Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 74

b?????

u

W?b( U???eOH
Modern Physics

rJ WdE WOM WdEM

qBH

zU uD sdAF dI Wb l UeOH rK bN


UdE uN WO
ULO d UL U_ UKJ sOK rJ WdE WO M WdEM q bb
WO uNK U u UdEM c U b Wb UeOH rU bF
duE iF dO H rNU w UeOH ULK s dO b UNc w
W U WOJOJ UeOH sOu UdO H s e w WOzUeOH
YO UN WuJL ULO  c?? u  dNL u L vK
d pd sOu suO v W WOuuOM UJOUJOL lD r
sOAM d wzUeOH rUF

p w WOJOJ UeOH qJA XU w WO OUMGdNJ WdE


WQ  wzu{dNJ dOQ dU q WHK du dO H dBF

duE s p dO fLA WF nO w dNE w WLFL uD c w UdJ dI


w WOzUeOH duE s dOJ d H lz qJA oDM WOJOJ UeOH sOu b YO d_
dNL u L vK duE iF dO H s eF dU rUF
WHKL WOzUeOH duE dO H w UdEM UU XLU nO rJ WdE U WO M WdEM UL
uM c VO d UMLN sO w ULU nO
vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
WU) WOM WdEM wO{d dc
WUD WKJ RUJ ZM
td W tu sU r s UB UF b 5 WF dH
WL q UNKL% w WUD WOL U uI uC WL dF
=
wzu{dNJ dOQ dU ZzU dH
WHK
* Wc ULM 5 UI
wu* wLO' 5uLM 5 UI
5I b0 uBI* `{u
bb b b c u u/ WOM WdEM s q vK WuM qzU q%

WU) WOM WdE

WOFd

WOFd

UeOH UNOK XU w WLNL f??_ b?? WO M WdEM bF

U sOAM rUF UNd b sdAF dI Wb l Wb

b
sOF

Frame of reference WOFd d w r w UUOI WdEM c ZUF


c UOb UE u wFdL U iF UNCF W MU W d

vK Wd d sJL UL qO vKF t W MU UUOI d r


uu h q s UUOI cQ p WMOF Wd d UD

d W MU UOI qJA


WHK WOFd

r sJL UL U d U OFd U UDI qJA YO UDI vK


U w _ bF
YO _ vK uu h WDu UUOI
Wd WOFdL d YO qJA w UL WU c w wFdL
WOFdLK W MU UbI
ULWO M s Uu UM

iF UNCF WMU WU Wd d WOFd d w r w UUOI ZUF w WU) WOM


iF UNCF WMU U d WOFd d w r w UUOI ZUF w WUF WOM
5OU 5O{d vK WdEM c uI WU) WOM WdEM vK qBH c w UMAUMdBI
WMU WU Wd d w UOFd* UM U q w WNUA WOzUeOH 5uI
iF UNCF
Wd vK Wd c WLO bLF UbI WU dH w uC Wd
uC bB* WMU bUA* Wd uC bB
q WOU XU d q v_ sOKUL sOd qLF UuI sOOzUeO sOLU dHM
w WNUA ZzU vK ULUF qB dA oDML WU Wd dO UD s vK uu d
qJ WHK WOzUeO sOu UM uJ uIFL s fOK l u w b U c sdL
 W UD kH uU UM uJ d
fH UM uJ sO w U UJ w hA W MU
d UJ w uUI
 UBLbBL Wd s dEM iG WU uC Wd w WOU WO{dH U
bUAL
qO u Wd d cI UML UL qO vKF WOuO UMUO w tOK Ub U nU wN
UML Wd  uJ U sJ uJ qOeK W MU dJ Wd S sOM U nI s UM

uJ qOeK W MU czbM dJ Wd Wd qOe u d UM Wd  fHM dJ cI


bOF U bUA u U d wzu{ bB s ZUM uC Wd UO ULKF U b
dOG WU uC Wd b vK dNE U ZzU XU b WIO U bU tM
WO{dH c QD U uO v b lD r u UbI

WOM WdEM vK Wd* ZzUM


S se uD WKJ U WbOKI UJ_ iF w dEM U UM VKD WO M WdEM u
wFdL U cN W MU r  cN se WKJ uD UUO S sOF wFd U W MU U r d
bO YO r  l d wFd U W MU r  fHM uQL UUOI pK s nK u
s WuL v sOAM rUF q u b _ wFdL U W MU u se d WKJ dB uD
tu tK r UMb U uK se uD WKJ s qJ b w dOG nB w UFL
U W MU UbI Wd r  l d U c sOF wFd U W MU uJ  l{ w
nB WO UFL S d wFd
wFdL U cN W MU U UI se uD WKJ s


WK w WOuJ WKJ vL
uJ wFd U w WUI r'
t WMU U MU r'

uJ wFd U w r' u q9
t WMU U MU r'
b UNdG w WOMe dH w
w U UI tUN v tb s 5F
bK WMU sU wFd* U

U uC Wd

YO

eu qUF bIL c vL

k UFL c s
UeOH UN'UF w U( w `OB bu s dI WLO S ? WMU b dOG uJ UbM
WuLK uJ s UOLJ cN WU( dOG

uJ YO WOJOJ

p vK Vd `OB bu s d WLO `B s dI b dO uJ UbM


uD w ULJ se WKJ s q w U

U???
W MU [ uC Wd s [ UbI Wd d UNu Wd dD 
V dL c WUu UIL dD L u b UNuD u UU U V dL

