 2
2 bd 2
Exercise63 remember
Show that the perpendicular bisectors of sides of any triangle are concurrent.
1 x x
Ans. The perpendicular bisector of BC must have slope 3 2 , and, as it passes through
slope of BC y3 y2
x2 x3 y2 y3 y2 y3 x x x x
midpoint of BC , its equation must be y 3 2 x 2 3 , which may be
2 2 2 y3 y2 2
simplified as y y2 y2 y3 y y3 y2 y3 x x2 x2 x3 x x3 x2 x3 0 . And two similar
expressions for other two perpendicular bisectors. Adding up the equations makes the result an identity 0 =
0, so the third equation is not independent of the other two, hence passes through their intersection.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
P(x1, y1) B
Q(x2,y2)
A
Exercise64 remember
Find the foot of the perpendicular from the point P 2,3 on the st line 2 x 3 y 9 0 and its image about the
line.
Hint.
b3
M a, b
If be the foot of the perpendicular in the figure, and M is a point on the line the slope of PM is a 2
2 3 a 2 b3
which would be negative reciprocal of slope of the line , 3 , i.e. 2 . So 2 3 Also since M is a point
on AB, 2a 3b 9 0 . From the three equations,
a 2 b 3 2 a 2 3 b 3 2a 3b 5 9 5 4
2 3 2.2 3.3 5 5 5 using 2a 3b 9 0 .
18 3
So, a , b . Now x2 a a x1 and y2 b b y1 as M is midpoint, x2 , y2 may be found out.
5 5
Y
x=α Y
y=-x
y=x
T(2α -a, b) P(a, b) P(a, b)
S( - a, b)
y=β
R(a,2β - b) U(b, a)
X O X
O
V( -b, -a)
Q(a,- b)
Exercise65 remember
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Show that the image of a point P a , b about x – axis is Q a , b ; about y – axis is S a , b ; about a line
y is R a ,2 b and about a line x is T 2 a , b . Show that the image of P a , b about st line
y = x is U b, a and image about y = - x is V b, a .
Hint : Let us show that the image of P a , b about st line y = x is U b, a
.
Supposing Q h, k P a, b
is image of about y = x. Then slope of PQ is negative reciprocal of that of y = x
k b ha k b
1
and the midpoint of PQ lies on y = x. These two facts give, h a and 2 2 .So we get,
h b, k a . Likewise prove the others.
Note 2:Suppose a point a, b undergoes a reflection about x – axis , so it becomes a , b when it again
goes through another reflection about y – axis , it becomes . So a reflection about both the
a , b
coordinate axes amounts to a reflection about the origin.
Note 3:Similar statements can be made for curves also; i.e., any equation such as y 3 xy x 2 etc.
Exercise66 remember
Show that reflection of a st line Ax By C 0 about x – axis is Ax By C 0 .
Ans. If P ' x1 ', y1 ' is image of P x1 , y1 about x – axis, then x1 ' x1 , y1 ' y1
. Now, if
P x1 , y1
satisfies
Ax By C 0 , x1 ' x1 , y1 ' y1
would satisfy
Ax By C 0
Exercise67 remember
Show that reflection of a st line Ax By C 0 about y – axis is Ax By C 0 .
Exercise68 remember
Show that reflection of a st line Ax By C 0 about x – axis is Ax By C 0 .
Exercise69 remember
Show that reflection of a st line Ax By C 0 about the line y = x is Bx Ay C 0 .
y1 k x1 h
line y x tan . So 2 2 tan . Solving the two equations we get,
h x1 cos2 y1 sin 2 , k x1 sin2 y1 cos2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Exercise71 remember
Find out the image of the point 1 1 about the st line Ax By C 0
P x , y
Ans. The foot of the perpendicular M a , b from the point P x1 , y1 on the st line Ax By C 0 is given by
Ax1 By1 C Ax1 By1 C
a x1 A , b y1 B
A2 B 2 A2 B 2 and the length of the perpendicular is given by
Ax1 By1 C
A2 B 2 . If the image of P x1 , y1 about the line Ax By C 0 be P ' x1 ', y1 ' , then, M is the
x1 x1 ' Ax By C y1 y1 ' Ax By C
midpoint of PP’. So, x1 A 1 2 1 2 , y1 B 1 2 1 2 .
2 A B 2 A B
Ax By C Ax By C
Or, x1 ' x1 2 A 1 2 1 2 , y1 ' y1 2 B 1 2 1 2
A B A B
x ' x1 y1 ' y1 Ax By C
Then 1 2 1 2 1 2
A B A B
Note1: This can be remembered as a formula for finding images.
Note2: It is now evident that a reflection is a coordinate transformation of some kind. For, instead of the
point moving to its image, one could imagine the coordinate axes are transformed suitably. This is evident
from the last equations where the new coordinates (of image) i.e. P ' x1 ', y1 ' are functions of the old
coordinate of the point under consideration P x1 , y1
.
Exercise72
P x1 , y1 x y 2.
Find the image of the point about the line
x1 ' 1 y1 ' 1 1.1 1.1 2
2 x1 ' 2 1, y1 ' 2 1
Ans. 1 1 12 12
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Exercise74 remember
If a linear relationship exists among a, b, c, show that ax by c 0 passes though a fixed point.
l m
a b c 0
Ans. Let al bm cn 0 . We can write it as n n . This equation shows that whatever may
l m
,
be a, b, c, the equation ax b y c 0 always passes through the point n n .
§33: Parallel st. lines may be actually shown to be meeting on the line at .
If Ax + By + C = 0 and Ax + By + C’ = 0 are two parallel straight lines, the second can be written as
C'-C
Ax By C (0.x 0.y C) 0
C
which shows that the line Ax + By + C’ = 0 passes through the intersection of
Ax + By + C = 0 and the line at . But line Ax + By + C’ = 0 passes through
Ax + By + C = 0 only at as they are parallel. So the two lines meet on the line at .
Instead of taking m(Ax + By + C) + n(Px + Qy + R) = 0, for arbitrary m and n, we can divide by m throughout and put n/m = with no loss of
generality.
Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0 is not true identically. Had it been so, we would have, A + P = 0, B + Q =
0, and C + R = 0, which gives A/P = B/Q = C/R , rendering the two straight lines coincident. But we have taken two
different st. lines in general and hence this is a contradiction.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Let three st. lines be
Ax + By + C = 0………………………………………………(a)
Px + Qy + R = 0………………………………………………(b)
Lx + My + N = 0………………………………………………(c)
Alternatively,
Let straight lines passing through common point of both (a) and (b) be
Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0 for any value of . One of these lines shall be parallel to (c) , for some
value of , say , i.e.,
Lx + My + N = 0 is parallel to Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) = 0;
If these two lines completely coincide, then (a), (b) and (c) shall be concurrent. Thus the required condition
shall be ,
A λP B λQ C λR
, which μ, say.
L M N
By a result in ratio and proportions,
Ax By C λ(Px Qy R )
μ , for whatever values of x and y.
Lx My N
or, Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) +(Lx + My + N) = 0 for all x and y….(d)
Hence we conclude that, if two numbers and can be found such that
Ax + By + C + (Px + Qy + R) +(Lx + My + N) = 0 for all x and y for some and , the st. lines (a),
(b) and (c) shall be concurrent.
Alternatively,
If two numbers and can be found such that
Example8
The sum of perpendiculars upon a st line from a number of points is 0. Show that the st line passes though a
fixed point.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
First let us take only two points to see what the question means really. Let the st line be x cos y sin p
and perpendiculars p1 , p2 on it from (a, b) and from (h, k) respectively are a cos b sin p and
h cos k sin p . If their sum is 0, we have a h cos b k sin 2 p 0 . Eliminating p, we have
2 x cos 2 y sin 2 p a h cos b k sin
2 x a h cos 2 y b k sin 0
. Evidently,
ah bk
The st line always passes through ,
2 2 .
Ax By C 0 xi , yi i 1, 2,3....n
Now take the general case. Let the st line be and , be n points and the
sum of the perpendiculars from them is 0 i.e.,
Ax1 By1 C Ax2 By2 C Axn Byn C n
Axi Byi C
A2 B 2
A2 B 2
...................
A2 B 2
0 0
i.e. i 1 A2 B 2 .
n
Ax Byi C
n Ax By C A2 B 2 i 0
Thus we may have i 1 A 2
B 2
, i.e.
n
n
n
B n
A nx xi B ny yi 0 nx xi ny yi 0
i 1 i 1 i 1 A i 1 . Thus it is a st line passing through
n n
n n i yi
x
nx xi 0 ny yi 0 i 1 , i 1
intersection of st lines i 1 and i 1 , i.e. it passes through the fixed point n n .
Example9
A variable triangle with a right angle and the sum of the reciprocals of the sides containing it is a constant.
Show that it passes through a fixed point.
Let the sides containing the right angle be a and b respectively . Taking these as coordinate axes, the other
x y 1 1 1
side would have the equation 1 and as per the question , a constant. Eliminating b, we
a b a b c
x y yc
have 0 . This st line passes through the intersection of x y and y c , which is a fixed point
a c
c, c
Example10
In the triangle ABC AB AC l , A is a right angle, and the sides AB and AC are produced upto E and F
AB CF
respectively such that . Show that the st line EF always passes thought a fixed point, at a distant l
BE AC
from both AB and AC.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Take the st lines AB and AC as the x axis and the y-axis respectively . If AE h and AF k , the equation to
x y AB CF
EF shall be 1 . Now BE h l , CF k l . The condition translates into
h k BE AC
l k l
l 2 hk l h k l 2
h l l
l l x y
hk l h k 0 1 ; i.e., the point l , l always satisfies 1 ( of course with constraints
h k h k
x y
on ha and k). Thus the st line 1 always passes through l , l .
h k
x y
Note : The above two examples also hold in oblique coordinates and the equation 1 does not change
h k
in oblique coordinates.
Y
B R
A quadrilateral has, as we know, two diagonals;
P a diagonal is joining two points of intersection
of adjacent sides. The intersection of opposite
sides when joined may also be called a
diagonal and such a quadrilateral with three
X
diagonals is called a complete quadrilateral.
O Q A (see the section after circle chapter)
Example11
In the above figure, a variable st line AB, passing through a fixed point, cuts two fixed st lines OX and OR at
A and B respectively. If AP and BQ are perpendiculars from A onto OR and from B onto OX respectively,
show that PQ also passes through a fixed point.
Take OX as x –axis, and equation of OR as y mx . The variable points A and B may be taken as a , 0 and
b, bm respectively where OQ b . If the fixed point in AB be C h, k , since A, B and C are on the same st
k 0 k bm
line , AC and CB have the same slope so that
ha hb
i.e., b mh k ak abm 0 . …………………………………(a)
Since AP passes through a , 0 and is perpendicular to y mx , its equation is
x my a …………………………………………….(b)
a am
Solving it with y mx , we get the coordinates of P as P , 2
. The coordinates of Q is obviously
1 m 1 m
2
Q 0, b .
Now the equation of PQ is
© Page 35
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
am
0
y 0 1 m x b b y ym2 a mx y abm 0 ………………………(c)
2
a
b
1 m2
a
2
Subtracting (a) from this, b y ym mh k a mx y k 0 y ym mh k
2
b
mx y k 0 .So
it always passes through the intersection of y 1 m mh k 0 , and mx y k 0 , i.e., a fixed point.
2
Exercise75 remember
a a a
Find the area of the triangle formed by y m1 x , y m2 x and y m3 x .
m1 m2 m3
Hint. The coordinate of the vertices are got by solving the equations in pairs, i.e.
a a a a a a a a a
, , , , , . The area of the triangle is
m1m2 m1 m2 m2 m3 m2 m3 m3m1 m3 m1
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
1
2 which can be
m1m2 m2 m3 m3 m1 m2 m3 m3 m1 m1 m2 m3m1 m1 m2 m2 m3
a2 1 1 1 1 1 1
simplified into .
2 m1 m2 m2 m3 m3 m1
Exercise76 remember
Find the area of the triangle if the sides are y m1 x c1 , y m2 x c2 , y m3 x c3 .
c1 c2 2 c2 c3 2 c3 c1 2
Ans. 1
2
m1 m2 m2 m3 m3 m1
Exercise77 remember
Find the area of the triangle if the sides are a1 x b1 y c1 0 , a2 x b2 y c2 0 and a3 x b3 y c3 0 .
Hint. The equations may be solved in pairs, to get the vertices x1 , y1 , x2 , y2 , x3 , y3 given by
b1 b2 c1 c2
c1 c2 a1 a2
x1 , y1 ,
a1 a2 a1 a2
etc. in cyclic order.
b1 b2 b1 b2
2
a1 b1 c1
2 a2 b2 c2
1
x1 y1 1
a3 b3 c3
The area is 1
x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
a1b2 a2b1 a2b3 a3b2 a3b1 a1b3
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Proof:
x1 iy1 x1 iy1 1 x1 x1 iy1 1 iy1 x1 iy1 1
1
4 x2 iy2 x2 iy2 1 1
4 x2 x2 iy2 1 14 iy2 x2 iy2 1
x3 iy2 x3 iy2 1 x3 x3 iy2 1 iy2 x3 iy2 1
x1 x1 1 x1 iy1 1 iy1 iy1 1 iy1 x1 1
1
4 x2 x2 1 x2 1
4 iy2 1 iy2 1
4 iy2 1 iy2 1
4 x2 1
x3 x3 1 x3 iy2 1 iy2 iy2 1 iy2 x3 1
x1 iy1 1 iy1 x1 1 x1 y1 1 y1 x1 1
0 x2 1
4 iy2 1 0 iy2 1
4 x2 1 i
4 x2 y2 1 i
4 y2 x2 1
x3 iy2 1 iy2 x3 1 x3 y2 1 y2 x3 1
x1 y1 1 x1 y1 1
i
2
x2 y2 1 2 x2
1
y2 1
x3 y2 1 x3 y2 1
Exercise78 remember
Find the area of the triangle if the sides are x cos y sin p , x cos y sin q and
x cos y sin r .
p sin q sin p sin
2
1
2
Ans.
sin sin sin
Note that the result is always positive since .
Example12 remember
Find the area of the parallelogram formed by a1 x b1 y c1 0 , a1 x b1 y d1 0 ( parallel sides) ,
a2 x b2 y c2 0 , a2 x b2 y d 2 0 ( parallel sides).
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
A D
C
B P
d 2 c2 d c
p2 p1 1 1
a2 b2
2 2
a12 b12
Note: For a rhombus, , so the area is
d c d1 c1
2 2
p12 a12 b12 a2 2 b2 2 a2 2 b2 2
12 1 2
sin a1 b1 a1b2 a2b1 a1b2 a2b1 a12 b12
Exercise79
Find the equation to a st line perpendicular to 6 x 7 y 8 0 which also passes through the intersection of
3x 4 y 5 and x 1.5 y 2 0 .
Hint. Take 7 x 6 y k 0 as the equation . Pass this st line through the intersection point of the two given
st lines found by solving them. Ans. 119 x 102 y 125
Exercise80
Solve the equations to find the intersection of the pairs of st lines.
x y x y 1 1
a) 1 and 1 Ans. 1 1 , 1 1
a b b a ab ab
b) x cos y sin p and x cos y sin p
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
cos 2 sin
2
Ans. a
,a
cos cos
2 2
a a a a a
c) y mx , y nx Ans. ,
m n mn m n
Exercise81
x y
Find the locus of the midpoint of the portion of the st line 1 intercepted between the axes if the st line
a b
passes through a fixed point.
h k
If the st line passes through a fixed point h, k , then 1 . the st line intercepts the axes at a , 0 and
a b
a b
0,b respectively and the midpoint is , . If the midpoint is denoted by X , Y then X , Y .
a b
2 2 2 2
h k
Eliminating a, b we have 1 which is the locus of the midpoint.
2 X 2Y
Exercise82
A variable point B on the X – axis is joined to a fixed point A on the X – axis . Find the locus of the vertex of
equilateral triangle standing on the segment AB on the opposite side of the origin.
Y
P(x, y)
A
600
O B Q X
Let OA a .and P x, y be the vertex of the equilateral triangle, ABO . Then PBQ 1200 . Now
x OB BQ AB cos BP cos 1200 AB cos cos 1200
a cos ec cos cos120 0 cos sin1200 sin a cot 12 a cot a 2
3
12 a cot a 2
3
Similarly
y PQ PB sin 120 0 AB sin120 0 cos cos1200 sin
a cos ec 2
3
cos 12 sin
a
2
3 cot 1
Exercise83
A st line drawn through a fixed point A cuts two parallel st lines at points P and Q from which two st lines are
drawn in given directions to meet at a point R. Show that R describes a st line.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Hint. Let A be the origin and the parallel st lines be x a and x b and let the moving point R be
x, y . Since A, P Q are in a line, inclined to x – axis at an angle α, say, the coordinates of P and Q are
respectively a, a tan and b, b tan respectively. The equations of PR and QR would be
y a tan x a tan , y b tan x b tan , where ψ and φ are slopes of PR and QR respectively.
Eliminating tan betwe In the cube shown find the perpendicular GH from a corner G on the diagonal OE if
all its sides are of length a.
Hint: the vector equation of AE is r i j k since all sides are equal.
The coordinates of G are 0,0, a ak where a is each side of the cube. If a unit vector in the direction of GH
is p , then the projection of OG ak on OE is dot product of ak and a unit vector along OE i.e.,
i j k i j k i j k a 2 2 a
2
2
.It is .ak . Now GH OG OH a 2 a .
3
2
111 3 3 3 3
Exercise84
A st line cuts the four diagonal of a unit cube at angles , , , respectively. Show that
4
cos2 cos2 cos2 cos2 .
3
1 1 1
Hint: it is easily seen that the direction cosines of OE are , , . Those of AD d a j k i are
3 3 3
1 1 1
1 , 1 , 1 and those of CF f c i k j is
, , .Those of BG g b k i j is
3 3 3 3 3 3
1 1 1
, , .
3 3 3
If l , m, n are direction cosines of the transversal, making angles , , , respectively with the diagonals
OE , AD , BG and CF respectively, then
cos li m j nk .
3
i
1 1
3
j
1 l mn
3 k 3
;or
1
cos2 ;
3
as li m j nk and
1 1
3
i
3
j
1
are unit vectors in their directions respectively.
3 k
Similarly others.
l m n l m n l m n l m n
2 2 2 2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Exercise85 remember
x y z x y z
Two st lines have equations , and .Find the equation of a st line which is
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2
perpendicular to both of these lines and passes through x1 , y1 , z1 .
x x1 y y1 z z1
Hint. : the line may be taken as . Since this is perpendicular to both the st lines as
l m n
above, ll1 mm1 nn1 0, and ll2 mm2 nn2 0 . So that on cross multiplication,
l m n
. The direction ratios are m1n2 n1m2 , n1l2 l1n2 , l1m2 l2 m1 .Since the st
m1n2 n1m2 n1l2 l1n2 l1m2 l2 m1
x x1 y y1 z z1
line passes though x1 , y1 , z1 , its equation may be written as .
m1n2 n1m2 n1l2 l1n2 l1m2 l2 m1
§35: Vector formulation of any st line passing through intersection of two st lines
(In their plane)
Take two st lines r1 a t b and r2 a s c .Evidently both pass through a fixed point a so that they intersect
at the point whose position vector is a, i.e., where r1 1 r2 a . Any vector passing through a and in the
direction of the vector d shall be r a d (remember)
But this formula shall not be of much use if d does not lie in the plane of b and c. If d lies in the plane of b
and c, then it must be a linear combination of them, i.e., d M b N c , for some scalars M and N and this
resolution is unique. So we can take any other st line passing through the intersection point a must be of the
M N
form r a m b n c if it lies in the plane of b and c, where . We can treat m and n as arbitrary
m n
as λ is arbitrary.
A
L(p, )
P(r, )
p
X
O
B
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
1 1
Alternatively, p r cos - cos cos sin sin a cos b sin
r p
cos sin 1
a b . a 2 b2 2
where p p p . remember the form for problems.
Exercise86
Find the polar equation of the st line Ax By C 0
A B C C A
Rewrite The equation as x y where p , cos and
A2 B 2 A2 B 2 A2 B 2 A2 B 2 A2 B 2
B cos A sin B
sin .Now take a b
A B
2 2 p C and p C , so that the equation becomes
1 1 A B
a cos b sin cos sin
r , i.e., r C C , which could have also got by putting
x r cos , y r sin
direct.
Exercise87
A st line cuts n fixed st lines concurrent at O and R is a point on a variable st line cutting these st lines at
1 1 1 n
R1 , R2 ............Rn such that .......... . Show that the st line always passes through a
OR1 OR2 ORn OR
fixed point.
1
Take the equations of the lines be ai cos bi sin , i 1, 2....n so that we have
ri
n n 1 n n
ai cos bi sin for the equation of the line cutting them at R1 , R2 ............Rn . But this is
r i 1 ri i 1 i 1
n
n
a fixed st line n ai r cos bi r sin Ax By , a fixed st line.
i 1 i 1
Exercise88
A st line cuts n fixed st lines concurrent at O at R1 , R2 ............Rn . A point R on this st line is such that
1 1 1 n
.......... . Show that the point R moves in a st line.
OR1 OR2 ORn OR
If OR1 r1 , OR2 r2 ............ORn rn and OR r making angles 1 , 2 ........ n and with the initial line, then
1 1 1
.......... k i.e.,
r1 r2 rn
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
n n
a cos 1 b sin 1 a cos 2 b sin 2 .......... a cos n b sin n k a cos i b sin i Now, a fixed point
i 1 i 1
n n
n n
Exercise89
A st line through the origin intersects two intersecting fixed st lines at R and S. Find the locus of a point on
this st line whose radius vector is arithmetic mean of that of R and S.
1
ai cos bi sin , i 1, 2 a x bi y ci , i 1, 2
Hint. Take the two fixed st lines r i.e. i
i
c1 c2
Ans. A st line 2r
a1 cos b1 sin a2 cos b2 sin
Exercise90
A st line through the origin intersects two intersecting fixed st lines at R and S. Find the locus of a point on
this st line whose radius vector is geometric mean of that of R and S.
1
ai cos bi sin , i 1, 2 a x bi y ci , i 1, 2
Hint. Take the two fixed st lines r i.e. i
i
c1 c2
Ans. A st line, r 2 r1r2 .
a1 cos b1 sin a2 cos b2 sin
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
A B
st lines in the family pass through the point h, k , then evidently C h C k 1 0 and this shows that the
A B
parameters C , C are not independent, but are related to or dependent on each other via h, k .
Exercise91
A family of st lines represented by a 4b x 4a b y 5 a b passes through a fixed point. Find the
point.
Ans. : The family of st lines can be written as a x 4 y 5 b 4 x y 5 0 . But this is a family of st lines
passing through the intersection of x 4 y 5 0, 4 x y 5 0 , i.e. 1,1
B’
Q e M B
r q ............................................( )
e f
Similarly the equation of the bisector of the external angle AQB’ has the equation
e f
r q ............................................( )
e f
Prove it as an exercise by drawing st lines from P’ parallel to QA and QB’ and completing the parallelogram
whose diagonal through Q is the vector difference.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Suppose the lines LL1 and MM1 have an angle LOM = 2 between them when they intersect each other at
O and let a line PP1 passing through O bisect the angle, so that its angle with LL1 is LOP = and the angle
MM1 makes with it, i.e., POM = also. Both the angles we have taken in anticlockwise sense. We mean
that we have to write MOP = - if we write POM = . Further, let a line QQ1 bisect the angle
MOL1 = 2. We have 2 + 2 = LOM + MOL1 = 2 so that + = POM + MOQ = /2. The line QQ1
is called external bisector of the angle between LL1 and MM1, bisecting the external angle between them and
is thus seen to be perpendicular to the internal bisector.
Y Q
L1
M
Ax + By + C = 0 R
P1
P
O Ax + By + C +
( Dx + E L y + F) = 0
M1 Dx + Ey + F = 0
R
Q1 ’
Y
O L X
Y’ Bisectors of angle between to st. lines
Given that the eqn. of lines LL1 and MM1 are respectively
Ax + By + C = 0……………………………………….(1)
And Dx + Ey + F = 0……………………………...………..(2)
To find the equation of the line PP1 , it can be regarded as a line passing through the intersection of
the two given lines so that its eqn. may be taken in the form
Ax + By + C + ( Dx + Ey + F) = 0………………………..…………(3)
for some value of , to be determined.
Or, (A + D)x +(B + E)y +(C + F) = 0………………………………….(4)
The equation to the other line QQ1 may also by the same eqn. (3) for a different value of , say , so that it
can be written as
Ax + By + C + ( Dx + Ey + F) = 0………………………..…………(5)
Or, (A + D)x +(B + E)y +(C +F) = 0……………………………….….(6)
The lines given by (4) and (6) must be perpendicular tot each other, so that, product of their slopes is – 1 , or,
(A D) (A D)
x = -1 ,The slopes should be negative reciprocals of each other
B E B E
or, ( A D )( A D) ( B E)( B E ) 0
or, A 2 AD ( ) D 2 B 2 BE ( ) E 2 0
or, (A 2 B 2 ) ( AD BE )( ) (D 2 E 2 ) 0 …………………….(7)
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This section is not a part of the preview.
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
Beauty considerations demand that the perpendicularity should automatically follow from geometrical
considerations that the bisector of angle and the bisector of its supplementary or external angle should be at
right angles automatically, or whatever pair of straight lines are chosen. In other words , if the role of the two
bisectors are interchanged, they should behave as if antisymmetric to each other. Thus the eqn. (7) is
automatically satisfied if we assume = - , antisymmetric to each other , which casts a value of =
A 2 B2
2 . This takes us direct to the final result.
D2 E2
This relation between and arrived here is because the two st.lines PP1 and QQ1 are perpendicular
to each other and it has nothing to do with the fact that they are bisectors of angles between a pair of st.lines.
To use the fact, look at the angles made by the st.lines with the x-axis.
Let 1 and 2 and be the angles made by the lines LL1 and MM1 and PP1 with the x-axis. We have = 1
+ ½ (2 - 1) as PP1 bisects the angle between the former two lines. This gives = ½ (2 + 1) or, 2 = (2
+ 1) , or, 2 - = - 1,
tan 2 tan tan tan 1
Or, tan (2 - ) = tan ( - 1), or
1 tan 2 . tan 1 tan . tan 1
D ( A D ) ( A D) A
Or, E B E B E B D(B E) E(A D) B(A D) A(B E)
D ( A D) ( A D) A E(B E) D(A D) B(B E) (A D)A
1 . 1 .
E B E B E B
DB ED EA DE BA BD AB AE
Or,
EB DA (D 2 E 2 ) B 2 BE A 2 AD
EA DB (AE BD)
Or , 2 , canceling out (AE – BD)
EB DA (D E ) A B 2 (BE AD)
2 2
Or, A 2 B 2 ( BE AD ) ( EB DA ) 2 ( D 2 E 2 )
A 2 B2 A 2 B2
Or, 2 , Or, …………………………………………………..(8)
D2 E 2 D2 E2
If one of the signs is taken for , say + sign, the other sign shall be taken for . So the eqn.s (3) and (5)
reduce to,
Ax By C Dx Ey F
……………………………..(9)
A B
2 2
D2 E2
A 2 B2
Now one can easily verify that = - or + = 0 and 2
2 2
D E2
So that eqn.(7) is automatically satisfied with this value of or ; as expected.
§41: Alternative method 1:
To get good command on the subject, one should not read mathematics books like a novel – pen and
paper must be at the side and of course, a good dictionary at hand. Mere concepts do not lead us to result
automatically because there is every chance to be misguided on the way. For example in the preceding
article one may have tendency to put 1 - = 2 - instead of 1 - = - 2 and proceed through
complicated expressions to reach a dead end. Evidently we must take 1 - = - 2 and not the other
© Page 46
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
way round ,as, all angles should be measured anticlockwise or clockwise; at least must be in a consistent
manner if we do not know whether they are anticlockwise measured or not.
This does not mean that the derivations must be got by heart and different methods not allowed –
never so. In fact there are many paths from a concept to derivation of some result and though the path is not
important , there is no logic why one path should be preferred to another. Rather it brings about confidence
and good command if alternatives are tried and pitfalls are recognized well before the exams. The labour put
in must not go in vein.
Again, by trying alternative methods only one is convinced of the view that coordinate geometry is taking
geometry into the realm of algebra, just as word problems in arithmetic are reduced to routine algebra by
adopting symbols for unknowns.
There is no reason why one should not solve the equations of the two given straight lines,
Ax + By + C = 0……………………………………...(1)
And Dx + Ey + F= 0……………………………...………..(2)
x y 1 BF CE CD AF
To get , or x ..and..y …..(3)
BF CE CD AF AE BD AE BD AE BD
BF CE CD AF
And try an eqn. Px + Qy + R = 0, passing through the point , , or equivalently consider
AE BD AE BD
BF CE CD AF
the eqn. P x Q y 0 , ………….(4)
AE BD AE BD
as the eqn. of bisector of angle between the two st. lines (1) and (2). Now we need find out P/Q of this eqn.
to completely specify it , using the fact that this st. line is equally inclined to both (1) and (2). We need not
A D P
find out P and Q separately. Considering slopes of lines (1), (2) and (4), , .and respectively,
B E Q
condition of bisecting angle gives,
A P P D
B Q Q E BP AQ DQ EP
=
AP DP AP BQ DP EQ
1 1
BQ EQ
BDP BEPQ ADPQ AEQ 2 ADPQ AEP 2 BDQ 2 BEPQ
2
( AE BD ) P 2 2(BE AD ) PQ ( AE BD )Q 2 0
2
P BE _ AD P
2 1 0 …………………………………………..(5)
Q AE BD Q
which is a quadratic eqn. in P/Q and the product of its two roots is seen to be – 1 .
This means that the two bisectors are at right angles to each other.
2
BE AD BE AD
2 4 4
P AE BD AE BD AD BE ( BE AD) 2 ( AE BD) 2
Now
Q 2 AE BD
AD BE B 2 E 2 A 2 D 2 2ABDE A 2 E 2 B 2 D 2 2ABDE
=
AE BD
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
AD BE (A 2 B 2 )(D 2 E 2 )
= …………………………….(6)
AE BD
P BF CE CD AF
Now (4) becomes x y 0
Q AE BD AE BD
The formula may not be useful but the process must be useful in numerical problems, with simplification in
each step.
§42: Alternative II :
Resorting to a little geometric consideration in the beginning greatly simplifies the problem. Drop
perpendiculars PR and PR’ from any point P on the bisector onto LL1 and MM1 and consider the triangles
POR and POR’. The two triangles have two equal angles POR and POR’ , two right angles PRO and
PR’O and a side PO in common. Thus the two triangles are congruent and this gives the two
perpendiculars PR and PR’ equal. If (h, k) be the coordinates of point P then the lengths of perpendiculars
Ah Bk C Ph Qk R
on the st.lines are given by and , and these tow perpendiculars are equal. So
A 2 B2 P2 Q2
Ah Bk C Ph Qk R
= ……………………(1)
A 2 B2 P2 Q2
should be the equation of the bisector. But we are not habituated to write h, k as variable coordinates. They
may be written as X and Y , to distinguish them from x and y denoting coordinates on the original st.lines,
only not to confuse that each of the expressions may not be put = 0 as h, k are not coordinates of LL1 or
MM1. We can use x and y in place of X and Y if we remember to avoid this point of confusion. So one of the
Ax By C Px Qy R
equations of the bisectors shall be = ……………………(2)
A B
2 2
P2 Q2
lengths of the two perpendiculars are given by (1) in case both of the perpendiculars are either on the same
side of the bisector in which the origin lies or in case both are on the side of the bisector opposite to the side
where the origin lies. If this be true for LL1, this cannot be true for MM1 at the same time. For MM1 one of the
perpendiculars would be on the side where the origin lies and the other , on the opposite side. As such, the
lengths of the perpendiculars shall be negative of each other and the eqn. of the bisector shall be given by
Ax By C Px Qy R
=- ……………………(3)
A B
2 2
P2 Q2
instead of (2) . It is easily seen that product slopes of the pair of st.lines (2) and (3) is
-1 or, they are perpendicular to each other.
Exercise92
Show that 6 x 66 y 11 0 bisects the angle between 12 x 10 y 3 0 and 15 x 18 y 1 0
Example12
A perpendicular is dropped from a point (h, k) onto a st line Ax By C 0 Find the equation of a st line
passing through foot of this perpendicular and making equal angles with the mutually perpendicular lines.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
A st line perpendicular to Ax By C 0 may be taken as Bx Ay D 0 .if it passes through (h, k), then
Bh Ak D 0 . Subtracting the two, B x h A y k , or, Bx Ay Bh Ak 0 . The angle bisectors
Ax By C Bx Ay Bh Ak
are Ax By C Bx Ay Bh Ak
A B
2 2
B 2 A2
Exercise93
Find the bisectors of angle between
a) x y 3 6 2 3 and x y 3 6 2 3 Ans. x 6, y 2
b) 4 x 3 y 7 and 7 y 24 x 31 Ans. 2 x y 3, x 2 y 1 0
c)
12 x 5 y 4 and 3 x 4 y 7 0 7 x 9 y 37 0 , 99 x 77 y 71 0 .
Ans.
y b 2m y b 2n y b m n y b 1 mn
d) , Ans. , 0
x a 1 m x a 1 n2
2
x a 1 mn x a m n
Exercise94 remember
The direction cosines of two intersecting st lines are given by l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 respectively. Show
that the direction ratios of any st line passing through them is l1 kl2 , m1 km2 , n1 kn2 for some real
number k .
Hint. A vector passing through the intersection of two vectors l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 is given by
l1 kl2 , m1 km2 , n1 kn2
Exercise95 remember
The direction cosines of two intersecting st lines are given by l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n2 respectively. Show
l1 l2 m1 m2 n1 n2
that the direction ratios of the st line bisecting the angle between them is , , where
2 cos
2 cos 2 cos
2 2 2
is the angle between them.
Exercise96
The direction cosines of three intersecting st lines are given by l1 , m1 , n1 l2 , m2 , n2 and l3 , m3 , n3
,
respectively.
Show that the direction ratios of the st line and making equal angles with all of them has direction cosines
l1 l2 l3 m1 m2 m3 n1 n2 n3
, , .
3 3 3
Exercise97
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
A st line through the origin crosses two fixed st lines at A and B. If P is a point on AB satisfying
mn m n
, then show that the locus of P is a st line through the intersection of the given st lines.
OP OA OB
§43: Equation of a straight line in three dimensional Coordinate Geometry without vectors:
Although it is easy to deal st lines with the help of vectors, some insight is gained in studying plainly without
the use of vectors in the traditional way. One benefit is long problems are analyzed easily. Also the link from
traditional method to vector methods is understood.
B) : Symmetric form,
st.line passing through a fixed point and with given direction cosines:
Let P(x1, y1, z1) is a fixed point on the straight line and l, m and n are given. If Q(x, y, z) be any other point on
the st.line, the segment PQ has projections x –x1, y – y1, and z – z1 on lines parallel to the axes drawn
through P. If length of the segment be r, we have,
x - x1 y y1 z z1
l ,m , and, n
r r r
or, the equation of the st.line becomes,
x - x 1 y y1 z z1
l m n
as it is true for any point on the line and it is the relationship among the variables.
Instead, if the direction ratio’s are given to be a, b and c, they are proportional to the direction cosines so
l m n x - x 1 y y1 z z1
that k ,or, l = ak, m=bk, and n = ck for some k, and we get ,which is called
a b c a b c
symmetrical form of equation.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
These two above forms of eqns of st.lines are similar to the slope and intercept form in two dimensions, but
they are simultaneous equations in three variables or essentially two independent equations in three
variables latter ,in the section for planes given below, we would see that st.lines are intersection of two
planes.
Another point to note is that any two independent ratio’s out of l, m and n ,or, a, b and c are to be given for a
st.line to be completely determined (along with a fixed point on it, of course, or along with some other
condition) . In case of two dimensions only one ratio, the slope or m was to be necessarily given along with a
point or an intercept on x-axis or y-axis to completely determine the st.line.
D) Condition to be parallel:
If the two lines are parallel to each other, = 0 cos = 1
Or, l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 1…………………………..…………………(b)
(The two lines may be called anti-parallel when angle between them is
or l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = -1.)
But we had anticipated that, as in case of two dimensions, the two lines would be parallel to each
other if they make the same angles with coordinate axes ,i.e.,
Or, l1 = l2 , m1 = m2 ,and n1 = n2……………..………………………….(c)
Since both of (b) and (c) stand to reason and do not violate common sense. So we want to accept
both of them. Of course we must have another consideration, which one gives some benefits for the problem
at hand in a particular situation.
[Confusion should not be made in comparing the result (b) with condition of perpendicularity in case of two
dimensions, m1m2 = -1 . There the m’s stand for slopes whereas here they stand for cosines only. The point
shall be further clear following the example : let L1 and L2 be two lines in xy-plane in two dimensions with
slopes 1 and 2 respectively where 1 + 2 = /2 . The direction cosines shall be cos 1 , sin 1 and cos 2
, sin 2 respectively. For the two lines to be parallel, we have, cos 1 = cos 2 and sin 1 = sin 2 or tan 1 =
tan 2 , or, m1 = m2 as before, if m’s stand for slopes.
For the lines to be perpendicular, sin 1 . sin 2 + cos 1 . cos 2 = 0 ,
or, sin 1 . sin 2 = - cos 1 . cos 2 , or, tan 1 . tan 2 = - 1 ,or, m1m2 = -1 as before.]
Consider the identity (l12 + m12 + n12) +(l22 + m22 + n22) - 2( l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2)
= (l1 – l2)2 + (m1 – m2)2 + (n1 – n2)2
If two lines are parallel, from (b) l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 1 , and we have l12 + m12 + n12 =1 l22 + m22 + n22 for
any st.lines. This makes our above identity,
1 + 1 – 2 = (l1 – l2)2 + (m1 – m2)2 + (n1 – n2)2 = 0
l1 = l2 , m1 = m2 ,and n1 = n2 as sum of positive numbers cannot be 0 unless each of them is 0. This
establishes equivalence of (b) and (c).
Actually three conditions l1 = l2 , m1 = m2 ,and n1 = n2 are not required for the two st.lines to be parallel.
Only two will suffice, since the third condition automatically follows from them from the relation l12 + m12 + n12
=1= l22 + m22 + n22 .This gives,
For two st.lines to be parallel,
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D ,Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 21: Geometry Of Straight Lines
l 1 m1 n
1 ………………………………………………….(d)
l 2 m 2 nl 2
i.e., only two conditions.
a
Instead of direction cosines l, m and n, if direction ratios a, b and c are used, we can put
a 2 b2 c2
b c
, and in place of a, b and c.
a 2 b2 c2 a 2 b2 c2
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
CHAPTER 25: LINEAR EQUATIONS AND MATRICES
§1: MATRICES :
Introduction
So far we have discussed about a symbol for eliminant of a system of linear equations, its Grammar
and Arithmetic and studied how it was helpful in guarantying existence of solutions of a system of linear
equations and writing the solution if it existed (rather than finding the solutions; the task of finding solutions is
reduced to writing of solutions). Then we called the eliminants as determinants and the behavior of these
determinants, as we fondly call it Arithmetic or Grammar or Algebra of determinants enabled it to be used in
other areas in Mathematics other than systems of equations. Why not adopt a symbol for the equations
themselves since the set of eqns is always referred to while discussing its determinant. To this end, perhaps
Mathematicians got the cue from product of determinants , of course, centuries ago. Let us rediscover it.
Let us take a system of equations like
ax + by + cz = d ………………………………………………….(1)
px + qy + rz = e…………………………………………………..(2)
lx + my + nz = f…………..………………………………………(3)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
matrix-multiplied with another only if the number of columns of the first one equals to number rows of the second.
(Otherwise , inner products as described above shall not be complete). Then the matrices are said to be ‘ conformable
for multiplication’. If M is a matrix with r number of rows and s number of columns, and N is a matrix with s number of
rows ant t number of columns, then their product M x N should have r number of rows and t number of columns. Thus
the definition of matrix includes the rule of multiplication of matrices.
x d
x
d
a b c a b c x d
What would p q r x y y = e e mean when p q r x y = e means the set of equations (1), (2) and (3) ? Why,
l m n l m n z f
z f
z f
clearly it would mean two different sets of equations written at the same time; namely,
ax + by + cz = d ………………………………………………...….(1)
px + qy + rz = e……………………………………………..….…..(2)
lx + my + nz = f…………..…………………………………………(3)
and ax’ + by’ + cz’ = d’ ………………………………………………….(1’)
px’ + qy’ + rz’ = e’…………………………………………………..(2’)
lx’ + my’ + nz’ = f’…………..………………………………………(3’)
in two different sets of variables x, y, z and x’, y’, z’ respectively. Thus we could handle not only a set of equation, but
sets of them at the same time.
Matrices thus defined, were designed for handling sets of equations. But it found many alternative uses in
different fields so it is necessary also to study them independently without any association with sets of equations. A
matrix stands for representing its members in rows and columns simultaneously and without any necessary relationship
among them , just as a vector is represented by an ordered pair or triad of its independent components; e.g. the x, y
and z components of a force F1 acting on one particle may be represented by (F1x, F1y, F1z) , a row matrix , a force F2
acting on another particle may be represented by (F2x, F2y, F2z) , and a force F3 acting on one more particle may be
represented by (F3x, F3y, F3z) , three vectors in three dimensions. The three particles move quite independently of each
other so that we can imagine a system of three particles as three different points in three dimensional space or one
point in a coordinate system of 9 coordinates and the forces can be represented by a single force F in 9 components as
F1x F1y F1z
F and the position of the system of particles by a single point P in 9 dimensional space can be represented
2 x F2 y F2 z
F3x F3y F3z
P1x P1y P1z
by a matrix P . We have used bold letters without any ambiguity since the alternative name of a matrix is
2 x P2 y P2 z
P3x P3y P3z
vector and its members are very much the components of the vector. The process of matrix multiplication as illustrated
above, is a separate process different from scalar or vector multiplication of vectors different from multiplication of
complex numbers. Actually all these processes are different processes in which two numbers or vectors or matrices
are connected to give some result, a matrix, a vector or number as the case may be; the processes are different from
arithmetic multiplication and they are only called so, by the broad name of multiplication. Let us continue exploring it
until the point of finding inverse of matrices so that the mission of solution of simultaneous equations is achieved.
The process of multiplication of matrices as symbolized above is seen to be carrying associative property,
tacitly with itself in particular. Let us verify that they are associative, i.e.,
A x ( B x C) = (A x B) x C. For these matrices to be conformable for multiplication, the number of columns in B must
be equal to the number of rows in C and the number of columns in A must be equal to the number of number of rows in
B x C. Again, in the right side, the number of columns in A must be equal to the number of rows in B and the number of
columns in A x B must be equal to the number of rows in C. All these conditions are met if the number of columns in A
is equal to the number of rows in B and the number of columns in B is equal to the number of rows in C. Let A, B and
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
C be represented by A = [aij], B = [bij],and C = [cij], where aij stands for the member of A at i-th row and j-th column and
so on , and let A have m rows and n columns, B have n rows and p columns, and C have p rows and q columns( we
say, A is an m x n matrix, etc.). Then,
in
A x B = [ ari ] x [ bij ] =
a ri b ij (remember)
i 1
(Verify the same with any examples of A and B taking 3 x 3 elements in each)
jp i n
in
Thus (A x B) x C =
a ri b ij x [cjs ] = a ri b ij c js
i 1 j1 i 1
in j p
=
a ri b ijc js
i 1 j1
j p
B x C = [ bij ] x [ cjs ] =
b ij c js , and
j1
in jp
ip
A x ( B x C) = [ ari ] x
b ij c js = a ri b ijc js
i 1 i 1 j1
in j p
=
a ri b ij c js
i 1 j1
hence (A x B) x C = A x ( B x C) …………………………………………(6)
so that we can remove the brackets only if we remember not to disturb the order in which the matrices are written.
a c1
1 b1
Three different 3 x 3 matrices may be taken to illustrate the point in concrete terms. Let A = p1 q1 r1 , B =
l1 m1 n1
a
2 b2 c2 a 3 b3 c3
p2 q2 r2 , and C = p3 q 3 r3
l2 m 2 n 2 l 3 m3 n3
Whether the process of multiplication of matrices as we call it shall be distributive over addition or subtraction ;
i.e., whether A x ( B ± C ) = A x B ± A x C ? Before that we have to see some sort of process such as addition or
subtraction of matrices and call those processes in the same names addition and subtraction of matrices in analogy
with the addition and subtraction process of ordinary numbers. in fact, if we regard matrices as vectors,
addition or subtraction of matrices is just like addition of subtraction of vectors component wise and similar is
the case of multiplication of a matrix with a number.