[ [

U???
U t buuC Wd s [ Wd oKDM WOzUC W d u V d fOI
UNO uuL UCH bzd W MU W dL u mK r d
u fOI V dL
t OI c uD U t W MU W d UN_ W dLK U BKI
uJ  WU w W dL u uN UCH bz

WUFL bU

U
bUAL W MU uJ WU w uJ UbM w qJA w UL tu We rzU YK
d UbM bUAL c UN OI UL We t{ u V U
t W MU VuL wMO  U w [ UbI Wd YKL

S pc jI wMO  U w W d _ dOG s uD


[ [
[

U
[

W d tO r c U w jI b uD w hKI

W MU d u?? U?? r u?? Q?? UM UMMJL


bUAL cN W MU U U U u ULdB uJ sOF bUAL

qJA w UL

V uD w ULJ qJA


W U WO M WdEM

R
s q?? UN d w??? Wd  V?? ? qJA w??
bI U?? u??C? Wd  W MU dD L VFJL
W d U w nBM v ULNM q uD ULJ

Xd WJL s ldL U MOF  UeOH U w tU sOAM rUF s ddI V UA

W
UD U* R UJ
sJ WO OUMG WOzUdN u bU dJ q d uA rO WU  ULKF lOD
U O dI td S dJ vK dRL uI bI Ue uU ULN rN ULKF b Wd c d bM
W UD WKJ sO W UM q qB c UL UNO u u lOD UNMJ uC Wd s U OA

U bI Ud wU suO uU s U r vK dR WU u dHM


Wd w dOG bI u U  UL r  WK vK Wu I dRL uI bI U r 
sJ WUN U v bIL fHM U w dL V r  Wd S s b w r 
bM qB UL uC Wd bM r  Wd  vK b lC W U WO M WdE w WOU WO{dH
U O h UM w b s b w r  Wd w dOG bI uC Wd s r  Wd d
X v b r  WK wMF c S WU dRL uI ULdH v qB v U OA
G c t v R r vK dR u W dF UMK sJ WUN s dI
tOK
W w W UD WKJ sO WDO W UM WK v u W UD c tO W U nOC
dONA sOAM

uJ  WU w uJ UbM r  WK

YO

uC Wd
uJ  WK UL V U WKJ WUJL W UD U  t uJ  W UD W UD c vL
WO OUMGdNJK qu U sOu W U WO M b bU W F c v sOAM q u b
W UD u YO WKJ W UD sO RUJ X WOKL U w WUFL cN lUI Ud U b
WuM UHL w W UD s WKzU UOL bOu U Ou RUJ c G r fJFU WK v
dA b

U???
W U v UL s rG qu bM UNOK uB sJL w W UD WOL U

u u x
WOzUdNJ W UD bF l tUI sJL p uB v W UD s b qzU bI c
wQ UL U dN WOMOD K d UNJKN w
u UF c U dN WU uKO wu pKN WOMODKH d_ XU
s rG qu% s W&UM WUD 5 oU U* w "UM bI* l rd c WUI0
WM 5 s d_ WOMODKH d_ wHJ WU v U*

sU r' UF uC WFO


ULO s U uC d sO uC WFO dO H dA sU dI lKD w suO U
uCU WIKFL WOFOD duE iF dO H w qA d c sJ W d sOuI mC b dOG
dO H w qA U C wuL uLM sJ wuL uLM UdO H w ` w uO XA q
oOu sJL q c UL WFO U uC WFO UL uCU WIKFL d_ U iF ZzU
wuL uLM wLO  uLM sO

Blackbody Radiation u_ r' UF


vK W UD c uJ WMU  U _ uD s W UDK dL L UF vK UF WLK oKD
d_ U w Ud pS VN u Wu{u bb s WFD v dE uK WO OUMGdN u qJ
iO Z YFM r bbA edI uK v u U Ud nOH dL Z dNE r uK WLF
WFO vK bLF UF b vL se b U `D  WU L b s WFAL WFML W UD
td W `D 
bu UI

UF W U bF
UF b
WU L b

WCHM UF b uJ WCHML d U vKF


qI UF bF e d W U l dO WOu u
[ UM s VFJ lA UL qO vKF WOuL u_
lA d W bM r q s [ WOUu
W vK r lA W vK r [
jOK qJ vK W UD r  lA d W q bM
u r  uL qJA

eO d rEF uJ W?? bM L WOuL u??_ s


r wu u bM UUF

q hL U OU U L pc U U _ s WFML UUF Wb ULKF s bbF U b


d u_ r  b
wU hL tOK j U  w OUMGdNJ UF
W UDK lA qC bF

b w eF d d bU dL w U OKL WOUL WU c qOL sJL p vK wKL U


UL U OK t UB r v dH q d b fJFM VI d UF u bMF dOG VI tb
c rEF uJ UF bB qJA tS WMOF d W v dH sO bM U qJA w

UF rEF u d W l bM dL X WF_ WIDM w Wb w YFML UF


W e v qzUL iO_ dO iO_U dH _ uK v r s XU dL_ uK v
cN tuL u YFML UF b sO W F r bM
w sOLU vMM vK uB r u??_ r K W MU UF
UF b

k vMML c s qJA
sHK

WU* UNK9 u_ r' s YFM* UF WU

sHK
sHK

d( W dOG dOG vMM* X% uB;


d W q bM YFM* UF bA uB WLO UM

WuL u

WDO W jd d( W U l WLOI c e

r  UF b W qJA

W 5 uBI UF b WLO Wu* u 5

d W WuL u l u_

YO rK WIKD* d(

W sO uUI W F c dF sHK [


bA bM wu* uD `B YO UO u eM YFM* UF bA vLEF WLOI
d( W U l dB vLEF
sU  r  `D s UF bFL WOd UU bMO u rUF U bI
UF bA WO W F v q u YO U UHO nu rUF p qL
UHO uU

e l

[ tLO Ueu UHO XU vL wzUeO XU

bLF e `O b dH sO lI u Emissivity `D  WOUF vL e


OK WMA uD K dO uJ [ U UMK L `D  WFO vK
uD K
U wUL u_ r K W MU u U KL
r K WIKDL d W

U???
r  `D d?? W?? [ wu U r  WOKJ WU L XLK
b sHK wu bK
U???  U?? ? r b? ?F?
r K b??O?
w U??U??F? lI wUL u??_
dL X WF_ WIDM w UNFA

r' s YFM* UF b
se b w r' `D UNFA w WUD uL

e l

WOKJ WU L UF b se b w W UD uL


[

U???
duU wu u bM uJ fLA s WFML uBI UF b XLK
fLA `D d W dbI r

W sO uU bU
sHK


sHK

UOI WIdD c b sHK wu w fLA `D d W


r  v u u cF UbM WUL  d_ q bOF U _ d W
O  WbOKI dDU d W UO `B YO

u??_ WdE bU u?? _ r  U??F? dUE WOd ZzUM dO H ULKF U?? b??

eMO wK uUI Xd WO{U W v u cK eMO wK ULUF R s WO OUMGdNJ


d W l Ud VUM wu u b qJ YFML UF b vK uUI c hM
wuL uDK WFd uI l UO J sHK bu WUI

XU sHK bu d( W UF b l

YO

U WKuD u_ WIDM w YFML UF WOLJ W b ULUF c tF{ c uLM QM b


s dNE UL WUN v R YFML UF b S uLM c V dOBI u_ WIDM w
UF WOL U dN YO UN UF WOd ZzUM l oH c eMO wK uU
WF_ _WO HM u WF_ WUJ qAH c d b dHB v R WIDML c w YFML
dOBI u_ WIDM w lI WO HM u

rJ WdE
r  UF dU dO H w Planck p wUL_ rUF `
WOLJ tdE d UbM U v eG XK w u_
dF ULO v_ uD qJ X u p w U u td U b
Xb w{UL dI Wb X w Wb UeOHU
uO v UMUO w dR e UeOH rK w bb dOG
c X b Energy Quantization W UD WOLJ b uN v
u WdEM
WF bF p t U U rNCF dU
p f U wUL_ rUF

r t H p v q WO WUF vK qB v U _U
US sOAM U v U c vK d_ wI UNB U FMI sJ

sOO{d vK uI p bWOLJ bL WU WOLK bu


quU WdE tHB UL qB qJA YFM UF
UC qJ vK YFM q WOOUMGdNJ u
u td W r rKF q
` b U d UUF oKD sHK dH
lD ULI s u?? duD w ULKF
sA tb UF c UB
 uOK nUN

QuantumWL r UNM q vK oK WUD s WKBHM


uJ uC u d vK bLF WLJ c WU
WU uJ ULMO dOG WU dL( X% WF_ WL
Ud UH p dOJ vK WOHM u WLJ

WOU u [ tLO p XU ? YO
WOU edO tb uC d u
U* w b W U Uu  w bu lOD UF UBU uI w UdJ
qIM lOD dJU UdJ W UD WOL vK bOOI lC w qu U WdE fJF
iHM u  s tUI WU w 5u  5 dH U W UD s WL h1 Q d W UDK u  s

WL S uI tS iHM u  v lHd u  s tUI U w U lHd u  v W UDK


photon uu r uC WL vK oKD 5u * 5 W UD w dH U W UD s
wK UL UF WOLJ b bU u_ r  w UN UB W UD UF p d  bI
c S W UD WOLJ b V t tUee WO sU  u_ r  s UF YFM
W U bLF Uuu W UD s WOU b e qJA q dL  dUIL U UF lA c Ue
o WHK d UL b d eN WMOF d W bM c e d vK UNM q
eN UNLEF WCHM d eN UNM qOK WOU d eN c s qOKI UNK d qL lu
u_ r  UF vMM s d _ sL_ sOze w W UD UBI d H U c WDu d

U???
u' bu dH_ uC uu UNKL w WUD WOL U
dH_ uC s u w UuuH b U
duU dH _ uK Wu u
UOI eV Xu dJ b b
dJ YO W UDK dOGB dUIL
u [ b Xu

? WUF* s

u [

UL

WOKJ W UD
UuuH b
bu WLJ W U
u

u [

U r s YFM* UF YK
dL X WF_ b WOKLF UIOD iF w Y d UB Xd s
U r s WFML WOzdL dO

(Photoelectric effect)

WOzu{dNJ dUE

D uC vKWOKLF U d?? UM ULKF k??