(remember)
This is the most natural way in which we could set the rules of addition. For addition or subtraction to have any
meaning, the number of rows and columns in the matrices to be added or subtracted should be equal. Then they are
called ‘confirmable for addition’. These processes bear no similarity with corresponding processes for determinants ,
for determinants represent single numbers or numerical values of expressions whereas a matrix represents all its
members at a time ,separately, not necessarily there being any relationship among one another. If an element of the
matrix changes its position then the whole matrix is changed into a different matrix. So a matrix should never be
confused with its determinant. Well, then what do the matrix addition or subtraction represent ? They represent
Algebraic compounding of two or more sets of simultaneous equations. Right now the matter is of least importance to
us as we do not want any modification in the set of equations and proceed to write their solution direct. Multiplication by
a number k,( a scalar, called otherwise) shall mean, multiplication of each of the components of the matrix ; just as in
case of vectors. This is further consistent with the rule of addition; for suppose, k is a positive integer, for sake of
simplicity. Then multiplying a matrix by k means adding up k number of identical determinants and that does not affect
the solution of the underlying set of simultaneous eqn.s in any way. If k is another number other than a positive integer,
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
the rule simply means a multiplication of the underlying set of simultaneous eqn.s by k and again that does not affect
their solution in any way. Evidently,
a b c ka kb kc a b c
p q r k kp kq kr k p q r …………………………………..(7)
l m n kl km kn l m n
a b c a b c a b c
in particular, p q r ( 1) p q r ( 1) p q r …………………….…….(7a)
l m n l m n l m n
and addition or subtraction of two matrices would be like
a a ' b b' c c' a b c a' b' c'
p p' q q' r r ' = p q r ± p' q' r ' …………………….…….(8)
l l ' m m' n n ' l m n l ' m' n '
similar to component method of addition of vectors.
Addition of course shall be commutative, i.e., if A and B are any two matrices conformable for addition, then A + B =
B + A which, may be evidently verified from (8). (A + B = [aij] + [bij] = [aij + bij] =[bij + aij] = B + A). Addition is also
associative, i.e., if A, B and C be any three matrices confirmable for addition, then
A + ( B+ C) = (A + B)+ C, which may be easily verified and as such, the order in which matrices are added makes no
difference. A matrix –A should serve as additive inverse and subtraction of a matrix B from A may be written as A +(–
B) or A – B . In symbols, [aij] ± [bij] = [aij ± bij] (corresponding members, i.e. members of i-th row and j-th column in
the two matrices are added or subtracted) and k[aij] = [kaij] ;i.e., all the members of the matrix are to be multiplied with
the same number k if the matrix itself has to be multiplied with k, where k is any ordinary number. What effect it leaves
on the original system of equations ? When all the equations in the set are multiplied throughout by k, there is no
change in the equations or no change in their solutions, but we see that the corresponding matrix is multiplied with k;
i.e., it has been changed ! Thus the same system of equations can relate to different matrices. It may be noted
that addition, subtraction or multiplication by a constant are not similar processes as in the case of
determinants; rather they are analogous to the corresponding processes in case of vectors.
0 0 0 0 0
A null matrix would be like 00 00 or 00 00 00 00 00 can serve as additive identity, no matter it be a square matrix or not.
0 0 0 0 0
We can add an m x n null matrix to an m x n matrix to leave it unchanged.
2 0 0
A scalar matrix may be of the type 0 2 0 , a matrix all the elements of its leading diagonal are equal an others
0 0 2
2 0 0 1 0 0
all 0’s so that it may be written as 0 2 0 2 0 1 0 , a scalar multiple of a unit matrix.
0 0 2 0 0 1
1 0 0 2 1 3
A matrix of the type 0 2 0 is called a diagonal matrix . A matrix of the type 0 1 4 is called a triangular
0 0 4 0 0 2
2 0 0
matrix also an upper triangular matrix and one like 1 1 0 is called a lower triangular one.
3 4 2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
Now we can revert to distributive property of matrix multiplication. To prove this, let,
i m , j n j n , k p j n , k p
A = [a ij ]i 1, j1 , B = [ b jk ] j1, k 1 and C = [c jk ] j1, k 1 be three matrices such that A has m rows and n columns, B and C
each have n rows and p columns as each should be conformable for multiplication with A and conformable for addition
with each other..
Now A x ( B ± C ) = [a ij ] ii 1m, j,j1 n x ( [ b jk ] jj1n,,kk1p ± [c jk ] jj1n,,kk1p )
= [ a ij ] ii 1m, j,j1 n x ( [ b jk c jk ] jj1n,,kk1p )
i m, k p
=
j n
j1
a ij b jk c jk
i 1,k 1
i m,k p i m,k p
j n j n
=
a ij b jk ±
a ij c jk
j1 i 1,k 1 j1 i 1,k 1
= A x B ± A x C ………………………………………..(9)
a c1 a c2 a c3
1 b1 2 b2 3 b3
Again the example A = p1 q1 r1 , B = p2 q2 r2 , and C = p3 q3 r3 may be used to visualize in concrete
l1 m1 n1 l2 m2 n2 l3 m3 n3
terms. It takes a little while before one is familiar with the scheme of subscripts.
When we talk of an inverse matrix, it must be found from the relation that product of the matrix and the
inverse must be multiplicative identity analogous to mm- 1 = 1 in Arithmetic. Further, the multiplicative identity matrix
or simply called the identity matrix or unit matrix should be such, that when it is multiplied with any matrix, the result
should be the same matrix. Let us examine the matrix
1 1 1 a b c a p l b q m c r n
1 1 1 and see whether it would serve our purpose. Multiplying it with p q r we get a p l b q m c r n , which
1 1 1 l m n a p l b q m c r n
a b c 1 1 1 1 0 0
is different from p q r . So it won’t be an identity matrix. Nor shall a matrix of type 0 0 0 or 1 0 0 be unit matrices
l m n 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0
(verify). But clearly 0 1 0 shall be identity matrix, for
0 0 1
a b c 1 0 0 a b c 1 0 0 a b c
p q r x 0 1 0 = p q r = 0 1 0 x p q r .
l m n 0 0 1 l m n 0 0 1 l m n
many peculiarities we observe in this identity matrix. First, let us see that it should be a square matrix. For, let us take a
a b c
1 0 0 p
a b c
4 x 3 matrix and multiply it with a 3 x 3 identity matrix as given below p q r x
0 1 0 =
q r which leaves the
l m n n
s t v 0 0 1 sl m
t v
matrix unchanged. But a 3 x 2 matrix when multiplied to 4 x 3 matrix does not leave the matrix unchanged.
a b c
1 0 p
a b
p q r x
0 1 =
q
l m n l m
0 0 s
s t v t
it is evident that though identity matrices are necessarily square matrices, they can be multiplied with other matrices
which are not square matrices if conformable for multiplication, leaving them unchanged after multiplication.
Next, for multiplication with square matrices, the left identity must be same as right identity, i.e., if I x A = A
for left identity I and A x J = A for right identity J, then I should be equal to J. For we have I = I x J as J is right identity
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
and I x J =J as I is left identity, thus I = J as both are I x J.
…………………………………………………………………….(10)
Next , the identity or unit matrix must be unique for a particular order; i.e., there must be only one unit matrix in
4 rows and 4 columns, only one for 5 rows and 5 columns, and so on , one only for every order. The order of a square
matrix is the number of rows or columns it has. If the unit matrix is not unique, let I and J be two different identity
matrices of same order. Now I = J x I as J is identity ,( left or right , no bother; as we have just proved them to be
equal) and J x I = J as I is also identity . Thus I =J ……………………………………………………………(11)
4) Do not expect multiplication of matrices in general to be commutative and in fact they are not so .
except in some special cases……………………………(12)
Are vector products commutative either ? No, only dot product is commutative but not the cross product.. So there is
nothing unusual to expect that multiplication of matrices are non-commutative. The question of commutativity of
multiplication arises only when the both matrices are square matrices. Otherwise if a 3 x 4 matrix is multiplied with
another 4 x 5 matrix, multiplication in reverse order is not possible even.
(In particular cases e.g. A = cos θ sin θ and B = cos φ sin φ we see A x B = B x A and hundreds of such examples may
sin θ cos θ sin φ cos φ
be given. But to disprove any statement, only one example to the contrary is sufficient. Take for example,
A = 0i 0i and B = 10 01 , so that A x B = 0i 0i = - (B x A); hence A x B B x A)
5) Product of two null matrices is always a zero matrix. But not vice versa. and
We can have two non-zero matrices whose product is a null matrix . …..…..…..(13)
This is also expected as dot product of two non-zero vectors perpendicular to each other or cross product of two non-
zero vectors parallel to each other is a zero vector when the vectors themselves are not null vectors. The following
example would illustrate. Let A = 11 00 and]
A P L a b c
Aa Pp Ll Ab Pq Lm Ac Pr Ln
|M| x |N|= B Q M p q r = Ba Qp Ml Bb Qq Mm Bc Qr Mn = |M x N|
Ca Rp Nl Cb Rq Nm C c Rr Nn
C R N l m n
(refer to the rule of product of determinants).
7) Eqn.(14) also shows that if either M or N is singular, so would be M x N……. …(15)
1 1 1
A null matrix must be singular but not vice versa in general, e.g. 1 1 1 …………..…(16)
1 1 1
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
In particular, if product of two non-zero matrices is null matrix (and hence singular), at least one of them must be
singular (by (15))…………………..…………………………………….…(17)
A P a L b c
The reverse is also true. For , when B Q M p q r =0, any one of the two or both of them must be 0 as
C R N l m n
they are ordinary numbers. This can be extended to any finite number of matrices.
8) Hence, if product of any number of square matrices is singular, at least one of them is singular.
…………………………………….………………………(18).
Now come to the vital problem; to explore whether there exists an inverse of our matrix
a b c
A = p q r of the system of equations (4); i.e., A x X = D, and if so, under what conditions. Let us assume that it
l m n
exists and let B be an inverse of A ; or B = A-1. We talk of one inverse for so far we do not know how many of them
1 0 0
are there. Now this B = A-1 has to be multiplied with A to give unit matrix, say, I = 0 1 0 . Because B can be multiplied
0 0 1
with A, the number of rows in B must be same as number of columns of A. Then B x A = I.
A P L a b c
Consider the product of any square matrix like B = B Q M with A = p q r from left and we get,
C R N l m n
A P L a b c aA pP lL bA qP mL cA rP nL
B Q M x p q r = aB pQ lM bB qQ mM cB rQ nM
C R N l m n aC pR lN bC qR mN cC rR nN
where A, B, C etc. are any ordinary numbers.
If A, B, Q, R etc. just happen to be cofactors of a, b, q, r etc. respectively instead of any numbers, we see that
all the members of the matrix on the right side except those in the leading diagonal are 0 and those in the leading
a b c
diagonal each = the determinant of A= p q r = , say.
l m n
(as aA + bB + cC = = bB + qQ + mM etc. and bA + qP + mL = 0 = cB + rQ + nM etc.a result proved in determinants
section)
A P L a b c Δ 0 0 1 0 0 a b c
Hence, B Q M x p q r = 0 Δ 0 = x 0 1 0 = p q r x I = I
C R N l m n 0 0 Δ 0 0 1 l m n
A P L
B Q M
C R N a b c
Hence Δ
shall be the inverse matrix of p q r , which we were looking
l m n
A P L
1 B Q M
a b c C R N a b c
for. We can write p q r = only if p q r 0………………………….……….(19)
l m n Δ l m n
9) Inverse of a nonsingular square matrix A is the matrix formed by interchanging corresponding rows
and columns in the matrix formed by cofactors of members of A and then dividing by |A|, if |A| 0,
…………………………………….…(20)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
1
a b c a b c
= p q r 0 is the necessary and sufficient condition for p q r to exist.
l m n l m n
And it is denoted by A -1 and called inverse or reciprocal matrix of A ……….…..(20a)
This can formally be proved also. Let B be an inverse of A, so that B x A = I. We have
|B x A| = |I| = 1 |B| x |A| = 1 neither |B| nor |A| is 0.So the condition is necessary. Now, if |A| 0, we can have A-1
by (19) above. Thus the condition is sufficient.
Now we can revert to (4) or (4a) and find out the solution of the system of eqn.s (1), (2), (3) or (4) or (4a), as
follows.
AxX=D
A-1 x (A x X) = A-1 x D
(A-1 x A) x X = A-1 x D
1 A P L d
IxX = B Q M x e
A C R N f
x
1 dA eP fL
X = y =
dB eQ fM …………………………………….. ………….(21)
z Δ dC eR fN
dA eP fL dB eQ fM dC eR fN
x= ,y= ,z= …………………………….……..…(21a)
Δ Δ Δ
Note here that = aA + pP + lL , and the expression dA + eP + fL can be obtained by replacing a, p, l with d, e, f
respectively in aA + pP + lL or . In other words, the expression is got by replacing the first column of with members
d d b c
of matrix e . So it is e q r .Similar statements can be made for 2nd and 3rd eqn. of (21) and combining the results
f f m n
x y z 1
, ……………………………………..………….(21b)
d b c a d c a b d a b c
e q r p e r p q e p q r
f m n l f n l m f l m n
Which is same as Crammer’s rule again,
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
This is not surprising. The solution we arrived at here must be same as Crammer’s or whatever one we had got earlier;
for how many different solutions the system of eqn.s have ?
Only one is the right answer. So without comparing and calculating the two solutions we could have straight stated that
they are identical to each other. The formula is quite general for any particular number of variables as proved.
Thus, towards the end of writing a set of linear eqn.s in brief and writing their solutions also in brief, we have been
successful only by adopting a symbol for matrix, a symbol for matrix multiplication ( and its inverse operation ,
whenever possible, by multiplication of the inverse matrix,) and of course, the inherent rules of the game regarding
addition etc. which were discovered by and by.
A square matrix formed by interchanging rows with corresponding columns of matrix A is called transpose matrix of A
and is denoted by A’.
If A = [aij],then A’ = [aji]; (A’)’ = [aji]’ = [aij] (rows & columns interchanged)= A ,
Transpose of a transposed matrix is the original matrix itself………………….…(22)
If A = [aij] , then A’ = [aji]; similarly B = [bij] , then B’ = [bji] for any other square matrix B.
Now, (A ± B)’ = ([aij] ±[bij])’
= ([aij ±bij])’ since members of respective row and column are added
= [aji ±bji] i and j replace each other as rows and columns are interchanged
= [aji] ±[bji]
= A’ ±B’ ……………………………………………………………..……..…(23)
Similarly,( kA)’ = (k[aij])’ = ([kaij])’ =[kaji] = k[aji] = k A’ ………………………..………….(24)
10) This means square matrices can be safely transposed after or before making addition, subtraction or
multiplication with a constant, leading to same result.
l j
=
b jl a li = [bjl] x [ali]
l 1
= B’ x A’………………………………………………..(25)
11) Thus, transpose of the product is product of transposed matrices in reverse order.
This can be extended to any finite number of matrices. (A x B x C)’ = C’ x B’ x A’
Compare the result with cross product of vectors. If P and Q are any two vectors their cross product changes
sign if multiplied in reverse order. i.e.,( refer the result in vectors section)
Px Q = - Q x P ……………………………………………(26)
A square matrix A is called symmetric if A’ = A or aij = aji meaning thereby the symmetric matrix remains unchanged if
rows and replaced with corresponding columns and vice versa. Similarly a square matrix A is called skew symmetric if
A’ = -A or aij = -aji . For example
'
2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 0 3 1
3 4 6 is a symmetric matrix 3 4 6 = 3 4 6 whereas 3 0 6
1 6 1 1 6 1 1 6 1 1 6 0
is a skew symmetric matrix. Members of leading diagonal must each be 0 in case the matrix is skew symmetric.
For akk = -akk forces 2akk = 0 or akk = 0…………………………..……(27)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
A = ½ (A + A’) + ½ (A - A’)
Now (A + A’)’ = A’ + (A’)’ = A’ +A = A +A’; so that A + A’ is a symmetric matrix, say 2S.
And (A - A’)’ = A’ - (A’)’ = A’ - A; so that A - A’ is a skew symmetric matrix say 2T.
Thus we have any square matrix A = S + T, sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix. This is in a unique
manner. For, if U and V be two other symmetric and skew symmetric matrices respectively, U + V = A and U - V = A’.
so that U = ½ (A + A’) = S and V = ½ (A – A’) =T as before.
12) Every square matrix can be represented as the sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix and
uniquely so………………………………….…..……(29a)
Again if A is any square matrix, (A x A’)’ = (A’)’ x A’ = A x A’
So A x A’ is always a symmetric matrix. …………………………………..…...(29b)
13) Transpose of a square matrix formed by cofactors of members of a square matrix A is called adjoint matrix of
A and denoted by adj.A.
Since the members of a matrix are replaced by corresponding cofactors denoted by same letters in capitals, and
transposition is done on the resulting matrix, transposition formulae (23), (24) and (25) can be written for adjoints also.
No special proof is required although the proof may be given in the same lines for adjoints while deriving (23), (24) and
(25).We just write cofactors in place of members and get done. Thus we have
Adj.(A ± B) = Adj.A ± Adj.B…………………………..………………..…(28)
And Adj.(kA) = k (Adj. A)………………….………. ………….………………..(29)
Adj.(A x B) = Adj. B’ x Adj. A’…………………………………………...(30)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
'
A
' 1
adj.A '
adj.A ' adj.A
…………………………..………(31)
A -1
'
' A A
A
If we write A x A = A2, A x A x A = A3 etc., we see that symbols like An obey the law of indices for positive
integral values of n. (verify) Further,. for any nonsingular square matrix A, we have,
A-1 x A-1 x A2 = A-1 x A-1 x A x A = A-1 x I x A = A-1 x A = I
So that A-1 x A-1 = (A2)-1 ; in other words, (A-1)2 = (A2)-1 and similarly (A-1)3 = (A3)-1 etc. Therefore there would be no
ambiguity in writing (An) -1 = (A-1) n and both can be conveniently represented by A-n, thereby extending the laws of
indices to include negative integral indices too. Evidently, A0 = An+(-n) = An x A-n = An x (An)-1 = I
Again, as we already know that the left inverse is same as the right inverse,
Or, I = A-1 x A = A x A-1 = I, it is seen that A is inverse of A-1 too, or, (A-1)-1 = A.
14) Hence laws of indices are valid for positive and negative integral indices of square matrices (only for
nonsingular matrices in case of negative indices) and A0 = I,
-1)-1
and (A = A …….…………………..……..…………...(32)
Exercise1
0 4 1 4 2 3 8 8 7
Find A 2 B if A and B . Ans. A 2B
1 3 7 1 5 7 3 7 21
Exercise2
2 x y y 3 7 0
Solve for x, y, z if Ans. x 2, y 3, z 4, a 3
4a 6 z 1 2a 3
Hint. Equate the corresponding terms and solve equations in elementary methods.
Exercise3
0 5 3
Express the matrix 1 1 1 as sum of an upper triangular matrix and lower triangular matrix.
4 5 9
0 5 3 0 0 0 0 5 3
Ans.
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
4 5 9 4 5 9 0 0 0
Exercise4
0 5 3
Express the matrix 1 1 1 as sum of a symmetric and skew symmetric matrix.
4 5 9
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
0 5 3 0 a b 0 p q 0 a p b q
Hint. solve 1 1 1 a 1 c p 0
r a p 1 c r to get
4 5 9 b c 9 q r 0 b q c r 9
a p 5, a p 1, b q 3, b q 4 etc.
Exercise5
2 0 1 1 0 0
If f x x 7 x 10 and A 2 1
2
3 find f A A 7 A 10 I where I 0 1 0 .
2
1 1 0 0 0 1
2 0 1 2 0 1 5 1 2 2 0 1 14 0 7
Hint. A2 A A 2 1 3 2
1 3 9 2 5 , 7 A 7 2 1 3 14 7 21
1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 7 7 0
Exercise6
Give 2 examples of pairs of non-zero matrices whose product is 0 matrix.
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0
Ana. 1. 1 0 1 1 0 0 ,2. 0 0 0 0 0 0 .
Exercise7
a h g x
Find x y z h b f y .
g f c z
x
Ans. ax hy gz hx by fz gx fy cz y ax 2 by 2 cz 2 2 fyz 2 gzx 2hxy
z
Exercise8
cos sin sin cos 1 0
Show that cos sin
sin cos cos sin 0 1
Exercise9
cos sin cos sin cos sin cos sin
Show that .
sin cos sin cos sin cos sin cos
Exercise10
cos n sin n cos sin
Show that A if A
n
only for n being a positive integer.
sin n cos n sin cos
Exercise11
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
i 0 0 1 0 i
A ,B ,C 2 2 2
.Find A , B , C , AB, BA
0 i 1 0 i 0
Ans. A B C I ;
2 2 2
AB C BA
Exercise12
3 1
If A , show that A 5 A 7 I 0
2
1 2
The above example opens up another way of finding inverses, if some matrix equation is given.
Exercise13
3 1
If A , show that A2 5 A 7 I 0 and find A1
1 2
A 2 5 A 7 I 0 A 2 5 A 7 I A 1 A 2 5 A 1 A 7 A 1 I
Hint. complete the exercise.
A 5 I 7 A1 A1 17 A 5 I
Exercise14
1 2 3 6 1 2
Show that A 3 A 9 I B , if A 2
2
3 1 , B 5 4 4 .
3 1 2 2 8 3
Also find A1
Exercise15
0 1 0
Show that A rA qA pI if A 0 0 1 .
3 2
p q r
Exercise16
1 1 1
If A 1 2 3 , verify that A3 6 A2 5 A 11I 0 and find A1
2 1 3
Exercise17
For a non-singular non zero matrix An of order n, AB AC B C and BA CA B C if B and C are of the same
rank. ( Hint. multiply by A1 .
Exercise18
n 1
For a non-singular matrix of order n, AdjA A , where A means determinant of A
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
AdjA AdjA
A1 I AA1 A A AdjA A I
A A
A 0 0 .... 0
Hint. 0 A 0 .... 0
A AdjA 0 0 A AdjA A A AdjA A
n n
A ....
0
0 0 0 .... A
Exercise19
1 2 2 0 0 0 2 0
If A , B ,C .Show that AB AC , but B C .
3 6 0 0 1 0 6 0
Exercise20
A2 A3 cosh x sinh x x x
Define e I A
A
............... , show that e A e sinh x cosh x if A x x
2! 3!
Exercise21
8 1 4
1
Find A if A
1
4 4 7 . Ans. A 1 A '
9
1 8 4
Exercise22
For non-singular matrices, show that AB B 1 A1 , ABC
1 1
C 1 B 1 A1
Exercise23
Show that inverse of a symmetric matrix is also symmetric.
we have to prove
A A 1 T 1
AT A T
AT A
Hint. Given ( means transpose of )
AA I A A AA I A A
1 T
1 1 T 1 T
A A I A A A A I A A
1 T T T 1 T 1 T 1 T
A A1 T 1
Exercise24
For any square matrix A show that A A ' is symmetric and A A ' is skew-symmetric; so that every square matrix can
be expressed as a sum of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
Exercise25
For square matrices show that AB B ' A' , ABC
' '
C ' B ' A' .
Exercise26
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
For square matrices show that adj A B adjB adjA, adj A B C adjC adjB adjA .
Exercise27
Find the inverse of the following.
0 0 1 4 3 3 a 0 0
cos sin 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 a 0
a) , b) c) d)
sin cos
1 1 0 4 4 3 0 0 a
0 1 2 8 4 3 8 4 2
e) 1 2 3
f)
2 1 1 2 9 4
3 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 8
g)
0 1 0 4 3 3
cos sin 0 1 1 , c) 1 0 1
Ans. a) sin b)
cos
1 0 0 4 4 3
1 0 0 12 12 1
2 13 32 13 64 28 2
1 4 3 1
d)
0 1 0 e) 1 f)
3 3 3
1 5 2
12 62 28
a 454
0 0 1 25 23 1
2
1 4 0 5 12 64
g)
Exercise28
Solve the following sets of equations by matrix method by finding inverse matrices.
a) x 2 y z 4, 2 x 3 y z 3, 3x y 2 z 3 Ans. x, y, z 1, 2, 1
b) x y z 3, x 2 y 3 z 4, x 4 y 9z 6 Ans. x, y, z 2,1, 0
c) 5 x 3 y 7 z 4, 3 x 26 y 2 z 9, 7 x 2 y 11z 5 Ans. x, y, z 117 , 113 , 0
In the above, we defined matrices independently, to represent sets of linear equations in a product form A x X = D and
explored how do we want matrices to be, so that this short form of the set of equations would be fruitful and matrices so
defined also could find many more uses elsewhere.
Instead of A x X = D, we could have only taken D as the matrix and tried to solve the equations by process of
elimination as we generally do and then could have generalized the process. Let us take a particular example,
x 0y z 1 1 0 1 1
Let the system of equations be 2x 0y z 0 represented by 2 0 1 0…(a)
x y z 1 1 1 1 1
st nd
Multiplying the 1 eqn by 2 throughout and subtracting it from 2 we get
x 0 z 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 z 2 represented by 0 0 1 2…….(b)
x y z 1 1 1 1 1
st rd
Subtracting the 1 equation from the 3 we get
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
x 0 z 1 1 0 1 1
0 0 z 2 represented by 0 0 1 2…….(c)
0 y 0 0 0 1 0 0
st st nd
Now replacing the 1 eqn by addition of 1 and the 2 eqn, we get,
x 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 z 2 represented by 0 0 1 2…….(d)
0 y 0 0 0 1 0 0
So that none of the equations contains more than one variables and this solves the problem
x = - 1 , z = - 2 and y = 0 .
The underlying principle is, we could direct work on the augmented matrix D instead of A x X and only by elementary
row operations, i.e. process of elimination what we generally do, proceed to get the solution . Anyway we have to find
A-1 .
To find out A-1, we take the augmented matrix A I until A is reduced to I. Take a particular example, let us take
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
A 2 1 1 . The augmented matrix A I becomes A I 2 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 2 1 1 2 0 0 1
We reduce it by carrying out elementary row operations as follows:
1 1 1
1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 2 2 2
3 1 1
A I 2 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 1 0 I A 1
2 2 2
1 1 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2
2 2
3 1 1
So that A 1
2 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
Now to find X = A-1 x D would be easier than before to solve the set of equations.
This procedure is formally developed in the next section by showing that row operations are matrix multiplications with
e-matrices or elementary row matrices. If you have some feeling that study of matrices depended upon study or use of
determinants, this section shall completely remove that feeling, giving matrices a standing on its own. the inference
may neatly be stated as :
Exercise29
Solve the following sets of equations by matrix method by Gaussian elimination.
d) x 2 y z 4, 2 x 3 y z 3, 3x y 2 z 3 Ans. x, y, z 1, 2, 1
e) x y z 3, x 2 y 3 z 4, x 4 y 9z 6 Ans. x, y, z 2,1, 0
f) 5 x 3 y 7 z 4, 3 x 26 y 2 z 9, 7 x 2 y 11z 5 Ans. x, y, z 117 , 113 , 0
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
§3: Elementary row and column operations; many a way to find A – 1 :
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
This suggests use to e-matrices which are matrices after some elementary row operation or elementary column
operation is done on them. They can be recognized from the following examples. An e-matrix is one, which changes a
square matrix to the extent of an elementary row operation or elementary column operation when pre-multiplied or post
multiplied to it. We shall see that the operations are equivalent to pre- multiplication of an e-matrix or post-
multiplication of an e-matrix, as would be evident from the examples below .
a b c 1 0 0
Take A = p q r and B = k 1 0 .
l m n 0 0 1
1 0 0 a b c a b c
Then B x A = k 1 0 x p q r = ka p kb q kc r .results in a row operation on A, multiplying the first row by k and
0 0 1 l m n l m n
adding it to second.
1 0 0 1 0 0 a b c a b c
If C = 0 0 1 , then C x A = 0 0 1 x p q r = l m n illustrating pre-multiplication in both cases by e-matrices B or C
0 1 0 0 1 0 l m n p q r
resulting in e-row operations, interchanging 2nd and 3rd rows.
a b c 1 0 0 a kb b c
Similarly A x B = p q r x k 1 0 = p kq q r ,and
l m n 0 0 1 l km m n
a b c 1 0 0 a c b
A x C= p q r x 0 0 1 = p r q illustrating post-multiplication in both cases by
l m n 0 1 0 l n m
e-matrices B or C resulting in e-row operations. Thus.
An e-row operation is a pre-multiplication by an e-matrix and an e-column operation is a
post-multiplication by an e-matrix and vice versa.....…………………………….(33)
This result also holds for non-square matrices as well as evident from discussion made above when they are
conformable for multiplication with e-matrices.
Exercise30
Solve the following sets of equations by matrix method by elementary row operations.
g) x 2 y z 4, 2 x 3 y z 3, 3x y 2 z 3 Ans. x, y, z 1, 2, 1
h) x y z 3, x 2 y 3 z 4, x 4 y 9z 6 Ans. x, y, z 2,1, 0
i) 5 x 3 y 7 z 4, 3 x 26 y 2 z 9, 7 x 2 y 11z 5 Ans. x, y, z 117 , 113 , 0
Exercise31
Solve the above equations by elementary column operations.
So far we have only discussed the algebra and grammar of matrices and that too, mostly for nonsingular square
matrices; have made just a restatement of Crammer’s rule in the forms of (21), (21a), (21b), (21c), (21d), and done
nothing to analyse the system of equations ; what and how many solutions they have or don’t have, as we discussed in
the section for determinants. Let us sit down to see more closely the correspondence of the system of equations with
the matrices; and see how manipulations in the equations; such as done manually in process of elimination of variables
affect the corresponding matrices. Let us discuss what conclusion we arrive at , when the number of equations exceed
the number of variables or less than the number of variables, i.e., when the matrices are not square matrices.; and see
what happens when the matrices become singular.
Suppose in eqn.(4) , i.e., A x X = D , let A be zero matrix. This implies that the left side is 0 matrix which forces
the right side also to be 0 matrix, or each member of D is 0 which we did not assume. Hence D cannot be nonzero
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
when A = 0 , and in this particular case X may be anything we may choose and the set of eqn.s as such have infinite
number of solutions. If D 0 , the equations are falsified and are said to be ‘ not consistent’. In other words, we say
that the system of eqns. has no solution at all.
In another situation , suppose A is not 0 but singular, i.e., |A| = 0. Here D need not be 0. What happens to the
system of equations? Well; the determinant shall be zero if say, one of its rows has all constituents 0 each. This means
practically that the number of equations is one less than the number of variables. In this case, we can eliminate
manually all the variables except the last two (any two we choose, for that matter) and we would arrive at an eqn.
involving those two variables only; one of the variables can be chosen arbitrarily and the value of the other variable can
be calculated from it. Repeating the process of elimination, we can express each of the variables in terms of the one
we have chosen arbitrarily; thus giving infinite number of solutions of the set of eqn.s. In case two particular rows of |A|
happen to be equal , making the determinant 0 thereby, we arrive at the same situation as said just above. For, if two
equations happen to be the same, we can replace the two by one of them and one eqn which is the difference of these
two, i.e., another equation with all coefficients of the variables 0 each.( of course it is tacitly assumed that the
corresponding members of D should be same; otherwise the set of eqns shall not be consistent). We can look at the
meaning of ‘not consistent’ from this point of view – if a system of eqns, is not consistent there is no solution to it.)
Hence this is same as the situation discussed above; number of eqns, is less than the number of variables and we
have infinite number of solutions. In another situation in which suppose, all members of a particular column are 0 each,
we immediately see that, the variable corresponding to that column may be chosen arbitrarily. That means the set of
eqns shall have infinite number of solutions again.
In this manner, in the light of the above informal discussion, all varieties of situations in the analysis of solutions
of systems of linear equations are only of two classes. Class one, when the matrix is a square matrix and nonsingular(
in that case a solution exists and it is unique or only one), and class two - when the matrix is square and singular(
infinite number of solutions if D = 0 and no solution if D 0). The cases when the rows and columns of the matrix are
not equal are very much included in the second class. For, suppose the number of rows is one less than the number of
columns. then we can add another trivial equation in the same variables with all coefficients equal to 0 each and thus
added a row of zeroes to arrive at a square matrix which is singular; by virtue of having one of its row having all
members =0. Otherwise imagine a situation where the number of columns is one less than the number of rows. In that
case we can add another arbitrarily chosen variable multiplied with 0 coefficient and added to each row and we arrive
again at a square matrix which is singular.
Thus it is not important how many equations or how many variables we have. But the single most important
information is what is the biggest non-singular square matrix we have in the system of equations. The order of
the biggest non-singular square matrix present in a particular matrix A is called rank of that particular matrix denoted
by (A). A matrix formed from another matrix by leaving ( deleting or wiping out as you choose to say for convenience)
some of its rows or columns is called a sub-matrix of the former matrix . A determinant of a square-sub-matrix of order
r x r is called a minor of the matrix A of order r. Thus, for a square matrix of order n , the largest minor is the
determinant of the matrix itself . It has nCr x nCr number of different minors of order r as r rows have to be chosen out
of n rows in nCr ways and for each such choice, r columns have to be chosen out of n columns in nCr ways. In
particular, we have n2 number of different minors of a square matrix of order n – 1 as nCn - 1 = n; and n2 number of
minors of order 1, a matrix of only one element too; as nC1 = n also.
Thus a matrix A is said to be of rank r if at least there is at least one minor of A of order r which is non-
zero (non-singular) and all minors of order r + 1 or higher are zero (since this one is supposed to be the
biggest non-zero minor)………………………….……..……(33)
From the concept of rank, the following facts evidently follow immediately:
a) For a zero matrix A, (A) = 0.
b) For a non-zero matrix A, (A) 1,for (A) ([a]) =1 for it contains some a, where a 0.
c) For a non-zero singular matrix A, also (A) 1. .
d) For a non-singular n x n matrix A ,(A) = n.
e) For In, unit matrix of order n, (A) = n.
f) If there is a non-zero minor of order r of A, (A) r.
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
g) If all minors of order r A are 0, (A) < r……………………………(34)
a 11 a 12 a 13 . . . . a 1n a 11 a 12 a 13 . . . a 1n d1
a 21 a 22 a 23 . . . . a 2n a 21 a 22 a 23 . . . a 2n d2
a a 32 a 33 . . . . a 3n a a 32 a 33 . . . a 3n d3
31 31
and if A = . . . . . . . . and B = . . . . . . . . ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 . . . . a mn a m1 a m2 a m3 . . . a mn dm
b is called the augmented matrix of A when the matrix D is combined with A in the manner shown.
If (A) = (B) = r smaller of two numbers m and n, in the process of elimination of variables one by one, we can
eliminate variables one by one and arrive at
a11x1 + a12x2 +………………………….+ a1nxn - d1 = 0
0.x1 + 22x2 +………………………….+ 2nxn - g2= 0
0.x1 + 0.x2 + 33x3………… ……….+ 3nxn - g3= 0
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
0.x1 + 0.x2 + 0.x3……………... 0.xn-1+ r nxn - gr = 0
and the remaining m – r equations are of type
0.x1 + 0.x2 + 0.x3………… ……..…….+ 0.xn – 0 = 0…………(36)
as no bigger non-singular matrix can be obtained from the augmented matrix.
So these equations have non-trivial solutions as the remaining n – r variables can be chosen arbitrarily, giving
infinite number of solutions of the system. But this system of equations are equivalent to the original set of equations
and so are their augmented matrices; for in fact, the latter are obtained from the former by process of elimination, i.e.,
by elementary row operations only. Only when r = n, there would be no more variables left to be chosen arbitrarily
and the only solution shall be got from
r nxn - gr = 0, or nnxn – gn = 0 . Substituting this value in its previous equation we get xn – 1 and repeating the process
we get the only non-trivial solution. This is the method we employed in high school Now it is evident that
1) If we had taken an r x r square nonsingular matrix instead of m x n matrix, we could have found its unique
solution in this method which is non-trivial. ……………………..(37)
2) We can convert a matrix to triangular form only by successive elementary row operations or pre-multiplying
by e-matrices or post multiplying by e-matrice……………….(38)
3) We can find a unique non-trivial solution for r variables in a system of m equations in n variables if the
rank of its matrix is r smaller of two numbers m and n, and equal to rank of its augmented
matrix……………………………………………………..(39)
But if the augmented matrix is of rank one more than the matrix of the set of equations, we can get one more
equation during the process of elimination like,
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
0.x1 + 0.x2 + 0.x3………… ….+ 0.xn +r+1 n xn – gr+1 = 0 ;
in addition to 0.x1 + 0.x2 + 0.x3……………….…... 0.xn-1+ r nxn - gr = 0.
(and the remaining m – r – 1 equations would be of type,
0.x1 + 0.x2 + 0.x3………… …………….+ 0.xn – 0 = 0)
But xn cannot have two different values got from the last two equations and as such the system of equations shall be
inconsistent and shall have no solution. Hence
4) when the rank of the augmented matrix is equal to the rank of the matrix of the system of equations, we
get an unique solution and when the rank of the augmented matrix is greater than the rank of the matrix of the
equations the system of equations are inconsistent and we get no
solution………………………………………………....(40)
5) If the equations are homogeneous i.e., d1, d2 etc are all 0 each, and there are n number of equations in n
variables, the system of equations evidently has always a trivial solution x1 = x2 = x3…………= xn = 0. It is
also seen that rank of the augmented matrix is same as rank of the matrix of the system of equations(as the
last column has all elements 0 each, the augmented matrix is singular and has rank
<n+1)……………………………………………………………….….…(41)
6) If the coefficient matrix is singular, its rank is < n . In case it is n – 1 ,then we can write the equations as
a11x1 + a12x2 + a13x3 + …………..+ a1nxn = 0
a21x1 + a22x2 + a23x3 + …………..+ a2nxn = 0
a31x1 + a32x2 + a33x3 + …………..+ a3nxn = 0
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
an1x1 + an2x2 + an3x3 + …………..+ annxn = 0, …………………(42)
its matrix being singular
or equivalently,
a11x1/xn + a12x2/ xn+ a13x3/xn + …………..+ a1n-1xn-1/xn = - a1n
a21x1/xn + a22x2/ xn+ a23x3/xn + …………..+ a2n-1xn-1/xn = - a2n
a31x1/xn + a32x2/ xn+ a33x3/xn + …………..+ a3n-1xn-1/xn = - a3n
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………..
an1x1/xn + an2x2/ xn+ an3x3/xn + …………..+ ann-1xn-1/xn = - ann…..(43)
Then we have n – 1 variables x1/xn , x2/ xn and n equations; it would have a non-trivial solution if the augmented matrix
of (43) would be singular, or of rank < n. But augmented matrix of (43) is same as coefficient matrix of (42). Hence the
system of homogeneous eqns (42) would have a nontrivial solution only if its rank < n; i.e., only if it is singular. In fact
we get infinite solutions by choosing xn arbitrarily. Thus
A homogeneous system of n eqns in n variables shall have a non-trivial solution only if its coefficient matrix is
singular……………………………………………..……..(44)
We have studied what is the relation between any nonsingular square matrix A and unit matrix of same order I
and studied the relation between I and A-1 in Cayley Hamilton theorem. To proceed from A to I and from I to A-1 . Could
e-row or e-column operations help?. The answer is definitely yes; not in one way, but in three classes of ways ! .We
can start with A and proceed toward I by trying to reduce A through its normal form, diagonal form, triangular form
with the help of only e-row operations, with the help of only e-column operations or with combining both operations.
And the same operations applied to A to change it to I, when repeated in the same sequence, shall land us on A-1 .
Reduction of nonsingular square matrices to normal form, diagonal form, triangular form are three different, powerful
instruments to solve systems of linear equations and they facilitate the job a lot, Let us sit down to see how .
Exercise32
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
Any row or column operation is equivalent to pre or post multiplication of corresponding e- matrix and does not change
rank of the matrix.
Exercise33
Determine the rank of the following matrices.
1 1 1
1 1 2 3 4 3 12 4
1 1 1 3 4 5 10 1 4 2 0 1 2 1
a) , b) 3 2 5 4 8 c) d)
1 1 1
2 6 5 1 1 2 0
1 1 1
1 1 2 3 12 22 32 42 1 1 2 3
4 2
1 0 2 2 32
42
52
4 1 0 2
e) f) g)
0 3 1 4 32 42 52 62 0 3 1 4
2
0 1 0 2 4 52 62 72 0 1 0 2
Ans. a) 1. b) 2. c) 2. d) 3. e) 4. f) 3. g) 4
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
a 11 0 . . 0 1 / a 11 0 . . 0
0 a 22 0 . 0 0 1 0 . 0
0 0 a 33 0 . . An e-matrix like 0 0 1 0 . when pre-multiplied to it, shall further reduce it into
. . . . .
. . . . .
0 0 . . 1
0 0 . . a nn
1 0 . . 0
0 a 22 0 . 0
0 0 a 33 0 . and eventually a series of such operation shall reduce the matrix to an n x n identity matrix.
. . . . .
0 0 . . a nn
Thus we have,
A matrix can be changed to normal form, diagonal form, triangular forms by a series of e-row operations, e-
column operations, or both. Eventually a nonsingular square matrix can be reduced to identity matrix of same
order which is its normal form……………………(45)
Now let us assume that A is a diagonal matrix and a sequence of e-matrices
ek, ek-1, ek-2, ek-3………….. e2, e1 have reduced it to an identity matrix I of same order. We have ek. ek-1.
ek-2. ek-3………….. e2. e1A = I.
Post multiplying both sides by A-1, we have,
ek. ek-1. ek-2. ek-3………….. e2. e1A x A-1 = I x A-1
or, ek. ek-1. ek-2. ek-3………….. e2. e1I = A-1
Hence we have,
The series of elementary row or column operations or both which reduce a nonsingular square matrix An of
order n to its normal form, the same operations applied in the same sequence on identity matrix of same order
In change it to A -1 ………….……(46)
This is the third way to find A-1 as mentioned in the beginning of the section.
Converting the nonsingular square matrices to normal form, diagonal form, triangular forms convey that in process
of elimination there are three different ways hidden as to how skillfully we can carry out the elimination process and
hence three different skills for solving the equations apart from the direct method of matrices as in (21). The
elimination process was being taught only at high school and although we have now studied it in much detail
now, the basic facts remain the same, n independent equations in n unknowns must have a solution. Of
course the equations must be independent; i.e., the concerned matrix must not be singular, in other words (
verify). Number of equations less than number of unknowns means infinite solutions, and the opposite
situation when number of unknowns is less than the number of equations ,only yields a solution if the
equations are consistent.
Exercise34
Reduce the matrices to normal form.
1 1 2 3
4 1 4 3 5 2 4 3 3
0 2 3 2 3 1 1 0 1
a) , b) c)
0 3 1 4
2 1 1 0 4 4 3
0 1 0 2
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Ans. a) b) c)
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1
Exercise35
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
Reduce the matrices to triangular form. (different methods may give different answers)
1 1 1 1 2 3 4 3 12 4
a) 2 3 4
b)
1 4 2 c)
0 1 2 1
4 1 5 2 6 5 1 1 2 0
1 1 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 0
Ans. a)
0 5 2 b) 0 2 1 c) 0 1 2 0
0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 10 0
Exercise36
Whether the set of homogeneous equations are consistent;
x 3 y 2 z 0, 2 x y 3 z 0, 3 x 5 y 4 z 0, x 17 y 4 z 0 have a non-trivial solution?
Ans. The rank of the coefficient matrix is 2 < 3, number of variables. So yes. x = 11y, z = – 7y
Exercise37
Whether the set of equations are consistent;
x y 3 z 1, 4 x 2 y 6 z 8, 15 x 3 y 9 z 21 have a non-trivial solution?
Ans. rank of coefficient matrix is 2 < 3, number of variables. So yes. x =1, y = 3z – 2
Exercise38
Whether the set of equations are consistent;
x y z 0, x 2 y 3 z 2, 2 x 3 z 3 have a non-trivial solution?
Ans. rank of coefficient matrix is 3 = number of variables. So yes, it has a unique solution.
Exercise39
Whether the set of equations are consistent; 2 x y 11 0, 6 x 20 y 6 z 3, y 3 z 16
x, y, z
293 91 197
if so, solve them. Ans. , ,
45 45 270
Exercise40
Whether the set of equations are consistent; 2 x y 6 z 6, x 3 y 4 z 3, 3 x 8 y 10 z 11
Ans. Inconsistent.
Exercise41
Whether x y z 6, x 2 y 3 z 10, x 2 y z are consistent ?
Ans. a)yes for every λ, μ except λ 3, μ 10.
b) If λ = 3, μ 10, or if λ 3, μ = 10, it has no solution.
c) infinite solutions for λ =3, μ =10.
Exercise42
For what values of λ, μ the equations 2 x 3 y z , 7 x 3 y 2 z 8, 2x 3 y 5z 9
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
§6: Of 0 Matrix, Singular and Identity Matrices :
We know if a and b be any two numbers ab = 0 a = 0 or b = 0 or both. We have seen in case of matrices
that there are matrices non-zero matrices M and N whose product may be 0 whereas they themselves are not 0. But
for any singular matrix
S = M x N either M or N or both have to be singular; and product of two singular matrices of course results in a singular
matrix. Now, if S is any singular matrix, Sn must be singular for positive integral powers of n, and vice versa, for the
reason just mentioned. For negative or fractional powers of n, Sn is not defined.
For any square matrix I, identity matrix, it is easily seen that In = I. If T be a square matrix such that Tn = I for
positive or negative powers , then can it be shown that T = I , or it can be something else as well ? It is just possible.
For example if T = 10 10 I, so that T2 = 10 10 x 10 10 = 10 01 =I, whereas T I.
2
Try another example 0i 0i and see that 0i 0i =I whereas 0i 0i I.
(where i 1 .)(see the reason for not defining fractional powers of matrices, even if A3 = B, there may be another
matrix C such that C3 = B; so cube root of B is not unique. It is no worth defining something which is not completely
unique or at least known)
Still in another situation, if A = 0i 0i , B = 10 01 , and C = 0i 0i we see that in each case A2 = B2 = C2 = - I (verify); or
C2 + I = 0 etc. or polynomial expressions involving powers of square matrices may be equated to I or its multiples i.e.,
we may have equations of type A2 – 5A + 7I = 0. Verify that a solution of this equation is A = 31 12 . Such examples
suggest us that there may be a subtle relationship between any square matrix A and the identity matrix I. But
abruptly we cannot put A = .I or A - .I = 0 expecting such a relationship; for A is supposed to be having all its
elements different in general whereas .I has all its elements 0 except those in the leading diagonal which are all equal
to .
But still we can put | A - .I | = 0………………………………………………………..……(47)
for some for any square matrix A and find the value of from the equation
a 11 λ a 12 a 13 . . . . a 1n
a 21 a 22 λ a 23 . . . . a 2n
a 31 a 32 a 33 λ . . . . a 3n
. . . . . . . . =0
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 . . . . a mn λ
to find out any intrinsic relation between A and I if it is there at all. Expanding the determinant we get,
(-1)n[n + p1n – 1+ p2n – 2 + p3n – 3……………………+ pn] = 0
which gives n number of values of for which (33) holds………………………….(47a)
This reveals the sort of relationship between A and I which may help us to find powers of A though not in terms of I but
just by manipulating I at least . Even we may get A- 1 by manipulating I. This we would explore just a little while after.
But just now we should remember that Mathematicians call eqn (33) the characteristic equation of A and the
corresponding values of as characteristic roots or latent roots or simply eigenvalues of A. A function
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c may be distinguished from the corresponding equation
f(x) = ax2 + bx + c = 0 in this manner. If and are roots of the equation f(x) = 0, then
x - and x - are factors of the function f(x) even when f(x) 0. As such
| A - .I | = (-1)n[n + p1n – 1+ p2n – 2 + p3n – 3……………………+ pn]….(48)
is called the characteristic function of A instead if characteristic equation. The relationship between A and I is
beautifully illustrated in the following theorem.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
Still in other words, there is a linear expression involving integral powers of any square matrix A, which may be
equated to the identity matrix.
Start with A - .I and consider its adjoint B (say). The elements of B are nothing but are cofactors of
constituents of | A - .I| , determinants in each of which there are n -1 rows and columns. Thus each of them is a
a 22 λ a 23 . . . . a 2n
a 32 a 33 λ . . . . a 3n
. . . . . . .
polynomial in of degree n – 1 with coefficients as functions of elements of A like . . . . . . . . or like
. . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
a m2 a m3 . . . . a mn λ
(-1)n - 1[q1n – 1+ q2n – 2 + q3n – 3……………………+ qn]. If each element of B is a polynomial like this, each element
having equal number of terms in powers of , and B is a square matrix of order n, then B can be thought of as a sum
of square matrices each of order n , each of which contains only one particular power of in its each element; i.e.,
B = B1n – 1 + B2n – 2 + …… Bn- 1 1 + Bn , taking n – 1, n – 2 etc. common in the component matrices.
Now (A - I) x B = | A - .I|.I , as (A - I)-1= B/| A - .I|.
as product of a matrix and its adjoint = its determinant x unit matrix.
Or, (A - I) x (B1n – 1 + B2n – 2 +… + Bn) = (-1)n[n + p1n – 1+ p2n – 2 + p3n – 3…+ pn].I
which is true for all values of , since characteristic function is considered, not the characteristic eqn. Now equating the
coefficients of like powers of from both sides,
and remembering that I x B1 = B1, I x B2 = B2, etc., we get,
- B1 = (-1)nI,
A x B1 - B2 = (-1)np1I,
A x B2 - B3 = (-1)np2I,
………………………..
………………………..
A x Bn-1 – Bn = (-1)npn-1I,
A x Bn = (-1)npnI.
Multiplying the equations by An, An-1, An-2,etc. both sides from left and adding up, we get,
0 = An + p1An – 1+ p2An – 2 + p3An – 3………………… pn-1A+ pnI which proves the theorem.
This is the relation between I and positive integral powers of A, i.e., I can be expressed as a polynomial in A,
involving its positive integral powers.
Sometimes, it is easier to calculate A2, A3 etc. rather than finding adj.A or A-1 direct and this theorem gives us
an alternative method to calculate A-1 if it exists i.e., when A is not singular. For, multiplying both sides of (35) by A-1,
we have,
An-1 + p1An – 2+ p2An – 3 + p3An – 4………………… pn-1I+ pnA-1 = 0……(50),
which gives A-1 in terms of positive integral powers of A.
This is the relation between A-1 and positive integral powers of A.
In particular cases, if the characteristic equation does not involve higher powers of A than third or fourth, it
would be easier to calculate A-1 in terms of A, A2, A3 and A4 rather than finding adj.A and |A|.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
Apart from this we got hold of a new symbol, the matrix, with its Algebra and Grammar to some extent. Though
we emphasize that mere introduction of a symbol tacitly carries all its Algebra and Grammar with itself, the complete
Grammar of the symbol would be evident when the symbol is invoked in multi-particle dynamics, stress and strain
in elasticity, wave Physics and Quantum Mechanics (See Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics by Sir P.A.M
Dirac, for example), Coordinate Geometry and Theory of Complex Variable, vectors and vector spaces and so
on. Look into any standard book on Algebra at undergraduate level (such as Bernard & Child) in the chapter for
Number Theory, and how fractions, surds, complex numbers are dealt with taking a matrix of the form (a, b) meaning
a/b or a + b or a + ib thereby respectively, completely avoiding cumbersome fraction, surd of imaginary quantity
notations! You can try developing one such theory yourself for sake of rigorous fun. A more interesting and useful
application of matrices is in the field of conic sections; plane curves obtained by cutting of cones or characterised by
constant ratio of distances of any point of it from a fixed point to the distance from a fixed st line. Though these curves
have vector equations , the vector equations are not suited for their analysis as the locus is not straight line, but turns
always in direction. Instead, they have their matrix equations which not only express them nicely, but take care of their
tangents, normals, polars etc. as well.
Y
Y’
X’
S
R
T
O Q X
§8: Matrix as a linear transformation;
Suppose a system of coordinates XY is has been changed to another system X’Y’ making an angle with the original
(each axis has to rotate through the same angle in order that the new set of coordinates are rectangular). The
coordinates (x, y) of any point P are transformed to (x’, y’) in the new system and the two pairs of coordinated are
related like
x’ = x cos + y sin
and y’ = - x sin + y cos ……………………………………(51)
To recapitulate, note that the new coordinate x’ = OR is the projection of OP on OX’. Since the segments OQ and QP (
QT + TP for that matter) together make a path from O to P, the sum of their projections on OX’ is also is equal to the
projection of OP on OX’. Projection of OQ on OX’ is x cos θ. Projection of QT is QT cos (π/2 –θ) = QT sin θ = ST and
projection of TP is
TP cos (π/2 –θ) = TP sin θ = TR. So projection of PQ on OX’ is PQ cos (π/2 –θ) = PQ sinθ. Basing on the fact that
projection of a straight line joining two points is sum of projections of line segments through any path joining the two
points, the rule becomes clear – the new x’ coordinate is the sum of products of the old coordinates x, y and z with their
direction cosines with respect to x’; as the segments x, y and z together make a complete path from O to P.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
or by, = A x X, …………………………......(53)
x ' cos sin
where = ,X= x ,the
y ' y
new and the old coordinates and A =
sin cos is called the transformation
matrix.
Similarly in three dimensional rectangular coordinates, the coordinates of a point P(x, y, z) are transformed into
new coordinates P(x’, y’, z’). The direction cosines of the new axes OX’, OY’ and OZ’ in the old coordinate system are
given by (l1, m1, n1), (l2, m2, n2), and (l3, m3, n3) respectively .
The new coordinates of P(x’, y’, z’) in terms of old coordinates P(x, y, z) are
x ' l m n
1 1 1 x
y ' = l2 m2 n2 x y ………………………………………….(54)
z ' l3 m3 n3 z
(When the coordinate system is oblique , i.e., not rectangular, (when the angles between any pair them is not
a right angle), the coordinates of a point cannot be expressed in terms of direction cosines of the line joining the point
with the origin only , because its projections are not the coordinates. The angles between the respective axes
should be taken into account . Evidently the relation (50) shall not hold for oblique coordinates. )
Suppose a transformation A takes a set of rectangular axes to another set of rectangular axes. Let eˆ, fˆ, gˆ
denote unit vectors in directions OX’, OY’ and OZ’ respectively and iˆ, jˆ, kˆ denote unit vectors in directions OX, OY and
OZ respectively( refer section on vector analysis) then eˆ l1iˆ m1jˆ n1kˆ, fˆ l2iˆ m2 jˆ n2kˆand
gˆ l3iˆ m3 jˆ n3kˆ so that eˆˆ.e 1 l12 m12 n12 and so also 1 l22 m22 n22 and
1 l 32 m 32 n 32 ………..(55)
Other relation may be found from eˆ eˆ 0 fˆ fˆ gˆ gˆ and also iˆ2 jˆ2 kˆ2 1 and again from
eˆ fˆ gˆ, fˆ gˆ eˆ, gˆ eˆ fˆ or fromeˆ.fˆ 0 fˆ.gˆ gˆ.eˆ or fromeˆ fˆ fˆ eˆ etc.. For
example, verify that l1l2 m1m2 n1n 2 0 etc. and l12 l22 l 32 1
etc……………………………………………………………….….(56)
The relations derived from (52) may serve as alternative to the relations (51) but the relations in (51) are sufficient to
describe the rectangular coordinate system transformation.
Evidently no such relation such as (51) or (52) shall hold in general for oblique coordinates. But still more
generally, we can think of every square matrix A of order n being transformation matrix of a coordinate system having
a11 a1n
n coordinates to another coordinate system having n coordinates. For, let A = be any nonsingular n
am 1 amn
x n matrix If it is multiplied to a n x 1 column matrix
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This section is not a part of the preview.
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
x '1
x1
'
x2 x 2
. .
X = , then A x X must be a column matrix some X’ = . Thus any nonsingular square matrix A is a linear
. .
. .
xn '
x n
transformation matrix, transforming X onto X’. As such call |A|, the determinant of the transformation matrix as modulus
of the transformation with no restriction on it to be positive or
nonzero………………………………………………………………..…(57)
If the transformation matrix is singular or 0, it is a singular transformation…….………...(58)
Naturally the inverse transformation A-1 would retransform the new coordinate system back to the old
coordinate system ; as such the reverse transformation matrix shall be A-1 . Definitely so as A x A-1 = I and A-1 x A = I
……………….……..……………………..…………..(59).
for all transformations in general, not only for rectangular systems . Note that singular transformation matrix admits of
no inverse.
For a rectangular system of coordinates, since l1 is cosine of angle of OX’ with OX, say , the angle of OX with OX’
is - and l1 = cos = cos (-) . Similarly, cosine of the angle of OX with OY’, i.e., l2 shall be cosine of angle of OY’ and
with OX and cosine of the angle of OX with OZ’, i.e., l3 shall be cosine of angle of OZ’ with OX. Hence the direction
cosines of OX in new coordinate system is l1, l2, l3.Similarly direction cosines of OY and OZ in the new coordinate
system shall be m1, m2, m3 and n1, n2, n3 respectively. Thus the transformation matrix which would transform the new
coordinate system back to the old coordinate system shall be
l1 l 2 l 3
m1 m 2 m 3 , which is nothing but transpose of A i.e., A’. But earlier we have found that the retransformation matrix
n n
1 2 n3
shall be A-1.
Thus it follows that A, A-1 = A’………………………………………………..…………………………………….(60)
Further, |A-1 | = |A’| = |A| ,as interchange of rows with columns does not affect determinants . Hence we have,
|A|2 = |A2| = |A x A| = |A x A’| = |A x A-1| = |I| = 1; or, |A| = 1……………………..(61)
The relations (56) and (57) may not hold for non-orthogonal transformations.
In general, in n-dimensions, we can think of an orthogonal system instead of the rectangular system and an
orthogonal transformation in n- coordinates is one, in which
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
x1 y1
x2 y2
a particular vector such as X = . is merely transformed into a vector Y = . through multiplication of a square
. .
xn yn
a
11 12 a . . a1n
a21 a22 . . a2n
matrix A = . . . . . , i.e., Y = A x X,
. . . . .
an1 an 2 . . ann
we require y1 y2 ......yn = x 1 x 2 ......x n2 , being length or norm of the same vector from the origin in two
2 2 2 2 2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
a 1 ( x 1 x 2 ) b1 ( y1 y 2 ) c1 ( z 1 z 2 )
= a 2 ( x 1 x 2 ) b 2 ( y1 y 2 ) c 2 (z 1 z 2 ) = A x (X1 + X2)
a ( x x ) b ( y y ) c (z z )
3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2
a1 b 1 c1 x ca 1 cb1 cc1 x
and cA x X = c a 2 b 2 c 2 x y = ca 2 cb 2 cc 2 x y
a b 3 c 3 z ca 3 cb 3 cc 3 z
3
ca 1 x cb1 y cc 1z a 1 b 1 c1 cx
= ca 2 x cb 2 y cc 2 z = a 2 b 2 c 2 x cy = A x (cX) .
ca x cb y cc z a b c cz
3 3 3 3 3 3
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
1l2+ 2m2+……….+nt2 = 0
………………………………..
…………………………………
…………………………………
1ln+ 2mn+……….+ntn = 0
l1 m1 t1 l1 m 1 . . t1
l 2 m 2 t 2 l 2 m 2 . . t2
where x1 = . , x2 = . ,……… xn = . ,or, [x1, x2,….… xn] = . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
l m t l m . . t n
n n n n n
If this set of homogeneous eqn.s would have a non-trivial solution, then the vectors under consideration shall be
linearly dependent and otherwise linearly independent. This would be so only if the rank of the matrix < n or the matrix
is singular.
A set of row vectors x1, x2,….… xn shall be linearly dependent if their matrix is of rank < n or if the matrix
is singular; otherwise linearly independent……………………….(65)
Exercise43
Find the rank of :
3 4 5 6 7
0 1 3 1 4 5 6 7 8
3 1 2 1
0 1 1
a) 6 2 4 b) c) 5 6 7 8 9
3 1 0 2
3 1 2 10 11 12 13 14
1 1 2 0
15 16 17 18 19
Ans. a) 2 b) 2 c) 2
§11: Eigenvectors:
So far we have studied the inherent relation among a square matrix A, I and A-1; how they transform into one another
beautifully , only by multiplication of the same set of
e-matrices! We have also seen how every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation with a certain power
up to which the matrix has to be successively raised with a set of coefficients, to be transformed into I, called as its
characteristic roots, latent roots or eigenvalues. The eigenvalues have a certain role to play when we look upon A
not as a tool to aid in solving equations, not as an entity to be used independently elsewhere, but as a transformation
matrix which transforms vectors into their own scalar multiples. Thus the eigenvalues not only showed the inherent
characteristics of the matrix A, but bring out the core character of the vectors which A operates upon. Perhaps the
most important application of matrices other than analysis of equations is description of Quantum Mechanics with the
help of matrices ( See Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics by Sir PAM Dirac). Take the phenomena of electrons
revolving around positively charged nucleus, as first described by Rutherford. According to classical electrodynamics,
in this situation the electron should radiate energy and its orbit would shrink and ultimately it would take a spiral path
and fall into the nucleus to annihilate each other; so that atom would be destroyed quickly, almost as soon as it is
formed . So the model did not work. Neil Bohr forwarded the theory that the electron cannot assume just any orbit
around a nucleus ; it can only some particular orbits with certain energy values which are eigenvalues of the wave
equation
( energy equation) of the orbits. Differences of energies between permissible orbits for electron differ by integral
multiples of h where h is Plank’s constant and is frequency of radiation . ( The famous equation of Quantum
theory is E = h ). Electrons jump to higher energy levels or orbits absorbing energy packets of h units only and if
they fall to orbits of lower energy levels they radiate those energy packets .They cannot absorb or emit any arbitrary
amount of energy. This is the beauty of matrices without which perhaps quantum theory would have gone through a
weird development. Further application of eigenvectors are in sound wave physics and vibrating membranes.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
In Cayley Hamilton theorem, we noted that to explore the relationship between A and I, we could not abruptly
put A = I for an ordinary number ; but we could put
|A - I| = 0 which gave us its characteristic roots. Now suppose A is a square matrix which transforms a certain vector
X into a scalar multiple of X itself, i.e., A x X = X. Let us see how many such vectors we can find for any particular
matrix A.
A x X = X A x X = I x X (A - I)x X = 0 ……………………….(66)
i.e, the situation when A transforms a vector X into a scalar multiple of itself.
x1
x 2
If X = . , where A is an n x n non-singular matrix,(63) would result in a set of n homogeneous equations like
.
x
n
a 11 λ a 12 a 13 . . . . a 1n x 1 0
a 21 a 22 λ a 23 . . . . a 2n x 2 0
a a 32 a 33 λ . . . . a 3n x 0
31 3 .
. . . . . . . . x . =0= .
. . . . . . . . .
.
. . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 . . . . a mn λ x n 0
whose values would be got only if the coefficient matrix A - I must be singular for the set of equations to have
nontrivial solutions; which is the required condition (refer rank of matrix section). The solutions shall evidently given by
the characteristic equation
a 11 λ a 12 a 13 . . . . a 1n
a 21 a 22 λ a 23 . . . . a 2n
a 31 a 32 a 33 λ . . . . a 3n
. . . . . . . . 0
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
a m1 a m2 a m3 . . . . a mn λ
in the manner as we did before. For each characteristic value (each value of λ) or for each eigenvalues, we shall get a
x1
x 2
value of the vector X = . , from the equation and shall call such vectors as eigenvectors of A. Those are the only
.
x
n
particular vectors whom the matrix A shall transform into their own scalar multiples of I. In consonance with the
arguments in case of homogeneous equations, the set of homogeneous equations shall not be all independent and one
of these equations shall be found to be linear combination of some others as the corresponding determinant is 0. If
one of the x1, x2,…..xn is not 0, say xn 0, x1/ xn, x2/ xn,…..etc. shall be uniquely determined for one particular value of .
Again, (A - I)x X = 0 (A - I) x X = 0 for any constant . So , for one particular value of we get a class of
eigenvectors X . We can suitably choose a linearly independent set of X1, X2, X3,……………. Xn, one out of each class
so that any other eigenvector X is a linear combination of these only. This is because we have n values of . Even if
two values of may happen to be same, still then we can suitably choose a linearly independent set of X1, X2,
X3,……………. Xn, one out of each class and in fact many such choices can be made. Sometimes a set of linearly
independent eigenvectors may not be found also , so as to express other eigenvectors as linear combinations of this
set.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
§12: Reduction to Diagonal form ;
A square matrix A of order n can be reduced to diagonal form manually by making members of matrix 0’s
element by element except the elements in the leading diagonal, as we have done in elimination process. But there is a
nicer way to do it, if the characteristic equation of A can give us n linearly independent eigenvectors. Let
x 1 x 2 x n
y1 y 2 y n
X1 = . , X2 = . ………….. Xn = . be its n eigenvectors corresponding to the latent roots, 1, 2……………n and
. . .
t t t
1 2 n
x1 x 2 . . xn
y1 y 2 . . yn
let B = . . . . . . =[ X1 X2 ………….. Xn] written briefly. Then
. . . . .
t t . . t n
1 2
A x B = A x [ X1 X2 ………….. Xn]
= [ A x X1 A x X2 ………A x Xn]
= [ 1X1 2X2 ………….. nXn]
λ 1x1 λ 2 x 2 . . λnxn
λ 1 y1 λ 2 y 2 . . λ n yn
= . . . . . .
. . . . .
λ t λ t . . λ n t n
11 2 2
x1 x 2 . . x n λ1 0 . . 0 λ1 0 . . 0
y1 y 2 . . yn 0 λ2 . . 0 0 λ2 . . 0
= . . . . . . x . . . . . . =B x . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
t t . . t n 0 0 . . λ n 0 0 . . λ n
1 2
λ1 0 . . 0
0 λ2 . . 0 -1
or, . . . . . . =B xAxB
. . . . .
0 0 . . λ n
which shows B-1 x A x B is a diagonal matrix, got from A.
Hence B-1 x A x B is a diagonal matrix, got from A if B is a square matrix formed of n linearly independent
eigenvectors of A………………………………………………(67)
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
=|r(cos +I sin )||s(cos +I sin )|, where | | stands for modulus or absolute value or norm or distance
from origin.
c) In case of dot product of two vectors P & Q where their corresponding components are multiplied and
added up,
P .Q = (Px , Py ,Pz).( Qx , Qy ,Qz) = Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz, = PQ cos , a scalar;
Here | P . Q | = | Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz|= | PQ cos |=|P||Q||cos ||P||Q|.
Also P = Px2 Py2 Pz2 = | P |,Q = Q 2x Q 2y Q 2z = | Q |,and is the angle between P & Q and the product is a
scalar quantity, not a vector..
P .Q Px Q x Py Q y Pz Q z
So cos = =
PQ PQ
P . Q = Q . P as cos = cos ( - )
P . P or( P )2 = Px2 Py2 Pz2 =P2 cos 0 = |P|2 = (as cos 0 = 1)
Note that | | denotes here magnitude of a vector or absolute value of a scalar as the context may be.
d) Cross product of two vectors P & Q = P x Q
(Px , Py ,Pz)x( Qx , Qy ,Qz) = (PyQz – PzQy , PzQx – PxQz , PxQy – PyQx)
= PQ sin , a vector perpendicular to P & Q thumb of right hand pointing its direction when other fingers in
the direction of P are turned towards Q .
Note that | P x Q | = | PQ sin | = |P||Q|}sin | |P||Q|.
P xQ P x Q . P x Q
And |sin | = =
| P || Q | | P || Q |
(Py Q z - Pz Q y ) 2 (Pz Q x - Px Q z ) 2 ( Px Q y - Py Q x ) 2
=
PQ
( Px Q x Py Q y Pz Q z ) 2
Alternatively, sin = 1 cos 2 α = 1
PQ
( Px Q x Py Q y Pz Q z ) 2
= 1
( Px2 Py2 Pz2 )(Q 2x Q 2y Q 2z )
=
P 2
x
Py2 Pz2 Q 2x Q 2y Q 2z Px Q x Py Q y Pz Q z 2
PQ
(Py Q z - Pz Q y ) 2 (Pz Q x - Px Q z ) 2 ( Px Q y - Py Q x ) 2
= Also P x P = 0 as sin 0 = 0 and P x Q = - Q x
PQ
P as sin = - sin ( -).
e) Product of matrices as explained above. By |A| we mean determinant of square matrix A which may even be
negative in a particular case and ||A|| we mean absolute value of |A|.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1 PART 1:THE SWORD AND THE SHIELD
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D Section 3: Linear Functions, Vectors, Matrices And Determinants
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams) Chapter 25 Linear Equations And Matrices
We have | A x B| = | A | x | B| as explained above where |P| denotes determinant of P ;(individual
determinants and the product may be negative also. But we have,|| A x B|| = || A | x | B|| = || A || x || B|| , where
||A|| etc. mean absolute value of | A | etc..
f) Multiplication of two determinants of same order are done in a variety of ways but the results must be the
same and one of the ways is akin to the process of multiplication of square matrices, i.e., determinants are multiplied in
just the same way as matrices are..
g) Addition or subtraction of complex numbers, vectors, and matrices are very
similar as the corresponding members are added or subtracted Addition in determinants have their own
peculiarities explained before. Addition of determinants does not bear any useful similarity with addition of matrices.
Two determinants same in all respects with each other except only one row or column may be added to or
subtracted from each other and the resulting determinant is obtained by adding to or subtracting from each other
the corresponding members of those rows or columns which are not equal in the two determinants.
Coordinates of points in two or three dimensional spaces are very similar in structure with complex numbers,
vectors or matrices. But fortunately or unfortunately we have so far not needed to add /subtract / multiply coordinates of
points nor perhaps anybody has explored that aspect. Still in particular problems in Coordinate Geometry, vectors,
matrices or complex numbers may be used; or vice versa, i.e., Coordinate Geometry may be invoked to help solve
particular problems in these areas. There is vast use of determinants in Coordinate Geometry of two and three
dimensions in finding equations of straight lines and curves and finding criteria to satisfy various conditions, looking for
invariants in transformation of coordinates from one system to another, which we shall deal in a little more detail
afterwards. In Coordinate Geometry, transformations of system of coordinates are very well represented by matrices.
Such similarities and differences observed should be thoroughly borne in mind before doing some
exercises in Coordinate Geometry, complex numbers, vectors, determinants and matrices so that problems
can be solved in a variety of ways from these five platforms and of course, everything from the platform of
Calculus. Illustration of the statement shall be made through examples.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
x2 y2
1 X 2 Y2
a2 b2 1
Y’ b2 b2
In y-direction
2 2
as shown in the figure where PMN is a circle represented
X Y x2 y2
by a 2 a 2 1 and QMN is the graph of the modified eqn. a2
b2
1
. All the y
coordinates in the new graph have been reduced in the ratio b/a. The curve shall
be called an ellipse with major axis 2a and minor axis 2b; as may be obtained
by putting y = 0 and x = 0 in its eqn. in turn, to get maximum values of x and y
respectively and denoting them by a and b respectively. Its equation would be
given by
x2 y2
1 …………………………………… eqn(a)
a 2 b2
This is done as follows :
X2 Y2
Let the eqn. of the circle be written in form 1 …………………….(a)
a2 a2
Transform the coordinates to x and y ,only by compressing Y coordinates by
a factor b/a where b/a < 1;i.e.,x = X, and y = b .Y/a ;
OR X = x and Y = a .y/b……………………………………………………….(b)
© Page 1
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
The curve PMN is now changed to the curve QMN because of the transformation of
coordinates to new coordinates x and y. A relationship between x and y shall be its
equation. Since x and y are related to X and Y as in (b) and X and Y are related to
2
a2y
x 2 2 x2 y2
each other as in (a), we can rewrite (a) as, b 1, 1
a2 a2 a2 b2
which is the only one relationship between x any we sought for, and becomes the eqn.
of the new curve ( called ellipse).
x 2
The curve shall be bounded by as seen by analyzing the equation y b 1 or
a 2
y 2
x a 1 , (obtained from eqn.(2).), as and no part of the curve shall lie beyond x =
b 2
a, x = - a , y = b and y = - b, for, x and y to have real number values. The curve would be
symmetrical about both the axes as its eqn. does not change by replacing x by – x , or y by – y.
© Page 2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
x a
2
y2
2 1 x2 y 2 2 x
focus respectively. Note that a2 b opens up to 2 2 0.
a b a
§3: Change of Axes
x2 y2
1 where b < a is a standing ellipse , but e here is not > 1, for e is defined as
b2 a 2
a2 b2
1 2 instead of 1 2 , quite consistent with the concept, as b is the major axis here.
b a
§4: Auxiliary Circle;
Draw a circle of radius a superimposed on the ellipse as shown in fig. 6A. Let the
coordinates of any point P on the ellipse be (x, y) ,ON =x and PN =y .Produce NP to
meet the circle at Q and join AQ and A’Q. Since angle AQA’ is inscribed in a
semicircle, it is a right angle. By property of right triangles,
QN2 =AN,NA’ = (a + x)(a - x)
2 2 x2
= a 2 x a 2 = 1 2 a 2
a a
2 2
y a
= 2
a 2 = PN 2
b b2
PN b
If ordinates of all points on the circle of radius a are reduced b/a
QN a
times, the locus of such points would be the ellipse with major and minor axes, a and
b.
Y Q
P
X’ A’ O S N A X
T
Y’
This is further logical confirmation of the fact that the ellipse is obtained by
compressing its y - coordinates in the ratio b/a.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Exercise1
Taking any point P on the ellipse and its corresponding point Q on the auxiliary circle,
a st line parallel to the radius of the auxiliary circle OQ , cutting the coordinate axes at
S ant T respectively. Show that PS = b and PT = a.
Ans. PT = OQ = a as PTOQ is a parallelogram. Since b cos PN PS sin ,
PS PN cos ec b sin cos ec b
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
§8: Vector Equations
If r or r be the position vector of any point P on the ellipse,
r x, y , z a cos , b sin , 0 ………………………………………… eqn(d)
where z = 0 represents xy-plane. The nice thing about vectors is, that they
carry three independent entities , or components as one entity, preserving their
independence and as such, three equations are briefly written as one equation. In
case of a st line most of the problems in coordinate geometry can be solved in vector
analysis. But vectors are seldom used in context of conic sections or curves as the
direction of the radius vector is always changing. Matrices are better suited for
representing conic sections; examples may be found at the last of conic sections.
Alternatively,
A Vector equation of ellipse may be like r f1 r f 2 2a ,
where f1 , f 2 are its foci and r x, y,0 .
f1 f 2
Since f1 f 2 2ae . the equation becomes r f1 r f 2
e
Exercise
f1 f 2
For an interior point of the ellipse, show that 0 e
f1 f 2
f1 f 2
Hint. Inside the ellipse PF1 PF2 e r f1 r f 2 0 .Since the origin
e
f1 f 2 f1 f 2
r 0 is inside the ellipse, then 0 f1 0 f 2 0 e
e f1 f 2
§9:
Use of complex numbers
If z1 , z2 are two fixed points on the complex Argand plane , show that
z2 z2
z z1 z z2 k represents an ellipse with eccentricity e if e 1
e
The circle has a centre and the ellipse has also a centre. But the centre of the ellipse
is not that important as the centre of the circle. We mentioned that the beautiful
properties of circle lies in the constancy of its radius. The ellipse has no such radial
symmetry as in the case of circle. Instead, there are two other points of importance
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
along the main axis or the major axis , one on each side of the center , each being
called a focus (see fig.7) . How far the focus is moved from the center so that the
circle is flattened to become an ellipse is measured by its eccentricity. This is the
corresponding most simple thing about any ellipse responsible for beautiful properties
of the ellipse. Not only that, this is characteristic of all conic sections, parabola,
hyperbola etc. as we would see later on. We explore below how the focus and
eccentricity are related .
x2 y2
In the eqn. 2
1, put b = fa or b/a = f, (evidently f < 1, as b < a). This is the
a b2
compression factor of y- coordinates as mentioned above. This reduces eqn(2) to
x2f2 + y2 = a2f2………………………………………………..(a)
The left side looks like square of a distance (as we knew distance formula between the
points (x, y) and (x1, y1), d = ( x x 1 ) 2 ( y y1 ) 2 )and the form of the equation indicates
us to make the expression a complete square so as to see what distance it might be.
Put e2 = 1 – f2 (certainly we can, as f < 1) so that x2f2 becomes
x2 (1 – e2 ), and a2f2 becomes a2 (1 – e2 ), Thus the eqn. becomes
x2 + a2e2 + y2 = a2 + e2x2
In further endeavour to complete squares, we add – 2aex to both sides and get
(x – ae)2 + (y – 0)2 = e2(x – a/e)2……………………………………………………..(b)
The left side may be thought as the square of distance from any point (x, y) on the
curve from the point (ae, 0) and the right side may be thought of as e2 times the
square of distance from any point (x, y) on the curve from the straight line x = a/e
(drop a perpendicular from point (x, y) onto the straight line x = a/e). The point (ae, 0)
happens to be a fixed point and the straight line x = a/e happens to be a fixed straight
line, a straight line parallel to y-axis at x = a/e; and the ratio of these distances happen to
be e , a constant, for any point on the ellipse. Turning our attention on this fixed point F,
we call it focus of the ellipse
( from which we take distance of any point on the ellipse as focal distance). In the figure
below, the point on the ellipse is denoted by P(x, y),the fixed point F is at
(ae, 0) , and the and the fixed line ( called the directrix) is the line x = a/e, denoted by
the lineDD2’ . To see how the x-coordinates are stretched, we calculate distances of
any point from the focus and compare with the distance from the directrix and find the
ratio same for all points. So we call the fixed straight line directrix of the ellipse
directing how much the figure may be elongated along the x-axis, if we start with the
x2 y2
circle 2
1 (vide the smaller circle in Fig.6). This also shows how the y-
b b2
coordinates are compressed along the direction of the directrix (or in the direction of y
x2 y2
–axis) instead of stretching the x-coordinates if we start with the circle 1 (vide
a2 a2
the larger circle in Fig.6).
It would take some time to understand that the ratio e, i.e., the ratio of distance from
the focus to the distance from the directrix of any point is as natural and as simple as
the constancy of radius in case of a circle. This is characteristic of all conic sections
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
like parabola and hyperbola, not only ellipse. We would see later on that e for a
parabola is 1 and for a hyperbola is more than 1. A natural deduction follows that
eccentricity of a circle is 0, for the circle is perfectly centered, and the center is the
focus. Its directrix is imagined as a st.line at infinity, and the focus at the center,
the focal distance is the radius, and the directrix distance is infinity, making e =
0 thereby.
§11: Visualisation of e
Thus the directrices seemingly pull every point on the circumference of the circle as if
by strings perpendicular to the lines so that spokes of the wheel are compressed in
vertical direction and shift away from the centre and converge at the two foci in order
to fit inside the flattened circle, at distances ae from the centre, the ratio e determining
how far the foci would be away from the centre or which was previously the centre( the
focus is at a distance ae, between the center and radius a); hence called eccentricity.
The ratio f is some sort of complement of e, related to e by the relation e2 + f2 = 1 and
as such, may be thought of as compression factor in contrast, as a central tendency.
(See Fig.). Also this may be noted that the distance from the focus to the tip of the
minor axis still remains ‘a’ , the same as before the focus started moving. This is easily
2 2 2
2
verified as BF2 = BO2 +OF2, or, b a e a 1 e a e a . So BF = a.
2 2 2 2
Y
D1 L1 B L D
M P M’
X Q X
F’ F
N A O A N
L’
L1’ B
D1’ Y D2’
The two foci (focuses) impress upon us to think as if the centre of the circle we started
with, has been split into two points which have moved apart a distance 2ae from each
other as a result of compression. Hence e is called the eccentricity of the ellipse( given
by b a 1 e 2 ,as we have taken
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
2 b2
2
b = af and e = 1 – f , or e 1 ). For the ratio to have a practical meaning it must
a2
be less than 1 as we have presumed.
(There are no real directrices across the y-axes and there are no real foci if b > a in
2
y2
the eqn x 2 1, as only elongation of the curve along the x-axis is sufficient to take
a b2
account of both elongation in one way and compression in the other way. But to think
uniformly we may conjecture that there are two imaginary foci along the y-axis and
two imaginary directrices across the y-axis in such case).
In passing we may note here that FA/AN = e as A is a point on the ellipse; which
implies that the point A internally divides the segment FN in the ration e : 1. So there
must be a point on extended FN which divides it in the ratio e : 1 . We find that A’ is
the point doing so. For A’ is a point on the ellipse and as such FA’/A’N = e. Also
F’A’/A’N’ = e; as F’ is also a focus and M’N’ is its directrix. To avoid confusion verify
that the ratio does not hold if we take one focus and the other directrix and calculate
the ratio of their distances from any point. It may further be noted that the number a is
nothing but the geometric2
mean
2
of ae and a/e.
x y
1
If b > a, the circle a 2
a2 can be thought of as compressed in reverse in the
direction of y-axis or expanded along y-axis and a standing ellipse is obtained with its
major axis 2b along the y-axis. In this case e cannot be thought of as greater than 1. It
b2
cannot be defined as e 1 ;as it won’t be a real number. But we see that the
a2
graph is an ellipse, with foci, albeit along y-axis and directrices across
a2
y-axis. Thus, in this case, e has to be defined as e 1 as the major and
b2
the minor axes have been interchanged.
§12: Second focus and second directrix
The equation (2b) may be written as
(x + ae)2 + (y + 0)2 = e2(x + a/e)2…………………………..(c)
by adding 4aex to both sides of (2b) and albeit the equation shall represent the same
ellipse as we have in fact, made no change in (b). But it shows that the same ellipse
has second focus at ( - ae, 0)at the point F’, and second directrix at x = - a/e, the line
D1D1’..
§13: Distance of focus from the center.
The distance of the focus from the center is ae or – ae as said above and e is given by
b2 a 2 b 2
e2 1 2
2
;this further gives a 2e2 a 2 b2 , or ae a 2 b 2
a a
(Remember)
Exercise2
Find the circle of the smallest diameter that can pass though both the foci.
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Exercise3
Show that the major axis, the minor axis and the distance between the foci can form a
right angled triangle and tangent of one of its angles is eccentricity.
§427: Sum of distances of any point from two foci
Let us consider sum of distances of any point P from F and F’. As FP/PM’ = e,
FP = ePM’, and , as F’P / PM = e, F’P = e PM. Now FP +F’P = e( PM’ + PM) = eMM’ =
eNN’= e.2ON , as ON =ON’. But ON = a/e, as , at any point on DD2’ is x = a/e. So,
FP + F’P = 2a…………………… …….eqn(2)
The sum of the focal distances of any ellipse is equal to the major axis. Some text
books take this fact about the ellipse as its definition.
§14: Sum of distances of any point from two foci
In fact, there are many alternative “definitions” of ellipse revealing its many facets. Any
of these alternatives is sufficient to describe the properties of ellipse fully. In fact the
alternative definitions come from some important properties from which other
properties could be derived using standard mathematical tools. Exploration of these
alternative treatments give insight to geometrical properties of the ellipse. We count
below some of the alternative derivations / definitions tacitly carrying other properties
of ellipse and shall show how we can start from one definition and reach another and
vice versa.
§15: Equation of ellipse from constancy of sum of distances from two foci
As we have indicated, sum of the distances of any point of the curve from two fixed
points (foci) is constant ( major axis).
Let the constant be 2a. Choose the origin midway between the two fixed points and
choose the x-axis along the line joining the two fixed points. There is no loss of
generality as we can shift the origin and the axes later as we please. Thus the
coordinates of the two fixed points may be taken as (k, 0) and ( - k, 0) ; or as (ae, 0)
and ( - ae, 0) if we denote k /a = e. Later on we would observe that this is really the
eccentricity e. If (x, y) be the coordinates of the point , the sum of whose distances
from (ae, 0) and ( - ae, 0) is 2a; we have,
(x ae) 2 y2 (x ae) 2 y2 2a ,
Or (x ae) 2
y 2 ( x ae) 2 y 2 4a
2
2
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
2
or,
x 2
a 2e2 y 2
2
4a 4 4a 2 x 2 a 2 e 2 y 2 x 2 a 2 e 2 y 2 2
4x 2 a 2 e 2
or,
4a 4 4a 2 x 2 a 2e 2 y 2 4x 2a 2e 2 , or,
a 2 x 2 a 2e 2 y 2 x 2e 2
or, a 2 x 2e 2 x 2 a 2e 2 y 2 , or, x 2 (1 e 2 ) y 2 a 2 (1 e 2 )
x2 y2
or, 1 ……………………………(a)
a 2 a 2 (1 e 2 )
is the required eqn. to the curve described by the locus of the moving point.
x 2 y2
Or, 2 2 1 ………………………………….……………………………(b)
a b
may be taken as the eqn. to the curve which is called an ellipse.; where we have
2 2 2
taken b a (1 e ) . Naturally a restriction , e < 1 has to be imposed in order that b
may be a real number. The highest value of x may be found putting y = 0; (i.e.,
intersection of the curve with x-axis) which gives highest value of x = a. Similarly the
highest value of y may be found putting x = 0; (i.e., intersection of the curve with y-
axis) which gives highest value of y = b. It follows that the curve is symmetrical about
both x-axis and y-axis as the eqn. does not change by replacing y with – y or x with –
x. Hence it is a closed curve bounded by the lines x = a and y = b. 2a is seen to be
maximum stretch of the curve along the x-axis and is called its major axis and 2b is
seen to be maximum stretch of the curve along the y-axis and is called its minor axis.
Exercise4
What is the locus of vertex of a triangle whose base is fixed and sum of other two
sides is constant?
Ans. An ellipse, the two ends of the base being foci.
Exercise5
Trace the center of the in-circle of the triangle in the above problem.
Y
A
L
M
I
X’ O N C X
B
Y’
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
In the figure I is the in center and base of the triangle is x – axis and its perpendicular
bisector is the Y- axis. In view of BN = BL, CN = CM and AL = AM and sum of all the
six = a + b + c = 2s; we have BN + CM + AL = s , or , BN + CM + AM = s, or,
BN + b = s , or BN = s – b
So that ON = BN – OB = s – b – a/2 = (c – b)/2 = x, say.……………………….….(a)
y IN r
The ordinate of the in center , evidently its radius , given by s ………(b)
Where s s a s b s c =
a c b a b c 1 1
s s a s s a a 2 c b s s a a2 4x2
2
2 2 2 2
Putting this value of ∆ in (b) find the relation between x and y to prove it to be an
ellipse.
Mark here that sum of three sides is constant and base is fixed means same thing as
sum of two sides other than the base is constant. A trivial fact can easily lead to
confusion.
Another method
Take the end points of the base of the triangle B (– ae, 0) and C(ae, 0) and the vertex
ot the triangle A( a cos θ, b sin θ) as the vertex traces an ellipse of major axis 2a, and
sum of the sides is constant = 2a. The sides of this triangle are of lengths , base =
2ae, the other two sides are a + ae cos θ and ae – ae cos θ respectively. The in center
BC a cos CA ae AB ae BC b sin CA 0 AB 0
of this triangle is ,
BC CA AB BC CA AB
2ae a cos a 1 cos ae a 1 cos ae 2ae b sin
,
2ae a 1 cos a 1 cos 2ae a 1 cos a 1 cos
e
ae cos , b sin , or , if (x, y) are coordinates of in center,
e 1
e
Then x ae cos , and y b sin . Eliminate the variable θ using
e 1
cos2 sin 2 1
Exercise6
Find the eccentricity of the ellipse described by the in center in the above problem.
2e
Ands. E
1 e
§16: Construction of ellipse.
The above property is used for physically constructing an ellipse with given major axis
and eccentricity.
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Take a piece of string of length equal to the major axis, and tie its ends to two fixed
points 2ae distance apart on a piece of paper on a drawing board with the help of two
fixing pins. Then hold the string taut by pencil point and move the pencil point in both
directions as far as the pencil would go. Then turn the string to the other side of the
line joining the fixed points and repeat the process. Thus an ellipse is drawn.(See fig
8)
§17: Equation of ellipse from focal distance and directrix distance
We can start from the statement that the locus of the curve is such that the ratio
of the distance of any point on it from a fixed point (focus) to its distance from a fixed
straight line (directrix) is a given constant e < 1. Let the focus be at a point (h, k) and
the directrix be the line Ax +By +C = 0, we have,
Distance of any point P(x, y) from the focus F(h, k) is ( x - h)2 ( y k )2 and the
Ax By C
distance of P(h, k) from the st.line Ax By C 0 is , so that we have,
A2 B 2
( Ax By C ) 2
( x - h) 2 ( y k ) 2 e 2 ,……………………………………….…….eqn(3)
A2 B 2
This is the equation of the ellipse, where e is the given value of
eccentricity < 1. We may transform this equation to the conventional form which is
convenient. But this is a general equation of the ellipse, whose focus is at (h, k) and
directrix is the line Ax By C 0 . It immediately follows that if some equation is
known to represent an ellipse in some other method, that equation may be rearranged
into this form so that its focus and directrix may be found out. We would return to
the point while studying general second degree equation in two variables.
Determination of focus, directrix etc.
One utility of this equation is that we can determine focus, directrix, center, major and
minor axes etc, by reducing any given equation to this form.
Reduction to standard form:
For now, let us use this equation to find the equation of the ellipse in the form
x 2 y2
1
a 2 b2
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
D1 L B P D
M’ M
X’ O X
N’ A’ F’ F Q A N
’
L’ B’
D1’ Y D’
Graph of ellipse
Let F be the focus of the ellipse (0, 0) for the time being as in the case of the general
conic, the origin is taken at the focus and DD’ be the directrix . Let P(x, y) be any point
on the ellipse. Join FP and let the perpendicular from P on DD’ meet it at M. The
equation shall be obtained putting the ratio FP / PM = e , a given number less than 1.
Let A is the point on the ellipse which is on x-axis. So AF = eNA; in other words, the
point A divides the segment FN in the ratio e:1. There must be another point A’ on the
X-axis such that FA’ = eA’N (external division) and A’ is on the ellipse as ratio of its
distances from the focus and from its directrix is e. Let AA’ = 2a and O be the middle
point of AA’.
We have to shift the origin from F to O, middle point of AA’ for sake of symmetry and
simplicity; so we need determine the equation of the directrix DD’ , for which we have
to determine FN in terms of a and e, which is ON – OF. So the segments ON and OF
in terms of a and e are required..
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Ax +By +C = 0; so that A =1, B = 0, and C = a/e – ae, by comparison.