WO HM u WF_ uI bM WHOEM eKH uD s UdJ
WO HM u WF

u WF_ s We uI bM b U U c s UNOK


sO U u

qB WU WMA uAL sO U s uIB u vK WO HM


YO qJA w UL UC WU WMA uA UA dI
wzUdN UA

ULO b Q b WF_ uI dLU ^ qI sO u dH k


UdJ D v R WO HM u WF_ uI bF
u vK WU  WMA UBI v?? R?? c?? eKH `D  s
dH UBI v R UL t qBL UAJ vK sO U

wzu{dNJ dOQ dU qJA

wzu{dNJ dOQ dU dUE c vK oK b sO u w


WOzuC UdJU WIKDML UdJ XOL

eK `D
nOE

wzu{ UF
wU bFB

c?? d??O? ?H? W??U??? L?  W??O?K?L? U?? ? ? d?? S?? U??L? K? F?  U??? b???
s uJ c qJA w sOLU UN pc bdUE
UL uN s dH wU U s U w WOzu{dN WOK

dJ

nOE eK `D u uUJ jNL vL ULb UD tKb bu


dO

qB UM s WFD s U u u bFBL vL d


UO UOI dO vK u WOU WOzUdN b WOK wD s q
u UL WOK wd sO bN d UOI dOLu WOK w UL

dOLu

bM dOG WUI WUu tLOI rJ sJL bN dH bB vK


UdJ iF S eKH uK vK sOF d wzu{ UF uI
tM jNL v u u vK U uJ b eKH `D  s YFM b
WUu tUO sJL UO UdJ c qJA YO WOU bK

UO c WLOI rJ sJL wu vK WOK l qBL dO_


wzu{ dNJ dOQ Wd qJA

sO wzUdNJ bN U WLO dOOG tb j U  uC d dOOG


dOGL s WuL W U c s r b WOK wD
WOzu{dNJ U b rKF q
d UNO r w UIOD iF w??
WOJOUu_ u_ ` q wzu{ UF
c WLE qOGA

w dOGL c dUE cN iF UNCF WKBL


jU uC d
jU wzuC UFA b

wzu{dNJ UO
WOzuC UdJ WOd( WUD
eKH `D WFO
WOK) wD 5 bN' d

wzu{dNJ dOQ Wd& ZzU


wzu{dNJ UO b

wQ U U c s ku bI
tM YFM eKH `D vK wzu{ UF jI UbM
U OE( b w wzu{dN UO d WOzuC UdJ
WHOF{ jU uC b XU u v uC uI d0
WOU U b WKOK WOM d p b

uC b

WOK) wd 5 bN' d uC d s q u bM


uC b sO W F qJA
wzu{dNJ UO b

U d VUM wzu{dNJ UO b S WOzu{dNJ


qJA w UL jU uC b l

wzu{dNJ UO b

b bFBLK Vu* bN' U jU uC b u bM


X v wb qJA e UO b k dHB s

U UO b

vL bFB* bN ULN bF 5F b bM UNLO

bN
? nO u bN

qJA w UL U UO bA WU( c w UO b


YO bFB* UM WFDI qB* bN' fJ
p U u eKH `DU qB* bN' U U `

b bN sO W F qJA
wzu{dNJ UO

dHB s Ub jU uC b d u


UO b S t VU bN' Ue Ub r bFB* bN'

vLE

U Ob qI U/ Q dHB v qB wzu{dNJ

bM dH v WUNM w qB v fUF* bN' U l


lDI bN VU bN' c vL ? 5F bN
qJA w UL UI bN

d

bA uC fH b
U 5IU 5uD) Ud

qJA w UL d vMM vK qB UMS d


W UD d sO W F qJA
UdJ vLEF WO d

dOG r UI bN b$ 5OMM* WUI s


jU uC b vK bLF UI bN

v d c s jU uC d be V WF d vL t U d eK qJ


d s q jU uC d U eKH `D s UdJ YFM UdJ YFM
qJA w UL tb XGK ULN eKH cN WF
UdJ Ud UL lDI bN l U d VUM UdJ d_ WOd( WUD
jU uC b vK bLF UN UL WU uJ WIKDM*
lDI bN dJ WM dJ vLEF WO d W UD
lD

vLE

dO H w WO OUMGdN Uu s U uC w WOJOJ UeOH XKA bI


p b rOLF U UbM dUE c dO H sOAM U U w sJ WOzu{dNJ dUE
UL s uJ WO OUMGdN Wu W d bI WO OUMGdNJ UuL qLAO W UD WOLJ
W FU vDF uu q W U Uuu W UD s
?
WO OUMGdNJ WuL d p XU ?

YO

t U q wDF jI b dJ l UBU uu q uI eK `D vK uC uI bM


bI q vL eKH `D s dK W JL W UD c bU dJ uI dJ cN
uJ UbM eKHK qGA d U WO d W U tU eKH `D s dJ dd W W UD s
oKDM dJ S eKHK qGA d `D  dJ sO jd W U bI s d uuH W U
qGA d uuH W U sO dH UbI WO d W UD
bL U UJOKO d bI rKF q
sOAM dO H QD U uM
vK qu ezU U U b
b lC r bN c tKL