2
a
x e ae
With this consideration, eqn.(3a) becomes, x 2 y 2 e 2 2
1 0 2
Or, x ae ae
2
2 2 2 a
y e x ae ……………………. eqn(c)
e
If the origin is shifted to O, the point (-FO,0) or (-ae,0), x should be replaced by
x + ae, ( or x – ae should be replaced by x) so that the equation becomes,
2
x ae 2 y 2 e 2 x a ,
e
or, x ae 2 y 2 ex a 2 ………………………………………………. …eqn(7)
Or, x 2 1 e 2 y 2 a 2 1 e 2 , or, x2
a2
y2
a 2 1 e 2 1
If we put x = 0 in this equation, y a 1 e 2 , or the values of y where the curve meets
the y-axis are a 1 e 2 ,the points, B and B’ in the figure. The values of b are real of
course, as e2 < 1. If this length a 1 e 2 is denoted by b, the eqn. eqn(3e)becomes,
x2 y2
1 ……is the equation of the ellipse…………………………. eqn(a)
a2 b2
2a is called major axis and 2b is called minor axis of the ellipse.
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Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
as b2 a 2 (1 e2 )
§20: Focal radii:
Distance of any point on the ellipse from focus is called a focal radius.
In the above figure,
F’P = ePM’ = eQN’ = eN’O + eOQ = e.a/e + ex ,Or F’P = a + ex. ……….. ..eqn(10a)
Similarly,
FP = ePD = eQN = e (ON – OQ) = e.a/e – ex , Or FP = a – ex …..…….. eqn(10b)
Exercise7
Find the sum and product of focal distances of any point P(x, y):
Sum of focal distances is evidently a + ex + a – ex = 2a, major axis.
Product of the focal distances is
a
s
i
n
+
b
c
o
s
=
r
r
'
2
2
a 2 b2 2 θ θ
a ex a ex a 2 e2 x 2 a 2 2
a cos2 , say
a
Remember
P
β α
A’ A
S’ S
Exercise8
1 e
In the above ellipse show that tan . tan
2 2 1 e
S 'P SP SS ' SS ' S ' P SP
Hint. From sine law, sin sin sin sin sin sin
cos
2ae 2a e 2
1
2sin cos 2sin cos cos
2 2 2 2 2
cos cos 2 cos cos
e 1
2 2 2 2 tan tan 1 e
e 1 cos cos 2sin sin 2 2 1 e
2 2 2 2
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Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
x2 y2
The equation can be written either in form y b 1 or, x a 1 In order that
a2 b2
values of x and y be real, the domain of x and the range of y are not beyond [-a, a]
and [-b, b] respectively, or, the curve has no part beyond them. The curve is
symmetrical about x-axis and y-axis as the equation does not change by replacing –y
by y or –x by x. This indicates there is a second focus and second directrix .Since FO =
ae by eqn(3), and we have shifted the origin to O from F, the coordinates of F have
now become (OF,0) or (ae,0) and the coordinates of N have become (ON,0) or
(a/e,0). Take a point F’ (-ae,0) and N’ -a/e,0) and the line D1D1’ at N’ parallel to D1D1’.
a
Now F ' P x ae y 2 and PM ' QN ' ON ' OQ x .
2
e
From eqn.(3d),
2
x ae 2 y 2 e 2 x a F’P = e.PM’ which proves, F’ can be a focus and D1D1’ can
e
be the corresponding directrix for any point P.
The fact that the ellipse has two foci and two directrix prompts us to
sum of distances of any point on the ellipse from the two foci. In the above figure
PF + PF’ =
e.PM + e.PM’ = e(PM + PM’) = e(MM’) = e.NN’ = 2e.ON =2e.(a/e) =2a
Hence the sum of focal distances from any point on the ellipse = major axis as before
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
§23: Alternative derivation of eqn of ellipse ; Ellipse as shadow of a circle
L
’
X’
V’
P’ X
Q’
Y’
O’
U’ T S
P R
Y Q
O
U
L’
Let a plane ’ in the figure contain a coordinate system X’O’Y’ and make an angle
with the plane , the plane of the paper .Let them meet on LL’. Draw a circle V’P’U’ on
’ of radius a , and let its projection on be the figure VPU centered at O of coordinate
system XOY. Let P’ be any point on the circle with coordinates O’Q’ = x’ and P’Q’ = y’,
respectively having projections OQ = x and PQ = y. It can be verified that the x-axis
and x’-axis are parallel to each other but the y-axis and y’-axis make an angle
between them, equal to the angle between the planes. Hence projection of any
segment parallel to x’-axis remains the same but projection of any segment parallel to
the y’-axis is got my multiplying it with cos . (verify). Thus OQ = O’Q’ and PQ = P’Q’
cos or
P’Q’ = PQ/ cos . We have a2 = O’P’2 = O’Q’2 + P’Q’2 = OQ2 + PQ2/cos2 .
y2
Or, a 2 x 2 for any point (x’, y’) on the circle.
cos 2 α
But this is a relationship between x and y of any point on the figure VPU , so it is the
equation to it.
We verify that the figure is symmetrical about both the axes as –x or – y can replace x
or y respectively without affecting the equation and maximum value of x , i.e.
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Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
OV = a, putting y = 0 in the equation. This was expected, since it is the projection of
O’V’ = a and projection of any segment parallel to X’-axis does not change.
y2 x2 y2
Comparing a 2 x 2 or 1 , with standard equation of ellipse
cos 2 α a2 a 2 (1 sin2 α)
Putting sin = e (sin is naturally less than 1) and putting b a 1 e2 we see that, the
2 2
x y
equation reduces to standard form of the ellipse 2
2 1
a b
Thus projection of a circle on another plane at an angle with the plane of the
circle is an ellipse with eccentricity e = sin , where is the angle between the
planes.
Mark two points R and S on the x-axis such that OR = a sin and OS = a / sin , and
drop a perpendicular PT on a line at S, parallel to y-axis. We observe that a is the
geometric mean of a sin and a / sin . Since their product gives a2. But this relation
is for a particular point. For any point P(x, y) on the curve,
PR 2 PQ 2 RQ2 (a sin x) 2 y 2 and
2
a
PT QS OS OQ
2
2 2
x
sin
or, e2=
PR 2
(x a sin α) 2 y 2
(x a sin α) 2 a 2 x 2 cos 2 α ,
PT 2
a
2
a x sin α 2
x
sin α sin 2 α
as
y y ' cos a x ' cos a x cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
x 2 1 cos 2 α a 2 sin 2 α cos 2 α 2ax sin α sin 2 α sin 2 α
2 2 2
a x sin α 2ax sin α
thus the figure is actually an ellipse and eccentricity = sin .. …………….eqn(12)
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
The eqn. to the circle x’2 + y’2 = a2 , on the plane ’, is actually equation to a cylinder
in three dimensions. For, construct a cylinder on the circle with its axis perpendicular
to x’-axis and y’-axis, and take any point (x’, y’, z’) on it. The relation
x’2 + y’2 = a2 still holds whatever may be z’. Hence it is the eqn. to the cylinder in fact.
Now , is the plane which intersects this cylinder generating the curve PVU and we
have already proved PVU to be an ellipse. If the plane makes an angle with the
axis of the cylinder, then = 900 - . Eccentricity is e = sin = cos . This is yet
another meaning of eccentricity. But the above considerations hold only where || < /2,
i.e. for the case of ellipse only. No section of cylinder parallel to its axis shall give us
an ellipse. The other families of curves, parabola and hyperbola cannot be obtained
from sections of cylinder.
The purpose of this article is to show that conic sections are really intersections of a
cone and a plane not through the vertex of the cone; to satisfy the curiosity of the
student. Moreover, there is a whole branch of geometry, called projective geometry, in
which it is very simply shown that conics are projections of a circle on a plane and
general theorems of circles can be transported to conic sections through principles of
projective geometry. Let a line segment WS = t revolve about a fixed st.line WG
always making a constant angle with it at the point W and generate a right circular
cone WSK, where K is a point on the cone such that SK is the diameter of the circle
obtained by intersection of the cone with a plane passing through S and SK is
perpendicular to the axis WG at the point D. Now D is the centre of this circle and its
radius is given by
SD = DK =WS sin = t sin ……………………………….(a)
Note that the triangles WSD and WDK are congruent to each other having a
common side WD, a right angle in each and the angle in each of them. Thus DS =
DK, and thus the intersection of a plane with a cone perpendicular to its axis happens
to be a circle.
Now let a plane perpendicular to the plane of WSDK pass through the
point S making an angle with SK and P be any point on it on its intersection with the
cone’s curved surface and let ST be the line of intersection of this plane with the
plane of WSDK , meeting the cone at T. Let PST is the curve of intersection with the
cone and the plane makes an angle with AK means that ST makes an angle with
SK i.e., KST = . Drop a perpendicular PQ on ST, meeting the curve of intersection
at R. Set up a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system with origin
(0, 0) at S, the x-axis along ST and the y- axis along a direction
parallel to PQ ( SY in the figure). If (x, y) be the coordinates of the point P ,
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
SQ = x and PQ = y………………………………(b)
A relationship between x and y shall represent the equation to the curve of intersection
SRTP which is our goal; as P is any point on the curve. For that we take a plane
containing PR and perpendicular to the axis of the cone WG which intersects the cone
in a circle PURV,(as explained in last paragraph) with its centre at C on WG and let its
radius be
UC = PC = CV = CR = r……………………….(c)
W
Y
S D K
P
y
x r
U V
Q C
R
G
T X
Fig.10, Ellipse as intersection of a cone with a plane
where U and V are points on the cone and UV || SK. We can find the relationship
between x and y , by relating them easily to UQ and PC = r. We immediately note that
SQU = QSK = ……………………………(d)
as SK || UV. To find x, let us concentrate on the triangle SUQ and
resort to the law of cosines or the law of sines which is more easy.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Now US = UW – SW = UC cosec - t = r cosec - t ………(e)
And SUC = WSD = /2 - ……………………...(f)
USQ = - (/2 - ) - = /2 + - ………………………....(g)
From the law of sines,
SQ US UQ
π sin β π
sin α sin α β
2 2
x r cosec α t UQ
or,
π sin β π
sin α sin α β
2 2
x r cosec α t UQ
or,
cos α sin β π
sin (β α )
2
x r t sin α UQ UQ UQ r t sin α
or, by
cos α sin β sin α cos(β α ) cos β cos α sin β sin α cos β cos α
addendo
or, UQ = x cos - t sin +r…………………………………..(h)
and, QC= UC – UQ = r – UQ = t sin - x cos ………………(i)
But PQ lies in the plane of the circle and QC lies in the plane containing WUV ,and the
two planes are perpendicular to each other. This point is important to understand, the
plane of WSK is the plane of the paper and the plane of the intersection curve PSRT is
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. , Hence PQ QC; so that
PC2 = PQ2 + QC2, or, r2 = y2 + QC2
Or, r2 = y2 +( t sin - x cos )2……………………………………(j)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Though this is the equation of the ellipse, it needs to be further simplified
and needs to be interpreted. On simplification we have,
x 2 (cos 2 α cos2 β sin 2 α sin 2 β) 2xt cos α sin α(cos α cos β sin α sin β) y 2 sin 2 α 0
or, x 2 cos(α β) cos(α β) 2xt cos α sin α cos(α β) y 2 sin 2 α 0 ………(o)
Considering the Δ SKT, we have,
KST = , SKT = /2 + , STK = - KST - SKT = /2 – (+ )
and SK = 2SD = 2t sin , and call the maximum span of the curve of intersection ,
ST = 2a.
KT SK ST
Applying the law of sines to the Δ SKT ,
sin sin STK sin SKT
KT 2 t sin α 2a
sin β π π
sin ( α β ) sin α
2 2
KT 2 t sin α 2a
or, ………………………………………(p)
sin β cos(α β ) cos α
From this cos(+) = (t/a) cos sin ; which further simplifies (o) as,
t sin α cos α
x 2 cos( α β) 2 xt cos α sin α cos( α β ) y 2 sin 2 α 0
a
or, t cos α sin α cos(α β)( x 2 2xa) y 2 a sin 2 α 0 , which, on completing
square ,
t cos α sin α cos(α β)(x a ) 2 y 2 a sin 2 α a 2 t cos α sin α cos(α β) ……(q)
Since the right hand side is a positive constant, and both the terms in left side
are positive assuming || and || both less than /2, |y| would be maximum only when
|x – a| is minimum or 0. Calling this maximum value of y as b, we have
b2 sin2 = at cos sin cos ( - ). …………………………(r)
This reduces (q) to, b 2 sin 2 α( x a ) 2 y 2 a 2 sin 2 α a 2 b 2 sin 2 α
(x a) 2 y2
Or, 2
1
a b2
which is equation to an ellipse with its left vertex at the origin, and a, b being its
semi major and minor axes. If the origin is shifted from (0, 0) to (a, 0) and the new
coordinates be X and Y, X = x – a, and Y = y, then the equation reduces to
2
X Y2
2
1 ………………………………………...(s)
a b2
which is standard equation to the ellipse. Thus it is shown that a plane section
of a right circular cone not parallel to its generator and not parallel to its axis is
actually an ellipse.
§26: The value of e
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
b2
It may be calculated from e 2 1 ; with taking the value of a from (p),
a2
t cos sin
a , and value of b from (r),
cos( )
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
A relation between x and y shall be the eqn. to the new curve; which can be derived
from (a) and (b).
Hence, putting these values in (a),
2 2
y2 x y2 x y2
x2
2
a2 , or 2
2 2
1, or 2
1 if b2 = a2 sin2……..(c)
sin α a a sin α a b2
This is the eqn to the new curve, which is seen to be an ellipse; for b < a ,as |sin | <
b2
1.The value of eccentricity is e2 1 1 sin 2 α cos 2 α < 1……………………(d)
a2
This is yet another meaning of eccentricity.
The case of turning all the y-coordinates is same as the case of compressing all
y-coordinates; for , in both cases, we have, x = X and y = Y sin ; i.e., a
compression of y-coordinates in ratio 1:sin
system XOY’ by taking the new axes as OX and OY’ at right angles to each other.
Y’ Y
Y’
P
O Q R
X
Fig.11: Ellipse in oblique coordinates
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
y' y ' cos α x ' sin α y ' cos α
Or, Y and X x ' Y cos α x '
sin α sin α sin α
Now (a) becomes,
( x ' sin α y' cos α ) 2 y' 2
a2
2
sin α sin 2 α
Or, x’2 sin2 -2x’y’ sin cos + y’2(1 + cos2) = a2 sin2 …………….(d)
Rotate the rectangular axes again through an angle again and the new coordinates
become x and y. then we have,
x’ = x cos - y sin , and y’ = x sin + y cos ………………….(e)
With these values put in (d), we have,
(x cos - y sin )2 sin2 -2(x cos - y sin )( x sin + y cos ) sin cos
+ (x sin + y cos )2(1 + cos2) = a2 sin2
Or,
(x2 cos2 + y2 sin2 - 2xy cos sin ) sin2 -
2(x2 cos sin + xy cos2 - xy sin2 - y2 cos sin )sin cos +
(x2sin2 + y2 cos2 +2xy cos sin ) (1 + cos2) = a2 sin2
or, x2(cos2 sin2 - 2cos sin cos sin +sin2 + sin2 cos2 ) +
2xy( - cos sin sin2 - cos2 sin cos + sin2 sin cos +
cos sin + cos sin cos2) + y2(sin2 sin2 +
2cos sin sin cos + cos + cos2 cos2 ) =a2sin2 ………(f)
2
= a2 sin2
2 2 2 2
or,x [cos - cos cos - sin 2 cos sin +
1 – cos2 + cos2 – cos2 cos2 ]
+ y [1 -cos – cos +cos2 cos2 + sin 2 sin cos +
2 2 2
© Page 25
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
2
or, x [1 – cos (cos 2 cos - sin 2 sin )]
+ y2[1+ (cos 2 cos + sin2 sin )cos ]= a2 sin2
2
or, x [1 – cos cos (2+)]
+ y2[1+ cos (2 - )]= a2 sin2
§29: Another derivation of ellipse: locus of a fixed point in a rod leaning against
a wall and sliding down.
Let P(x, y) be the fixed point in the rod AB of length l , which moves as the rod
slides down the wall OY over the ground OX.
Y
A
P(x, y)
R
O X
Q
B
Let AP = a, PB = b, so that a + b = l. If the angle PBO = APR = ,
we get, AP = PR sec = x sec = a, and PB = PQ cosec = y cosec
=b. In other words,
x y
cos , and sin
a b
© Page 26
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
It is always wise to prefer invariants to variables, so we employ
cos2 sin 2 1 , which gives
x2 y 2
1
a2 b2
which is equation of an ellipse. Reasoned differently, our effort should be in the
direction of eliminating extraneous variables such as . Length of the rod is redundant
as and b are already given constants
This may be taken as a method of construction of an ellipse, with given major and
minor axes.
The arrangement may be made on a drawing board and some marker may be fixed at
P to trace its movement when the rod is slid along OX slowly enough to keep A in
contact with OY.
A ray of light emanating from a focus S of the ellipse ABA’B’ if reflected from
any point P on the wall of the ellipse shall go the other focus S’. We would prove it by
equating PS/PS’ and SG / GS’ so that PG divides the angle SPS’, with simple high
school geometry; so that angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection and the
reflected ray would be PS’. Later on, we would derive equations to tangents and
normals and the proof would be a lot more easier with real taste of coordinate
geometry.
Draw the auxiliary circle AQA’ and drop a perpendicular PN on CT. Let PT and PG be
the tangent ( we use here the word tangent in the intuitive sense, st line touching the
curve at one point not crossing it, as read in high school before we formally introduce
the concept in a separate chapter and normal , a st line perpendicular to the tangent)
to the ellipse at P, meeting the X – axis at T and G respectively, QT be tangent to the
aux. circle, perpendicular to radius CQ, and let the equation to the ellipse be written in
parametric form
x a cos and y b sin ……………………………….………………….(a)
where is the eccentricity angle as shown in the figure,
© Page 27
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Y Q
S”
B
P
X’
A S C G N S' A’ X
T
G’
Fig.12: reflection property
B’
Y’
We already have, SG SC CG ae
a 2 b 2 cos
, so that
a
ae
a 2 b 2 cos
SG a 1 e cos
2 …………..…………………….(i)
GS ' b a cos
2
1 e cos
ae
a
From earlier formulae for focal radii,
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
SP a ex a ae cos 1 e cos
………………….(j)
PS ' a ex a ae cos 1 e cos
SP SG
Thus and QG bisects the angle SPS’
PS ' GS '
It may further be observed that , as the normal PG bisects the angle SPS’, the
tangent PT bisects the external angle S’PS’’.
F1’
F2’
T1
P
T2
F1 F2
x2 y 2
In the above figure, eqn of the tangent to the ellipse 1 at P(x’, y’) is
a2 b2
xx ' yy '
1 and perpendiculars F1T1 and F2T2 on it from foci F1 and F2 are given by
a2 b2
aex aex
1 1
a2 a2
1 1
FT and F2T2 so that their ratio is
x2 y2 x2 y 2
a4 b4 a 4 b4
FT ex a F P sin F1 PT1
1 1
1 , confirming that the focal radii make equal
F2T2 ex a F2 P sin F2 PT2
angles with the tangent. This proves reflection property.
The previous difficult treatment is given as it reveals may other
relationships.
§32: Another alternative:
In the figure, letT1P be bisector of the external angle of the triangle PF1F2, and let F2F2’
intersect T1P at T2. from congruence of triangles F2’PT2 and F2PT2 , PT2 is perpendicular
bisector of F2F2’ and T2F2 = T2F2’.
© Page 29
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
F1’
F2’
T1
P
T2
Q
F1 F2
This makes QF2 = QF2, when QT2 is joined and the triangles F2’PT2 and F2PT2 are seen to
be congruent. If T1PT2 is not the tangent to the ellipse at P, let it intersect the ellipse at
another point Q.
Now |F1Q + F2Q| = |F1Q + F2’Q| > |F1F2’| = |F1P + PF2’| = |F1P + PF2| and hence Q lies
outside the ellipse. This is a contradiction since we have taken Q on the ellipse, being a
point of intersection of T1P with the ellipse. Thus the st line T1P is not the tangent at P is
false.
Example1:
Produce F1P and F1T1 to meet at F1’ ; and produce F2P and F2T2 to meet at F2’ .
prove that T1F1’ = T1F1 and T2F2’ = T2F2
Just prove the triangle PF2T2 is similar to the triangle PF1’T1 and finish.
Example2:
x2 y 2
Prove that the points T1 and T2 lie on the auxiliary circle 1.
a2 a 2
Example3 : Smashing kidney stones by lithotripsy:
© Page 30
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Q F2 F1 P
The sound produced at F1 concentrates at the other focus F2 .The echo of this sound
is heard through a speaker and the sound-image of the stone appears on the screen
of the monitor only if a stone happens to be at F2 (hammering sound is heard). Thus
by means of adjustment, the stone is detected and its position is determined. After the
calibration is done in this manner, suddenly a high intensity ultrasound is produced at
F1 hammering the stone at F2 and smashing it to small pieces which can be
discharged through urine. The technique is not suitable for bile stones in the gall
bladder, because , the gall stones are not in a fluid medium as in case of kidney
stones but grow embedded in muscles. There is high risk of cutting up muscles
instead of smashing stones in case of slight mistake in determining the stone
accurately and the medium is not suitable for transmission of ultrasound of high
intensity. The technique is called lithotripsy.
A similar technique is developed for transmission of power though radiation instead of
through conducting wires, which uses up too much energy in transmission for small
networks..
Example4 :
x2 y 2
One vertex of the ellipse 1 is joined to all other points by chords. Find the
a2 a 2
locus of middle points of these chords.
Let the vertex be the point a , 0 and any point on the ellipse be a cos , b sin .
Middle point of the line joining these two points is given by
a a cos 0 b sin
x and y . Eliminating between the two eqns and
2 2
x2 y2 x
simplifying 2 2 which can be verified to be an ellipse.
a b a
Exercise9
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Find the eqn of ellipse whose
a) focus is at (0, 0) and directrix is x = - c and eccentricity is e
b) axes are x and y axes, and it passes through (a, b) and (b, a)
c) could another ellipse with axes as coordinate axes pass through these
points ? verify, Answer to this question would be found in the last chapter.
d) whose latus rectum is l and minor axis is distance between the tow foci.
Exercise10
Find the latus rectum, major and minor axes, and focus of the following ellipses
a) 5 x 2 7 y 2 11
b) 25 x 2 16 y 2 1600
c) 5 x 2 3 y 2 137
exercise11
Find the locus of middle points of all chords passing through a fixed point (c, d) on
x2 y 2
the ellipse 1
a 2 b2
Exercise12
The two ends of the major axis of an ellipse are jointed to any point P on the ellipse
and are extended to cut the directrix at M and N. Find the angle subtended by the line
segment MN at the focus.
Ans. 900. Let the points (– a, 0) and (a, 0)being end points of major axis the
2
x y2
1
ellipse a2 b2 be joined to any point P(acosφ, bsinφ) on the ellipse so that
b sin 0
their equations are y 0 x a ……………………………..(a)
aco a
b sin 0
And y0 x a ……………………………..(b)
aco a
a
The directrix is x ……………………………………………………….(c)
e
And the st lines (a) and (b) meet the st line (c) at the points
a b sin 0 a a b sin 1 e
, a , …………(d)
e aco a e e e co 1
a b sin 1 e
And , …………(e)
e e co 1
respectively. The slopes of st lines joining these points to focus (ae, 0) are
© Page 32
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
b sin 1 e
0
e co 1 b sin 1 e b sin 1 e
and respectively,
a
ae a co 1 1 e 2
a co 1 1 e 2
e
b sin 1 e b sin 1 e b2
Whose product 1 .So they are at
a co 1 1 e 2 a co 1 1 e 2 a 2 1 e 2
right angles to each other.
Exercise13
what is the situation if minor axis is considered instead of major axis in the last
problem?
b4
Ans. tan
a4
Exercise14
An ordinate at any point P is extended down the major axis of the ellipse
x2 y2
1
a2 b2 up to a distance equal to the distance of the point from the focus. Find
the locus of that point.
Ans. If the coordinates of the point P are (acos φ, bsin φ) . The x coordinate of the
point in question is x = a cos φ ………………………………………..(a)
and the y coordinate of the point is focal distance of P ,
i.e. y = – (a ± ae cos φ)…………………………………………………(b)
Eliminating cos φ between (a) and (b) we get the locus required is the two st lines
y = – (a ± ex), or jointly, (y + ex +a)(y – ex +a)=0, pair of st lines.
Exercise15
y x x y
Trace the intersection point of the two st lines t t , and t 1
b a a b
x2 y 2
Ans. 1
a 2 b2 Hint : either solve for x and y or eliminate t from the eqns.
Exercise16
Find the eccentric angle at the point of intersection of the two st lines in the last problem.
x 1 t2 y 1 t2 2t
Hint. Solving for x and y, we get, and t 1
a 1 t2 b 1 t
2
1 t
2
x 1 t 2sin 2
1 cos 2 tan 2 tan 1 t
2
Putting cos , so that t 2
a 1 t 2
1 cos 2 cos 2 2 2
2
© Page 33
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
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PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Or, 2 tan t
1
Exercise17
To explore the relationship among the parametric equations (acos φ, bsin φ) and
1 t2 2t
xa and y b consider the four points of intersection of the circle
1 t 2
1 t2
x 2 y 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0 . If the eccentric angles are 1 , 2 , 3 and 4 respectively.
Show that 1 2 3 4 2n
Ands. The intersection points are given by solving
a 2 cos2 b 2 sin 2 2 ga cos 2 fb sin c 0 for φ. …………………….(a)
1 tan 2 2 tan
2 1 t ( say )
2
Transform cos and sin 2 2t , ( say )
1 t2 1 t2
1 tan 2 1 tan 2
2 2
So that the eqn (a) becomes
t 4 a 2 2 ga c 4 fbt 3 t 2 4b2 2a 2 2c 4bt a 2 2 ga c 0 ……..(b)
1
If t1 , t2 , t3 and t4 are its roots, i.e., t1 tan
, t 2 tan 2 , t3 tan 3 and t 4 tan 4 ,
2 2 2 2
4 fb 4b 2a 2c
2 2
4 fb
s1 t1 2 , s2 t1t2 2 , s3 t1t2t3 2 ,
a 2 ga c a 2 ga c a 2 ga c
Then
a 2 2 ga c
and s4 t1t2t3t4 2
a 2 ga c
2 3 4 s s
tan 1 1 3 0 as s1 s3 0
2 1 s2 s 4
Now
1 2 3 4
so n or , 1 2 3 4 2n
2
Exercise18
Find the area of the triangle formed by joining any three points φ1, φ2 and φ3 of the ellipse
(acos φ, bsin φ) .
1 - 2 - -
Ans. 2 ab sin sin 3 1 sin 1 2 .
2 2 2
1
Hint. Put the formula for area of triangle x1 y2 x2 y1 x2 y3 x3 y2 x3 y1 x1 y3
2
Where x1 , y1 a cos 1 , b sin 1 etc.
Exercise19
Find the area of the triangle formed by joining any three points φ1, φ2 and φ3 of the
auxiliary circle (acos φ, asin φ) of the ellipse (acos φ, bsin φ) .
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
2 2 - - -
Ans. a/b 2ab sin 1 sin 3 1 sin 1 , or 2a 2 sin 1 2 sin 3 1 sin 1 2 .
2 2 2 2 2 2
Exercise20
Show that the area of the triangle inscribed in a circle whose one side is fixed would be
maximum when the triangle is isosceles.
Ans. First assume that the base of the triangle is fixed. The vertical angle A (say) is fixed
since the triangle is inscribed in a circle. Product of sines of other two angles is
proportional to the area of the triangle which is proportional to the product of the other two
sides. Assuming the two base angle a acute angles, their sum is constant i.e.,
1800 – A ; their product would be maximum when they would be equal. Product of their
sines also would be maximum when they are equal; since sine of an acute angle
increases as the angle increases and vice versa. Hence the product of the other two sides
would be maximum when the base angles are equal, i.e., the triangle is isosceles.
Exercise21
Show that the area of the triangle inscribed in a circle would be maximum when the
triangle is an equilateral triangle.
Ands. The products of angles shall be maximum when they are all equal when their sum
is constant 1800. Since sines of the angles being proportional to sides of the triangle and
sines increase when the angles increase and vice versa, as long as the angles are acute,
the product of the sines would be maximum when the angles are equal, so also the
1 2 2
expression 2a 2 sin sin 3 1 sin 1 . But this is only when the triangle is
2 2 2
equilateral and the latter expression is the area of the triangle.
Mark here that the ellipse is a projection of the circle and the expression
1 2 2
2ab sin sin 3 1 sin 1 is the area of the inscribed triangle. But the projection
2 2 2
of an equilateral triangle ceases to be equilateral!
1 2 3 1 1 2
Mark here that the sum of the angles is not 0 as the angles
2 2 2
2 3 1 2 2 3 1 2
are not 1 , and 1 , but are 1 , and 1800 1 .(why?)
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 1 2
And the above considerations are correct only because sin 1800 1 sin
2 2
Exercise22
Find the eqn of the circle whose diameter is a chord y mx c of the ellipse
x2 y 2
1
a 2 b2
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
Section4_Quadratic Functions ,Sections of Cone and Meaning of Eccentricity
Chapter 29: Introduction to The Ellipse
Ans. We have to solve the two eqns to get the intersection points. Substituting
x 2 mx c
2
x2 y 2
y mx c in 2 2 1 2
1
a b gives a b2 which simplifies into
2
a m b x 2a mcx a c a b 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
………………………………….(a)
If x1 and x2 are roots of this equation, then
2a 2 mc a 2 c 2 a 2b 2
x1 x2 2 2 2 , and x1.x2 2 2 2
a m b a m b ………………………(b)
y mx c gives
If y1 and y2 are the y-coordinates of the points of intersection,
y1 y2 m x1 x2 2c, and
y1 y2 mx1 c mx2 c m2 x1 x2 cm x1 x2 c 2 ……………………(c)
The eqn of the circle with the line joining the points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) as diameter is
y y1 y y2 x x1 x x2 0
x 2 y 2 x x1 x2 y y1 y2 x1 x2 y1 y2 0
Or, ……………………….(d)
x1 x2 , x1 x2
y1 y2 and y1 y2
Putting the values of and we get,
2 2
2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2
a m b x y 2ma cx - 2b cy c a b - a b 1 m2 0
2 2
(For a derivation of ellipse or any conic section in Cartesian coordinates see next
chapter, chapter on parabola).
Exercise
y mx, zc
A st line is drawn joining one point each of the st lines and
y mx, z c
such that the line makes a constant angle with the direction of the z
– axis always. Show that the locus of its midpoint is an ellipse. Also find its eccentricity.
m4 1
1 m , 4
or
Ans. m2
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
CHAPTER 41: INTERSECTION OF CONICS
In the previous chapters we had a fair introduction to conics sections in general, sequentially
proceeding from particular examples, circles, parabolas, ellipses and hyperbolas, so that the
student does not encounter abstract concepts abruptly. In this chapter it would be shown how
far more easier to deal direct with conic sections in general to get a real taste of analytic
geometry rather than cracking tough nuts all the way dealing with curves and st lines. In the
beginning we expected that analytic geometry frees us of conventional geometry of strenuous
mental labour in the same manner as algebra does with respect to arithmetic. Though this was
to a great extent, study of general conics would do more so , in the direction of making things
easier.
§1:Condition that the second degree eqn in two variables represents two st lines:
be the eqn to the conic section. This would be a curve in general, including a pair of st lines .
had U(x, y) been an eqn in 2nd degree in x only, it could always have been resolved into two
linear factors, real or imaginary. But it is in two variables . if y is regarded as function of x, as a
parameter, we resolve it into two factors
ax hy g
y 2 h2 ab 2 y gh af g 2 ac (vide chapter 1). The expression under
the root would have to be a perfect square, in order that the two factors be linear. And the
condition for this is that the discriminant
y mx
1 c1 y m2x c2 0
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
Further, if the general eqn in 2nd degree eqn in x and y represents two st lines, they would
be parallel to the two st lines represented by the general homogeneous eqn in 2nd degree
eqn in x and y.
§2:Line at infinity
C C
A st line Ax By C 0 has intercepts and with the X – axis and Y – axis respectively
A B
; obtained by putting y = 0 and x = 0 in turn. If A = 0 but C ╪ 0 the
X – axis. If B = 0 but C ╪ 0 the y – intercept moves to infinity and the st line becomes
Ax C 0 , parallel to y – axis. if both B and A are 0 , both the intercepts move to infinity so that
the st line is totally in infinity. Its equation is given by C = 0.
Take two parallel st lines Ax By C 0 and Ax By D 0 . The latter line can be written as
DC
Ax By C 0. x 0. y C 0 ; which is a st line passing through Ax By C 0 and
C
0.x 0. y C 0 . Thus the line Ax By D 0 passes through Ax By C 0 at a point on
the st line 0.x 0. y C 0 at infinity. Thus Parallel lines meet at line at infinity.
In the following paragraphs we would see further implications of linear equations differing in
their constant terms.
Conic sections are curves in a plane which is of two dimensions. Continuous plane curves
though change direction always, do not have any breadth across them; so are considered as
essentially of one dimension; more correctly , one parameter is enough to describe them,
although two variables are involved. We know a volume in three dimensions when
differentiated gives a surface which is essentially of two dimensions, or two parameter surfaces.
Similarly a surface described by two parameters when differentiated is expected to result in
diminishing one dimension, or resulting in st lines. Our conic sections are so to say surfaces in
three variables x, y, z where z may be taken to be a constant and the curves are some sort of
surfaces in two parameters, one of the parameters taken to be constant. In fact
U x, y ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0 is obtained from
U x, y, z ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gxz 2 fyz cz 2 0 ,a homogeneous eqn in three variables or
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
two parameters only when z is presumed to be a constant. So differentiation or partial
differentiation for that matter shall yield only st lines. As a st line and a curve in a plane are
supposed to intersect at two points, real, coincident or imaginary, it is natural that tangents,
secants, polars, diameters, asymptotes et al are nothing but partial differentiation products of
curves! We can only think of partial differentiation for measuring changes along particular
directions or gradients. (In contrast, the differential coefficient only becomes limit of a ratio of
changes in two directions. Of course it is also related to the partial differentiations in x and y
directions via total differential). Thus partial differentials have an important role to play in
analysis of curves.
u u
The relationship between partial differentials x Ux and Uy and the total differential du
y
u u dy Ux
is given by
du dx dy 0, or du Uxdx Uydy 0 or
x y dx Uy …Eqn(3)
In particular, for
u u
U x, y 0 , U 2 ax hy g and U 2 hx by f ………Eqn(4)
x x y y
Exercise1 remember
If U x, y ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0
represents a pair of st lines, show that the point
u u
Ux 0 and Uy 0
of intersection is same as the point of intersection of the two st lines x y
ax hy g 0 and hx by f 0 .
, i.e.,
The eqn to tangent at a point (x’, y’) on any curve may be written as
y y' dy U x'
....................................................................................... Eqn(5)
x x' dx xx ' U y'
y y' dx U y'
and the normal ………………………………..…….. Eqn(6)
x x' dy x x '
U x'
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
y y' U ax ' hy ' g
the tangent at a point (x’, y’) on U x, y 0 becomes x'
x x' U y' hx ' by ' f
or, using ax '2 2hx ' y ' by '2 2 gx ' 2 fy ' c 0 from (1) ,as (x’, y’) is a point on the curve, then
we have,
ax ' hy ' g x hx ' by ' f y ax '2 2hx ' y ' by '2 gx ' fy ' gx ' fy ' c
Or, ax ' hy ' g x hx ' by ' f y gx ' fy ' c 0 ……………….. Eqn(7)
Or may be written in the form xU x ' yU y ' 2 gx ' fy ' c 0 ………….Eqn(7a)
axx ' h xy ' x ' y byy ' g x x ' f y y ' c 0 ……………………. Eqn(7b)
as done before.
ax ' hy ' g U dy
Remember that x' ………………………………. Eqn(8)
hx ' by ' f U y ' dx x ', y '
This could have straight obtained without any consideration of slope m or dy/dx or fx fy etc. had
we designed a function Ax + By + C = 0 for a st line, which should reduce to the eqn U(x, y) = 0
only for the point (x’, y’). evidently the tact for this design is symmetry, xx’ for x2 , x’y + xy’ for
2xy, x + x’ for 2x etc.
The eqn U x, y ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0 would be satisfied for both points (x’, y’)
and (x”, y”) , so that ax '2 2hx ' y ' by '2 2 gx ' 2 fy ' c 0 and
ax "2 2hx " y " by "2 2 gx " 2 fy " c 0 . Subtracting the three eqns in pairs, the eqn for the
secant may be written as
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
y y ' y " y ' ax ' hy ' g ax '' hy '' g U U x ''
x' , ………………… Eqn(11)
x x ' x " x ' hx ' by ' f hx '' by '' f U y ' U y ''
Tangents to U(x, y) =0 at the points (x’, y’) and at (x’’, y’’) may be written as
xU x ' yU y ' 2 gx ' fy ' c 0 , xU x '' yU y '' 2 gx '' fy '' c 0 . If these two
tangents pass through (x1, y1), , we have
x1U x ' y1U y ' 2 gx ' fy ' c 0 , x1U x '' y1U y '' 2 gx '' fy '' c 0 .Then both points
satisfy x1U x y1U y 2 gx fy c 0 …………………… Eqn(12)
Since the chord of contact and the polar have been proved to be same, then
eqn (123) also gives the polar of the point (x1, y1).
§9: Polar of the point (0, 0) is got by putting (0, 0) for (x1, y1) in (123b)
gx fy c 0 ……………………………………………………....……. Eqn(12c)
§10: Equation of a chord bisected at any point (s, t) is parallel to the polar of the point
Let the chord intersect the conic at P(x’, y’) and at Q(x”, y”). So the point S(s, t) is the middle
point of PQ. From (7), the eqn of PQ is given by
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
x ' x " y ' y "
a h g
y y ' y " y ' ax ' hy ' g ax '' hy '' g 2 2 as ht g
x x ' x " x ' hx ' by ' f hx '' by '' f x ' x " y ' y " hs bt f
h b f
2 2
y y '' x ' x " y ' y "
, as it is the same slope and if s, t
x x '' 2 2
y ' y "
y
y y ' 2 y y ' y " 2 y t
x x ' 2 x x ' x " x x ' x " x s
2
y t as ht g
Or, ……………………………………………………………… Eqn(13)
xs hs bt f
the slope is same as slope of the polar of the point (s, t).
xU x yU y 2 gx fy c 0 ……………………………………………… Eqn(14)
2u
u
x
u
y 0 ,or, xU x yU y 2U x, y ………………………… Eqn(15)
x y
dy U
Since x gives the slope of the tangent. Then U x 0 gives the set of points where the
dx U
y
tangent is parallel to the x – axis. Since U x, y is a function of 2nd degree, U x 0 is a first
dy
degree eqn , i.e. ax hy g 0 and represents a st line. Further 0 or U 0 for that matter
x
dx
gives the set of points for which y is extreme (maxima or minima) and since U x 0 is a st line, it
is a st line joining the extreme points where y is extreme( maximum, minimum or stationery, see
maxima and minima in appendices) if there are any extreme values at all. Similarly, regarding y
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
as independent variable and x as a function of y in U x, y 0 , for there is nothing sacrosanct
about that, then, U
y
0 or hx by f 0 is the st line joining the extreme points where x is
extreme. Is it now clear that the centre is the intersection of these st lines given by
U 0 , and U 0 , or U .U 0 or,
x y x y
ax hy g 0 and hx by f 0 …………… Eqn(16)
fh bg gh af
This gives the coordinates of centre x , y ………………… Eqn(16a)
ab h2 ab h2
The argument of joining extreme points breaks down when any one of the sets of points is void.
a h
More over, if the denominator is 0,i.e., the centre is at infinity. This is the case of a
h b
h g
parabola. If any one of the numerators of x and y is 0 , say fh bg 0 , then alongwith the
b f
a h g
denominator, then . The two eqns in (12) reduce to the same eqn; admitting of infinite
h b f
number of solutions; so there is infinite number of centres along the line ax hy g 0 , or,
hx by f 0 . Since ab h2 0 , the two st lines represented by ax 2 2hxy by 2 0
represent two parallel st lines as both values of m are equal , being the roots of
y y2
a 2h b 2 0.
x x
The argument of joining extreme points also breaks down when the principal axes are tilted with
respect to the coordinate axes, e.g., imagine a tilted ellipse in the first quadrant; the diameters
joining the extreme points still intersect at the centre, but neither they are perpendicular to each
other nor they are conjugate to each other.
Since asymptotes are st lines in the plane which are tangents at infinity their eqns are given by .
y y' U
Partial differential coefficients, if they exist at infinity may give x ' in the limiting
x x' U y'
case , or the tangents at origin, of the reciprocal equation if the limits in question exist at all. But
the statement has little practical use. Rather, we use the fact that the conjugate to a central
conic ax 2 2hxy by 2 c 0 is given by ax 2 2hxy by 2 c 0 , differing from it by a
ab h 2
constant and the asymptote to a hyperbola ax 2 2hxy by 2 c 0 is given by
2
ax 2 2hxy by 2 c 0 , differing by the same constant .
ab h 2
ab h 2
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
§14: Axes of the central conic:
The middle term can be eliminated if the axes are transformed to new axes making an angle
with the old axes given by
2h 1
tan 2 , ( say ), or , tan 2 2t tan 1 0 ………………………(b)
ab t
If tan 1 and tan 2 be the two values of got from this eqn their product is the last term , - 1
revealing that the axes are cutting each other at an angle 900.
semi-axes r r1 , if 1 and r r2 , if 2
We actually need not find r1 , 1 , or r2 , 2 since the whole of steps above would be
repeated while working out any problem. Instead, let us assume we have already got rid of the
xy term by turning the axes as required and the eqn of the central conic ax 2 2hxy by 2 1 has
x2 y 2
changed into 1 ………………………………….(d)
2 2
the central conic (ellipse or hyperbola) referred to its axes as coordinate axes.
1 1 1 1
We have a b 2 and ab h 2 . ………………… Eqn(17)
2
2 2
So only direction of the axes may be determined from (b) and their magnitudes from (e).
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
1 1 2
Still easier would be to determine the values of and ,i.e., the two values of r from
2 2
ab h r a b 1 0 …………………………………………………..(e)
2 2
It must be noted, however that ab h 2 should be positive (the central conic being an ellipse) .
In case the eqn (a) of the central conic is hyperbola, ab h is naturally negative; then may take
2
1 1
in place of 2
2
Remember that the foci are at (ae, 0) and (– ae ,0) from the origin or centre (0, 0) for the ellipse
x2 y2 b2
2
2 1 , where e 1 2 , or , ae a 2 b 2 . Applying this analogy tactfully, the foci of
2
a b a
the above conic would be at
r12 r2 2 cos 1 , r12 r2 2 sin 1 , and
r12 r2 2 cos 2 , r12 r2 2 sin 2 and distance of the
x2 y 2
For the hyperbola 2 2 1 , the foci of the above conic would be at
a b
r12 r2 2 cos 1 , r12 r2 2 sin 1 , and
r12 r2 2 cos 2 , r12 r2 2 sin 2 and distance of the
_ _
fh bg gh af first, then rotation of axes tan 2 2h may be applied to find
to x ,y
ab h 2 ab h 2 ab
axes, foci directrix etc for complete tracing of the curve. Better direct expression for foci shall be
derived later on.
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
If u x, y ax 2hxy by 2 gx 2 fy c 0 stands for a parabola, the above consideration
2 2
fails as it is not a central conic. Instead , we transform the origin and the axes suitably to get the
eqn in standard form Y 4aX so that everything , focus, directrix, vertex etc .of it are
2
automatically revealed. This is done step by step. First, as the curve is a parabola, we have,
ab h2 so that a and b are either both plus or both minus, and the first three terms make a
perfect square. This is shown by putting a 2 , and b 2 now the eqn becomes,
x y
2
2 gx 2 fy c 0 …………………………………………….(a)
At the second step, we give the axes a suitable rotation so that x y 0, or y x
,corresponding to X axis Y = 0 corresponding to Y axis. so the axes should be turned through
an angle given by tan ; i.e. cos and sin and
2 2 2 2
tan
X Y X Y
x X cos Y sin and y X sin Y cos
2 2 2 2
We have thus x y Y
2 2
and the entire eqn (1) becomes
2
Y 2 2 2 g X Y f Y X c 0
2 2
g f f g c
Or, Y 2 2Y 2X
3 3
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
g f g f
2 2
g f f g c
Or, Y 2Y
2
2X 2
2 2 2
3 3 3 2 3
2 2
2
2
2 2 2
f g
Y K X H , ……………………………………. Eqn(18)
2
Or, 2 3
2
2 2
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
g f 2 2 g f
2
g f
This is a parabola whose latus rectum is K 2 3 ………………. Eqn(18b)
2
2 2
and its axis is parallel to the new X-axis, and vertex is at the point (H, K) with reference to new
axes.
Since the new axis is making an angle with old x-axis , the perpendicular on it from the old
origin makes an angle 90 with old x-axis. Also since vertex is at the point (H, K) K is the
0
length of perpendicular from old origin to the axis of curve; thus its eqn in old axes is
§17: ENVELOPS
Envelop of a one parameter family U x, y, 0 is found out by eliminating from the two eqns
U x, y, 0 and U 0 .
There is wide use of partial differentials in coordinate geometry in three or more dimensions
,namely differential geometry. But it is a nice experience to relate various aspects of coordinate
geometry to partial differentials. A second degree equation in three variables say f x, y, z 0
f
represents a surface. Then at x0 , y0 , z0 represents the differential coefficient of the curve of
x
intersection f x, y, z 0 in the plane of y = y0 ,
z = z0.
§18: RECAPITULATION
The following have already been treated in Chapter 3 and just stated under for recapitulation.
1. Thus, if a point Z lies on the polar of point P then the point P lies on the polar of Z.
This is true for any conic section.
2. If the polars of points P and Q intersect at Z, polar of Z is the st line PQ.
3. For any conic directrix is the polar of the focus.
4. Locus of middle points of parallel chords is called diameter.
5. Thus two diameters are said to be conjugate when each bisects a system of
parallel chords , parallel to the other.
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
6. The sum of squares of semi-conjugate diameters is constant and equal to square
of radius of the director circle.
7. Product of the focal radii of any point on the ellipse equals the square of the
semi- diameters parallel to the tangent at the point
8. eqn of the diameter of the conic, parallel to y mx .is
X a hm Y h bm g fm 0
9. Conjugate diameters of general conic are related to each other by the relation :
bmm ' h m m ' a 0
aB Ab
Hh
general conic , then 2
11. Conics like circle, ellipse and hyperbola which have a centre, at which every chord
which passes through it is bisected. Such conics are central conics.
12. The eqn of the conic reduces to ax 2 2hxy by 2 c 0 if origin is the centre.
_
fh bg _
gh af
x y
13. The centre of the conic is given by ab h and
2
ab h 2 if origin is not the
centre. In case the conic is a pair of st lines, it is their point of intersection.
14. The eqn to the general conic referred to the new axes through the centre.
ax 2 2hxy by 2 0
ab h 2 where Δ is discriminant of the general 2nd degree eqn.
in x and y.
15. aX 2hXY bY C 0 is eqn of a central conic whose origin is at (0,0).
2 2
INTERSECTIONS OF CONICS
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
Two conics U x, y ax 2hxy by 2 gx 2 fy c 0 and
2 2
V x, y a ' x 2 2h ' xy b ' y 2 2 g ' x 2 f ' y c ' 0 may be treated as quadratic eqns in x
such as U x, y ax 2 2 hy g x by 2 2 fy c 0 and
V x, y a ' x 2 2 h ' y g ' x b ' y 2 2 f ' y c ' 0 . Elimination of x from the two eqns gives
an eqn of fourth degree in y which give four real or imaginary values of y , (in pair or pairs if
imaginary), which in turn, give four values of x. Thus any two conics intersect at four points. It
also follows that , if two conics intersect at more than four points, they meet at every point i.e.,
they are identical or, one and the same conic, for, an equation of fourth degree shall have at
best, four distinct roots and, if it has one more root distinct from these four, any number would
be a root of that eqn and that would reduce to an identity, i.e., the eliminant would not present
any conditions . In other words, only one conic can pass through five distinct points . Also we
can find a unique conic passing through four given points and satisfying another particular
condition. This would be more evident from below. Further there would be only three pairs of st
lines passing through the four points of intersection; a point discussed in detail in a subsequent
paragraph.
U x, y V x, y ………………………………………………….. Eqn(19)
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
W
S V S’
P
R
U
Q T
Intersection of conics
Example1
Any curve passing through the intersection of the two circles is given by
x 2 y 2 2 g1 x 2 f1 y c1 x 2 y 2 2 g 2 x 2 f 2 y c2 0 . Since we know that this would be
a st line, we could make 1 to get rid of the square terms to get a st line passing through
the intersection of the two circles. This is 2 x g1 g 2 2 y f1 f 2 c1 c2 . There can be only
one st line passing through two points and that is this.
§21: Only rectangular hyperbolas can pass through intersection of two rectangular
hyperbolas
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
is a a ' b b ' a b a ' b ' 0 . So U x, y V x, y 0 is also a rectangular
hyperbola.
, each one giving a pair of st lines out of PQ and RT, PR and QT, or PT and QR, the sides of
the inscribed quadrilateral including its diagonals.
Again, out of three values of , either all values would be real or al least one, for
imaginary roots occur in pairs. These three st lines joint the four points of intersection is pairs.
Even if the four points of intersection may be imaginary, there would be al least one real st line
joining two of them !
§23: A pair of st lines passing through intersections of two rectangular hyperbolas are
perpendicular to each other.
§24: When two rectangular hyperbolas intersect at four points, each point of intersection
is orthocentre of the triangle formed by the other three points.
By the above result, if two rectangular hyperbolas intersect each other at P,Q,R & T , the pair of
st lines PT and QR are perpendicular to each other. Similarly
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
QT ┴ PR and RT ┴ PQ. Thus T is the orthocentre of the triangle PQR. Similar is
K x, y M x, y .L x, y N x, y …………………………… Eqn(20)
The previous result though appears a little too easy, is a bit too abstract. The same thing
can be restated in more concrete terms. If K x, y 0 stands for
A1h B1k C1
A1 x B1 y C1 0 , perpendicular from a point h, k on it is p1 ,say. The
A12 B12
statement K x, y M x, y .L x, y N x, y turns into
p1 p3 p2 p4 , …………………………………………………………….. Eqn(21)
where involves and expressions like A12 B12 , i.e., a constant as long as is a constant.
And is a constant for a particular curve passing through the points A, B, C and D. Thus, the
ratio of product of perpendiculars from a point on the curve on a pair of opposite sides
of an inscribed quadrilateral to the product of those from the same point on the other
sides is constant.
Note that the constant , and therefore change as the curve changes. If the point does not
lie on the curve, the relation albeit holds, but is no more a constant, so that the result has no
practical value.
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
§26: A conic passing through intersection of a conic and a pair of st lines
This is a mere special case of (13) until it reveals further mystery beautifully.
The st line K x, y 0 becomes the chord of contact , also the polar of the point
where tangents at the two points of contact meet each other.
the curve LM K and K x, y 0 is the chord of contact , also the polar of the
2
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
U x, y 0 and U x, y K have same intersection with the line at
U x, y 1.K x 2 y 2 a 2 1. 2 gx 2 fy c a 2 0,
and .. Eqn(28)
or x 2 y 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0
intersect at line at infinity, albeit in two imaginary points called circular points, which
are obviously independent of any parameters used so that they are same for any two
circles.
same at the point where U x, y 0 or both of them meet at line at infinity. Thus
both the curves U x, y 0 and U x, y have parallel asymptotes, real or
imaginary.
at infinity at the points where they meet the line at infinity, and have double contact at
infinity…………………………………………………………. Eqn(29a)
f) Let T ( x, y) 0 is a tangent to U x, y 0 .
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
such T ( x, y) 0 is an asymptote to U x, y 0 . Also T ( x, y) 0 touches
U x, y T ( x, y ) at infinity and as such T ( x, y) 0 is an asymptote to
U x, y T ( x, y ) ………………………………….. Eqn(32)
U x, y U x1 , y1 L2 …………………………………………... Eqn(34)
Let the two tangents T1 and T2 drawn from the point P(x1, y1) touch the conic U x, y 0 at Q
and R respectively. Then QR is the chord of contact of these tangents and the polar of P. So the
eqn of QR is
U x, y L2 ……………………………………………………………….(b)
The pair of tangents T1 and T2 drawn from the point P(x1, y1) is also a conic passing through Q
and R and its eqn is also given by (b) where is to be determined for the condition that this
conic passes through P. Thus
ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 2 fy c
…….(c)
ax1 hy1 g x hx1 by1 f y gx1 fy1 c
2
where is to be determined.
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ax12 2hx1 y1 by12 2 gx1 2 fy1 c
ax1 hy1 g x1 hx1 by1 f y1 gx1 fy1 c
2
To confirm whether this represents the pair of tangents on to the conic from the point P, we
observe that only one conic can pass through the five point, i.e., the point P and two coincident
points at each point of contact.
There is no point in tracking imaginary tangents unless the result is backward utilized to find the
location ( coordinates ) of foci (next article.). Tangents from foci or from any other point on the
concave side of the conic have to be imaginary as evident . Let the eqn to the conic be taken as
x 2 y 2 e2 x k i.e.,
2
Thus the imaginary tangents from the focus are a real,point circle……… Eqn(36)
pair of tangents from focus satisfy the condition of being a circle, (though imaginary), i.e.,
coefficients of x2 and y2 in the above eqn must be equal and
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
xy- term must vanish. Then,
au x ', y ' ax ' hy ' g bu x ', y ' hx ' by ' f ……………….………….(A)
2 2
………..(C1)
ax ' hy ' g hx ' by ' f ax ' hy ' g hx ' by ' f
2 2
u x ', y '
a b h
u x, y
a b h
Once the foci are known, the directrices would be easily known as they are polars of foci; and
polars of points is easily written for any point.
ax hy hx by ax hy hx by
2 2
ax hy hx by ax hy hx by
2 2
x 2 y 2 xy
h ab h 2
x 2
y 2
xy ab h a b , or,
2
……………………(a)
a b h
From ax 2 2hxy by 2 1
ax hy hx by , we get on simplification,
h
xy 1
2 ………………………………………………………….(b)
h h ab
x 2 y 2 xy 1
From (a) & (b), the eqns, 2 ………………………… Eqn(38)
a b h h ab
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
The similarity in form with (3) above may be well marked; if the axes y = 0 and
x 2 y 2 xy
Further note that are the two equations of bisectors of angles of two st lines given
a b h
by ax 2 2hxy by 2 0
Again , if the central conic ax 2 2hxy by 2 1 transformed into a ' x 2 2h ' xy b ' y 2 1 by a
change of axes on the same origin, then a ' b ' a b and a ' b ' h '2 ab h 2
a b A B and ab h2 AB
Let the curve u x, y ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0 pass through the origin , with x axis
as tangent and y axis as normal. Since the curve passes through the origin, c = 0. and the
tangent at origin( gx fy c 0 ) becomes y = 0 since this is the tangent. Thus g = 0; so that the
eqn reduces to ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 fy 0 . If y axis be the tangent at the origin and x axis is
normal, the eqn would be ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 0 ……………………. Eqn(39)
1 U 1 U
The eqns of st lines ax hy g 0 and hx by f 0 are not conjugate
2 x 2 y
diameters as one may be tempted to think. But they are st lines passing through the centre as
their solution gives the coordinates of the centre.
( if the conic has a centre at all). So they are diameters as any st line through the centre could
be one. Further they are the st lines joining extreme values of the function
y x taken from U x, y 0 when x is treated as independent variable i.e.,
when U x, y 0 is written as y x and when y is treated as independent variable i.e.,
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
when U x, y 0 is written as x y in turn. But they may be taken as a pair of axes of the
conic, but these two are also a pair of conjugate diameters for product of their slopes is not
b2 a hm
nor they obey m ' ; also they not perpendicular to each other for product of their
a 2
h bm
slopes is not – 1 . so the two may be taken as oblique axes. (Imagine the standard ellipse
x2 y2
1 with axes as coordinate axes and centre at the origin shifted to any other point and
a 2 b2
the axes tilted. Then it takes the form U x, y 0 and intersection of principal axes of it no more
join the extreme points. But the lines who join the extreme points pass through the centre)
The eqn of the conic referred to these axes is ax 2 2 hxy by 2 as derived in the
ab h 2
previous chapter.
For finding the axes of the general conic U x, y 0 , we note that the eqn
ax hy g hx by f ax hy g hx by f ………………………….(a)
2 2
ab h
when solved, gives both the foci, so it is a conic passing through both the foci. Further the
ax hy g 1 ax hy g
2
hx by f hx by f , or
2
Z 2 1 Z
, or , hZ 2 a b Z h 0 . The two values
a b h a b h
ab
of Z are negative reciprocals of each other and their sum is and product is - 1 . The lines
h
may be taken as
hx by f 0 , …… Eqn(40)
ax hy g hx by f 0 and ax hy g
1 a b
where . This pair of st lines pass through both the foci. Let us see whether both of
h
them pass through both the foci or one through each focus or one through both foci and the
other through none. Now , both the st lines pass through intersection of st lines
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
ax hy g 0 and hx by f 0 , i.e. the centre of the original conic. As both the foci
and the centre are collinear, only one of the st lines in (b) pass though both the foci both the st
lines (b) pass through the centre as the two st lines (a) are not coincident. Thus the pair of st
lines (b) or (a) for that matter represent a set of axes.
Let a secant from the point P(x’, y’) at an angle θ with the x – axis cut the conic
u x, y ax 2 2hxy by 2 2 gx 2 fy c 0 …………………………………..(a)
at Q and Q’ . Then any point on this line at a distance r from P may be taken as
R’
R’’
Q”
C Q’
R
P Q
θ X
O
(x’ + r cos θ , y’ + r sin θ).The coordinates of Q and Q’ may be found by putting these values in
(a),i.e.
a x ' r cos 2h x ' r cos y ' r sin by 2 2 g x ' r cos 2 f y ' r sin c 0
2
which gives two values of r. which are of same sign or opposite sign according as the point
P is outside the conic or inside. The difference of the values gives the length of the chord.
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
Evidently if one of the values is 0 if the point is on the conic and the other value is the
length of the chord.
§34: If two chords , QQ’ in the direction θ and RR’ in the direction θ’ are drawn from any point
PQ.PQ '
P to cut the curve at Q, Q’ , and R, R’ respectively, then constant
PR.PR '
……………………………………………… ……..Eqn(42)
U x ', y '
PQ.PQ ' ……………..…………..(a)
a cos 2h cos sin b sin 2
2
U x ', y '
then PR.PR ' ………………………...(b)
a cos ' 2h cos 'sin ' b sin 2 '
2
§35: If CQ” and CR” be focal radii from centre C parallel to PQ’ and PR’
respectively , and as diameters are twice the radii, i.e. radii in opposite directions are
PQ.PQ ' CQ "2
equal, then ……………………… Eqn(43)
PR.PR ' CR "2
§36: If Q, Q’ coincide and R and R’ coincide, the secants become tangents from P and
as such, two tangents drawn from a point to a conic may not be equal.
§37: If parallel chords PQQ’ and P”RR’ from P(x’, y’) and P’ (x”, y”) cut the conic in Q,
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
U x ', y '
PQ.PQ ' and
a cos 2h cos sin b sin 2
2
U x '', y ''
P ' R.P ' R '
a cos ' 2h cos 'sin ' b sin 2 '
2
which is independent of θ’s or directions of chords and only depend upon the
points P and P’
§38: Let a conic and a circle intersect at four points Q,Q’ and R,R’ . If the st line QQ’
and RR’ meet at a point P, and CQ” and CR” are radii of the conic drawn from its centre
parallel to QQ’ and RR’ respectively, then
taking the circle as a conic (all its radii are equal) ; i.e., CQ” = CR”. But in a general
conic which is not a circle, two radii are equal only when the radii are coincident or
opposite, i.e. when they are equally inclined to x- axis of the conic. So CQ” and
CR” must be coincident or opposite.
§39: Thus in any central conic, equal radii are equally inclined to x- axis.
§40: If any two chords are drawn from a fixed point P onto a circle of radius r ,
PQ.PQ ' r 2
to intersect it at points Q , Q’ and R , R’ then 1 ………… Eqn(47)
PR.PR ' r 2
§41: In view of the above, if PT an PT’ are two tangents drawn onto a circle from the
PT 2 PQ.PQ ' r 2
point P, then 1 ……………………………… Eqn(48)
PT '2 PR.PR ' r 2
§42: From a point P chords are drawn to cut a conic at two points. The locus of the
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
point which harmonically cuts these chords is the polar of the point P.
Let the point P be the origin (0, 0) . If Q and Q’ be the points at which the chord PQQ’
cuts the conic making an angle θ with the x – axis, the lengths PQ or PQ’ are values
of r from (1) above, by putting (0, 0) in
r 2 a cos2 2h cos sin b sin 2 2rg cos 2rf sin U 0,0 0 …Eqn(49)
g cos f sin c
Or, a cos 2 2 h cos sin b sin 2 2 2 0 …..(a)
r r
as U 0,0 c
1 1 g cos f sin
PQ and PQ’ are roots of this eqn and their sum is 2 .
PQ PQ ' c
1 1 2 2
If R is any point on QQ’ such that if PR s, say , then
PQ PQ ' PR s
2 g cos f sin
the locus of R is given by 2 ,or, gs cos fs sin c 0 , or
s c
gx fy c 0 which is polar of origin or the point P.
§43: Instead of harmonic mean, if the point R on the chord be such that PR is
§44: Instead of harmonic mean, if the point R on the chord be such that PR is
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
geometric mean of PQ and PQ’ , we have
c
PQ .PQ ' PR v, say , or,
a cos 2 h cos sin b sin 2
2
§45: Conjugate diameters can also be found out easily from this point of view of
consideration of chords. If (x’, y’) be the middle point of any chord in some direction θ,
the sum of two r’ values in (1) above shall be 0. This implies
ax ' hy ' g cos hx ' by ' f sin 0 for the point (x’, y’) for any given θ, or given
sin
tan m . All the chords parallel to this chord have the same slope and if their
cos
coordinates are given by (x, y), evidently the locus of the point is
ax hy g m hx by f 0 ………………………….…………. Eqn(50)
which is evidently the diameter conjugate to one parallel to y mx . If
a hm
m ' is its slope or m ' , then, a h m m ' bmm ' 0 … Eqn(51)
h bm
§46: Pair of tangents from the (x’, y’) can also be easily found this point of view of
consideration of chords. The st line drawn from the point (x’, y’) touches the conic if the
roots of the eqn (1) so that we have
ax ' hy ' g cos hx ' by ' f sin a cos 2 2h cos sin b sin 2 U x ', y '
2
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Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
Or, ax ' hy ' g hx ' by ' f m a 2hm bm 2 U x ', y '
2
y y'
Substituting m for m in this eqn, we get,
x x'
…… Eqn(52)
a x x ' 2h x x ' y y ' b y y ' U x ', y '
2 2
For,
L2 U x ', y ' 2 L U x ', y '
Then
a x x ' 2h x x ' y y ' b y y ' U x ', y ' U x ', y ' 2L U x ', y '
2 2
1 1
If S(x’, y’) is a focus of the conic U x, y 0 and PSP’ be any focal chord,
SP SP '
is a constant for all points P on the conic. Tracking this fact would lead us to the foci.
Here is how it is. We know SP and SP’ would be of opposite sign since they are in
opposite directions . calling them r1 and – r2 , the roots of (1) above,
2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 4
…………………………….(a)
SP SP ' r1 r2 r1 r2 r1r2
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2
ax ' hy ' g cos hx ' by ' f sin
4
U x ', y ' ……(b)
a cos 2h cos sin b sin
2 2
4
U x ', y '
One focus (x’, y’) and another (x”, y”) may both be denoted by (x, y) in (b) above and
since it is independent of θ, putting arbitrary values of θ in (b) we would get an eqn
involving x and y from (b). Two such eqns shall be sufficient to determine x and y; and
any more equations would be redundant since they would be only combinations of the
first two eqns chosen by putting convenient values of θ in (b). the third and any other
eqn for that matter derived from (b) by putting chosen values of θ shall be consistent
because of the identity (b) , conditional identity with respect to θ. This is the technique is
and would be the most highlighted in the series of books written or to be written by this
author.
Putting 0, , and in (b) in turn, and equating the results in pairs,
2 4
or , a b
U x ', y ' U x ', y '
and b a b 2h ..(d)
U x ', y ' 2 U x ', y '
Adding both members of (c) and equating it to twice of (d), as (c) and (d) are equal,
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ax ' hy ' g hx ' by ' f a b
2 2
U x ', y ' U x ', y '
a b 2h
U x ', y '
X Y a b 2h
2
X2 Y2
Or, a b
U x ', y ' U x ', y ' U x ', y '
2 XY XY
Or, 0 2h, or , h ………………………………….(f)
U x ', y ' U x ', y '
X 2 Y 2 XY
From (e) and (f), U x ', y ' ………………………………..(g)
a b h
A tangent at a point P(x’, y’) of a curve is a st line joining two coincident points or in other
words it shows the direction of the next point if we imagine such a concept. The next tangent ,if
we agree to imagine so, shows how the tangent turns. A unique circle passes through these
three coincident points and is the circle of curvature at the point. The radius of this circle is the
radius of curvature and its inverse is the curvature at the point, as the two are reciprocal to each
other inasmuch bigger circles are less curved. These three coincident points are common to
both the curve and the circle of curvature. But the latter is also a conic section and there must
be a fourth point of contact not necessarily coincident with these points as two conics intersect
at four points. The chord joining the three coincident points at P to the fourth point of
intersection of circle of curvature with the curve is called the common chord at the point P.
Thus the tangent and the common chord at any point may be looked upon as common chords
drawn to the two conics from a point P and equally inclined to the x–axis . since the common
chord is not necessarily coincident to the tangent, and they are equally inclines to
x–axis, it follows that the slope angles of the tangent and the common chord are
supplementary.
In the previous chapter, the equation to the circle of curvature, and the evolute were
derived by employing means of differential calculus. Here we derive them from concepts from
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
intersection of conics. The latter way seems easier and serves as exercise for concepts of
intersection of conics.
x2 y2
a. At a point P a cos , b sin of the ellipse U x, y 2 2 1 0 , ………….(a)
a b
x y
eqn of the tangent is T x, y cos b sin 1 0 ………………..………(b)
a b
cos sin
x a cos y b sin 0
a b
x y
Or, L x, y cos sin cos 2 0 …………………………………….……(c)
a b
The circle of curvature is a conic passing through the point P and intersection of the conic
U x, y 0 the pair of st lines L x, y T x, y 0 may be written as
U x, y L x, y T x, y 0 ……………………………………………………(d)
where may be chosen to satisfy other conditions. The other condition here is that this
would be a circle; so that the coefficients of x2 and y2 must be equal, there being no xy term
evidently. Equating the coefficients of x2 and y2 from (d),
1 cos 2 1 sin 2 a2 b2
, or ………………….…..(e)
a2 a2 b2 b2 b 2 cos 2 a 2 sin 2
x2 y 2 2
2 2 1 b cos a sin
2 2 2
a b ………….(f)
2 x y x y
a b cos b sin 1 cos sin cos 2
2
a b a b
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
which simplifies into the following through a few carefully worked out steps,
2 2
a2 b2 a 2 b2 3
x cos 3
y sin
a b
b cos2 a 2 sin 2 a b 2 a 2 cos2 b 2 sin 2
2 3 2 3
………… Eqn(55)
a 2b 2 a 2b 2
a b 2 x '2 y '2
2 3
a 2b 2
a2 b2 a2 b2
whose centre is cos3 , sin 3 and
a b
s
e
m
i
-
c
o
n
j
u
g
a
t
e
d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
3
radius
b 2
cos 2 a 2 sin 2 2
3
……………………. Eqn(55)
ab ab
x '2 y '2 a 2 b 2
2 2 3
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
x cos y
3
sin
3
………..Eqn(56)
a b a 2b 2
A st line passing through the point t and equally inclined to the x – axis as T x, y 0 is
given by t y 2at x at 2
0, or, L x, y ty x 3at 2 0 .(c)
1
1 t 2 , or , ,
1 t2
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D PART II: DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS AND CONIC SECTIONS
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams Section8_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 41 : Intersections Of Conics
Substituting this value in (c) and simplifying, the circle of curvature is
x a 2 3t y 2at 4a 2 1 t 2 ……………………………………………(d)
2
2 3 2 3
where the centre is at 2a 3at , 2at and radius 2a 1 t
2
2 2
f
o
c
a
l
d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e
3
a at
3 3
Now, 2a 1 t
3 2 2
a x 2 2
2
2 2
a
2
a
2
a
………………… Eqn(57)
Compare the result with the result that sum of squares of semi-conjugate diameters is
constant and equal to square of radius of the director circle.
Compare the result with the result that product of the focal radii of any point on the ellipse
equals the square of the semi- diameter parallel to the tangent at the point.
If two conics have common tangent at a point, i.e., have two common coincident points at a
point, they are said to be at contact with each other. Alongwith common tangent, if two conics
have common circle of curvature at any point, their contact is said to be of second order. If
there are four coincident points in common between two different conics, the contact is of third
order. Two different conics cannot have contact of fourth order since they would be coincident,
as a conic is determined completely by five points. Two different conics having contacts of third
order are said to be osculating each other. If one of them is a circle, which is completely
determined by three points, a circle and a different conic cannot have contacts of third order or
more. Since the circle of curvature has contact of second order, it is said to be the osculating
conic.
Asymptotes are tangents of the curve at infinity. Tangents are polars of the points on the
curve itself. Polar of a point (pole) is the locus of a point such that it cuts the chords
drawn from the pole harmonically. Directrices are polars of foci. A line at infinity is polar
of the centre. A point at infinity is a pole of an asymptote. The proof of the statements are
left to the reader as exercises as all of them have been proved earlier in various chapters.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
CHAPTER 42: THE INDEFINITE INTEGRAL
§1:Integration as reverse process of differentiation
It is not only the aim of integration process to find whose differential coefficient is the function
under our consideration. It is easier to observe rate of change of some function generally time
rate and space rate than to observe the function itself. For example, we can measure force,
rather easily which is rate of change of momentum; we can easily measure acceleration due to
gravity , albeit by indirect means , but it is difficult to measure velocity of a falling body.
Therefore we need to integrate, and study functions from that angle which are integrable.
Integration has a pictorial or geometric aspect also , quite interesting. In the following chapters
for definite integral, i.e., integration of a function or curve between two given ordinates, is
nothing but the area bound among the two ordinates, the curve and the x – axis ; and the
curve itself is the differentiation of this area. And the area is nothing but sum of all the small
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
stripes of areas bound between two adjacent ordinates. But first some fundamentals must be
gathered.
Now we can carry over or translate all the formulae developed for differentiation to
similar formulae for integration, as we have defined integration as reverse process of
differentiation; just as we did for logarithms and inverse circular functions.
We know that differential coefficient of a constant is 0. Putting it the other way round,
we can say the function whose differential coefficient is 0, must be a constant. We
write this by 0dx cons tan t. Choice of this constant is arbitrary until and unless it is specified.
In other words a function whose differential coefficient is 0, must be a constant.
Suppose we have to determine a function whose derivative is given. We could do so by
integrating the derivative. Would it be the particular function we were looking for? The
answer is “no”. How? We could well add a 0 to the given derivative and then
integrate; with the result that an arbitrary constant is added to the function we got.
Naturally this had to be the case. This would be clear when we try to draw the graph
of the resulting function. We could draw the graph; well, where exactly would we place
the graph on the paper, unless we know at least one point on the graph in particular?.
Hence the importance of the arbitrary constant is felt for getting initial value or
boundary value of the function. As an example, let speed is given by a function v(t)
dt 2
=2t. On integration (as we know 2t ) we get distance s(t) = ∫v(t)dt = ∫2tdt = t2 + c
dt
, where c is an arbitrary constant . To get particular value of this constant, we have to
know what was the initial distance or distance from origin at the starting time or t =
0. If this is taken as s0, we have, s0 = s(0) = 0 + c, giving c = s0 . We finally have s(t) = t2
+ s0 .
It is for this reason the result of integration, called the integral, is indefinite to the extent of an
arbitrary constant and as such, is called indefinite integral.
§2:Algebra of integrals
We have to know some rules as to how integrals are added, subtracted , multiplied etc. else
how do we work with them?
Do you remember the formula,
d(u v ) du dv
………………………………………...(1)
dx dx dx
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
du dv
Take g( x ) and h( x ) ………………………….(2)
dx dx
d( u v )
Now from (a1), g( x ) h( x ) …………… (3)
dx
d( u v )
Or, on integration, u v dx [g( x ) h( x )]dx ……...(4)
dx
dU
f x so that U f x dx cU c f x dx . But
dx
dU d dU
cU c dx cf x dx from cU c .Combining the two results,
dx dx dx
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Exercise1 If f x k and f x is integrable in [a, b], show that f x dx k b a
remember
How do we know that some function F x is integral of some other function f x , or how do
we verify whether F x f x dx ? The answer is simple, differentiate F x and verify
dF x
whether f x .As illustration and exercise, take any ten functions you have
dx
differentiated and verify that they are integrals of their differential coefficients. It is no magic
that you can integrate the ten functions below ( in fact myriads of such functions) without
knowing ABC of integration !. Try it.
Integrand primitive
2x , nx n 1 , x n x n 1
2
x , x , n
, n 1 0
n 1
cos x , sin x , sec 2 x sin x , cos x , tan x
e x , ae bx ln b e x , ae bx
e x f x f ' x ex f x
1 1 1 sin 1 x , cos 1 x , tan 1 x
2 1 x2
1 x , 1 x ,
2
Now you seem to know many things about integration, or, equally possible, you might have
been tricked by the author. No chance of any of the two statements. What you are seeing is
the same old results of differentiation, viewed just from the new angle of integration and you
can freely use the results in problems with the table turned left to right. However the results
would be derived formally hereafter.
Note : For brevity we skip the integration constant throughout , unless expressly required.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
When Mathematics develops a new concept, involving some reverse operations, such as
finding logarithms as reverse process of laws of indices , or as inverse circular functions are
reverse process of trigonometric functions, the initial formulas or tools of working with them
are developed just by invoking the formulas for the original process viewed in the light of the
definition of the reverse process. Precisely the fundamental formulas of the reverse process
are translation of the formulas of the old process with the definition of the new concept.
We carry on the formula translation work from differentiation. It is no rocket science. Just
put symbols for the things you want to work with and follow the standard operations and the
new definition of course. Follow the examples below and remember the results.
du du dx
Remember the formula . …………………………(8)
dt dx dt
du
To translate it to the language of integration, just set f (x)
dx
dx
Hence the formula f ( x )dx f ( x ) dt dt ………………………(10)
In essence, the independent variable is changed, from x to ‘t’.
dx d(g( t ))
This can be written in another manner. If x g( t ), g' ( t )
dt dt
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Again, as f ( x )dx can be written as f ( g )dg , for, x = g, (5) or (5a) can be written in yet
another manner, when x = g(t),
dx
f ( x )dx f ( x ) dt dt f ( g )dg ………………………….(12)
Example1
d sin x
You immediately recognize cos x . Therefore , by the above formula
dx
d sin x sin x
2
1
sin x cos xdx sin x dx dx 2 2sin xd sin x 2 .
2ydy y
2
This is plane application of (5b) as .
Note here that dx in numerator and that in the denominator don’t ‘cancel out’ even if it looks so.
Actually there is no ‘denominator’ in differential coefficient nor any ‘numerator’ in the integral.
They just stand for reverse processes. The best policy for success is, derive the formula
theoretically sincerely , so that fundamental concepts take root. But don’t remember the
derivation while working out the problem, just apply it. Of course you have to remember the
derivation if you are asked in the exam, or if you are explaining it to a peer. Even though dx in
numerator and that in the denominator don’t ‘cancel out’, as factors do, they cancel out as
reverse processes and can be remembered as such and can freely be used anywhere, but
only under the integral sign.
Wait; it is not too much about the little problem, even by now. Still you may be facing some
problem about how to write. You can write the answer in the following manner, instead of the
above one-liner.
dt dx
Set sin x t , a new variable. We have cos x , or, cos x
dx dt
t 2 sin x
2
dt 1 sin 2 x
So sin x cos xdx t dx 2tdt . Perhaps it is clear by now. But the
dx 2 2 2 2
above one-liner is perfectly rigorous and you can write in that manner just with a little practice.
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
The example is twice finished ; but still there is something to be said. You can safely write
d sin x cos xdx , freely , even without the integral sign, as long as you are not unscrupulously
using it. For example you can write sin x t and then sin xdx dt with no harm done to
rigor.They are the ‘differentials’ read under differentiation chapter.
At last you have to return to the old variable by reverse transformation i.e., by putting t sin x
so that the answer is in terms of the given variable.
Example2
Integrate x x 3
Remember our ‘ difficulty identification’ principle in the preliminary chapter. Here obviously the
difficulty is x 3 and give it a symbol. Put x 3 t x 3 t 2 x 3 t 2 dx 2dt so that
we have
Note that our one-liner work out was not possible here. We had to work out the details of
substitution
Example3
e x
Integrate x
e 1
e x dx d e x 1
We have the one liner here. x x ln e x 1 ,
e 1 e 1
as d e x 1 de x d1 de x 0 de x
Put e x t , so that e x dx dt
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
e x dx dt d t 1
e x 1 t 1 t 1 ln t 1 ln e 1
x
Then
dx
Note The example could have been also written as 1 e x
and could have been integrated by
substitution e x t .
Example4
1 1
1 sin x 3 1 sin x d 1 sin x 1 sin x
2 2 3
We have cos xdx
3 3
§7:Integration by parts.
Apart from formula translation from differentiation, two most important technique for integration
is substitution or change of independent variable, and this one, integration of product. Note
that both the techniques have been obtained by formula translation only; but their scope
extends much beyond.
duw du dw
Remember the formula w u …………………...(13)
dx dx dx
dw
Set v,..so...that..w vdx ……………………………….(14)
dx
Or, uv
d
dx
u vdx
du
dx
vdx
du
Hence the formula uvdx u vdx - dx vdx dx ................(16)
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
In words, integral of the product = 1st function x integral of second
Example5
Integrate x cos x
We have
x cos xdx x cos xdx 1. cos xdx dx
x sin x sin xdx x sin x cos x
x2
cos x .xdx cos x xdx sin x
2
dx . The function becomes complicated and wont work. So
the choice of 1st function is important before applying the product formula.
Example6
Integrate xe x
We have xe dx x e dx 1.e dx xe
x x x x
e x e x x 1 .here again verify that wrong choice of 1st
function results in complications.
Example7
x
3
Integrate ln xdx
1 3 x 4 ln x x3 x 4 ln x x 4
x ln xdx ln x x dx ln x x dx x x dx dx 4 4 dx 4 16
3 3 3
We have
Example8
Integrate cos ln x
We have
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1
I cos ln x .1dx cos ln x .x sin ln x xdx x cos ln x sin ln x .1dx
x
1
x cos ln x x sin ln x cos ln x xdx x cos ln x x sin ln x I
x
By transposing,
x
2 I x cos ln x x sin ln x or , I cos ln x sin ln x
2
In problems like this and in may other, where integration by parts formula is to be applied
repeatedly, the formula may be obviously generalized as follows:
Often we choose the wrong first function for integrating by parts and the expressions in the
successive steps become longer and longer . To avoid this, experience is the guide. The more
problems you do, the more you bypass the pitfalls. The first function may be chosen , by and
large , in the following order. ILATE for acronym.
i) Inverse functions
l) Logarithmic functions
a) Algebraic functions
t) Trigonometric functions
e) Exponential functions
These results are from first principles we had mentioned in the very beginning and may be
remembered for working out problems. The more , the better i.e., the easier the problems shall
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
appear to be. Particularly Calculus needs a bit or regular practice; out of practice for a few
days and you have to do it all over again.
1 m
dx m d x
m 1
1 dx m
a) Integration of y = x . We know, dx mx
n
Or, x m1 Or, m x m1 , Put
m dx dx
1
d x n 1
n = m – 1 or m = n + 1, so n 1 xn .
dx
x n1
x dx
n
which gives, on integration, ……………… …(18)
n 1
d ln x 1
b) We know, , if x > 0,so on integration , this gives,
dx x
1
x dx ln x
1
If x < 0, -x > 0, d ln( x ) d ln( x ) d ( x ) 1 ( 1) 1 ,so dx ln(x )
dx d( x ) dx x x x
1
So, in either case, x dx ln | x | …………………………(19)
It is always safer to write ln | x | as logarithm function is defined only for positive values of the
argument. In fact the cause is as given under.
d d d x 1 1
ln x ln x 1
dx d x dx ln x x
1 1
Therefore x dx ln x if x is negative. Then the integral of is ln x if x is positive and ln x
x
1
x dx ln | x | . x dx where
n
if x is negative, so in both cases This is the exceptional case
n 1, i.e., n 1 0
de x
ex
c) We know, dx ,
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
which gives on integration, e x dx e x ……………….(20)
ax
d
da x 1 da x ln a
d) We know a x ln a or, ax or, a x , if a > 0.
dx ln a dx dx
ax
which gives, a dx when x
ln a 0 or, a 1, a 0 …… ..(21)
ln a
d( a ) x 1 d ( a ) x
If a < 0, - a > 0, a x ln( a ) , or , ( a ) x , or,
dx ln( a ) dx
( a ) x
d
ln( a ) ( a ) x , or, ( a ) x
,0r, ( 1) x a x dx
( 1) x a x
,or,
( a )
x
dx
dx ln( a ) ln( a )
ax
a dx
x
,
ln( a )
ax
a dx
x
So, in either case, …………………………….(22)
ln | a |
If a = 1, a x dx 1x dx 1dx x …………………..…………(23)
Now we had enough of formula translation .Rather we should look for something new.
Let us take integration by substitution. Two special results given below are useful.
[ g ( x )]n1
[ g ( x )] g '( x )dx if , n 1 0 ……………….…… ….(24)
n
e)
n 1
Let g(x) = t so that [g(x)]n = tn, and g’(x) = dt/dx, then we get
dt t n 1 [g( x )]n 1
[g( x )] g' ( x )dx t n dx t n dt
n
if , n 1
dx n 1 n 1
x n 1
x xt
n
This is not something entirely new as told, but reminiscent of the formula n 1 , and in
fact, has been derived from it.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
f t f ' t dt
A similar formula is derived from just the definition of integration,
f ax b
f ' ax b dx
Or, a ………………………..(25)
g '( x )
Hence, dx ln | g ( x ) | ………… …………..(26)
g( x)
I) tanxdx=-ln|cosx| ……………………(27)
d cos x dt
Put cos x = t, so that sin x ,then we have
dx dx
sin x 1 dt
tan xdx cos x dx t dx dx
1
dt ln | t | ln | cos x |
t
sin x d cos x
Alternatively, direct we can have . cos x cos x ln cos x
dx
with a little bit of practice, (Since ln is defined for +ve values only,
d cos x dx 1
where we have used sin x , and f ( x )dx f ( x ) dt , dx ln | x | ,and substituted
dx dt x
d cos x
sin x (See integration by substitution)
dx
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
d 1
sin 1 x , x 1
dx 1 x2
g) We know, ,
1
So, dx sin -1 x, x 1 ………………………………..(28)
2
1- x
d 1
cos 1 x , x 1
dx 1 x2
h) We know, ,
-1
So, dx cos-1 x, x 1 ………………………………(29)
2
1- x
This was expected, for, sin-1x and cos-1x differ by a constant, π/2.
But the constant π/2.does not appear if corresponding sides of (12) and (13) are added.
Nothing to worry; since the left sides add up to 0dx which is a constant only. So students are
advised not to panic if the answer provided in any book does not tally with his or her
own answer; as long as they differ by a constant.
d 1
i)We know, tan 1 x , x R,
dx 1 x2
1
So, dx tan -1 x , x R ………………………….(30)
1 x2
d 1
j) We know, cot 1 x , x R,
dx 1 x2
1
So, dx -cot -1 x , x R ……………………….(31)
1 x 2
This was expected, for, tan-1x and cot-1x differ by a constant, π/2
d 1
sec 1 x , x ] ,1[]1, [
dx x 1 x2
k) We know, ,
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1
So, dx sec-1 x, x ] ,1[]1, [ ………………...(32)
2
x 1- x
d 1
cos ec 1x , x ] ,1[]1, [
dx x 1 x2
l) We know, ,
-1
So, x 1- x 2
dx cos ec -1 x, x ] - ,1[ ]1, [ ………....(33)
This was expected, for, cosec-1x and cot-1x differ by a constant, π/2
A few more formula translations for trigonometric functions. Look at the results, already in the
differentiation chapter.
d cos x
a) We know, sin x ,Integrating we get,
dx
d sin x
b) Similarly,
dx
cos x gives cos xdx sin x ………(35)
d tan x
sec xdx tan x ……… ….(36)
2
c) sec2 x gives
dx
d cot x
cos ec xdx -cot x …… ….(37)
2
d) cos ec2 x gives
dx
d sec x
e)
dx
sec x tan x gives, sec x tan xdx sec x …..……(38)
d cos ecx
f)
dx
cos ecx cot x gives, cosecxcotxdx=-cosecx . (39)
g) cot xdx ln | sin x | …………………..(40)
d sin x dt
Put sin x = t so that cos x . we have,
dx dx
© Page 15
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
cos x 1 dt 1
cot xdx sin x dx t dxdx t dt ln | t | ln | cos x |
2
h)
d
ln | sec x tan x |
1 d
sec x tan x sec x tan x sec x sec x
dx sec x tan x dx sec x tan x
x
2 tan
1 2
x x
1 tan 2 1 tan
sec x tan x
1 sin x
2 2 tan x
x x
cos x 1 tan 2 1 tan 4 2
2 2
2 x
1 tan
2
x
So, , sec xdx ln | sec x tan x | ln tan … …..……(42)
4 2
d 1 d
ln | cos ecx cot x | cos ecx cot x
i) dx cos ecx cot x dx
cos ecx cot x cos ec 2 x
cos ecx
cos ecx cot x
1 cos x x
Derive as above cos ecx cot x tan , so that
sin x 2
x
cos ecxdx ln | cos ecx - cot x | ln tan 2 ………….(44)
§12:Inverse Circular Functions again, using integration by parts.
The following results are obtained using integration by parts as well as integration by
substitution.
© Page 16
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
We have,
d sin 1 x 1 1 2 xdx
dx dx x sin x 1 x 2 xdx x sin x 2 1 x 2
1 1 1 1 1
sin xdx sin x.1dx sin x 1dx 1dx
1 1 x
2 2 1
2
1 d(1 x )
x sin 1 x = x sin 1 x+ x sin 1 x 1 x 2
2 1 x2 2 1
1
2
d 1 x 2
where we have used 2x
dx
We have,
d cos 1 x 1 1 2 xdx
cos xdx cos x.1dx cos x 1dx dx 1dx dx x cos x 1 x 2 xdx x cos x 2 1 x 2
1 1 1 1 1
1 d 1 x 1 1 x 2
2 2 1
x cos x
1 1
x cos x x cos1 x 1 x 2
2 1 x2 2 1 1
2
1
c) tan -1 xdx x tan -1 x - ln 1 x 2 ……………….(47)
2
1 d tan x 1
tan xdx tan 1 x.1dx tan 1 x 1.dx 1dx dx x tan 1 x xdx
dx 1 x2
1 2 xdx 1 d(1 x 2 ) 1
x tan 1 x 2
x tan 1
x 2
x tan 1 x ln(1 x 2 )
2 1 x 2 1 x 2
ln(1 x 2 )
d) cot xdx x cot x
-1 -1
… ………………(48)
2
© Page 17
Page 540 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1 1 1 d cot 1 x 1 1
cot xdx cot x . 1dx cot x . 1dx dx 1dx dx x cot x 1 x 2 xdx
1 2xdx 1 d(1 x 2 ) 1
x cot 1 x 2
x cot 1 x x cot 1 x ln(1 x 2 )
2 1 x 2 1 x2 2
d sec 1 x
sec xdx sec x.1dx sec x 1dx dx 1dx dx
1 1 1
1 dx
x sec 1 x xdx x sec 1 x x sec1 x sin 1 x
x 1 x 2
1 x 2
d cos ec 1 x
dx 1dx dx
1 1 1
cos ec xdx cos ec x.1dx cos ec x 1dx
1
x cos ec1 x xdx
x 1 x2
dx
x cos ec 1x x cos ec 1x cos 1 x
2
1 x
So, we have,
© Page 18
Page 541 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
x
ln | x | dx =x(ln | x | -1) = x(ln | x | -lne) = xln | e | …….…....(52)
d ln | x |
ln | x | dx ln | x | .1dx ln | x | 1dx dx 1dx dx
1
x ln | x | xdx x ln | x | x
x
x
x (ln | x | 1) x(ln | x | ln e) x ln | |
e
Example10
x2 x3 x n 1
to a 0 x a1 a2 ........... a n
2 3 n 1
Exercise2
2 x a 2 x b 2
3 3
Ans.