Wd c ZzU dO H WOJOJ UeOH XKA nO sJ


uC qUF w WOJOJ UeOH bU U ZzU d H UM
W UD s ULJ uC qUF w WOLJ UeOH WuL

wJOJ dOH
uC b vK bLF UdJ WOd( WUDK uBI WLOI d uC b dOQ
WUD U v R wzuC UFA b U Q QM w WOJOJ UeOH nU
c
WOd( WUD e lu* s uJ wUU UNB1 eKH `D q dJ sJ1 w
UdJ uBI
u d bM qB% sJ1 WOzu{dNJ dUE Q QM WOJOJ UeOH d
`D s dJ dd W WUDU qJA w UM UL Wd ZzU UF d

v U OA U O UNFOL& sJ1 WOJOJ WdEM dH UL WOd WU tzUD eKH
eKH `D UG s tMJ9 WUD s WOU WOL dOu s dJ sJL
UB Wu* w ULGU dJ uIWOJOJ UeOH w UdJ d s
u U  dG dJ S b WHOF{ uC b XU S UOA U O WUD
UB
w v b dOG UdJ UF s dN Wd ZzU sJ WuKD* WUD WOL
dHB s dI wzuC UFA b WU

wLJ dOH
dOG uC b U S 5F d UN UL s U uC Ud uC b dOQ
WOL S nK
d U0 Ub dOG UNMJ d fH UN U ULJ c WU
WUD WLO dOG wUU dOG uuHU tbD s UNU dJ sJ1 w WUD
uC b dOOG dOG c UI bN s Ubb% sJ1 w uBI WOd(
UdJ S d vK bLF WU WOL UNM qJ UL s uJ uC Ud d
uKD* rJ U d jU UF d sJ r U dK W WUD vK qB% s
VJ dJU WUD UL WUu WuN dOH sJ1 c UdJ d s
bD s U  se VUM* d t uu l jI b bD s tU
UJU tS dHB s dI jU uC b XU u v b uu l b dJ
eKH `D s UdJ
WO WUF*U WOzu{dNJ dUE ZzU hO
K sJ1

vLEF

eKH `D s WFML UdJ uBI WO d W UD vLEF eKHK qGA d

YO

eKH iF qGA d rO sO w b


d?? b??M? W??u??L?  u??

WF d

bu qGA d

duU WF

edO

Xu dJ

[
[
[
[
[
[

eKH

u

[
[
[
[
[
[

uu
ueO
uOO
uO U
uO OMG
WC

R
p qK WCH ueO  WOzu{dNJ U lM w tb qC ULN oU  b vK UL

U???
[ UN qGA d uOUu s WFD `D vK duU tu u u{ jI
wQ U b Xu dJ
WFML UdJ uBI WO d W UD
UL `D s UdJ UF w V  UNMJL u{ Wu u d
WUFL bU
?

vLEF

vLE

[ [

[ [

[ [ [

u [ [ [

Xu dJ [

q _ vK `D K qGA d WU  WD U  WuL W U uJ WU c w


dH ?

[ [

[ [
d [

wzu{dNJ dOQ UA
uO UJ s WFD `D s WFML UdJ uBI WO d W UD sO W F w b sO
tOK j U  uC d
d vLEF WO d( W UD 5 W F rd r excel ZUd bU
WUF* b
uOUJK qGA d p XU U r
u uBI WO d W UD

edO d

[
[
[
[

[
[
[
[

qJA vK `B ? WF WU b


WU( c w s q q9 U

"UM vMM* qO q1 U 5 WF r bM

u l "UM vMM* lUI WDI tK9 c U ?


u l "UM vMM* lUI WDI tK9 c U

Atomic Models Wc ULM


WHK u s uC UB dU XU
b S uI d_ UGU c VO d eG q `OUHL
UN dL UbM WOU d U v s UbM uC
wzUeOH U U wH wzUdNJ mdH wzUdN UO
iF s?? U??B?  u??C? vK U??? qLF qOHK bMKJ
UNM YFML uC VNK w WHK u l{uUG
s uJ nOD b b wU uAM d ddL od s
wD UF UO qJA
uOKON UG

WU nO u U qJ b u?? WKBHM uD


qJA sO UL dOG

fLA u{ nO w WM uD u u UO eOK k U w


uM s bbF UO w WNUA U uD duNd u u wUL_ k U w
uI YO _ v tId w WHK u U s dL fLA u{ d WF
r WO c WIdD cN UG pc u_ uD UJ fH w l u uC UBU dO_
WId qdO u wUDd wJKH d U w fLAU WDOL uL WOU bb
dLU d u  sJL U w UNM UB nOD u s UG vK dFK
sObON nO s uD WF uQ W b QM WO{U WGO U s WOL UG q tu
XOI sU ULO WK K q sObON UO_ d q p bF b b wzdL
w U d_ d wQ ULO sdAF dI Wb v dE dO H bUAL c
c VO d dO H v
Rutherford Model

u u/

s WIO
Vc
XA W

uN s dH wU U

u u uLqJA

UOI UN
UH WF
WAL

UH WF bB

u Wd qJA

eKH s WIO `zUH vK UNIKD U nzcI uOKON U u UH WF u rUF b


p w c VO d n u bzU  WdEM XU b qJA sO UL UNA b Vc q
rEM qJA Wu WuL UNM UNK dJ c l XKUF w u u rUFK uF X u
uLM c u b b qJA sO UL wzuA qJA Wu WU UM UNKK
d w bI UNuI U W MU dO We XA UNCF U w UH WF dBdO H w qAH
s WFD vK lb WHc oKD sL u dO Ue XA w UH ULO iF qB U tUE
tuLe d c VO dK bb U uL d ZzUM c vK UM u bd Ub UL
c sJ UNu WU  WMA u nucleus uM r UNOK oK dOG WIDM w WuL WMA
nO WuL uMK WU  UdJ c lML c U WO WK_ s WU lD r uLM
uM u WU  UMA u