3 a b
Exercise3
Integrate e x x 2 2 x 3 . Ans. e x 1 5 x 2 x 2
© Page 19
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Exercise4
Integrate x3 ln 1 x 2 Ans. 1
4 x 4
1 ln 1 x 2 18 x 4 2 x 2
Exercise5
1 2x
3
36 x 2 9 x 1
Ans. 8ln x
3x 2
Example11
x2 1 dx
1 x 2 dx 1 1 x 2 dx 1dx 1 x 2 x tan x
1
Exercise6
x4
Integrate . Hint. Divide the numerator by the denominator until it is a proper fraction
x2 1
( degree of the numerator is less than that of denominator) and then integrate term by term.
x4 1
x2 1 2
x 1
2
x 1
x3
Ans. x tan 1 x
3
Exercise7
sin 3 x cos3 x
Integrate .Hint. Break up into two terms and integrate term by term.
sin 2 x cos 2 x
Example12
© Page 20
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1
Exercise8
1
Show that 1 cos 2 x 2 dx 2 cos x .Hint. 1 cos 2 x 2 sin 2 x
Misc. Exercise9
x 1 1 2x 1 ln x 2 1
x 2 1 dx . Ans. 2 x2 1 dx x2 1 dx 2 tan x
1
i)
ln x
j) Find e x dx Ans. x
e x 1 x
k) Find cos xe dx
2 x Ans. tan xe x
© Page 21
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1
dx
l) Find
dx
xx
. Ans. 2
2 x
1 x
2 ln 1 x
ax n 1dx a
m) Find bxn c Ans. ln bx n c
nb
1
esin x
1
n) Find dx Ans. esin x
1 x 2
1
eta n x
o) Find
1
dx Ans. eta n x
1 x2
2x
p) Find dx Ans. sin 1 x 2
1 x4
cos ln x
q) Find dx Ans. sin ln x
x
e
x
r) Find sec2 e x dx Ans. tan e x
dx dx e x dx
s) Find x x Hint. x x 2 x tan 1 e x = Ans.
e e e e e 1
2dx 2x 3
t) Find , Hint. t 2 x 3 , Ans. sin 1
2 2 x 3 2
2
1 ln x 1 ln x
2 3
u) Find x
dx Ans.
3
2 1 3
x tan x 1
v) Find x6
dx Ans.
3
tan 1 x 3
e
x
w) Find tan e x sec e x dx Ans. sec e x
sin 2 3ln x dx
x) Find Ans. cos 2 3ln x
x
sec2 xdx
y) Find 1 tan x 2 Ans. sin 1 tan x
tan x sec2 x
tan x
2
z) Find x
dx Ans.
Exercise10
© Page 22
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
cos 1 x x 1 x 2 cos 1 x
Integrate Hint integrate by parts, 1st function cos 1 x Ans.
x3 2x2
Exercise11
Exercise12
3x x3
Integrate tan 1
Ans. 3x tan 1 x 32 ln 1 x 2
1 3x 2
Misc. Exercise13
cot xdx
a) Find ln sin x . Hint. t sin x ,Ans. ln ln sin x
b) Find cos x cot sin x dx , Ans. ln sin sin x
1 tan x sin x
c) Find 1 tan x dx . Hint tan x ,Ans. ln sin x cos x
cos x
x
2
d) Find tan x3dx
1 1
3
x
2
tan x3 dx sin x3 3 x 2 dx
3 cos x
ln cos x 3 ln sec x3
3 3
1
e) Find cosec ax b dx Ans. ln tan ax b
a
1 1
f) Find sec tan x sec xdx ln tan tan x
2
Ans.
4 2
(differentiate the last function to get the hint)
g) Find cos ec cos ecx cot x cos ecxdx Hint t cos ecx
1
Ans. ln cot cos ecx
2
© Page 23
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
sin 2 xdx
ln a cos 2 x sin 2 x
h) Find . Ans.
a cos 2 x sin 2 x ba
cos 2 xdx
i) Find
sin x cos x
2
4 x 4 4 16 4 4
By induction,
x n 1 1 x n 1 x n 1 x n 1 x n 1
x ln xdx n 1 ln x n 1 n 12 n 1 ln x 1 n 12 ln x ln e n 12 ln e
n n 1
x n 1 x n 1
x ln xdx
n
ln .............................................(41)
n 1
2
e
1 x
l) Integrate
ln 1 x
Ans.
ln 1 x dx 1 x ln e
x ln 1 x
m) Integrate
x2 1 x 2 dx x 2 1 1 dx
x ln 1 x dx 2
ln 1 x
2 1 x 2
ln 1 x 1 x dx
2 2 1 x
x 1 ln 1 x ln 1 x x 2 1 x 1
2 2
x2
Ans. ln 1 x
2 4 2 2
4
x ln x
2
n) Integrate
© Page 24
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
2 x2 x2 x2 x3 1
x ln x dx ln x 2 ln x dx ln x ln x
2 2
Ans.
2 2 2 3 3
o) Integrate x ln x
3
x2 3 x
2
3
x ln x dx ln x 3 ln x x ln x dx
3 3 2
2 2 2
ans. 2
3 x 2 3
x 1 2
3 x2 x3
ln x ln x
x 3 x 1
ln x ln x ln x ln x
3 2 2
2 2 2 3 3 2 4 2 2 3
p) Integrate x tan 1 x
x2 1 x2 x2 1 1 dx
x tan xdx tan x. 2 1 x 2 2 dx tan x. 2 2 1.dx 2 1 x2
1 1 1
Ans.
x2 x 1 x 2 1 -1 x
tan 1 x. tan 1 x tan x -
2 2 2 2 2
x 2 1 -1 x
q) Integrate x cot 1 x x cot xdx cot x
-1
Ans.
2 2
r) Integrate x 2 tan 1 x
x3 1 x 3dx x 3 1 x
x tan xdx tan 1 x tan 1 x x
2 1
dx
3 3 1 x 2
3 3 1 x2
Ans.
x3 x2 1
tan -1 x - ln 1 x 2
3 6 6
3 1
s) Integrate x tan x
x4 1 x 4 dx x 4 1 2 x2
tan x.x dx tan 1 x
1 1
3
tan x x dx dx
4 4 1 x 2
4 4 1 x 2
x4 x3 1 x2 x4 x3 1 1
tan 1 x dx tan 1
x 1.dx dx
4 12 4 1 x 2
4 12 4 1 x 2
x4 x 3 x tan 1 x tan -1 x 4 x
4
tan 1 x
12 4 4
4
x -1 - x 2 -1
4
1
t) Integrate sec x
xdx
Ans. sec
1
xdx x sec1 x x sec-1 x - cosh -1 x x sec-1 x - ln x x 2 -1
x x 1
2
© Page 25
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
u) Integrate x sec 1 x
x2 1 x 2 dx x2 x2 1
x sec xdx sec 1 x
1
sec1 x
2 2 x x2 1 2 2
x2 x 2 -1
x sec xdx
-1
sec-1 x -
2 2
v) Integrate x 2 sec 1 x
x3 1 x3 dx x3 1 x 2 dx
3 x x2 1 3 3 x2 1
1 1 1
x 2
sec xdx sec x sec x
3
x3 1 dx
sec1 x x 2 1dx
3 3 x2 1
x3 1 x x2 1 1 1 x x2 1 1
sec1 x . ln cosh 1 x
3 3 2 3 2 2 3
3
w) Integrate x cos x
Ans. x3 cos xdx x3 6 x sin x 3 x 2 2 cos x
x) Integrate x cos x cos 2 x
ans. 1
16 3x sin 3x cos 3x 12 x sin x cos x
y) Integrate x cos 3 x sin x
x cos
3
x sin xdx 14 x cos4 x 128
1
12x 8sin 2 x sin 4 x
x x2
z) Integrate 2 ,
sin x cos 2 x
ans. x cot x lnsin x , x tan x ln sec x
exercise14
sin x
Integrate Ans. sin a ln sin x a x a cos a
sin x a
© Page 26
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
e x e x e x e x e x e x sinh x
They are sinh x , cosh x tanh x ,
2 2 e x e x cosh x
e x e x cosh x 1 2 1 2 1
coth x x
sec hx x x , cos echx x x
e e
x
sinh x tanh x e e cosh x e e sinh x
sinh x y sinh x cosh y cosh x sinh y , cosh x y cosh x cosh y sinh x sinh y ,
tanh x tanh y
tanh x y etc.
1 tanh x tanh y
e y e y
so that x sinh y e 2 y 2 xe y 1 0 e y x x 2 1 ,
2
or, y ln x x 2 1 . But since x x 2 1 is negative, its logarithm has no meaning. Also we
have y sinh 1 x .So y ln x x 2 1 sinh 1 x .
Similarly, cosh 1 x ln x x 2 1 . But both values are positive here . cosh 1 x will not be single
valued , hence not a function, if both values are taken. To modify the definition of cosh 1 x to
make it a function, note that , for x 1, x x 2 1 1 and ln x x 2 1 0 ; and
x x2 1
x x 1
1
2
1 , for which ln x x 2 1 0 .Hence the definition of cosh 1 x is
© Page 27
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
e y e y 1 x ey 1 1 x
Now, if y tanh 1 x , x tanh y y
y e 2 y y tanh 1 x ln
e e
y
1 x e 2 1 x
1 x 1
a) coth 1 x ln , defined only for x 1 ,
2 x 1
1 1 x2
1
b) sec h x ln only for 0 x 1 and
x
1 1 x2
c) cos ech 1 x ln positive or negative sign is taken as x is positive or negative
x
respectively, for ,logarithm function is only defined for positive values of the argument.
1 ( ax b )n1
d) ( ax b ) dx
n
, if , n¹-1 ……………………….(54)
a n 1
1
Put ax b t , so that dx dt ,
a
1 n t n 1 (ax b)n 1
so (ax b) dx t dt
n
a a n 1 a n 1
dx 1
e) ax b a ln | ( ax b ) | …………..………………………..(55)
( Put n = – 1 and prove the above result)
dx 1 x
f) x 2
a 2
tan -1 …………………………………..…....(56)
a a
© Page 28
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
dx 1 a sec 2 d d 1 1 x
x 2 a 2 a 2 tan 2 a 2 a 2 (tan 2 1) a a a tan a
2
a sec d
dx 1 x-a
g) x 2
ln
- a 2a x a
2
…………………..…………….(57)
dx 1 1 1 1 dx dx
x 2 a 2 2a x a x a dx 2a x a x a
1
ln | ( x a ) | ln | ( x a | 1 ln x a
2a 2a xa
dx x
h) sin -1 …… ……………………………..(58)
a -x2 2 a
dx a cos d x
d sin 1
a x2 2 2 2
a a sin 2 a
dx x a2 x2
i) a 2 x2
ln
a
…………………….(59)
a2 x2
Put x = a tan θ, so that dx/dθ = a sec2 θ = a(1+ tan2 θ) = a(1+ x2/a2), and sec θ=
a
dx a sec 2 d x a2 x2
sec d ln | sec tan | ln
a
a2 x2 a 2 a 2 tan 2
Alternatively
we have a 2 x 2 a 2 1 sinh 2 a 2 cosh 2
1 1 x
dx a cosh d 1d sinh 1
a2 x2 a cosh a
dx x a 2 x2 x
So, a2 x2
ln
a
sinh -1 ……………….(60)
a
© Page 29
Page 552 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
It so happens that there is no difference of any constant term between the two methods of
integration.
dx x x2 - a 2 x
j) x2 - a2
ln
a
cosh -1 ………………….(61)
a
a2 -1 x x x 2
k) a - x dx
2 2
sin 1- 2 ……… ……………(62)
2 a a a
a2
a 2 x 2 dx a 2 a 2 sin 2 a cos d a 2 cos 2 d
2 1 cos 2d
a2 sin 2 a 2 1 x a 1 x x x 2
2
sin sin cos sin 1 2
2 2 2 a 2 a a a
x a 2 x2 a2 x x2 a2
a x dx ln
2 2
2 2 a
l) ……… ……..(63)
x a x
2 2
a 2
x
sinh -1
2 2 a
( 1+χ2/α2) We have,
a 2 x 2 dx a 2 a 2 tan 2 a sec2 d a 2 sec3 d a 2 sec sec2 d sec tan sec2 d
a 2 [sec tan sec3 d sec d a 2 [sec tan sec 3 d ln | sec tan |
© Page 30
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
a2
Or, a 2 x 2 dx a 2 sec 3 d [sec tan ln | sec tan |]
2
a2 x2 x x2 x x a2 x2 a2 x a2 x2
[ 1 2 ln | 1 2 | ln
2 a a a a 2 2 a
a2 x x2 - a2
x - a dx x x - a - ln |
2 2 2 2
|
m) 2 a …………..(64)
a2 -1 x
x x - a - cosh
2 2
2 a
x 2 a 2 dx a 2 sec2 a 2 a sec tan d a 2 sec tan2 d a 2 tan sec tan d
a 2 [tan sec sec 2 ( sec tan d)d a 2 [tan sec sec 2 sec d]
a2
a 2 [tan sec sec 3 d] a 2 tan sec
2
sec tan ln sec tan
a2 1 a2 x x2 a 2
2
sec tan ln sec tan 2
x x 2
a 2
2
ln |
a
|
dx
The process of integrating sec 3 xdx , and, 2 2 as done above indicate two special
x a
techniques which can be used as standard tools in such problems. The former hints
at recursion formulae and the latter hint at partial fractions techniques.
Example13
dx dx 1 dx
a sin x b cos x r cos sin x r sin cos x r sin x ,
b 1 dx 1 x
where r a 2 b 2 , tan ,so ln tan .
a r sin x r 2
Example15
© Page 31
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1 cos 2 x 1 1
sin xdx dx x sin 2 x
2
2 2 4
Example16
cos3 x
sin xdx sin x 1 cos x dx sin xdx cos x sin xdx cos x
3 2 2
Example17
cos 2 2 x
sin 4 x cos 2 xdx cos 2 x2sin 2 xdx 3
2
Example18
1
cos x cos 2 x cos 3xdx 2 cos x cos 3x cos 3xdx
cos 3 x 4 cos3 x 3cos x
as
1 1 1 1
cos x cos 3xdx cos 2 3xdx cos 3x x cos 3x x dx 1 cos 6 x dx
2 2 4 4
1 1 1 1 1
cos 2 xdx cos 4 xdx dx cos 6 xdx sin 2 x sin 4 x x sin 6 x
4 4 2 4 6
1 1 1
sin 2 x sin 4 x x sin 6 x
8 2 3
Example19
x x
Find sec 2 cos ec 2 dx
2 2
x x 4dx dx
Ans. sec
2
cos ec 2 dx 4 2 4 cos ec 2 xdx 4 cot x
2 2 x x sin x
4 cos 2 sin 2
2 2
Example20
© Page 32
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
x x
Ans. 1 cos xdx 2 sin dx 2 2 cos
2 2
Example20
dx
Find 1 cos x
dx dx x x x
Ans. 1 cos x x
sec2 d tan
2 2 2
2 cos 2
2
Example21
x x
1 cos x dx 2 cos dx 2 2 sin
2 2
Example22
Find
1 sin xdx
x x x x x x
1 sin xdx 1 2sin cos dx sin cos dx 2 sin cos
2 2 2 2 2 2
Exercise15
x x
Find
1 sin xdx 2 sin cos
Ans. 2 2
© Page 33
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
dx 1 bx c
a) sin 1 ………………. (65)
a 2 bx c b a
2
dx 1 bx c
b) sinh 1 ……………... (66)
a 2 bx c b a
2
dx 1 bx c
c) cosh 1 …………… . (67)
bx c b a
2
a2
Exercise16
x3 sinh 1 x 4
Integrate Ans.
x8 1 4
Exercise17
2 x2 2sinh 1 x3 1
Integrate Ans.
x 6 2 x3 2 3
Exercise18
x2
Integrate Hint. Make x 2 x 2 1 1
x 1
2
x x2 1 1
Ans. sinh 1 x
2 2
Exercise19
x2 x x 2 1 cosh 1 x
Integrate Ans.
x2 1 2
Exercise20
Integrate x 2 2 x 2 3x 1
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1
Ans.
24
2x 2
3 x 1 32 x 2 108 x 61
§20: The following three exercises may be worked out and remembered
If integration is taken as an operation, integration of ex is the same function ex. It is like identity
operation or invariant , not changing by integration or differentiation. See the effect when it is
multiplied with some other function.
e [ f ( x ) f '( x )]dx e
x x
f ( x ) ………………………………..………...……(68)
Exercise21
1 x ln x ex
Integrate e x e x ln x
x x
1 x ln x 1
e dx e x ln x dx e x ln x
x
Ans.
x x
Exercise22
1 sin 2 x
Integrate ex Ans. 1
e 2 x tan x
1 cos 2 x 2
Exercise23
1 sin x
Integrate e x .
1 sin x
Exercise24
xe x
Integrate
1 x
2
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(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
xe x 1 1 1
1 x 2 dx x 1 x 12 e [ f ( x) f '( x)]dx
e x
x
where f x
x 1
Ans.
x
e
e x f ( x)
x 1
Exercise25
1 sin x
Hint. 1 sin x sin 2x cos 2x ,
2
Integrate e x Ans. e x cot x
1 cos x 2sin 2 x
2
1 cos x 2
Exercise26
12 x 1 sin x 12 x
Integrate e Ans. e sec 2x Hint. 1 cos x 2 cos 2 x
1 cos x 2
Exercise27
Integrate e x esin x cos xesin x Ans. esin x x
Exercise28
1 1 x
Integrate 2
Ans.
ln x ln x ln x
§21:
Remember the results
Exercise29
x
Integrate , Hint. Put tan 2x t Ans. x tan 2x 2 ln cos 2x
1 cos x
Exercise30
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
x
Integrate , Hint. Put tan 2x t Ans. x cot 2x 2 ln sin 2x
1 cos x
Exercise31
x
Integrate , Hint. Put tan 2x t Ans. x tan 4 2x 2ln cos 4 2x
1 sin x
Exercise 32
x
Integrate , Hint. Put tan 2x t Ans. x cot 4 2x 2ln sin 4 2x
1 sin x
Exercise33
I n x n e x dx x n e x I n-1
ans. …………….….(69)
J n x n e- x dx x n e- x J n-1
ae ax cos(bx c ) be ax sin(bx c )
e cos(bx c )dx
ax
…………. (70)
a 2 b2
d ax
We have [e cos(bx c)] aeax cos(bx c) e ax b sin(bx c)
dx
d ax
And [e sin(bx c)] aeax sin(bx c) e ax b cos(bx c)
dx
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Multiplying the first eqn. throughout by ‘a’ ,the 2nd eqn. by ‘b’ and adding, we get,
d
[aeax cos(bx c) beax sin(bx c)] (a 2 b2 )eax cos(bx c)
dx
ae ax cos( bx c) be ax sin( bx c)
e
ax
cos( bx c)dx
a 2 b2
Put a = rcos φ, and b = rsin φ;so that r =(a2+b2) and tan φ = b/a .
ae ax cos( bx c) be ax sin( bx c)
e cos(bx c)dx
ax
a 2 b2
The last two results are particularly used in case of Alternating Current circuits and
transient (temporary, for very short time) current circuits, i = A cos (bt +c) is represented
by electric current or charge varying in time ‘t’, an equation is arrived at by using its
first and second derivatives and involving alternating e.m.f. Transient currents are
represented by i = e-at etc. and both cases are covered by
Alternative method :
d
e sin(bx c)dx sin(bx c) e ax dx [sin(bx c)] eax dx dx
ax
dx
ax ax ax
e e e b
sin(bx c) b cos(bx c) dx sin(bx c) cos(bx c)e ax dx
a a a a
ax
e b
sin(bx c) [cos(bx c) e ax dx b sin(bx c)( eax dx)dx]
a a
© Page 38
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
e ax b e ax e ax
sin(bx c) [cos(bx c) b sin(bx c) dx]
a a a a
e ax beax cos(bx c) b 2
sin(bx c) 2
2 sin(bx c)e ax dx]
a a a
On transposing terms,
b 2 ax e ax sin( bx c) be ax cos(bx c)
e sin(bx c)dx
ax
e sin( bx c ) dx
a2 a a2
b 2 ax ae ax sin( bx c) be ax cos( bx c)
Or, 1 e sin( bx c)dx Or,
a 2 a2
ae ax sin( bx c) be ax cos( bx c) ae ax sin( bx c) be ax cos( bx c)
e
ax
sin( bx c)dx Or,
2 b2 a 2 b2
a 1 2
a
ae ax sin( bx c) be ax cos(bx c)
e sin(bx c)dx
ax
…………………....(72)
a 2 b2
Put a = rcos φ, and b = rsin φ;so that r =(a2+b2) and tan φ = b/a
ae ax sin( bx c) be ax cos(bx c)
e
ax
sin( bx c)dx
a 2 b2
Exercise34
Integrate e x cos 2 x
ex 1 x 2 x tan 1 2 e x 2 x tan 1 2
e cos xdx e 1 cos 2 x dx 2 2 e cos 12 22 2 1 cos
x 2 x
Ans. 1
2
5
Exercise35
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
e 2 x e 2 x
Hint. set sinh 2 x
2
Exercise36
Integrate cos ln x
Exercise37
Integrate e x x 2 sin x
Exercise38
3 2 3 2
© Page 40
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
f ' x f ' x dx
Then, 2 2 dx ln f x 2 x c f x e 2 x c Ce 2 x ,say.
f x f x
Using f 0 1 , we have f x Ce2 x 1 f 0 Ce2.0 C . So, C 1 f x e 2 x
Exercise39 remember
1 x
Integrate tan 1 , x 1
1 x
1 x 1 cos 2 cos 2
2
tan 1 tan 2 sin d 12 sin d 12 sin cos 12 x cos 1 x 1 x 2
Exercise40
x sin 1 x
Integrate
1 x2
Exercise41
en tan 1 x e n
Integrate Hint. Put tan 1 x , Ans. cos cot 1 n
1 x
3
2 2
n 1 2
Exercise42
en tan 1 x e n 1 1 2
Integrate ; Hint. Put tan 1 x , Ans. 2 cos 2 tan 1
1 x
2 2 2 n n 4 n
Exercise43
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
1
xen sin x
en
Integrate , Hint. Put sin x , Ans.
1
sin cot 1 n
1 x
1
2 2
1 n 2
Exercise44
1
x 2 en sin x
e n 1 1 2
Integrate , Hint. Put sin x , Ans.
1
cos 2 tan 1
1 x
1
2 2 2 n 4n 2
n
Exercise45
x tan 1 x x tan 1 x
Integrate Hint. Put tan 1 x , Ans.
1 x
3
2 2
1 x2
a2 x2 a a2 x2
Integrate Ans. a 2 x 2 a ln
x x
Exercise47
Integrate ln x x 2 a 2 Ans.
x ln x a 2 x 2 a 2 x 2
Exercise48
Integrate x ln x x 2 a 2 Ans. 1
2
x 2 ln x x 2 a 2 14 x x 2 a 2 a 2 sinh 1 ax
Exercise49
x
Integrate
ax
x a sinh 2 t a
dx 2a sinh t cosh tdt a 2sinh 2 tdt a cosh 2t 1 dt sinh 2t at
ax a 1 sinh t
2
2
© Page 42
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Exercise50
x
sin 1
ax Hint. put x a tan t Ans. a x tan 1
2
Integrate x
a ax
Exercise51
xa
Integrate
x
Last but not the least, if you are not confident of result of any integration, or do not
understand the process for some reason, just differentiate the result . If you get back your
problem alright, your answer is correct, Sheer common sense!
We have seen that polynomials or finite power series are easily integrated term
P x
© Page 43
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Remember an important example 2 2 dx dx 1 dx dx
2a x a x a
. Let us try another example
x a
x 2 6x 6 3x 4
x 2 3x 2 dx . The expression can be written as 1
( x 1)( x 2 )
.The fraction part of it could be
3x 4
identically written as A B
x 1 x2 ( x 1)( x 2)
Or, A( x 2) B( x 1) 3x 4 , Or, (A B)x (2A B) 3x 4 . Equating the coefficients of the variable x
from both sides(take values x = - 1 and x = - 2 in turns) , we get two equations A+B = 3 and
x 2 6x 6 dx 2dx
dx dx
x 1 x 2
2A+B = 4, which, on solution give, A = 1 and B = 2 . So, 2 which
x 3x 2
can be easily integrated.
In a general way,
In First Step a rational function f(x) = g(x) / h(x) (where g(x) and h(x) are finite expressions in
x and its powers) should be divided off to make it a proper fraction form, i.e., in such a manner
that degree of g(x) should be less than that of h(x). Then the denominator should be
factorized. The topic has been dealt in detail in the chapter for functions and is being briefly
recapitulated here.
Rule 1:
The for each non-repeated real factor of 1st degree in x, ax + b type, a fraction A / (ax + b) may
be taken, as the partial fraction, where A is a constant to be determined.
Rule 2:
When some linear real factor appears in repetition in the denominator such as (x a ) 2 , two
A B
constants A and B may be taken or two fractions may be taken. Take an example
x a (x a)2
x3 x3 A B C
( x 1) 2 (x 2) dx .Let
( x 1) ( x 2) x 1 ( x 1)
2 2
x2
.Or,
5xdx
(x 1)(x 2 5)
where x 5 is irreducible.
2
For example, take
5x A Bx C
Let 2 ,Or, 5x A(x 2 5) (x 1)(Bx C)
(x 1)(x 5) x 1 x 5
2
© Page 44
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Or, 5x x 2 ( A B) x( B C) (5A C) ,Or, A = -5 /6, B = 5/6, and C= 1/6.Now the equation could be
easily integrated.
There is no point calling the fraction as partial fractions. But it is customary and the nomenclature
should be maintained.
Sometimes you have to simplify both sides using binomial or multinomial theorems to collect the
square, cube or fourth powers terms of x, involving long expressions. Since the identity is satisfied
for whatever value of x, it is also satisfied while x tends to some limit , 0 or ∞ as suitable.
Now, After decomposing any integrand which is a rational algebraic function, we get partial fractions
of the types as mentioned below. In principle, if we learn to integrate these partial fractions, our
integration is just the sum of integrations of these partial fractions.
L
a) Partial fraction of the type where the linear factor is not repeated
ax b
Ldx L
The integration is evidently ln ax b
ax b a ……………………………..(47)
L
b) Partial fraction of the type where the linear factor is repeated
ax b
n
Ldx L 1
The integration is evidently ax b n
a 1 n ax b n 1
for n 1
………(48)
Lx M
c) Partial fraction of the type
Ax 2 2 Bx C
To integrate the partial fraction with irreducible quadratic in the denominator, we may express
the numerator as linear function of the derivative of the quadratic Ax 2 2 Bx C or, 2 Ax 2B .
That is, set Lx M 2 Ax 2 B . linear function of 2 Ax 2B ,in terms of , and
some constants to ne determined . The purpose is evidently to change the independent
variable from x to y 2 Ax 2 B so that the integrand becomes
Lx M d 2 Ax 2 B dx
Ax 2 2 Bx C dx Ax 2 2 Bx C Ax 2 2 Bx C
The first integrand in the right becomes ln Ax2 2Bx C . The , expressing Ax 2 2 Bx C as
2
B AC B 2
2
1
sum of two squares x , we can integrate the second integral, i.e.,
A A A
© Page 45
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
dx 1 dx 1 Ax B
Ax 2
2 Bx C A 2
2
2
AC - B 2
tan -1
AC - B 2
,
x B AC - B
A A
………..(49)
completing the integration. We have tacitly assumed AC B is positive, as the quadratic 2
Ax 2 2 Bx C is irreducible.
Note. Some formulae derived have been highlighted in bold; but given no formula number. It
indicates that you need not remember the formula. Not that it is unimportant, rather more
important than other numbered formulae; but you are advised to follow the procedure of
deriving these formula while working out problems rather direct apply the formulae themselves.
This would create too long expressions to work out easily. Examples below shall illustrate.
Exercise52
3
Integrate Ans. 32 ln 5 2x
5 2x
Exercise53
2
Integrate Ans. ln 7 2x
7 2x
Exercise54
2 2 1
Integrate Ans.
7 2x
2
2 1 2 7 2 x 7 2 x
Exercise55
1
Integrate Ans. 2
tan 1 2 x 7 3
x 3x 4
2 7
Exercise56
x2
Integrate Ans. 1
2
ln x 2 2 x 3 12 tan 1 x 21
x 2x 3
2
Exercise57
2x 3
Integrate Ans. 1
3
ln 3x 2 4 x 5 31311 tan 1 3 x11 2
3x 4 x 5
2
Exercise58
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
x2 1 x 1
Integrate Ans. x ln
x2 1 x 1
Exercise59
x3 3
Integrate
x3 3x
Ans.
x ln x 12 1 3 ln x 3 12 1 3 ln x 3
Exercise60
1 x 1
Integrate Ans. 1
2 ln
x 1
2
x 1
Exercise61
Integrate
1
Ans. 1
ln
x 1 x 3
x 1 x 2 x 3 2
x 2
2
Exercise62
x2
Integrate Ans. 1
ln x 1 4 ln x 2 92 ln x 3
x 1 x 2 x 3 2
Exercise63
1 1 1 1 7 ln x 1 ln x 1
Integrate Ans. 2 2 ln x
x3 x 1 x 1
2
x 2 x 1 2 x 4 4
Exercise64
x2
Integrate Ans. 3
ln x 1 4 ln x 2 52 ln x 3
x 1 x 2 x 3 2
Exercise65
3ln x 1 ln x 2 ln x 4 7 tan 1 2x
4
1 1
Integrate Ans.
x 1 x 2 x 4
2
5 x 1 25 8 400 200
Exercise66
x 2 3x 6
x ln x 3 x 1
3 2
Integrate Ans.
x2 2 x 3
Exercise67
x 1 x 2 x 3 x 2
3
Integrate Ans. x 12 ln
x 1 x 2 x 3 x 1 x 3
5
Exercise68
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
x3 4
Integrate Ans. x 4 x 2
x 2 x2
2
Exercise69
x x2 5 x
Integrate Ans. 1
ln 5
tan 1
x 1 x 2 5 6
x 1 6
5
Exercise70
x2 1 x 2 1 x 1
Integrate Ans. 5
ln ln
x 2 1 x2 4 12
x 2 3 x 1
Exercise71
x5
Integrate Ans. 1
3 x3 x 2 9 x 16 ln x 1 15
32
ln x 2 248
10 ln x 3
x3 2 x 2 5 x 6
Exercise72
1 ln x a ln x b 1
Integrate Ans.
x a x b
2
b a
2
b a
2
x b a b
Exercise73
x2 7 x 1 2x 1 3
Integrate Ans. 4
tan 1
x 2
x 1 x 1
2 3
3 x 1
Exercise74
1 x 2 x 1 1 1 2 x 1 2x 1
Integrate Ans. 1
ln 2 3 tan tan 1
x 2
x 1 x 2 x 1
4
x x 1
2
3 3
Exercise75
x x2 1 1
Integrate Ans. 1
2 ln 2 tan 1 x
x x x 1
3 2
x 1
Easy Substitutions
Exercise76
Integrate 2
x 2 1 x 2 2
Hint. put y x 2 Ans. x 2
tan 1
x
3 tan 1
x
x 3 x 4
2 3
3 2
Exercise77
x2 x 1 x
Integrate Hint. put y x 2 Ans. 16 ln 2
2
tan 1
x4 x2 2 x 1 2
© Page 48
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
Exercise78
x2 1
2
Integrate Hint. put y x 2 Ans. a tan 1 ax b tan 1 bx
x 2
a 2
x 2
b 2
a b
2
Exercise79
1 1 2
Integrate Hint. put y x 2 1 Ans. ln x 2 1 2 ln x
x x 2 1
3
x 1 2 x 1
2 2
Exercise80
cos2
Integrate Ans. 13 23 tan 1 2 tan
4sin 2 cos 2
Exercise81
1
x
1 1 1 x
Integrate 2 Hint. put x y, dy x 2 dx Ans. 1
tan 1
x 1 x x 2
2
Exercise82
x2 1 1 1 1 x2 2 x 1
Integrate 4 Hint. put x y, dy x 2 dx Ans. ln
x 1 x x 2 2 x2 2 x 1
Exercise83
1 sin 2
Integrate hint. put x tan , dx sec 2 d Ans.
1
x2 1
2 2
2
Exercise84
4 x 2 19 x 2
Integrate Ans. 1
tan 1 1
2 3 2 ln
x 4 5 x 2 14 7 7
x 2
§25:Vector integration
d v d 2 r
Motion of a point P with constant acceleration g , say, may be given by g . Integration
dt dt 2
d r
gives the velocity v gt v0 , v0 being initial velocity, the constant of integration. Integrating
dt
1
again, r gt 2 tv 0 , choosing the constant of integration 0, or the motion starting from the origin.
2
© Page 49
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 42 : The Indefinite Integral
This is a vector equation of a parabola whose axis is g and r is sum of two vectors one varying as t 2
and the other as t .
© Page 50
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
CHAPTER 46:QUADRATURE AND RECTIFICATION AND MECHANICS OF ROTATION
the x = axis, and the ordinates at t a and at t b opens up many possibilities. [Similarly the area bound by
d
the curve x g y , y – axis , and the abscissa y c and y d is given by g y dy .]. Simply speaking,
c
the concept of area of a rectangle of 5 units of length and three units wide comes from the concept of unit
area of a square of length and breadth each one unit. Since there are
5 x 3 square units in the rectangle, its are is 15 units. Because multiplication of length and breadth gives the
number of squares of unit area each enclosed in the rectangle it is natural to choose the unit of area as the
square of unit area of length. That is for sake of economy of fundamental units and with a purpose to
remind us always that area is a product of length and breadth, even though the concept of area is a totally
different concept from the concept of length.
This is about area of a rectangular region. What about are of a region bound by say a circle, ellipse,
or some curve of irregular shape ? To copy the figure on a graph paper and count the number of complete
squares inside the boundary of the figure and add half the number of squares on the boundary not lying
completely inside the figure is an answer too simplistic. We have to take graph paper of smaller squares for
better accuracy. In the process reducing the size of the squares makes them invisible too fast before we get
a fair idea of the area. Here the definite integral comes to our rescue. We can take the definite integrals of
b b
the upper curve F x dx and the lower curve
a
f x dx between the ordinates at the two points of
a
intersection and their difference gives us the fairly accurate idea about the area enclosed between the two
curves.( see the figure)
y=F(x)
y y=f(x)
O x=a x=b
x →
© Page 1
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
One, how to calculate the area, especially when two branches of the curve are represented by the same
equation y f x . Evidently y f x is not a single valued function, or not a function in strict sense of
the term. For example, the lower half and upper half of a circle between two extremities x a and x a
are represented by the same equation x 2 y 2 a 2 . If this is how we can compute the area of circle, ellipse
etc, we no more shall need counting the small squares of the graph papers inside the figures.
Secondly, The area is not the area in the sense of geometry as we understand. If the function y f t
stands for speed at a point of time t, the area gives the total distance travelled in time t. If the function
represents the variable force plotted against displacement , the area gives the work done by the variable
force between the initial and final displacements, as we have see in the previous chapter. In the first part of
this chapter we would discuss computation of area under various curves and their intersections and in the
second part, we would compute different physical quantities represented by the areas of integration
respectively
Example1
Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (2, 2), (3, 1) and (1, 0) using definite integrals of the st lines
joining pairs of points.
B(2, 2)
C(3,10)
O X
A(1, 0) D(2, 0) E(3,0)
© Page 2
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
x2 y 2
Example2: Area inside the ellipse 1
a2 b2
To find the area OAB, in the region the function is single valued,
O A
a
b x a 2 x2 a 2 x b a 2 ab
a a
b
The area is ydx a 2 x 2 dx sin 1 .Because the graph is
0
a0 a 2 2 a a 2 2 4
0
symmetrical about both the axes, total area is ab . Had the ellipse been a circle, i.e., if a = b , then the
area would have been a 2 .
P
B
O C
© Page 3
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
a a
Then area OBPCO =
0
2ax x 2 dx . Area OAPCO = axdx .The difference of these areas is the area
0
a a a a
2 3
2ax x 2 dx axdx a 2 a x dx a x 2
2
OAPBO =
0 0 0 3 0
Put a x a sin , dx a cos d , 0 when a x , 2 when a 0 ,so that the above becomes
2
2a 2 a 2 2a 2 2
a cos d a2 .
2 2
0 3 4 3 4 3
2 3 2
The area inside the parabola intercepted by the circle is a 2 a 2 a2
4 3 4 3
Example4
Find the area of the region bounded by interception of two parabolas whose equations are y x 2 and
x y 2 . We can set the latter equation y x
First find the points of intersection of the two parabolas, as (0, 0) and (1, 1).
Y P(1, 1)
y x
A B
y x2
O C X
1
1 1
2 3 x3 2 1 1
xdx x dx x 2 .
2
The area of the region OAPB = area of OAPC – area of OBPC =
0 0 3 3 0 3 3 3
Observe some trick employed here.
© Page 4
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Example5
O
X
The curve is symmetrical about the x – axis as it does not change replacing y by – y , and meets the x –
2a 2a
2
axis at x = 0 and at x = 2a. So the area of the loop 2 ydx 2 x
5
2
2a xdx
0
a 0
Put x 2a sin 2 , dx 4a sin cos , Now 0 when x = 0 and 2 when x = 2a. The integral becomes
5
2 2 2
5311 5 2
2a
5
sin 2a cos 4a sin cos d 64a sin cos2 d 64a 2 a
2 5 2 6
a2 0 0 8642 2 4
Example6
The second circle is same as the first with the same radius and the centre displaced to (2, 0) and the two
circles intersect at the points 1, 3 and 1, 3 .Also the second circle passes through the origin.
1 2
4 x 2 dx 4 x 2 dx
2
(Draw the figure) . The area is given by 2
0 1
1 2
1 1 x 2 1 1 1 x 8
2 x 2 4 x 2 sin 1
2
2 x 4 x sin 2 3 Complete the
2
2 0 2
2 1
2 2 2 3
exercise.
© Page 5
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Example7
xa
x a
A X
O
The st line x a is the asymptote to the curve and the loop is extended from x 0 to x a an the curve is
ax ax
symmetrical about the x – axis. The equation can be written as y x , i.e. y x from x 0
ax ax
ax
to x a and y x from x a to x 0 .
ax
x a x
1 4 2
a a
ax
dx 2 a 2 sin sin 2 d 2a 2 1
2
Similarly, the area between the curve and the asymptote is given by
0
ax
0
x a x 0
2 1 4 2
a x a x dx 2a a 2 x 2 dx 2 a sin sin d 2a 1 2 2 2 a
2 2
© Page 6
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
example8
Compute the area of the region in the first quadrant enclosed by the parabolas y 2 2ax , x 2 2ay and the
circle x 2 y 2 3a 2 .
Y
A
x 2ay
2
B
F
O C D X
y 2 2ax
x2
a
The area OAFO = area OAC – area OFC = 2ax dx
0
2a
a 2
x2
The area FAB = area CABD – area CFBD =
2 2
3a x dx .
a 2a
x2
a a 2
x2
The required area OAB is sum of these two , i.e. 2 ax dx 3a x
2 2
dx
0
2a a
2a
a a 2
2 3 x3 x 3a 2 x x3 2 3 1 1
2a x 2 3a x 2 sin 1 a 2 sin
3 6a 0 2 2 a 3 6a a 3 2 3
1 1 2
Complete the exercise by using sin sin sin 1 1
1 2
© Page 7
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Exercise1
9
Ans.
2
Exercise2
1
Compute the area of the region enclosed by y x 2 , y 0, and x 1. Ans.
3
Exercise3
Compute the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y 2 8x and its latus rectum
Exercise4
Compute the area of the region enclosed by the curve y e x , x – axis and the ordinates at x = 1 and x = 2.
Ans. e2 e
Exercise5
Compute the area of the region enclosed by the parabolas, y 2 4ax and x 2 4by .
Exercise6
Compute the area of the region bound by the cycloid x a sin , y a 1 cos and the x axis
between [0, 2 ] . This is a curve on a circumference of a circle rolling on a st line.
2
In almost all the examples above, the integrand was double valued; for example, the ellipse having its major
axis on the x – axis and the origin inside the ellipse. To avoid ambiguity, we took one fourth of the ellipse,
where the function is single valued , computed the area in the 1st quadrant and multiplied it with 4 to get the
total area enclosed by the ellipse utilizing symmetry in x – axis and in y – axis. What could have we done if
the ellipse had been entirely in the 1st quadrant , like this in the figure below? had we not taken account of
© Page 8
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
this symmetry, there could have been confusing result 0 also instead of true area as we are dealing with
functions which are not single valued.
Y
Q
B
C
A
P
O DG F E X
1 2 dx
t t2
dy
them cancelling out, the sure bet would be x t dt y t dt since the regions of cancellation in
2 t1 dt t1
dt
either calculation are different. The proof needs serious analytical approach and is beyond the scope of the
book. The informal discussion is given to facilitate understanding. the idea may still be more clarified
referring to the concept of curl of a vector area and Green’s theorems. Again, this consideration would be
valid only when the graph is only a single loop. For a double loop, the areas of each single loop may be
calculated separately and added thereafter.
Note. – for brevity, the area of a closed figure having only a single loop, we have
1 2 dx 1 2
t t t t
dy 12 12
A x t dt y t dt xdy ydx
2 t1 dt 2 t1 dt 2 t1 2 t1
© Page 9
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Example9
2 2 2
1 dy dx 1
Ans. A x t dt y t dt ab cos 2 t sin 2 t dt ab
2 0 dt 0
dt 2 0
Example10
2 2 2
Compute the area enclosed by the asteroid x 3 y 3 a 3
2 2 2
1 dy dx 1
A x t dt y t dt a 2 cos3 t 3sin 2 t cos t sin 3 t 3cos 2 t sin t dt
2 0 dt 0
dt 2 0
2
1 3a 2
3a sin t cos tdt
2 2 2
2 0
8
Exercise7
8a 2
where 1 t 1. Ans. .
15
Exercise8
16
Hint. Find the range of t for the loop first. Ans.
35
Exercise9
Compute the area inside the two wings of the butterfly x a sin t , y b sin 2t .
© Page 10
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Hint the curve has two loops, t 0 to and t to 2 . find the area of each and add
them.
8ab
Ans.
3
Exercise10
Compute the area inside the cardioid x a cos t 1 cos t , y a sin t 1 cos t
Hint. consider for the interval t [0, ] and double the integral.
Ans. 3
2 a2
Exercise11
3 ab
Compute the area enclosed by the curve x a cos3 t , y b sin 3 t Ans.
8
Exercise12
Compute the area enclosed by the curve x a cos t b sin t c , y A cos t B sin t C .
Ans. aB Ab .
Exercise13
8
Compute the area enclosed by the curve x 2t t 2 , y 2t 2 t 3 . Ans.
15
Exercise14
8
Compute the area enclosed by the curve x t 2 1, y t 3 t . Ans.
15
Exercise15
a
4 tan 1
Find the area common to the ellipses ax 2 by 2 1 and bx 2 ay 2 1 . Ans. b
ab
© Page 11
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
§3:
Area in polar coordinates
r δθ
P(r, θ)
θ
X
O
r 2 A 12 r r
1 2
2
If the curve does not loop on itself, i.e., r is single valued function of θ, the area bound between the curve
1 2
2
r d
and the radius vectors r and r + δr is given by taking the limit r 0, 0 in
r 2 A 12 r r
1 2
2
.See the figure.
Example11
r a 1 cos
Find the area of the loop of the cardioide .
The curve being symmetrical about the x axis, the area is given by
2
3 1 3a 2
2 12 r 2 d a 2 1 cos d 8a 2 sin 4
2
d 8a 2
0 0 0 2 2 422 2
© Page 12
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Example12
3a sin cos
r
In polar coordinates the curve becomes sin 3 cos3 .the area of the loop is
2
9a 2 sin 2 cos2 9a 2 2 tan 2 sec2 3a 2 dt
1
d
2 0 1 tan 3 2
d
2 1 t 2 where
dt 1 tan 3
sin cos
2 2
3 3
0 .
3a 2 1 3a 2
which becomes 2 t1 2 .
Example13
X
O A
© Page 13
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
x2 2 y2 a2 , y 2 2 x2 a2
Find the common area between the ellipses .
The area is 8 times the area OAP as the two equations are interchanged as x and y are
a a
,
interchanged. Solving the equations, we find the point P is 3 3 . If the equations are transformed
a2
r
2
into polar coordinates the 2nd equation becomes 2 cos2 sin 2 and the area is
a 2 sec2
1
14 a2 4
a 2 dt 1
8 d 4 d 4 2 2a 2 tan 1
2 0 2 cos sin
2 2
0
2 tan
2
0
2t 2
2 , putting tan t .
§4:
Rectification: length of plane curves
dy
y f x
2
dy
If dx is slope of a tangent to the curve , a small length of tangent may be taken as 1 dx
dx
b 2
dy
so that the length of the curve from x = a to x = b may be given by s a
1 dx . Cf course conditions
dx
apply. for example, the curve should not have turned up on itself, the curve should have been differentiable
2
ds dy
all through, etc. This is a consequence of the fact that 1 , ds being the diagonal of the right
dx dx
angled triangle formed by dx and dy .
Example14.
Find the length of the portion of a parabola x 4ay from the vertex to one end of the latus rectum.
2
Ans. Since the parabola extends from the origin upward in the y – axis and the end of the latus rectum is
at (2a, a), we have to integrate from x = 0 to x = 2a,
2 2a
d x2 1 x 4a 2 x 2 x
2a 2 2a 2a
dy 1
So s 1 dx 1 dx 2a 2 sinh 1
2 2
4 a x dx
0 dx 0 dx 4a 2a 0 2a 2 2a
0
© Page 14
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
1
2a
2 2a 2 2a 2 sinh 1 1 a 2 ln 1 2 , as sinh 1 u ln u 1 u 2
Example15.
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
d d 0 0
0 0
Exercise16
2 2 2
3 3
Find the length of the asteroid x 3 y 3 a 3 from x = 0 to x = a. Ans. 2
ax2
Exercise17
x
Find the length of the catenary y c cosh from the vertex point (0, c) to any point x = b.
a
b
Ans. c sinh
c
More often than not, in practical application, e.g. constructing a bridge, a diversion or a fly over under
constraints of space available and weight bearing capacity etc., the indefinite integral cannot be expressed
© Page 15
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
simply in terms of elementary functions, even the integrand does not take the shape of some elementary
function. There is a beautiful way out, for finding the definite integrals in such cases, of course, with added
2
elementary functions.
P
Q
Y
R
y1
y3
y2
A B C
O X
Simpson’s Rule
A small part of a curve may be considered as a tiny st line, arc of a circle or parabola or any other plane
curve just as well. this is linear or quadratic approximation for small increments of independent variable or
points plotted near to a given point on the curve. Let us take a small part of a given curve as a parabola
y a bx cx 2 . Take QB y2 a bt ct 2 , PA y1 a b t h c t h and
2
RC y3 a b t h c t h , the two ordinates y1 and y3 being equally spaced about the middle y2.
2
As the ordinates are equally spaced, there is some relation among them, namely
y1 y3 2 a bt ct 2 ch2 2 y2 ch2
y1 y3 2 y2
or, ch2 …………………………………(b)
2
© Page 16
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
ch2 y1 y3 2 y2 h
A 2h a bt ct 2 2 h y2 y1 4 y2 y3 .............(c)
3 6 3
h
A y1 4 y2 y3 ...............................................(1)
3
Now let y f x be the curve in the interval AB , which is divided into 2n equal parts n, being a large
positive integer. Let P1, P2, P3………….be the points on the curve corresponding to the points of division
and f A y1 , y2 , y3 ................ y2 n 1 f B , be the respective ordinates at these points of division. We
can replace the small arcs, P1,P2P3, P2,P3P4, P3,P4P5,…etc. by arcs of parabolas, as they are sufficiently
small, and have the following relation as per (c) above.
The area under the curve bound by the ordinates f A and f B is I , say,
Exercise18
The following points on a graph paper are joined to make a smooth curve. Find the area under the curve.
1, 2 , 1.5, 2.4 , 2, 2.7 , 2.5, 2.8 , 3,3 , 3.5, 2.6 , 4, 2.1 Ans. 7.78.
Exercise19
2
dx 1
We have ln 2
1
x
. Find out values of yn
xn
for x1 = 1, x2 = 1.1, x3 = 1.2 ……… x11 = 2 and find an
Exercise20
1 dx 1
Find an approximate value of from by finding yn for x1 = 1, x2 = 1.1, x3 = 1.2 ………
4 0 1 x 2
1 xn 2
x11 = 2.Ans. 3.124
© Page 17
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
If a set of parallel forces act upon a rigidly connected system of particles such as weights
Wn M n g , n 1, 2,3.....n , ( vector notation for forces is omitted as they are all in the same direction)
situated at points whose position vectors are rn n 1, 2,3.....n , the system is equivalent to a single
force W W1 W2 ............Wn acting upon the body through a point whose position vector is
r W r1 W1 r2 W2 .......... rn Wn . The system of particles may be replaced by a rigid body of continuous
cancels out from the equation . The same equation may be written as R
r dm , R is position vector of
M
centre of mass . The bundle of parallel forces may be supposed to act at R , where the entire mass may be
thought to have been concentrated. The vector equation is in fact equivalent to three equations X
xdm ,
M
Y
ydm and Z zdm where R X , Y , Z and
r x, y , z , coordinates of the points.
M M
Also the equation r W r1 W1 r2 W2 .......... rn Wn
amounts to
r M r1 M 1 r2 M 2 .......... rn M n
r M 1 r M 2 .......... r M n r1 M 1 r2 M 2 .......... rn M n
, i.e.
r1 r M 1 r2 r M 2 .......... rn r M n 0
© Page 18
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Example16
O Xr Xr+1
X
x2 y 2
In the figure an ellipse is shown with equation 2 2 1 with major axis a and minor axis b. Supposing it to
a b
be a lamina of uniform thickness with uniform distribution of mass, let us find out the centre of gravity of the
quarter in the first quadrant.
1
Take a small stripe at x xr xr 1 , at the middle point of its extremities at xr and xr 1 is with
2
area hyr , and mass hyr , ρ being uniform density , i.e. mass per unit area and h being width of the stripe
1 1
h xr 1 xr . This stripe can be replaced by a particle at its middle point xr xr 1 , yr with the same
2 2
mass. so that the centre of mass of the quarter is given by the centre of mass of summation of all such
particles, one for each stripe, r 1, 2,3,.....n .The coordinates are
xydx 1 y 2 dx
a a
n n
hyr 2 xr xr 1 hyr 2 yr 2 0
1 1
r 1 r 1
, n
a0
, a , when n→∞. taking h dx .
n
hyr hyr
ydx ydx
0
r 1 r 1 0
© Page 19
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
a a a a
b 2 1 2 1 b2 2
2
xydx x a x 2 dx
2 0
a x 2 dx y dx
a 4a 20a 4b
Now 0
0
and .
a a
b 3 a a
b 3
ydx
0
a 0
a 2 x 2 dx ydx
0
a
0
a 2 x 2 dx
Example17
Find the centre of gravity of a wire in the shape of x a sin 3 , y a cos3 cut between the axes.
a a
ds ds
x dx
dx y dx dx
The centre of mass is given by x 0
a
, y 0
a
.
ds ds
0 dx dx 0 dx dx
a
ds 2
ds dx 2
ds
Now x dx x d x d . But
0 dx 0 dx d 0 d
2 2
ds dx dy
3a sin cos cos sin 3a sin cos
4 2 4 2
d d d
2
ds 2 2
sin 5 2 3a 2
So x d a sin 3 3a sin cos d 3a 2 sin 5 cos d 3a 2
0
d 0 0
5 0
5
© Page 20
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
sin 2
a 2 2 2
ds ds dx ds 2 3a
and dx d d 3a sin cos d 3a .
0
dx 0
dx d 0
d 0
2 0
2
a a
ds
3a 2 ds
0 x dx dx 2a y dx
dx 2a
Now x a 5 . similarly y 0 a .
ds 3a 5 ds 5
0 dx dx 2 0 dx dx
Q
P
r
Suppose a rigid body rotates anticlockwise in the direction represented by the circle in the figure
r
above. The angular velocity vector is represented by .If O be any point on the axis of rotation OQ
,is taken as the origin and is the position vector of a point P on the rotating body, drop a
perpendicular PQ from P onto OQ. Velocity of the point P is a vector perpendicular to the plane of
the paper and its magnitude is given by PQω = r sin α ω. Then evidently v = x r ...(a)
With a slight modification, v = - r x ..………………………..……….(b)
© Page 21
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
just the negative of moment of angular velocity.
v
L
,
r
,
F
,
v
dr
Using v and r , ( v r ), L r F , and taking ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ as unit vectors in
dt
L
=
respective directions, and noting that rˆ vˆ Lˆ , and ˆ ̂ ,for a rotating body about a fixed axis,
(being unit vectors in the same direction),we have,
dm v dv d vv
ˆ d vˆr d vˆ
L r F r mr mr mr r mr 2 rˆ
dt dt dt dt dt
d dvˆ
mr 2 rˆ vˆ mr 2 rˆ mr 2 Lˆ 0 mr 2 Lˆ I Lˆ, say;
dt dt
dvˆ d
as is parallel to -rˆ , and , angular acceleration.
dt dt
Thus L I Lˆ …………………………………………(c)
is the relation between L and α we were looking for, to compare it with F = ma. In parlance,
mr 2 I ………………………………(d)
Since it is a scalar quantity, for rigidly connected mass points we can take summations and
write16(a) as mr 2
I …………………………..(e).
Integrals would replace summations for continuous distribution of matter in a rigid body rotating
r dm I …………………..(f)
2
around a fixed axis. Thus,
The meaning of inertia is clear from Newton’s laws for rotation, a rigid body shall continue to rotate
with a constant angular velocity around a fixed axis until acted upon by a net torque. The axis would
not also be disturbed without a net torque. This is the reason when the trainer told to pedal hard
when the bicycle was tilting; to maintain the angular velocity eroded by friction, so that the axis of
rotation is not disturbed by gravity.
© Page 22
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
What about Newton’s second law? This is L I Lˆ for fixed axis. We can also include small
rotations of the axis also in this equation. Large rotations are beyond the scope of this book as
they cannot be exactly vector quantities. Angular displacements and velocities for that matter cannot
be regarded strictly as vectors even if they are assigned magnitude and direction. In fact they do not
obey the rule of vector addition. For example, take a parallelepiped , give it two 900 rotations, first ,
about a horizontal axis, then about a vertical axis; the resultant position would not be same if the two
rotations are given first about the vertical axis and then about the horizontal axis,(verify). Thus the
commutative law of vector addition does not apply! But nothing to worry as long as the angular
velocity , torque etc are along a particular axis. The vector addition reduces to algebraic addition.
Centre of mass is a suitable mathematical tool to facilitate use of the principle of conservation of
linear momentum in mechanics ( vide chapters on vectors) . similar is the role of moment of inertia in
connection with the principle of conservation of angular momentum. A circus girl rotation on a disc
stretches her arms to decrease speed of rotation. A diver jumping from a dash board traces a
parabolic path into the waters; somersaults if any do not affect the path.
a a
X
O x dx
To find moment of inertia of a thin rod of length 2a centred at the origin and lying in the x –axis ,
and uniform mall per unit length σ about y -axis. A portion of the rod of length dx at a distance x
from the origin has moment of inertia dx.x 2 . So the moment of inertia is
a
a
x3 2a 3 ma 2
2
x dx 3 , where m is the mass of the rod.
a a 3 3
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
O Xr Xr+1
To find moment of inertia of a thin uniform disk about its diameter ( x – axis). Take a stripe with
yr 2
ordinates at xr , xr 1 , its moment of inertia about x – axis is 2 yr h as the moment of inertia of a
3
ma 2
thin rod of length 2a about an axis at its centre perpendicular to itself is , m being its mass and
3
n 1
y2
2a being its length. So the total moment of inertia of the disk about the x – axis is 2 yr h r . The
r 1 3
equation of the circumference of the disk is x 2 y 2 a 2 , so y 2 a 2 x 2 . The infinite summation
2 a 4 Ma 2
a
a
3
2
x 2
dx , a 2 being its area.
2
may be replaced by the definite integral
3 a
4 4
Mass points A, B, C…. contain masses m1 , m2 ........ such that the point G is their centre of mass. Show that ,
for any point P, taking the centre of mass as the origin,
m1 AP2 m2 BP2 ..... m1 AG2 m2 BG2 ..... mi PG2 .
We have
2 2 2 2
m1 AP 2 m2 BP 2 ..... m1 AP m2 BP ..... m1 p a m2 p b ......
2 2 2
p mi m1 a m2 b ....... 2 p. m a m b ....... PG m m a
1 2
2
i 1
2
m2b 2 .......
i i
2 2
as p. m1 a m2 b ....... 0 by definition of centre of mass and a a 2 , b b 2 etc.
© Page 24
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Y
x P
r
y
X
O
a) For a particle of mass m at P(x, y) MI about x - axis is my 2 and that about y – axis is mx 2 . Adding
the two gives my 2 mx 2 mr 2 . But this is MI of the particle about the z axis as r is perpendicular to
the z – axis. This is true for all points on a laminar body of uniform density. So I x I y I z , sum of
MI about two mutually perpendicular axes is MI about an axis perpendicular to both the axes. This
is also true for a prism , which can be thought of as many laminas stalked on one another.
b) In a three dimensional body of any shape , for a particle of mass dm at P x, y, z since
r 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 2 r 2 dm 2 x 2 dm 2 y 2 dm 2 z 2 dm
or, I x I y I z 2 r dm
2
X
O s C
Q
c) In a three dimensional body of any shape , for a particle of mass dm at P x, y, z and having centre
of mass at C, at a distance s along x – axis . Let the MI about z - axis though O be
© Page 25
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
2 2
I r 2 dm s 2 dm CP dm 2 s.CPdm s 2 dm I c 0 , as s is a constant, CP dm I c , MI
about CM, and s.CPdm 0 , being z – component of algebraic sum of moments of mass points
around CM.
So I I c Ms 2 , MI about any axis through O is sum of MI about CM, about an axis parallel to that
through O and Ms 2
This is true for any three dimensional body as we have taken MI about any axis without any
restriction.
Misc Examples19
l/2
b X
O
x dx
M M 2
If the mass of the stripe shown be dm dx its MI about y – axis is x dx and so
l l
l l
M 2 M x3 M l3 Ml 2
2 2
2 x dx 2 2 .
0
l l 3 0
l 3 8 12
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Mb2
The MI of the body about the x – axis is similarly , b being its width.
12
M l 2 b2
MI of the body about the z – axis about the CM is given by perpendicular axis theorem, .
12
M l 2 b2 l 2 M 4l b
2 2
dx
h
x
B a C
c)
To find MI of a triangular lamina ABC about one of its sides, BC. Take a small stripe parallel to BC at
hx
a distance x from it . The length of the stripe at a distance x from BC is a . Its mass would be
h
M hx 2M
given by dm a dx 2 h x dx where 12 ha is the area of the lamina and its MI
h h
h h h h
2M 2M x3 2M x 4 2M h3 2M h4 Mh 2
would be x dm 2 h x x dx 2 h 2 2 h 2
2 2
0 0 h h 3 0
h 4 0
h 3 h 4 6
b y
a x
dx
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
M x2 y 2
d) If the lamina is elliptical mass of the shown stripe is dm 2 ydx where y is given by 2 2 1
ab a b
xa
M
.and the moment of inertia is given by MI 2
x0
x2
ab
2 ydx
x a
4M x2 4M 2
Ma 2 2 2
ab x0 ab 0 4 0
x 2
b 1 dx a 2
sin 2
b cos a cos d sin 2 d 2
a2
2
Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2 Ma 2
1 cos 4 d 2
2 sin 4 0 2
4 0 4 4 4
Mb2 Ma2 b 2
Similarly MI about x – axis is ; MI about z – axis is
4 4
dx
x
R
r
O
© Page 28
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Let the Mass of the annular disk be M, its outer and inner radii be R and r. A ring of width dx has a mass
x dx x 2 M
2
R R
dm 2 M xdx and MI x 2 dm 2M
R r
2 2
R r
2 2
r
2 2
R r r
x3dx
2M R 4 r 4 M R2 r 2
R
2M x 4
2 2 .
R r 4 r
4 R2 r 2 2
if this expression is doubted, for The MI should be MI of the disk of radius R minus MI of a disk of radius
R2M R2M R2M R2 R4M
r. Now mass of a disk of radius R is so that its MI is .
R 2 r 2 R 2 r 2 R2 r 2 2 2 R2 r 2
r4M
Likewise MI of the disk of the size of the hole is and the difference of the two is clearly
2 R2 r2
M R2 r 2
, so there is no confusion.
2
M R2 r 2
MI about a diameter would be as before. MI around a tangent would be
4
M R2 r 2 M 5R 2 r 2
MR 2
applying theorem for parallel axes.
4 4
Y
l/2 l/2
O x X
h)
MI of a cylinder about an axis in its middle and perpendicular to its axis
Suppose the cylinder is of length l, radius R and mass M. Its MI can be found about its
© Page 29
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
MR2
axis treating it as a disk of radius R , i.e. 2 . But about any diameter MI is not just half of it ,
unlike the case of thin disk. To calculate, let us take a thin disk of thickness dx at a distance x from
M M R2
O. Its mass is dm dx and MI is its MI about its diameter dx plus MI of its CM about YY’
l l 4
l l l l l
2
M R2 22
M R 2 2l 2
M M R2 l M 2 2
i.e., 2 x dm = 2 + 2 x dm 2 x 0 2 x2
l 0
2
dx 2
dx 2 +2 x dx
0 0 l 4 0 l 4 0 l l 4 2
l
MR 2 M x3
2
MR2 Ml 2
2 .
4 l 3 0 4 12
R2 r 2
Regarding it as an annular disk MI = M , R, r being its outer and inner radii.
2
A
X’
X
θ
x
r
h
dx
O R
© Page 30
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Let a disk of thickness dx at a distance x from the vertex radius r and mass dm. The volume of the disk is
1 2
r 2 dx and the volume of the cone is R h . If the mass of the cone is M, then
3
3 r 2 dx 3r 2 dx 3 tan 2 x 2 dx
dm M M M where r x tan . The MI of the disk about the axis of the
R2h R2h R2h
h
r 2 dm 3M tan 4 4 3M tan 4 x5 3M tan 4 h 4 3MR 4 3MR 2
h h
cone is
2 R 2 h 0
x dx
0 2 2R2h 5 0 2R2 5 10 R 2 10
where R h tan
4 4R2h
3M
. The density of material is taken as .To this ,
R2h
3M 2 3 tan 2 x 2 dx
r dx x r dx 2 x
2 2 2
Mx 2 must be added to get MI about XX’. Total MI would
R h 2
Rh
be integration of this sum. So MI =
3M tan 4 4 3M tan 2 4 3M tan 4 h5 3M tan 2 h5 3MR 2 3Mh 2
h h
4 R 2 h 0 R 2 h 0
x dx x dx .
4R 2h 5 R2h 5 20 5
m) MI of a thin spherical shell
I x I y I z I , say
As per perpendicular axes theorem in 3-dimensions , since by the symmetry of
3I I x I y I z 2 R 2 dm 2R 2 dm 2MR 2
the shell since R is same for all mass elements. So
2
I MR 2
3 .
As the basic purpose of this chapter is to learn integration more than learning MI, the problem is
solved by integration as follows .
© Page 31
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Y
Rdθ
R
θ
dx
O x X
Consider a thin ring of width dx in the shell at a distance x R sin from the centre. We have
y R cos , dx R cos d . Width of the ring is R dθ . Area of the ring is 2 yRd 2 R 2 cos d Mass
M M
of this ring is 2 R 2 cos d cos d , and its MI about x – axis is
4 R 2
2
M M
cos d y 2 dx R 2 x 2 . The MI of the shell shall be
2 2R
M 2 R3 2
R
M
2 R 2 x 2 dx R R 0 0 MR .
2
2R 0 R 3 3
Note - The manipulation from Cartesian to polar coordinates was done to know exactly the width R dθ of
the ring . The angle with the vertical was taken to avoid minus sign in differentiation
d
R cos R sin and finally reverted back to Cartesian coordinates as it was easier to integrate.
d
Corollary
2 R
a) Show that the perimeter of a circle is . Integrate
Rd 2 R
1 2
(Note that R d is are of area of the infinitesimal stripe)
2
© Page 32
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
If the above figure represents a solid sphere instead of a hollow one, let us take a disk at a distance x from
the centre of thickness dx. Its width Rdθ is not important to calculate its volume.
3M 3My 2 dx
Its volume is y dx , mass is
2
y dx
2
and MI about x – axis is
4 R3 4 R3
R
R
3My 2 dx y 2 3M
R
3M 4 2 x x5 2MR 2
R
2 2
2 2
x dx 3 R x 2 R
0 4 R 3
2 4 R3 0 4R 3 5 0 5
5 5 R3 r 3 5 R3 r 3
For sake of integration, take a thin shell in the hollow sphere at a distance x from the centre. Mass of
the shell is 4 x 2 dx and its MI is 4 x 2 dx x 2 . So MI of the hollow sphere is
R
2 2 8 x5 8
R
0 4 x dx 3 x 3 5 3 5 R r
2 5 5
8 M 2M R5 r 5
R r 4 3 3 5 R3 r 3
5 5
3 5 R r
3
p) MI of a fly wheel
© Page 33
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
A flywheel is a hollow cylinder of mass M and outer and inner radii R and r respectively; which is
mounted on a concentric cylinder (axle) of larger length and radius r having mass m. The MI of the hollow
M R2 r 2 mr 2 M R 2 r 2 mr 2
cylinder is and that of the axle is so that the MI of the fly wheel is
2 2 2 2
When the ordinate rotates a complete revolution about the x – axis , the curve described a cylinder of some
sort, for, the locus of the tip of the ordinate y describes the circumference of a circle which becomes a small
disk when the ordinate moves from y to y + δy. The Curved surface of the disk is 2 ydx and the volume of
b b
the disk is y 2 dx . So the surface of revolution is 2 ydx and the volume of revolution is y dx . Of
2
a a
course conditions apply, such as the curve should not turn on itself , the curve should not cut the x – axis
,etc. If it makes a loop and the curve crosses on the x – axis and is symmetrical about the x – axis, then the
b b
1
surface evidently shall become ydx and the volume becomes
a
2a y 2 dx . Similar expressions for curves
Exercise21
x2 y 2
Compute the volume of the solid ( ellipsoid) by revolving the ellipse 1 a) about the x – axis , b)
a2 b2
about the y – axis .
Ans. a) 4
3 ab 3 b) 4
3 a 3b
Exercise22
Exercise23
Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolution of the cycloid x a sin , y a 1 cos
64 a 2
Ans.
3
Exercise24
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Compute the volume of the solid obtained by revolution of the cardioid r 1 cos about the x – axis .
8 a 3
Hint. (Put x r cos , y r sin Ans.
5
Exercise25
Compute the curved surface of the solid obtained by revolution of the cardioid r 1 cos about the x–
32 a 2
axis . Ans.
5
There are two useful and interesting theorems due to Pappus, one about volume of revolution and the other
about the surface of revolution. The surface of revolution of a closed curve about the x – axis is given by
the product of length of the curve and the path described by the centroid of the curve, if the curve does not
intersect the x – axis . ( Just like area of a trapezium is product of distance between the parallel sides and
the middle length of the other sides.) . Similarly the volume of revolution is given by the product of the area
of the region enclosed by the curve and the path described by the centroid of the region.
Application of integration for work done under a variable force and potential calculation has been cited in
the previous chapter. Same is the case for magnetic potential and gravitational potentials, the definition is
similar, work done per unit mass instead of charge and work done per unit pole in case of magnetic pole
and the formula respectively for them is employed. But the calculation of integrals remain the same as the
geometry of the figures are same.
Example21
Y
dl P
a2 x2 dE
dE sin θ
a
θ
O x X
B θ P dE cos θ
C
electric field due to a circular conductor
© Page 35
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
To find out the electric field due to a conducting loop ABC at a distance x from the centre of it. Let it carry a
uniform charge λ per unit length consider a small length dl at A on the conductor having a charge λdl . The
1 dl
electric field dE due to it at P, at a distance x from it is given by dE in the direction shown in
4 a 2 x 2
the figure. it has two components dE cos along the x – axis and dE sin perpendicular to the x – axis. The
;latter component is cancelled by the perpendicular component of field due to a similar charged small
2
element dl at B. So the net field calculation reduces to E dE cos , arithmetic sum, as all of the
0
x
elementary field s are in the same direction , i.e. along the x – axis. Further cos .
a
1
2
x 2 2
2 a
1 x dl
Thus E
0
4 a 2 x 2 2 a x 2
1 2
, the circle ABC is described as θ varies from 0 to 2π.
Exercise26
1 dl
Ans. Potential at the point is given by dV dl
4 a 2 x 2 2 due to a small length of charge
1
The total
potential is
2 l 2 l
1 dl 1 1 2 l 1 q
4 a 2 x 2
1
4 a 2 x 2 2 dl 4
a x2 4 a 2 x 2 2
1 1 1
2 2 2
0 0
Exercise27
Calculate the electric field and potential at O in the above problem. Hint. put x = 0.
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
otherwise
i
∆l
i
O
i
0 il 0 idl
il dB
4 a 2 4 a 2
The magnetic field at O due to the current element is , a being radius of the circle
0 il 0 idl 0 i i
B dB 2 a 0
4 a 2
4 a 2
4 a 2
2a
downwards into the paper. On integration,
Example22:
∆l C C’
B B’
dθ
θ O ∆Ex=∆E cos θ D
A θ
∆Ex=∆E sin θ
∆E
The electric field ∆E due to a charged element BC of length ∆l in the direction shown has two components,
∆Ex=∆E cos θ horizontally as shown and ∆Ex=∆E sin θ vertically downwards. The horizontal component
cancels out due to a charged element say B’C’ symmetrically positioned with BC and we need not attend to
the horizontal components and only integrate the vertical components
1 l sin
E dE y 2
l sin 2
ad sin d sin
0
4 0 a 2
4 0 a 0 4 0 a 0 4 0 a 0 2 0 a
where l ad
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
In the figure, let OMN be an infinite conductor ( long st wire) carrying a current i. MN is a small
length dl of the conductor at a distance x from a point P, which is at a distance r from the conductor and at a
distance l = OM from O. Magnetic induction at P due to this small element dl is given by Bio & Savart’ law,
M
θ x
dα
r α
O P
l
We have l r r tan dl r sec2 d . So
r
0i r sec2 d cos 0i r2 i r
dB d 0 cos d , since cos .
4 x 2
4 r x cos
2
4 r x
0i 0i 0i
sin sin if α varies from θ to φ.
In integration , 4 r cos d
4 r
sin
4 r
Example24
Find the magnetic induction in the above example if the wire is infinitely long.
Example25
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section9_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 46 : Quadrature And Rectification And Mechanics of Rotation
Calculate the electric potential at P due to a straight charged conductor such as one given above, if charge
per unit length in the wire is λ.
1 l
The electric potential at P due to the charged element MN having charge λ∆l is dV .For
4 0 x
l
integrating we need change the variables ∆l and x as l r r tan dl r sec2 d
r
1 l r sec2 d
and x r sec ; so that dV sec d .On integration,
4 0 x 4 0 r sec 4 0
V
4 0 sec d 4 0 ln tan 4 2
tan
4 2
ln tan ln tan ln
4 0 4 2 4 2 4 0 tan
4 2
exercise28
Calculate the electric field at P due to a straight charged conductor such as one given above, if charge per
unit length in the wire is λ.
1 dl
Hint . use field formula dEx cos since vertical component cancels out by a similar charge
4 0 x 2
element below the horizontal line.
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
dny d n1 y dy
a0 n
a1 n 1
....... an1 an y f x where the coefficients a0 , a1 ,....an1 , an are
dx dx dx
d
constants. The problem would be much simplified by putting D and exploring
dx
algebraic properties of D enables us to use it as an operator. Our equation can be
written as L y D n p1D n 1 p2 D n 2 ..................... pn 1 D pn 0 , dividing it by a0
throughout ,D called the differential operator , obeying
d d d2 d d d d3
D 2 DD 2, D 3 DDD 3 etc.
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx
Note that L y1 y2 L y1 L y2 , as D y1 y2 D y1 D y2 ,
D 2 y1 y2 D 2 y1 D 2 y2 , D 3 y1 y2 D 3 y1 D 3 y2 etc. can easily
be proved using properties of differential coefficients.
Example1
Calculate 2 D 3 D2 4 D 5 sin x
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d 2 sin x d sin x
We have D 4 D 5 sin x
2
2
4 5sin x 4sin x 4 cos x
dx dx
d
Then 2 D 3 D 2 4 D 5 sin x 2 4sin x 4 cos x 3 4sin x 4 cos x 20cos x 4sin x
dx
Example2
dy
We have D y y.
dx
dy d dy dy
Then D D y D y y y
dx dx dx dx
d2y dy dy 2
d y dy
2
y 2
y D 2 D y
dx dx dx dx dx
Example3
F D D n p1 D n 1 p2 D n 2 ......... pn 1 D pn D D D ..... D
treating the operator D algebraically at par with numbers. The last equation is called the
characteristic equation or the auxiliary equation.
Example4
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
dy dy
First solve the equation D y 0 y dx ln y x y e x
dx y
avoiding the integration constant for simplicity. For, we would add a complementary
integral to the solution which would take care of the arbitrary constants.
F D 0
So the solution of is c1e x c2 e x ......................... cn e x
dz dy dy
z z c1e x D y c1e x y c1e x e x e x y c1
dx dx dx
d
dx
ye x c1 ye x c1 x c2 y c1 x c2 e x
Example5
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d 2x k
The differential equation for SHM is 2 x x . meaning thereby that the
dt m
restoring force ( negative of displacement) due to elasticity is proportional to
displacement. The constant of proportionality k is called the spring or elasticity constant.
k
For simplicity, take . The equation may be written D2 x 0 . The auxiliary
m
equation is n 2 0 the roots of which are i .A general solution as
x aei t
bei t
a b cos t i a b sin t may be taken. We may put
a b A cos , i a b A sin as a and b are arbitrary constants, so that the
general solution becomes
x A cos
t …………( )
§4:Interpretation
A is the numerically greatest value of x called amplitude of SHM where x varies from
2
A to A . The motion repeats itself periodically after time period T as
x A cos T
1
t A cos t 2 . The reciprocal of time period f
or time
taken for a complete revolution is the number of revolutions per unit time and is called
© Page 4
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
© Page 5
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d2y k
1) Assume a solution A sin (t + ) of the differential equation 2
y
dt m
and show that actually it is one. Interpret the result in connection with
circle of reference.
( yes, we assume solutions by reasonable guess from the experience of solutions of
known differential equations and determine the constants, boundary values etc.
afterwards from the conditions imposed. Imagine how you divided a number by another
number in long division, just assuming a quotient at each step by trial and error method)
u + u
u
B Q P
r S
A’ A
O R
B’
Refer to the circle of reference as above (see the figure in the side) and consider its
diameter BB’ perpendicular to AA’. Drop perpendicular QR onto BB’ and call the
distance
dy d2y
It is easily seen that = - r cos (t + ).and 2
= - r2 sin (t + ) = - 2y.
dt dt
Thus the required function y = A sin (t + ) satisfies the differential equation if r = A
k
and .
m
© Page 6
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
dy
= - A sin (t + ) - B sin (t + ) .
dt
d2y
by further differentiating, 2
= -A2 cos (t + ) - B2 cos (t + ) = - 2y.
dt
differential equation. Evidently if two SHMs of same frequency and different amplitudes
y1 = A cos (t + ) and y2 = B cos (t + ) are added up every instant we see y = y1 +
y2 , i.e., superposition of two SHMs. We can make an idea of addition of SHMs from the
following figure where a point mass of mass m is being acted upon simultaneously by
two horizontal springs of same k both springs in the same line ( it might suffice
requiring only same k/m; but one point cannot have two different masses at the same
time).
m
x
B
x = -A x=0 x=A
© Page 7
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
To find C and , we may square up and add the two expressions in (B) to get,
A sin B sin
or, A2 + B2 + 2AB cos ( - ) = C2 and tan =
A cos B cos
The amplitudes are added just as if they are vectors with magnitudes A
and B and directions as angles and measured counterclockwise from a
fixed st.line both being in a plane, in case both the SHMs are along the
same line.
In particular,
a) if = then C = A + B , and = = ;
A sin B cos
b) if - = /2, C A 2 B 2 , tan =
A cos B sin
c) if - = , C = A – B , and again = = ;
© Page 8
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
dy
Or, = - A sin t + B cost
dt
d2y
Or, 2
= -A2 cos t - B2 sin t = - 2x
dt
(Compare the result with case b) of the above example; = 0 and = /2.)
y = = C cos (t + + )
and the amplitude and phase shall be given by C = A 2 B 2 and tan ( + ) = - A/B
Thus any combination of sine and cosine functions of time with same
frequency can again be a sine or cosine function. In other words, any finite
© Page 9
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Suppose two SHMs given by x1 = A cos (1t +1) and x2 = B cos (2t +2)
body are executed on the same in the same line where = 2 - 1 which is small
compared to 2 or 1.
The resultant motion is given by x = x1 + x2 = A cos (1t +1) + B cos (2t +2)
A sin 1 B sin(t 2 )
and total phase angle is given by tan =
A cos 1 B cos(t 2 )
© Page 10
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
G is GCD of T1 and T2 and L is LCM of T1 and T2 , then let T1 = Gt1 , T2= Gt2,
T1T2 G 2 t1t 2 L
T the time period T is proportional to LCM of T1
T1 T2 Gt 1 Gt 2 t 1 t 2
and T2 .
Simply speaking : let there be two time periods of SHMs, T1= 6 seconds and
T2= 7 seconds respectively along the same st. line and these two are
1
superimposed on a single body .Let the corresponding frequencies be f1 = Hz
6
1
and f2 = Hz respectively; neither being equal to the natural frequency of the
7
body under forces. This could be possible by processes of coupling or forced
vibrations. For the time being, let us not bother about the process but just
assume superimposition of the two SHMs. Considering the periods , the
resultant period would be easily seen to be T = 42 seconds; just the LCM of
1 1 1
the two periods; so that the frequency is Hz - Hz = Hz , just the
6 7 42
difference of the two frequencies.
© Page 11
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
l l+l
m l
m
x
So mg = kl
when the mass is supposed to be in equilibrium under the weight and the
restoring force of the spring, (k being the spring constant). If the mass is
drawn a further small distance x below this level, a restoring force k(l + x) must
act on the mass opposite to the direction of mg and the net force on it shall be
F = – k(l + x) + mg = – mg – kx + mg = – kx
© Page 12
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
m l
calculated from this relation Time period T 2 2 and frequency
k g
1 1 g
f . Amplitude is a matter of choice as it is the maximum value of x.
T 2 l
There is a natural tendency to confuse l as amplitude; but there is no such fact.
The spring characteristics such as the spring constant , , f, T etc. are
independent of amplitude.
d 2x
6) The differential equation 2 x may also be solved in alternative manner.
dt
Since the second differential coefficient of sine and cosine functions
are negatives of themselves, we can straight write a solution
x A cos t B sin t where A and B are arbitrary constants to be
determined.
dx
7) In still another manner, multiplying both sides by 2 we have,
dt
2
d 2 x dx dx dx
2 2 x 2 x 2 C A2 x 2 writing C A2
dt dt dt dt
dx
so dt .
A2 x 2
x
The standard integration of which yields cos 1 t ,or,
A
x
A
cos t x A cos t .
§6:Natural frequency
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
elasticity and thus it is always ‘vibrating’ with its ‘natural frequency’, which
depends only upon its mass and force constant; even if it is at rest, it vibrates in
the same frequency with zero amplitude.
2
E= ½ kA =K(E)+P(E)
t = / 2 t = 2/ 2 2 2
K(E)= ½ mv2 = ½ m A sin t
t = / 2 2 2
P(E)= ½ kx = ½ k A cos t
E t = 3/ 2
O t
Energy-time graph for x = A cos (t + ) for = 0
t = / 2 t = 2/
a t = /
O t
© Page 14
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
A
t = / 2
t = 2/
v t = /
t
O
Velocity time graph v = - A sin (t + ) = A sin (t +/2. Just
t = 3/ 2 the same graph with velocity coordinate - times
§8:Damped SHM
d2x dx d2x dx
2
2 2 x 0
2
x
dt dt dt dt ……………………..( 1)
x Ce mt
We may assume a trial solution ; differentiating twice we get
D 2
D 2 x 0 m 2 m 2 0 as the auxiliary equation, the roots of which
,or,
are m1 1
2 2 4 2 , m2 1
2 2 4 2 .
2 1
Write them as m1 , m2 i ip , assuming the damping factor to be
1
2
2
4 2
2
a small positive number and putting 2 p , for sake of brevity,
4
12 t ipt 12 t ipt
we have x C1e C2e which can be put in the form
© Page 15
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
cos pt …………………………………………….(2 )
12 t
x Ae
x B cos pt with
12 t
This is the same equation as amplitude B Ae
2 2 2
logarithmically decreasing with time; with time period if is
p 2
2
4
small.
1 1 k 2 1 k c2
We can write frequency f where c may be taken
T 2 m 4 2 m 4m 2
as damping constant independent of mass.
When is not necessarily small and , we have the two roots of the auxiliary
2
12 t ipt 12 t ipt
equation equal, so it does not give two solutions x C1e C2e for two
arbitrary constants required. we may proceed as per the procedure to be adopted for
equal roots case and take the general solution x c1t c2 e t . ( See the treatment
for equal roots above) The motion in this case is not oscillatory and dies out as
t and as such it is called critically damped.
When , greater than the angular frequency for oscillation of the same
2
particle under same force without damping, the general solution is
2 4 2 2 4 2
t t
x Ae Be
2
and it is not a periodic motion and is quickly damped
2
© Page 16
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
When we have the disturbing force time dependent and periodic it influences the
period of the SHM and is called Forced SHM. Details below.
d 2x
We have the equation 2
2 x F cos t …………………………………( 3)
dt
For solving such linear equations, as this one, which is of 2nd order, or of higher orders,
note that this is not a case of homogeneous equation F D x 0 of order n ( x being a
function of t), as in case of free SHM or damped SHM. In that case we had the rule that
if 1 , 2 .... etc. were roots of the auxiliary equation , then the general solution could have
been a1e1 x a2 e 2 x .... . as this has n arbitrary constants. In case the linear differential
equation is not homogeneous, say F D x g t the general solution would have also n
arbitrary constants as it has been n times differentiated to arrive at the differential
equation. We may have a particular integral or particular solution of F D x g t if
© Page 17
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
g t 1
or has got some meaning. We would see below what is the meaning of
F D F D
1
depending upon what function is x of t, i.e., depending upon x f t .
F D
F D emt Dn a1D n1 a2 Dn 2 .... an 1D an emt mn a1mn 1 a2 mn 2 .... an 1m an F m emt
1 1
so that e mt e mt . This is so of course when the factors of F m are non-
F D F m
repeated. Do not confuse between the operator F D and algebraic expression F m
g t
and take them with reference to the context. More examples of would follow
F D
g t
below , but here it should be noted that is, if it exists, is called a particular integral
F D
or particular solution of the non-homogeneous linear differential equation F D x g t .
What about the arbitrary constants ? Note that any solution of F D x 0 is also a
solution of F D x g t since g t also includes its 0 values. And the General solution
of F D x 0 contains n arbitrary constants. Therefore a particular integral of
F D x g t added to the general solution of F D x 0 is the general solution of
F D x g t ! remember it.
Before we go out to explore particular integrals, let us finish the problem of forced
vibration
© Page 18
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d2x
2
2 x F cos t ………………….( 4 ) without damping
dt
d2x
or x 2 x F cos t ………….(5 )
dt 2
d2x
For 2
2 x F cos t assume a particular integral x C cos t .
dt
dx d 2x
Differentiating it we get, C sin t . Differentiating again, 2
C 2 cos t .Putting
dt dt
d2x
these values in 2
2 x F cos t we get, C 2 cos t 2C cos t F cos t
dt
F F
C so that a particular integral becomes x cos t . The
2
2
2
2
d2x d 2x
complementary function of 2 x F cos t is the general solution of 2 2 x 0 ,
2
dt dt
which is A cos t , containing two arbitrary constants A, ,
d2x F
Thus the general solution of 2 x F cos t is x A cos t 2 cos t ……(
dt 2
2
6)
F
A cos t and cos t
The motion consist of mainly two parts 2
2
,of different
2 2
periods and and can be large enough and even break down when the periods
F
are same in view of the expression , since this becomes infinity.
2 2
© Page 19
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
2 2
When the periods and are exactly equal, we have to proceed from the
A cos t
remains the same, but the
beginning. The complementary function
x Ct sin t x C cos t . (since )
particular integral may be assumed instead of
dx
Differentiating the former, dt Ct cos t C sin t and
d2x d2x
2
2C cos t C 2
t sin t . Putting these values in 2
2 x F cos t
dt dt we have
F
2C cos t C 2t sin t 2Ct sin t F cos t C
, i.e. 2
1
§13: emt
Particular integral of F D
1
g t
Returning to the inverse operator F D for some function of t, let us discuss a few
more cases for
1 1
e mt e mt
finding out particular integrals. We have already found out F D F m
.Now
1 1
g t g t
consider two cases,
D
and D D
. so that a general idea may be
1
x g t F D
F D ; we would verify whether the operator polynomial
formed about
D D
may be factorised in the form etc. and if so, would it be meaningful or
1
useful. Now we may understand that D
g t
stands for
g t dt since D stands for
1
g t D
differentiation. Similarly D stands for a function, which when operated by
© Page 20
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1
g t g t X t
D X t g t
results in . If we write D , then , or,
dX t
X t g t
dt which is a linear differential equation. Multiplying both sides with
e t
integrating factor we have
1
g t e t g t e t dx
Thus D .
1
x g t
Similarly if D D , then
1
D x g t D D x g t
D simply from the definition. Extending
the logic in this manner,
1 1 1
g t g t emn g t e mn dt
F D D m1 D m2 ........ D mn D m1 D m2 .... D mn 1
G t emn g t emn dt
if we write , then the above expression becomes
1 1 1
g t g t G t
F D D m1 D m2 ........ D mn D m1 D m2 .... D mn1
1 and the
emn1t G t e mn1t dt
D m1 D m2 .... D mn2
process may be completed in a finite number of steps.
© Page 21
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
n n
A1
g t A1e m1x e m1x g t dt
1 D m1 1 .
A1 , A2 .......
Note here that etc. are not arbitrary constants but numerators of the partial
fractions found out from calculation. The arbitrary constants would be got from the
F D 0
complementary function, the general solution of the homogeneous equation .
F D
In case Some of the factors of are repeated, we proceed as follows. We
1
emx e mx e mx e mx dx xemx
have D m . So
1 1 1 x2
emx xemx e mx e mx xemx dx emx
Dm Dm Dm 2
2
1 1 1 mx x x 3 mx
e mx 2
mx mx mx
e e e e dx e
D m
3
D m D m 2 3! ; in this manner we have
1 x r mx
e mx e
D m
r
r! .
1 1 1 1 1 1 x r mt
e mt e mt
e mt
e
Now if F D D D m r m D m r m r!
. Since the
m
repeated factors have been taken out, m is not a root of .
D sin mt m cos mt D sin mx m sin mx D sin mx m sin mx
2 2 4 4
We have , etc.
1
D 2 sin mt m 2 sin mt sin mt m 2 sin mt
Then D
2
© Page 22
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1 1
sin mt sin mt , if m2 0
D
2
m2
1 1
cos mt cos mt , if m2 0
Similarly, D 2
m 2
F D F D 1 D2 D2 D2
contains odd powers of D also, we can write, .
In case
1 1 1 1
sin mt sin mt sin mt sin mt
Then F D 1 D D2 D
2 2
1 m D2 m
2 2
p Dq
1 1 1
p Dq sin mt p Dq sin mt 2 p Dq sin mt
p Dq p Dq p D q
2
2 2
p m2q 2
1
p sin mt mq cos mt if p 2 m2 q 2 0
p m2q 2
2
m 2 0 m2 2 0 m2 2 0 F D
would
In case It would contain factors like or
D2 m2 0
contain factors like . Changing m to m + h, h→0, and expanding by Taylor’s
theorem,
1 1 1 h 2t 2
cos mt cos m h t cos mt ht sin mt cos mt .......
D m
2 2
m h m
2 2
h 2m h 2!
1 ht 2
t sin mt cos mt ...... neglecting cos mt , for, it already appears in the complementary function
2m h 2!
t sin mt
= making h 0
2m
1 t sin mt
cos mt =
By similar treatment D m 2 2
2m
© Page 23
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1
§15: tm
Particular integral of F D
1
Breaking up F D into partial fractions, we have,
1 A1 A2
............
F D D 1 D 2
1
1 1 D 1 D D2
1 1 2 ........
Expanding by binomial theorem, D 1 1 1 1 1 1 ,
the job of finding integral reduces to differentiation; surely the series would exhaust as
soon as x0 term is reached.
d2x
x 2 x F cos t …………………………….( 7 )
dt 2
cos pt
12 t
The complementary function of this linear equation is x Ae
where
2
2 p
4 . To find a particular integral of the equation, we have,
1 1 2 2 D
F cos t F cos t F cos t
D2 D 2 2 D 2 2 2 2 D 2
2
F
2
2 cos t D cos t
F
2
2 cos t sin t
by the above treatment
2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
© Page 24
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
x Ae
12 t
cos pt F
2
2 cos t sin t
Hence the complete solution is
2 2 2
2 2
Near equality of ω and β still play important role as the particular integral is maximum
when ω and β near each other but no question of infinite displacements. the first part in
the displacement function dies out with time and then the impressed frequency β
F
2
2 cos t sin t
predominates as only the second term
2 2 2 remains, which in
2 2
F cos t F
turn can be written as with amplitude
2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2
§17:
Particular integral by method of undetermined coefficients
In a slight modification for sake of simplicity we may take the equation in the form
d 2x dx
m 2
c kx F cos t freeing the stiffness constant and damping constant of mass,
dt dt
just to see the effect of mass in the final derivation. A particular integral may be taken as
dx
x Asin t B cos t , as a trial solution. Differentiating this A cos t B sin t
dt
d2x
,differentiating again, 2 A 2 sin t B 2 cos t 2 A sin t B cos t 2 x .
dt
d 2x dx
Putting these in the differential equation m 2
c kx F cos t , we get,
dt dt
Since this is an identity, we can make coefficients cos t and sin t from both sides equal
( do prove this by taking either of them = 0). This gives,
© Page 25
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
cF
cA k 2 m B F , k m A cB 0 which gives A
2
,
k 2 m 2c 2
2
B
k m F
2
and in turn x
F
c sin t k 2 m cos t .
k m c k m
2 2
2 2 2 2
c
2 2
F
Which can be put into the form x cos t , taking
k m
2
2
c
2 2
c
tan .
k 2m
After the transient part dies out, this is the steady state equation and it is of same
F
frequency as that of the impressed force and amplitude , which
2
2
k 2 m 2c 2
depends not only on frequency , but on stiffness k , damping constant c and mass of
2
the vibrating body.