Bohr's Model) u u/
UbM cK u uL sOAM n cJ UUA rE s c
UO dO H rbI UA w ULb rUF c U bI d _ t lL
UuuH WdE UF WOLJ p WdE s U e tdE XU YO Wc
sObON UO dO H tuL ` b cK u uL sOAM
WO U{d w u uL hK VO d WDO  c
u dOQ ud uM u Wdz b w dJ d
u eKO w dLb rUF

uu uU WOzUdNJ c'

w dJ WU uJ b UD UB b b w dJ d


dOG WU b* c s
UeOH U nU
c b* b w tU u w U OU U WU dJ lA
p vK Vd U UbM UF S uI dJ dH w WOJOJ
lA YO U OKL b c sJ uM w jIO wu qJA td% U dD nB hUM
w iH
M WU u v U WU u s qIM UbM WUD s b WOL dJ
WOL vK WU u v iH
M WU u s qI WUD s b WOL h1 5
5u* wU 5 dH U dJ UNFA UNB1 w WUD
?
i

uuH d p XU ?

YO

wzb u* WU i wzUNM u* WU f 5u* 5 WUD w dH


UNO dJ We d% WOL uJ w pK w UNO d dJ uL* b*
vK U uI p XU U dC `O bF WU
?
X

5bON vK u u/ oOD
c dD nB dbI
u _ dH bU
ud uM dJ sO wzUdNJ U u We dL uI

uu suO

YO

dJ WK ud dJ WM


u ld dH bU ud u dJ dzb U L dD nB o
?
o

o
ZM WUFL w WLO iuF
b?? dD nB S?? u??J? UbM
vL o?? W??U??? c?? w?? U??d??? J? 
u dD nB

?
o

?
bIL UL


wQ UL bL dD nBM wLJ dOF uJ pc

[ U tU sJL XU bI u

bL r YO [ o
o o

U???
[ U dI WU w w sObON w dJ b dD nB XLK
c c w ULN uL L ld bL dD nB wU bL dD nB V d
[ d [ o
o o

d [ d [ o
d [ d [ o

sObON w WUD Uu


WOzUdN l{ W U WO d W U s U uM u t UM dJ UNJKL w W UD

WOzUdN UL

dJ UNO bu w WDIMK wzUdNJ bN ? ?


p

uu [

e
o

WU dJ WM _ w WU  U

WOzUdNJ uI We dL uI u _ dH s

w WUFL wd dC

ZM

r d bL w dJ W U U

[ u dD nB o

o o UL

eV bu W UD qu [ bIL vK WL IU o


Xu dJ

S

s q rO iuF
[

S

U???
sObON w UN uL L v_ W Uu L w dJ W U bI b

Xu dJ [

[
UbM

Xu dJ [

[
UbM

Xu dJ [

[
UbM

dH S `B UbM

sObON c nOD q
W UDK WLLJ Uu  uu QM u uL o UL k
J UNzUDS c U r u LK wLJ r d Ub

eV WOKJ W UD

w{_ u L s qIM sJL dJ S W UD UJ s


[
[

Uu  v tu bM vK Uu  v dI L WU
sU WK K
dL X WF
[

sOu L w U sO dH U W UD s WOL lA iH

w UL Uu L c r lOD dJ ULNMO qI scK

dLU WK K
WOzd WF

WLO ULK re Uu L c k YO qJA


sObON c W MU WUN bM dH W UD `B v
s dJ UI vK WdL UUF WOuL u_ S
UUF s WK K qJA u L v UOKF Uu L
[

ULO WK K
WO HM u WF

Uu  s tUI bM ULO WK K UNOK oK WO OUMGdNJ


UNOK oK UUF s d WK K ZM u L v UOK

sObON c nOD q qJA

u L v UOK Uu  s qI dLU WK K r
qJA w UL cJ sU WK K vL WK K ZM

u YU dH b sObON nOD WOuL u_ U 


i

v_ u L w dJW U f
vK_ u L w dJ W U i

YO

i
f

f
i

i
f

vK_ W UD u  r i v_ W UD u  r f

YO

? UL

[ [

i
f

S

[ [

i
f

sObON c dO b XU

[ [
XU vL
?

[ U u

qJA vK WUFL `B R edU tO ed

i
f

wuL r d bIL vL WdEM u WUFL WUFL c vL


sObON c wzdL wD
 UF nO
H

U s?? WOL u Wu w?? wzUdN mdH b?? r??


Wu_ c wd qO u od s iHM jG{ X sObON
 uJ nK lHd bN bBL
c s u{ UF k

A [

A [

A [

A [

nO vK qB UODL W vK uC c jOK r UG

c wD UF nO qJA
sObON

UNCF WKBHM uD s uJ c sObONK wD UF


v wuL UNu q ULK U Ob h UM UU L iF s
WIDM w lI UN_ UNMO eOOL sJL WLe uD `B
qJA w UL nOD s WOzdL dO WO HM u WF_

w wzdL sObON nO w `{ qJA uD WF eOOL WE sJL


H

edU tO ed wzd* nOD s dL( WIDM* w lI _ j)

H edU tO ed wzd* nOD s dC) WIDM* w lI wU j)