Exercise1
A tunnel is drilled straight between two points on the earth’s surface. Assuming uniform
density of the earth, show that a train left at one end without engine shall freely fall until
it reaches the other point and come back again executing SHM. Show that the time
R
period for the complete trip is 2 ( about 90 minutes) and is independent of position
g
of the end points.
Hint. If the train has mass m , the gravitational force on it towards the center of the
mM
earth is F mg G 2 , where G is universal gravitational constant, M is mass of the
R
earth, R its radius and g is acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth. As
the train goes down the tunnel, it is on the surface of a ball of radius r concentric with
© Page 26
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
r3 r3 4
the earth, and having mass M 3 M with radius r and acceleration due to
3
R3 R 4
3
m r3 GM
gravity is given by ma G 2 3
M a 3 r , towards the center of the earth; the
r R R
mass above the concentric ball has sum total effect 0 as per Gauss law. If 2 is the
angle subtended by the middle portion tunnel at the center of the earth, when the train
is at a distance r from the center of the earth, the resultant force on the train along the
GMm
tunnel is r sin towards middle of the tunnel, and r sin is the distance of the train
R3
from middle point of the tunnel at that time. So this is an SHM with a spring constant
GMm m R3 R3 R
and thus has a time period 2 2 2 2 , a constant
R 3
GMm GM 2
R g g
R3
for all tunnels and trains.
Misc. Exercises
2) 2D 2
3D 4 y 0 . Hint: the roots of the operator equation are i
3
4
23
4
so
2x
23 23
the solution is e 4
a1 cos x a2 sin x
4 4
3) D 3
5D 6 y 0 Hint : the roots of the operator equation are 2,3; so the
general solution is a1e 2 x a2 e3 x
4) D 3
1 y 0 Hint : the roots of the operator equation are 1, 12 3i
2
; so the
x
general solution is y c1e x e 2 c2 cos 2
3
x c3 sin 2
3
x
5) D 3
3D 2 3D 1 y 0 Hint : all the three roots of the operator equation are
Misc. Exercises
© Page 27
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1 4 1 4 1 1 4 1 5 x6
5
4
6) x Ans. x x x dx dx x dx
D2 D2 DD 30
2 x
1 1 e 1
7) sin x Ans. sin x e2 x e 2 x sin xdx e 2 x sin x tan 1
D2 D2 5 2
8)
1
9) x2 Ans. 12 x 2 12 x 14
D2
1
10)
D2
x ex Ans. 14 x 161 12 e x
1
11)
D 3 D 3
sin 2 x 2e3 x Ans. 181 sin 2 x 13 xe x
Every electrical circuit has a source of emf , electromotive force ( or absence of it)
which provides a potential difference for driving electric charges around the circuit.
The current which is time rate of flow of charge through any cross section of the circuit
must be same everywhere since it is generally assumed that the charges do not
accumulate anywhere nor as they are created or destroyed. The current flows from
higher potential to lower potential outside the source of emf ( e.g. battery) trying to
nullify the potential difference thereby and the source of emf carries charges from lower
potential to higher potential so that the current would continue. As such, a complete
circuit is necessary for steady flow of current. Further the current is provided by the
movement of the free electrons which constantly collide against obstructing atoms
everywhere and dissipate energy in the form of heat and light. Therefore the emf, the
source of energy is necessary to replenish the loss of energy. Steady currents are
governed by Ohm’s law, which states that a potential difference is necessary for flow of
a current because of this resistance and the current is simply proportional to the voltage
or potential difference. the constant of proportionality, the voltage required for
V
generation of unit current is a measure of resistance of the circuit. In symbols, R R ,
I
V being potential difference between two points such as the two end points of a load,
dq
such as an electric bulb, the current I , where q is the charge flowed during time
dt
© Page 28
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
q
t ( or I if the current is constant, q and t are total charge flowed though any cross
t
section during time t), and R is resistance. The voltage drop across two points VR RI is
the energy per unit charge spent in moving the charge between the two points and the
emf E is the energy per un it charge spent in taking it around the whole circuit and as
such if R is total resistance of the circuit (including internal resistance, resistance inside
the source of emf) VR IR is the portion of E allocated to resistance of the circuit.
If two parallel plates facing each other are set in the circuit, there is a break in the circuit
and the current stops as soon as the charges are accumulated on the faces of the
plates facing each other , (equal and opposite charges , as the charges cannot be
created or destroyed). This is because the capacitor ( the parallel plates) provide a
Q
voltage VC opposing the emf , given by C C , capacitance of the parallel plates as
VC
the charges built up raise the voltage between the plates, evidently proportionally and
the constant of proportionality is the capacitance, charge required to build up unit
voltage across the plates. Evidently the charges built up oppose the emf as it tries the
Q
drive the charges through and this voltage VC C is the part of emf allocated to the
C
capacitance of the circuit. Even if the circuit may have no parallel plates, it contains
some charge at all times and this is due to the capacitance of the circuit. Depending
upon the capacitance after the charges have built up, they may build up a larger voltage
than the source of emf and the charges may backflow into the source of emf. This
results in drop in voltage across the capacitor and again the charges flow into it from the
source of emf, repeating the cycles of such oscillations.
When a circuit is closed the current does not build up immediately as per Ohm’s law. It
takes time to attain steady state value because the circuit itself resists the change in the
current opposing the emf by building up a voltage VL simply proportional to induced
di V
change of current and the constant of proportionality , L L opposing voltage per
dt di
dt
unit rate of change of current is called self inductance. This is what is called Lenz’s
law, a situation similar to inertia of rest (while the circuit is closed) and inertia of motion (
while the circuit is open or unplugged, the current takes time to die out) . As a body has
© Page 29
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
to be dragged under a force for some time to impart some velocity to it or stop it from
speeding away, similarly an electrical circuit has to be dragged to the point of a steady
current or to extinguish the existing current completely out. Depending upon the circuit
the self inductance may topple off the emf to produce reverse currents and as such can
set up oscillations in the circuit as in the case of capacitance.
These equations are same as damped forced oscillation equation and can account for
various conditions for the circuits, including transient currents when a circuit is
plugged or unplugged, oscillations set up in the circuits and also alternating currents
© Page 30
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
where q , i and are sinusoidal . Only the initial / boundary conditions shall make the
problems different.
E
The current grows to steady state Ohmic value R asymptotically. We may see that
L E
t i 1 e 1
putting R we get R , i.e. thetime taken for the current to achieve
1 E L
1
e th of its final value R . So this time is R , called time constant of the
circuit. the higher its value, the more quickly the current grows up to steady state
value.
b) When the above circuit is switched off, the emf is 0 and the equation is
R
di di R t
L Ri 0 dt i i0e L , where i0 is the steady state value when the
dt i L
L 1
circuit was switched off. After time the current falls to th of its initial
R e
value.
c) When the emf is a periodic function E E0 sin t e.g. supplied by a rotating coil
in a magnetic field, and the circuit is switched on, the circuit equation becomes
© Page 31
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
di
L Ri E0 sin t and ultimately the steady state current is also alternating with
dt
this frequency. So we may assume a solution i i0 sin t where the
maximum current i0 and the phase of the current are to be determined.
Differentiating this and putting the value in the differential equation gives
Li0 cos Ri0 sin cos t Li0 sin Ri0 cos E0 sin t 0 for all values of t .
Taking t 0 and t respectively we have
2
L L R
tan , sin , cos , and
R L R
2 2 2
L R2
2 2
E0 E0
and i0 .The quantity L is called reactance of
L sin R cos L 2 R2
2
the a-c circuit which may be large enough in high frequencies to reduce
E0
resistance to insignificance. So a particular integral is sin t . (
L2 2 R 2
Note that φ is no arbitrary constant.
After finding out this particular integral , we have to add to it complementary
R
di t
function, i.e. solution of the homogeneous equation L Ri 0 i.e. Ae L So the
dt
complete solution contains the arbitrary constant to be found from initial condition
R
t E0 L
and the complete solution is i Ae L sin t , tan
L2 2 R 2 R
d) Consider an electric circuit with no inductance and connected to a source of
q
constant emf E and switched on. Take the circuit equation Ri E or
C
dq q
R E where q is the charge in the capacitor at any time t & capacitance C .
dt C
1
t
Growth and decay of charge is given by the solution q CE 1 e RC
, taking the
initial condition – the final charge being CE . ( derive the solution as an exercise)
© Page 32
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
di
Ri E
L 1
Note that this is the same equation as dt , but R replaced by and L
C
replaced by R . The time constant is found out to be RC , time taken to
1
buildup charge to achieve 1 th of its final value. In addition , we could find
e
1
dq E RC t
the instantaneous current by differentiating the solution to get i e
dt R
.The current does not pass through the capacitor as the circuit is not complete
and dies out as the capacitor is fully charged.
e) The case when the capacitor circuit is switched off may be dealt in the similar
1
dq q t
manner. The equation is R 0 and its solution is q q0 e RC
that is of
dt C
1
discharging of the capacitor . the time constant , time taken to reach th of its
e
initial value. The instantaneous current may also be calculated to be
1
dq q0 RC t
i e .( Details are left to the reader as an exercise)
dt RC
f) If the capacitor is connected to a sinusoidal source of emf, the differential
dq q
equation of the circuit may be taken as R E0 sin t . the charge on the
dt C
capacitor oscillates in the circuit in cycles of charging and discharging the
E0
capacitor as per the solution (particular integral) q sin t
1
R 2 2
2
C
R
where tan or the current is
1
C
E0 E0
cos t sin t where tan RC to which a
1 1
R2 2 2 R2 2 2
C C
1
t
transient ( complementary function) Ae may be added which dies away
RC
© Page 33
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1
t E0
i Ae RC
sin t . The initial value of current may be observed
1
R 2 2
2
C
E0 1
to be i0 and the impedance of the circuit is R2 ,
1 C2
2
R2
C2
2
1
consisting of two parts, R for resistance and for non-dissipative reactance.
C
At small frequencies of the impressed emf the reactance may be large enough to
neglect the resistance element. The oscillations of current in the circuit continues
indefinitely in the frequency of the impressed emf and as such, it may be said
that the capacitor allows the alternating current to pass through unlike direct
current under the influence of a constant emf, which dies out quickly. (Details of
derivation are left for the reader as an exercise)
g) Now take a circuit with all the three elements, total inductance L L, total
capacitance C and total resistance R connected to a source of constant emf E
d 2q dq q
The differential equation may be taken as L 2
R E.
dt dt C
The variable q is suitably changed to make the equation simpler (to masquerade
the constant term) by taking a new variable Q q CE , CE being charge of the
fully charged capacitor. The differential equation of the circuit reduces to
d 2Q dQ Q
L 2
R 0 , a homogeneous linear equation and as such, no particular
dt dt C
integral is required. Assuming a solution Q Aet ; differentiating and substituting
1
in the differential equation we get the auxiliary equation , L 2 R 0 whose
C
R R2 1
roots are 2
, say. so the complete solution becomes ,
2L 4 L LC
using Q q CE , q CE e t Ae t Be t , the arbitrary constants to be
determined from initial conditions. The current function may be obtained by
differentiating it, i.e., i e t A e t B e t
© Page 34
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Suppose the capacitor has no charge when the circuit is plugged, q 0, i 0 when
t 0 .Putting this values in the equations for charge as well as for the current, we
R2 1
get, A CE , B CE . The constant is real if
2 2 2
4 L LC
R2 1
2
, consequently and the capacitor is charged continuously without
4 L LC
oscillations to its full value CE .
R2 1
Otherwise if 2
, becomes imaginary , oscillations (periods of
4 L LC
charging and discharging of capacitor) are set up in the circuit despite constant
emf and the solution may be put conveniently in the form
q CE A0 e t sin 0t where A0 , are arbitrary constants. The equation may
also otherwise derived by straight assuming a solution Q A0 e t sin 0t and
R 1 R2
finding , 0 2 , the method explained already in the article
2L LC 4 L
for SHM.
When the roots of the auxiliary equation are equal and 0 ,neither of the
above solutions hold. Rather we may proceed ab initio for case of equal roots
R
and find the solution q q0 1 t e t , .as in the case of critically
2L
damped SHM.
Let the emf in an A-C circuit having all three elements be E0 cos t so that the circuit
d 2 ix di i dE cos t
equation is L 2 R x x 0 , where ix is the instantaneous current. Take an
dt dt C dt
imaginary current i y superimposed on the same circuit under emf E0 sin t and the
d 2ix di i dE sin t
circuit equation becomes L 2
R x x 0 . Let the complex current be
dt dt C dt
i ix 1iy ix jiy on complex superposition of the emfs E0 cos t jE0 sin t E0 e jt
putting j 1 and the superimposed equation becomes.
© Page 35
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d 2i di i dEe jt
L 2 R E0 je jt . The real current in the circuit shall be given by real
dt dt C dt
part of the complex solution since the real and imaginary parts are independent of each
other and do not affect each other. The only advantage is that the complex differential
equation is easier to solve and we can discard the imaginary part after the solution is
obtained. A particular integral of this equation may be a trial solution i i0 e jt .
di jt d 2i
Differentiating ji0 e , 2
j 2i0 2e jt i0 2e jt , j 2 1 . Substituting the values
dt dt
i0 jt dEe jt
in the differential equation we get, i0 2e jt L Rji0e jt e E0 je jt , or
C dt
i0 i E0
i0 2 L Rji0 E0 j ji0 2 L Rj 2i0 0 j E0 j 2 i0 .
C C 1
R j L
C
E0 e jt E e jt E
The solution is real part of i i0 e jt 0 j 0 e j t .where
1 Ze Z
R j L
C
1
L 2
tan C and Z R 2 L 1
R C .
1
The expression L is of the same class as that of resistance R and is called
C
reactance of the circuit to the emf, being the reaction of inductance and capacitance
2
1
and the factor R L 2
is called the total impedance of the circuit being the
C
1
total reaction of the circuit to the emf. The reactance L is different from
C
© Page 36
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
resistance in that it does not dissipate energy as resistance as the energy is exchanged
between the source of emf and the circuit.
1 1
L 0 f
In case of C then 2 2 LC , is the natural frequency of the oscillating
circuit, which would oscillate even under constant emf. If presence of resistance or
damping, if it is small, the frequency of oscillation is nearly same. In case of oscillating
2
1
Z R 2 L
emf, impedance C is minimum at this frequency and this is the
frequency of resonance.
Power delivered to the circuit by the source of emf is the time rate of delivery of energy.
The emf being the sum total of voltages around the circuit is the energy delivered to the
circuit per unit charge and current is time rate of flow of charge, power is therefore
product of emf and current
E0 cos t
Ei E0 cos t
2
1
R 2 L
C
and the average power, averaged over a complete cycle of oscillation ( charging and
discharging of capacitor)
© Page 37
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
2 2
E0 cos t
2 Eidt 2 E 0 cos t
2
dt
0 0 1
R 2 L
C
2
E0 2
E0 2
2 2 cos t cos t cos sin t sin dt
1 0
R L
2
C
2 2
E0 2
cos cos tdt sin sin t cos tdt
2
2 2
1 0 0
R 2 L
C
1 E0 2
cos
2 1
2
R 2 L
C
which shall be proved to be product of effective emf and effective current and cos φ,
where φ is the phase difference between them. The effective current is that which shall
2 2
1 2
cos 2 t dt
2
produce the same amount of heat RI Ri dt R 2 i
2 2
Ri0
2
0
0 0 2
due to steady a current I as the varying current i taken over a cycle; so that
i0 E0
I which is also called root mean square current, being root
2 1
2
2 R 2 L
C
of the square of the average current. Similarly the effective emf is the root mean square
2 2
2
1 2 1
emf , as E E 2 dt E sin 2 tdt E0 E
2
E0 .
2 2
0
0 0 2 2
© Page 38
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Thus E I cos , maximum power is delivered when current and emf are in phase .
under the chapter for coordinates and vectors. This was derived by differentiating
the vector r twice.(ref the chapter on coordinates and vectors); dots on letters
d
denote
dt
The planetary motion in simplistic ideal case is a very good example of central force.
§23:Planetary motion
As planetary motion is a motion under a central force, the motion shall
take plane in a fixed plane shall hold as the angular momentum is 0, as we have
discussed earlier in the chapter for coordinates and vectors. . A little more
© Page 39
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
(in fact the two unit vectors can express any vector quantity in the plane)
Now, since F = ma, then Fr r̂ + Fθ = m r r2 r m 2 r r
.. . .
d
Thus r2 =h, say,………………………………(10)
dt
dh
a constant , say h, not varying in time, i.e., 0 ……….(11)
dt
1 d r d A dA d
Now, remember, r . And 2m mr 2 r x hm ……..…(12)
2 dt dt dt dt
From(20), where is unit angular velocity vector, as it is perpendicular both to
r
d
r
and .
dA 1 2 d 1
Or in scalar terms we may write, r h ……………………(13)
dt 2 dt 2
h
On integration, A t2 A t1 t2 t1 …………………………….(14)
2
© Page 40
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PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
This says, the area swept by the radius vector is A t2 A t1 , between the time
t2 t1 are proportional to each other; in other words, equal areas are swept by
the radius vector in equal time intervals !
This is Kepler’s second law for planets travelling around the stars.
Please observe that so far we have not used the formula of universal gravitation; in fact,
this was precursor of Newton’s universal law of gravitation, or, the inverse square law.
In fact Newton’s inverse square formula for universal gravitation were the result of
integrating the works of Galileo, Copernicus, Kepler and Robert Hookes. But another
important conclusion at this point; the Kepler’s second law is true for any particle or
body under any central force , not only gravitation ; (verify)!
It is just shown that motion under central force is motion in a plane i.e., two
dimensional. There could be other motion in a plane also; e.g., the direction of a
constant force mg is a fixed direction , say along a unit vector ê (vertical direction , say).
The motion may be treated to be trivially under central force , since parallel lines meet
at a point at ∞. Instead of treating it as a central force and going to limiting case, we
dv d2r
could straight set up its differential equation 2 geˆ and straight integrate it to get
dt dt
dr
v gteˆ v 0 , where v 0 is an arbitrary vector, as a constant of integration. We could
dt
take it the initial velocity, the velocity with which the projectile is projected into space
initially. Integrating again, we get r 12 gt 2 eˆ tv 0 , taking this time integration constant as
0, meaning thereby that the initial position is taken when the motion starts.
The path of the projectile is a parabola given by this equation r 12 gt 2 eˆ tv 0 ; where t is a
parameter, and we could assume x t , y 12 t 2 , which is precisely the parametric
equation of a parabola , its axis in the direction of unit vector ê . An additional freedom is
that the axes may also be oblique as ê and v 0 are not necessarily mutually
perpendicular.
Further, if we wanted a vector equation of a parabola, it is r 12 gt 2 eˆ tv 0 .
© Page 41
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Exercise12
A particle moves down an inclined plane, or slides down a hill on a curved path or slides
down a curved channel i.e. descends though a vertical distance of h between two points
of its motion under gravity in whatever possible manner ; then the speed at the lower
point v is given by v 2 u 2 2 gh where u is its speed at the upper point.
Hint : Equate kinetic and potential energies; i.e. loss in potential energy is gain in kinetic
energy.
We would derive Kepler’s first and third laws from Newton’s laws for universal
gravitation , as a model central force. Suppose a planet of mass m is attracted by the
Sun of mass M. Taking the Sun as the origin of coordinates and r as radius vector of the
planet, we have
2
d 2r d GMm km
2
r Fr 2 2 , GM k , say , and F 0 ……………..(15)
dt dt r r
from Newton’s law of universal gravitation attraction being along the radius vector.
2
km d 2r d
We see that Fr is a function of r , i.e., Fr 2 and the left side 2 r happens to
r dt dt
be function of r, θ and t. Difficulty evidently. Can it so happen that t may be pushed up in
1
the numerator and r may be pulled down? Let us define z and treat θ as
r
independent variable instead of t and see what happens.
dr d 1 1 dz 1 dz d 1 dz h dz
We have 2 2 2 h and
dt dt z z dt z d dt z d r 2
d
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Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d 2r d dz d dz d d 2z h 2
2 2 d z 1
h h h 2 2 h z , putting z and
dt 2 dt d d d dt d r d 2 r
d h
2 hz 2 .
dt r
2
d 2r d km
Thus (27) i.e. 2 r 2 becomes,
dt dt r
d2z 1 2 4 d 2z k
h 2 z 2 h z kz 2
,or, z 2 ..(15)
d z
2
d 2
h …………………………………..
Any solution z of this differential equation shall contain cos θ , sin θ as their
second order differential coefficients would be - cos θ , - sin θ respectively
d 2z k
2
and z should cancel out and of course z should involve 2 , which won’t
d h
affect the derivatives, but shall be remainder in z term after cancellation of cos θ ,
sin θ terms. Let us then assume a general solution of (15) as,
k
z A cos 2 …………(16)
h
dz d 2z
Differentiating z we have, A sin , and A cos , so that (16)
d d 2
becomes(15), confirming that (16) is a general solution of the differential equation
(15).
Let us write the solution (16) in a slightly different but equivalent form such as
k
z C cos D sin ………………………………………(17)
h2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
dz d 2z
0 , and 0 ,when θ = 0,……………………..(18)
d d 2
dr dz dr
i.e, h , so 0 when θ = 0……………………..(18a)
dt d d
h2
1 k k
Now equation (30) can be written as 2 D cos , or r …..(19)
r h h2
1 D cos
k
pe h2 h2 1
r , e D and pe , so that p …………………….(20)
1 e cos k k D
where p is the focal parameter (distance from focus to the directrix) and e is
eccentricity (see figure below);
© Page 44
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
P Q
r
θ
p
R
Planetary orbit
It is evident that the path of a body under the inverse square law of universal
gravitation is a conic section. If e < 1, the orbit would be closed, if e = 1, the
planet or the body shall take a turn around the Sun and escape into infinity, if e >
1, the orbit would be hyperbolic and the body would be deflected away from the
Sun in the same side as it came, i.e., it won’t turn around the sun. To see under
what condition the orbit should be closed or elliptical, we have to further interpret
the value of e from another independent physical consideration, i.e. total energy
of the mass m.
There is no difficulty is writing expression for kinetic energy T of the orbiting mass
1 2 1 2 d dr
2 2
m, it is simply T mv m r …………(21)
2 2 dt dt
As to the potential energy, the mass is supposed to have been attracted by the
sun from a great distance i.e., the gravitational field has done the work and it
must be negative by convention. In fact, had the planet been pushed into the field
against a repulsion force, the work done in pushing would have been stored in it
enabling it to go away automatically if left to itself. But the case is opposite here.
Since the force is a varying force ,varying as inverse square of r, we may
calculate the total work done W in small steps , small enough to keep the force
nearly constant is a step and then sum up. This is equivalent to integration which
is in fact, infinite summation. Thus
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
km km km
W 2
dr ………………………………..(22)
r r r r r
1 2 d dr km
2 2
h2
Putting θ = 0 in (33) we get, r k …………………………………………(24)
1 e
d h dr
Putting θ = 0 and 2 , 0 from (17a) in equation (21), we get,
dt r dt
h 2 km
E mr 2 ……………………………………………(25)
r4 r
Taking the value of e from (37) in terms r and putting it is (25), we get
2h 2
e 1 E 2 …………………………………………..(26)
mk
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Now , the statement of Kepler’s 1st law is long overdue and we can write,
If the total energy E is negative, then only e < 1 and the attracted mass
revolves around the Sun in elliptic al orbit or bound orbit.
With this value of e, we have got a new meaning of eccentricity. The total
energy of the planet will determine whether it would be bound to the sun in a
closed orbit , kiss off in a parabolic path or shall prefer a collision course and
get out of the system in a hyperbolic path. Evidently total negative energy
guarantees a bound orbit, 0 total energy determines escape velocity and
positive total energy means bouncing off, a total estrangement.
h2 k h2 k
r ………..(27)
2
1 1 E 2h 2 k m cos 1 e cos
Assuming e <1, i.e. the planet is revolving around the average of greatest and
1 h2 k h2 k h2
least values of r from the focus to be a , major axis
2 1 e 1 e k 1 e2
a
and the minor axis is b a 2 1 e2 h and the equation of the orbit is given
k
x2 y 2
by 1 ………………..(28)
a2 b2
h
From Kepler’s 2nd law A t2 A t1 t2 t1 , if t2 t1 T , time period or time
2
taken for a complete revolution, then A t2 A t1 is the area of the ellipse, ab .
2
ab 4 2 a 2b2 4 2 3
Thus T2 a …………………………(29)
h h 2
k
2
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
h
This is third law of Kepler. (Since is the areal velocity (magnitude) of the
2
particle under the action of the force. See below.)
Though the topic has been covered under the chapter for coordinates and
vectors, a quick reference is here for use in the problems to follow.
O
p
ωt N
If r is the radius vector of the moving particle from origin
ˆ ˆ
O , then r v r sin tvk pvk , where t is the angle described by the particle in time t
and angular speed ω with reference to the origin, r sin t p , the perpendicular on the
tangent v and k̂ is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of motion. If we replace
d r dr d ˆ dr
v rˆ r rˆ rˆ where ˆ is a unit vector perpendicular to r̂ .Taking cross
dt dt dt dt
product of both sides with r , we have
dr
r v r rˆ r r ˆ 0 r 2rˆ ˆ r 2kˆ pvkˆ................(30)
dt
1 1 2 ˆ 1 ˆ 1
as derived above. The areal velocity r v r k pvk h , say. The h may be
2 2 2 2
I
seen to be the magnitude of angular momentum per unit mass i.e., where
m
I mr 2 , and the angular momentum Ikˆ mr 2kˆ may be seen as moment of
© Page 48
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
momentum r mv . The last expression r mv indicates that the angular momentum is
moment of momentum.
© Page 49
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
where ea is a constant vector of integration in the plane of the motion itself , as both r
both are parallel to this plane. In other words , the unit vector a is in a fixed
dr
and
dt
direction in the plane and may be taken as the x – axis , r.a r cos r.a cos or may be
taken as component of r or r in the direction of a .
1 dr
Taking the dot product of both sides of h r ea with r we have
dt
1 d r 1 dr 1
r. h r.r er.a r .h r re cos h.h r 1 e cos . Taking
dt dt
1 h2
h.h l , the polar equation of the path of the particle or equation of its orbit
emerges as
l
1 e cos ............................................(32)
r
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
2
v2 C..................................(33)
or, r , the arbitrary constant C can be
determined from initial condition.
§29:
Interpretation, finding the orbit and speed
p R Q
P
b
N
a
p’
r
O -ae C O’
Since h r v a constant, h rsin v pv......................(34) ,
where is the angle between r and v and p be the perpendicular from O on v .
v
Let the speed be 1 at R, the end of the minor axis. Here the value of p at R must
be b, for the tangent there must be parallel to the major axis. The distance of R
b 2 ae a 2 1 e2 ae a
2 2
h2
as h 2 p 2 v 2 b 2 v12 and combining it with l , we get,
© Page 51
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
2 h2 l b2
C v1 2 2 as l . So, C and we may write
2
a b b a a a
2 2 1
v2 .................................(34)
r a r a
The expression gives at once the major axis in terms of v, given the original
position R as assumed. Since the center of force O is known, the other focus O’
may be obtained by cutting a distance RO’ = a on the major axis.
§30:To find an expression for e for planetary motion given above and criteria for
open / closed orbits.
1 dr
h r ea
The eqn. dt may be written as
2 2
v h v h 2
1
1
v h r ea ea v h r e 2 a .a
2
2
r . v h r .r e 2
2 r . v h 1
2 v.v v.h v 2
vh
h.v h.h 0 h
0
2
h2v2
Now as h r v , so v.h v.r v r.v v 0 and
r. v h
h. r v
r. v h
r
r
h.h. h 2
r
r .
2
vh 2
e 2
2
r. v h 1
h 2 v 2 2h2 h2 v 2 2
So becomes e2 2 1 1 .
r r
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
If the particle is thrust with initial velocity V at a distance c from the centre of force,
2
So e , or 1 if V 2 , or respectively, i.e. hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic orbit
c
respectively.
1
We can also consider initial kinetic energy mV 2 instead of V 2 in the above
2
1
consideration and infer that e , or 1 if Initial KE mV 2 , or respectively,
2 mc
i.e. hyperbolic, parabolic or elliptic orbit respectively. Total energy positive for hyperbolic
orbits, the attracted body bounces off the center of force in the same side it came. Total
energy is 0 for parabolic orbit, turns around the center of force and escapes, and for
bound orbits, total energy is negative.
Exercise13
A particle is executing motion in a conic section under a central force. Show that the
velocity – distance graph ( hodograph)is a circle. Also show that the circle passes
through the origin if the path is parabolic.
1 1 1 2 2e
2
Ans.: We can write v h r ea 1 r v h ea 2 v h v h.a e2
2
2 v.v v.h v 2 0 2
squaring both sides. Since v h
h.v h.h 0 h2
h 2 2
v h 2
v
, the above
2
h2 v
2e 2 e
e 2 1 0
2
expression becomes v. h a e 2
1 0 v 2 v. h a
2 h h2
2 2 e
h v 2v.c e 1 2 0 where c
2
h h
h a , a constant vector since h is constant.
2 2 e
i.e. R 2 R.c e 1 2 0 is the equation of a circle whose centre is at c
2
h a .
h h
2
Further , if e 1 , the circle becomes R 2 R.c 0 which is a circle passing through the
origin.
Example6
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
O
-ae C O’
b
a
R’
A particle is moving around circle having radius a and its center at O (see the figure
above) with a constant speed v. It is knocked at the end of a radius OP, it suddenly
moved to R’ and its path becomes an ellipse with a focus at O and minor axis b = CR’.
Find the impulse of the knock.
mv 2 m
We have the centripetal force F 2 , where GM ,intensity of force, being
a a
product of universal gravitational constant and mass of the attracting body. So v
a
everywhere on the circle. When the particle is suddenly knocked and shifted to the point
R’ at the end of the minor axis, we have OR’=a, major axis, as
OR ' OC 2 CR '2 a 2 e2 b 2 a 2 e2 a 2 1 e2 a . If the speed here is given by
2 1
u2 u from (34) above. So u v and the speed has not changed.
a a a a
If i , j are unit vectors in the direction of x and y axes, OR ' aei b j . The velocity is
perpendicular to this direction, and a vector perpendicular to this direction is bi ae j , a
unit vector in the direction of the velocity is
bi ae j bi ae j bi ae j bi ae j
so that the velocity vector at R’
bi ae j a 2 e2 b 2 a 2 e2 a 2 1 e2
a
bi ae j
becomes u . While on the circle, its velocity was in the direction of i and
a a
v , so that v i . Thus the impulse or change in momentum is
a a
bi ae j b a i ae j
m u v m
a
a
a
i
m
a
a
which is a given quantity, say
© Page 54
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Z . So the minor axis b may be obtained from this equation and the ellipse is specified.
It is interesting to
m a b
calculate its modulus 2 a b and inclination with x – axis tan 1 .
a a b
Exercise14
Show that a planetary motion is a linear and a circular motion superimposed and
eccentricity is the ratio of the constant linear speed and uniform circular speed.
dt dt p
h2
C 2 Fdr , differentiating which wrt r we get
p2
h2
d 2 2
p 2 F h dp F .....................................(35) .
dr p 3 dr
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Otherwise, if the orbit is known the equation (35) gives the force function.
Example7
1 a 2 1
2
2
The pedal equation ( p-r equation) of the ellipse is given as p b r a when the
centre of force is at the focus . Find the force function.
d 1 a d 2 1 2 dp 2a h 2 dp h 2 a 1
Ans.: We have so F , the
dr p 2 b2 dr r a p3 dr b2 r 2 p 3 dr b 2 r 2
central force is inverse square
Example8
If the force F is inverse square, we can integrate
r2
h 2 dp h2 dr h2 2 l 2
2 3 dp 2 2 2 C 2 C
p3 dr r 2 p r p r p r
Now, the pedal equations of ellipse, parabola and hyperbola with focus as origin are
l 2 1 l 2 l 2 1 b2
respectively 2
, 2
, and , where l .
p r a p r p2 r a a
D
P
p
r
O
1 a 2 b2 r 2
For an ellipse with origin as center, the pedal equation is . So in this
p2 a 2b 2
case
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
h 2 dp h2
F 3 r . Thus the central force is directly proportional to distance .
p dr a 2b 2
2
d2r dr dr d2r 2
2 d r
Taking 2 n r
2
2 2
2 n 2
r v 2 C n 2 r 2 ..........(37)
dt dt dt dt dt
1 v2 C n2r 2
Since h pv for any central force, from above , 2 2
p h h2
1 a 2 b2 r 2
2
a 2b 2 h nab and C n a 2 b2
Comparing it with p we get,
Substituting the values we get, v 2 n2 a 2 b2 r 2 nOD2 ............................(38)
Example9
In the figure, the point P is moving with a velocity v wrt the Q. The point Q is rotating
about the origin O with a constant angular speed about an axis perpendicular to the
plane of the paper. Find the velocity of P relative to O.
Ans. v k q , if k is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane of the paper and OQ q .
Example10
Show that under constant angular velocity, acceleration is A A r .
© Page 57
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Ans.: If A is the constant angular velocity, v A r . Then
d v d d A d r
dt dt
A r dt
r A
dt
0 A v A A r .
Example11
Find the law of force when a particle describes an ellipse under the action of a force
always directed towards its center.
x2 y 2 x dx y dy
Differentiating the equation of the ellipse 2 1 , we have 2 0 ….(b)
2
a b a dt b 2 dt
1 dx d 2 x 1 dy d 2 y F x dx y dy
From (a) and (b) we get, 2 2
2 2
2 0
a dt dt b dt dt r a dt b 2 dt
2 2
1 dx 1 dy
Multiplying this by 2 and integrating 2 2 , say, a constant.
a dt b dt
Example12
Find the law of force when a particle describes an ellipse under the action of a force
always directed towards its focus.
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
x2 y 2
Take the ellipse 2 2 1 , the origin at the center and components of force directed to
a b
d2x x ae d2y y
the focus are 2
F cos F and 2
F sin F
dt r dt r
respectively……(a)
as ae, 0 is a focus and r a ex being a focal radius, making an angle θ with major
axis a .
d2y d 2x dy dx
From (a), x ae 2
y 2
0 , integrating which, x ae y C
dt dt dt dt
say………….(b)
dy dx
x2 y 2 x dx y dy
Differentiating 2 2 1 ,we get 2 0 dt dt .say.
a b a dt b 2 dt x y
2
2
a b
x y aC aC
Using this, (b) becomes x ae y 2 C ………………..(c)
a 2
b a ex r
2 2
x dx y dy x d 2 x y d 2 y 1 dx 1 dy
Differentiating 2
2
0 we get, 2 2
2 2 2 2 0
a dt b dt a dt b dt a dt b dt
F x x ae y 2 a 2C 2 y2 x2 F xe C 2
2 2 4 2 0 1 2 2 0
r a2 b r b a a 4b 2 r a br
F r C2 aC 2
2 2 0 F 2 2
r a br br
Example12
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
V
r’
The force on a particle moving in a plane is always towards a fixed point directly
proportional to its distance from it. Find the orbit.
d 2x
2
x
The components of acceleration are dt ………………..(a)
d2y
y
and dt 2 …………..…..(b)
d2r
The two equations can simultaneously written as 2 r where r xi yj . Note that
dt
is assumed to be same for both x and y directions, i.e., frequency of the two SHMs to
be the same.
© Page 60
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
x2 y2 x2 y 2
Eliminating t from (c) and (d) we have 2 2 1 or 2 2 1 which is an ellipse
a V a b
with major axis a and minor axis b V 2 .
Exercise15
Ans.: The result is true for whatever consistent initial conditions are taken, for ,
eliminating t direct from (c) and (d), we have
Ay sin A ' x sin ' A ' x cos ' Ay cos AA 'sin '
2 2 2
The expression for velocity may be got differentiating (c) and (d) to have
dx y dy x
a , b , so that
dt b dt a
2 2
dx dy x2 y 2
v a 2 b 2 x 2 y 2 a 2 b 2 r 2 r '2 , say (using 2 2 1 ),
2
dt dt a b
where r ' is a semi-diameter conjugate to r , related by a2 b2 r 2 r '2 ,square of radius
of director circle of the ellipse.
Exercise16
Show that two SHMs of same frequency superimposed result in motion in an ellipse
even if the SHMs are not at right angles to each other. In other words, show that the
motion described by r cos nta sin ntb result in a force on the particle varying directly
as the distance from the force center.
Under any central force we have the tangential component of acceleration is 0 , ( eqn
d 1
r2 h h h
22) which yields dt where 2 is magnitude of areal velocity, or is angular
momentum per unit mass, or moment of velocity. Also the radial component of the
© Page 61
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
2
d 2r d
2
r
acceleration is given by dt dt , force per unit mass .Changing the
1 dr 1 dz 1 dz d dz 2 d dz
z 2 2 r h
independent variable to r , we have dt z dt z d dt d dt d .
Differentiating again,
d 2r d dz d dz d d 2z 2 d 2z 2 2
h h h 2 hz 2 h z
dt 2 dt d d d dt d d .Using this value we get,
2 2
d 1 d 2r d
r
dt
z
hz
2 2
h 2 3
z
dt 2
r
dt
. and finally , from we get
d2z
h2 z 2 h2 z 3
d 2
d 2z
i.e., z 2 2 ………………………………….( 43)
d 2
h z (Under any central force)
l
Now , since the orbit of a planet is given by a conic 1 e cos or lz 1 e cos ,
r
d2z
differentiating twice we get, l e cos and adding this to lz 1 e cos we get,
d 2
d 2z d 2z 1 d 2z
l 2 z 1 , or z but since for any central force, z 2 2 . Thus
d d 2
l d 2
h z
1
2 2
h z l
h2 z 2 h2 l
So 2 and inverse square law is established.
l r
1 1
eaxV eax V
f D f D a
§34:Particular integral of
© Page 62
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1 1
eaxV eax V.
f D f D a
If W be any smooth function of x, we have . D eaxW eax DW aeaxW eax D a W
Now
e ax D a a1 D a a2 D a ...... an W
n n 1 n2
e f D a W
ax
1
Then suppose V f D a W so that W V
f D a
1
Using this in the previous step, f D eax V e axV .
f D a
1
Operating both sides by , we have
f D
1 1 1 1 1
f D e ax V e axV e axV e ax V
f D f D a f D f D f D a
© Page 63
Page 675 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1 1 1
xV x f ' D V
f D f D f D
§35:Particular integral of
d
D xW xDW W xDW D 'W where D ' D 1 or identity operator.
dD
d 2
Similarly D 2 xW xD2W 2 DW xD 2W D2 'W , where D 2 '
dD
D 2D .
Generalizing, D r xW xDrW rDr 1W xDrW Dr 'W , so that we may write,
f D xW D n a1Dn 1 a2 Dn 2 ........... an xW
1
Now let f D W V i.e., W V .............................(b)
f D
1 1 1
From (a) and (b), f D x V xV f ' D
V .Operating both sides by ,
f D f D f D
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
x V xV f ' D V xV x V f ' D V
f D f D f D f D f D f D f D f D
1 1 1
or, xV x f ' D V V
f D f D f D
Example15
d2y
Find general solution and particular integral of 2
y xe2 x
dx
© Page 64
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Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
1 1
and a particular integral applying eaxV eax V we have
f D f D a
1 1 1 e2 x 1
xe 2x
e 2x
x e 2x
x x
D2 1 D 2 1 D2 4D 5 4D D2
2
5
1
5 5
e2 x 4 D D 2 e2 x 4 e
2x
1 higher powers of D x x 0 0... 5x 4
5 5 5 5 5 25
e2 x
So the complete solution is f x 5 x 4 c1 cos x c2 sin x .
25
Example16
d2y dy
Find general solution and particular integral of 2
2 4 y e x cos x
dx dx
Writing in the operator language, D2 2D 4 y e x cos x and roots of D2 2D 4 are
1 3i .
So the complementary function is e x c1 cos 3 x c2 sin 3x . For finding particular
integral,
1 1 1
e x cos x e x cos x e x 2 cos x
D 2D 4 D 1 2 D 1 4 D 3
2 2
1
ex cos x 12 e x cos x
1
2
3
So the complete solution is e x c1 cos 3x c2 sin 3 x 12 e x cos x
Example13
© Page 65
Page 677 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
d4y
Find general solution and particular integral of 4 y x 2 sin x
dx
The diff eqn is D 4 1 y x 2 sin x and the roots of D 4 1 are 1, 1, i, i , so that the
general solution is c1e x c2 e x c3 cos x c1 sin x .
1 1
The particular integral is x 2 sin x imaginary part of 4 x 2eix .
D 1
4
D 1
Now,
1 1 1
x 2 eix eix x 2 eix 4 x2
D 1 D i 1 D 4 D i 6 D 4 Di
4 4 3 2
1 1 1 3 1
eix x 2 eix 1 Di D 2 D 3i ........ x 2
4 Di 3 1 4 Di 2 4
1 Di D 2 D3i
2 4
ix
e 1 3D 5 2 2 i ix 1 2 5 i ix x3 5
i 1 D higher powers of D x e x 3 ix e 3ix 2
x
4 D 2i 4 4 D 2 4 3 2
1 x3 5 3
The imaginary part is cos x x x 2 sin x and the complete solution is
4 3 2 8
1 x3 5 3
cos x x x 2 sin x c1e x c2 e x c3 cos x c1 sin x
4 3 2 8
Example14
1 1 1 xe2 x 1 xe2 x
xe 2x
x .2 D e 2x
2 D
D2 1 D2 1 D 1
2
5 D2 1 5
Find particular integral
2x 2x 2x
xe 1 4 xe xe
2 5x 4
5 D 1 5 25
Exercise17
© Page 66
Page 678 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
Find a particular integral of D 2 1 y x 2 sin 2 x . Ans.
1 26 8
x 2 sin 2 x cos 2 x
3 9 9
Exercise18
1 1
Find a particular integral of D 2 2 D 1 y x sin x .Ans.
2
1 x cos x sin x
2
§36:Homogeneous linear equation x n Dn a1 x n 1D n 1 a2 x n 2 D n2 .......... an y f x
(change of variable reduces this to linear equation with constant coefficients)
This equation is special because it can be reduced to linear diff equation with constant
coefficients.
dy dy dz 1 dy d 2 y d 2 y 1 1 dy d 2 y dy 1
Let z ln x, x e z so that , ,
dx dz dx x dz dx 2 dz 2 x 2 x 2 dz dz 2 dz x 2
dy d2y 3
3 d y
x Dy, x2 D D 1 y , x D3 3D 2 2 D y D D 1 D 2 y
dx dx 2 dx3
or D y Z , where Z is a function of z ln x .
© Page 67
Page 679 / 681
Series : REDISCOVER MATHEMATICS FROM 0 AND 1
Book : Calculus And Analytic Geometry Of 2D and 3D
(Concepts and fundas for IITJEE and other competitive exams)
PART III: INTEGRAL CALCULUS AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Section10_Further Geometry of Conics
Chapter 49 : 2nd Order Linear Differential Equations and Central Forces
This can be solved for z for linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
Example17
d2y dy
Solve the diff equation x 2 2
x y 2 ln x
dx dx
dx dy dy dz dy d2y
Putting x ez , e z we have x e z Dy , x 2 2 D D 1 y . So the diff
dz dx dz dx dz dx
equation becomes D D 1 D 1 y 2 z , or, D 2 2 D 1 y 2 z D 1 y 2 z .
2
The complete solution is y z c1 c2 z 2 z 4 y e x c1 c2e x 2e x 4
Exercise18
d2y dy
Solve the diff equation x 2 2
x 4 y x3 Ans. y ax 2 bx 2 15 x 3
dx dx
Exercise19
d2y dy
Solve the diff equation x 2 2
7 x 5 y 2 x 6 Ans. y ax 5 bx 2 772 x 6
dx dx
Exercise20
d2y dy
Solve the diff equation x 2
2
2 x 2 y x x 3 x 2 ln x Ans.
dx dx
y ax bx 2 x x ln x x ln x 12 ln x 1
2 1 3 2
It is interesting to note the Bertrand’ s theorem which states that these two and only
k
two central forces F r 2 and F r kr are the only two central forces who have
r
stable and closed orbits.
© Page 68
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2. DIFFERENT CONIC SECTIONS Forthcoming:
1.Central Forces
3.
The Uniformly Accelerated
Motion, The Uniform Circular
Motion, Simple Harmonic
Motion, Planetary Motion,
all in one, leading to
differential equations, the
ultimate codes of nature
Forthcoming:
1.2.The Sword And
VISUALISATION OF ‘e’
The Shield
The Straight Line and
the Plane, Vectors,
Determinants, Matrices
MAIL THE WRITER @
nyn_3@rediffmail.com for
mistakes, suggestions and
help in the topic or
problems freely.