H edU tO ed wzd* nOD s Ue WIDM* w lI YU j)
H edU tO ed wzd* nOD s WOHM WIDM* w lI ld j)

dLU d u  wzUeOH rUF UNHAJ v W pc XOL dLU WK K w uD c

U???
nOD WOKLF WOM l oUD q dLU WK K w v_ W WOuL u_ V
sObON
u* v u* s dJ qIM UbM _ j) dNE
r WUFL bU
[

d [

f i wU nOD j wuL uD U 


[

d [

f i YU nOD j wuL uD U 


[

d [

U??
u L u L v u L s dI  sObO w dJ qI
V w{_
YFML uuHK W UD d WuL u s

[ [

edO [
?
Xu dJ [ u [ [

ULOK WOu* WFOD


wd WO{d
dOOG UL qO vKF WFOD w WOzUeOH sOuI UL s WL u symmetryqUL
U bu U WIDM w seK W MU wzUdNJ UL b
w OUMGL UL b dOOG UL U O OUMG
UNO wzUdN U bOu v R U WIDM w seK W MU
U sJL uO q duE iF dO H Wu U sJL uC S U IU UM UL
t sOuLM sc sO jK sJL WOzu{dNJ dUE q d du dO H U LO
ULKF iF WO c X b X u w rO WuL uC l qUF u
d U rO U WuL dB uC U w R  dD dOJHK rNCF XF UNMJ
d U WuL U rO dB s dJ dJ q ULO  lML c UL
r sM UMu s WFOD du l UMU u U _ WOU uB c U nI w WIF
 UJ l qUF vK bF
uL c UL Wu t vK

Wd w tKL UM R  c dD De

Broglie

wd w dH rUF U bI p l

U  WO WUFL d U U UuuH nB w UFL l UOIU U u b


U r  WuL u
wd WUF

WOU u [ tLO p XU ??

YO

duKOJU r  WK
WOUd UNb r  Wd w

U???
UNu u bI U UbI WU Wd d r UNK d
tu u U td XU rG

[ tK dJ
wd WUF b
U

WFU s d wd rKF q


Wb b q WOK s uu 
U qu ezU U t?? UeOH
tdE vK

d

d [

WOuL WFOD dJ Wu u s dOJ d dJ Wu u u{u d UL c s


dNL rUF v wLM w b dOGB U _ w U u{ d uJ
s X Wd dS u OH ddO ULUF U wd WdE d vK sOM b d bF
uO UdJ s We XU YO WOu hzUB lL UdJ q ULO  p
qJA Wd c X bI WOuL WFOD vK qO uO UL WK U s uK vK UNuI bM
uNFL WOLO  UNFO v WU{U WOu WFOD lL UdJ lU

UIOD
:(Scanning Electron Microscope) nUJ wdJ dNL

WFOD vK dUL UIOD b nUJ wdJ dNL bF


uL uD hH UN c?? b ULO K WOuL
rUF sO eOOL lOD t?? U??F? uJdJOL q U UL
b U ULMO iF s UNCF duU lC WU  bF
wdJ dNL

duUM U bF rUF sO odH vK UF uJdJUL


iF s UNCF
uC s b UdJ uJdJUL c b

c q dJ W u
u* Uu*
Wu uL UuL uNH WOuL W dK p bM XdF

w sOKUL sOu qb s ZM Uu UN Xd dI L


sD

sD
bI

bI

bI

qb c s ZM YO sO UF sOUU dO d U

sD

sD

bIF vL eNL ju Ue e U UNO bFM UI


WU L uJ uD vL sJL U d UNO WF  uJ d UI
u_ vK WK_ s WuL u nBM WU  sObI q sO

bA d w Wu uL u_ qJA

qJA w UL sOU sODI sO bA d w WUM u_ Wu uL


U U  du u uJ V Wu uL u_ uJ v
WuL nB u s `O bF

q WuL l qIM Wu uL u_ w W UD uKFL s


eNL ju e w We vI
dI dO H w Wu uL u??_ dJ s ULKF UH bI
s u uL w WLLJL UN uL L bL w UdJ
WUF d c dd U LM rUF R
w dJ WMJLL W UD Uu  nB tLU XOL WOu
dzb U L w dJ Wu uL u_ uJ v sObON
UdJ Wu uL u_ qJA

U L c u uJ b uM u dJ tO d c


qJA w UL WOuL u_ s `O bF U U 

dJ WUBL u wd WUF bU


?

ZM WUFL w WUFL s WLO iuF


o
?

?
o

c u uL w ld dH qL WUFL c We d WOL s U u o bIL


Wu u Uu UbM uJ w pK w dJ WuL L W UD Uu  p s ZM
dJ tO d c bLK W UD u  r d U U  Wu uL UuL b uJ

5I b
VFK UOI w W b b QD UB S U WE w td r l u UOI UOI bM
pc qzUu du dO W b sOOLJ sOU UO sJLL s tS WOJOJ UeOHK UI U LN
dEM WN oUD b dO W b X u fH w sOOLJ sOU bb lML U UM fO U dE t
 UO Wd l u bb s lUL UL WOuO UMUO wdA tOK Ub U c
X u fH w
sOu S U IU UM UL X u fH w dJ Wd UJ bb U UbM b U sJ
sJL nO sJ WOLJ UeOH sOu ULF UMOK Vu ULCL c w qAH WOJOJ UeOH
sOI bL dF c dONA tuUI R  c s deU wUL_ wzUeOH U bI p r
`O fJF Wd  bb W XK l uL bb W ULK
W vK c bLF q sJ X u fH w dO W b sOOLJ sOU UO qO L s t
eN_ W s dEM iG u u WKLF L eN_
wN U IU UM ULJ U  WeL WFOD v uF V UM lUL U UL u R 
w sOuLM sc l qUF sJL d UO w UuL UO_ iF w ULO dB
dJ uO U w WuL WOzu{dNJ dUE Wd w rO dB uuHU X u
sOuLM sc sO jK sJL d U w WuL U iF w rO dB

tK r  WuL u uI w wd WO{d v bFM sOI uUI c W U


U td
?

_ r K WOLO  WO UU jd uN l uL U r K WOuL WO UU WDd Wd 


w dO W b ULNUO sJL l uL Wd  S X u fH w ULNb sJL sOO U sOU
wUU wLO  qOL b UMOK wMF cN WOUM W b l uL WdF U S X u fH
`O fJF WbF UNUO W uJ t WDdL rOI wuL qOL S
WO WDO  WUFLU tuU deU h b
?
X

r  l u bb w sOI bI
YO
r K wD d WOL bb w sOI bI X
WO WOMc Wd d UM sOI b `O{u
W s sJL wJK WOU dOJ u dN bU dJ l u UO U UM dHM
s dLO r s dJU bDBO U uu tM UJFU uu uI V dJ
WO d t U s e uuH bIHO dJU uuH bD bM qB U sJ dNL Ub
W b b Ue UML W b dJ l u bb UMUL UM dJ Wd dOOG U  dJ
t d WOL w wUU td w

U???
WO U w ud d WOL bb w sOI bI V
rK b eO w uu uJ UbM
d b eO w w uu uJ UbM
d b eO w u w uu uJ UbM ?
sOI b bU
d rK

?
X

?
X

rG [

[
X
[
X

rG [

[
X
[
X

rG

[
X

U??
bb% w QD) V dJ Wd bb% w d$ tu u u{ b

rG [ e Wd c
?
X

WU  sL{ dJ l{u bb sJL


b L uC Wu u?? s be
td

qBH WK
WU) WOM WdEM qzU q bM UOFd* UM WLE w du Vu dA U
WU) WOM WdEM wO{d d
WF d UF b wU* u_ r' wzu{dNJ dOQ dU d
UF WOLJ p b ULNOK bL UK UO{dH U ?
Wd bUA* u t UO WOU_ u{_ s YFM* uC Wd U
qK
WU 5bON w dJ WOKJ WUD uJ
WOuO UMUO w ULK WOu* WFOD WE b
Xu fH w wu* uLM wLO' uLM b
sJ1 ?
XU h
A WMU dD* u U UNu U&U uC Wd nB mK Wd dO d UNu dD
h VU U Wd Ud bM d WU uJ UbM d WOzUC W d u U
WOzUCH W dL Wd w UL XU
UNd WOzUC W d s vK uu WU  ozU b dI UN dG w WOMe dH U
_ `D vK XU hA W MU WKU qLJ wJ uC Wd
nO wzu{dNJ dOQ dU ZzU dOH w WOJOJ UeOH qA Vu s W d
UdOH WOLJ UeOH XUD
t d vK r UNK UL s WOL qu s UNOK uB sJL w uJ  W U bI U
W U v UNK UL qu r
s WFML WuL uD uBI bA V U bK d W XLK
U r
uC uu UNKL w pK dH _ uC uu UNKL w W UD WOL sO dH U
duU dC_ uC Wu u duU dH _ uC Wu udC_
u UI bN duU u WOzu{ WOK vK j U  uC Wu u XLK
Xu dJU WOzuC WOK w uuL eKHK qGA d bI UL Xu [
v pc qIM uu UBU w{_ WUD u w uu 5bO uI
uuH c WU bI U u*

tu u u{ UNOK jI UbM ueO  s U DN u WOzu{ WOK UI bN V


u u ueO K qGA d rKF l dOuU
v dJ c U u* w uu 5bON dJ XLK
UND sJ1 w UuuHK WHK
* WOu* u_ w U w{_ u*
w{_ u* v uFK U s d UM dc
b r edOuKO Ud WOOUMGdN Uu qd tb Wu u qd
bu WOU w qd* c UNFA w UuuH
Wu u UL Xu dJ UNU Uuu lA WOMO WF bB XLK
WFM* UuuH
wd WO{d 5I b s qJ uBI* `{
U td% WOL bb% w 5I U S Xu dJ uOK WOd( tU ud
rG [ ud WK tF{u bb% w 5I V
d u{ uI bM WOzu{dN WOK) lDI bN d d vMM 5 U* qJA
V rd vK ULU UNOK WHK


Xu lD ?

p XU
[

WOzu{dNJ WOK) jN U* qGA d

d
edO

UNLO V qJA vK WDIM q9 U ?

uM WOM

wU qBH

uUF u?? UN U?? w b??zd?? Wd U IU Xd


XF{ sdO ULKF d U s UNF U U wu
U c XMO YO c WOU vK dFK WOLKF f_
s c WK rEF UNO e d WMA Wu u s uJ
c
uM u b WU Uu  w bu WMA WU UdJ
c?? u?? dF qBH c?? w?? d?? c?? r rEF
u bMKuOM rUF

qJA U UuJL r qJA YO s UNBzUB b


uM uJ r
c?? r W UI UNL U uMK wbMN

UN UIK s uM pJH sJL q U F UNUuJ jd nO


vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
UNBzUB uM UuJ dF
bu dBMFK dzUEMU uBI* `{u
UNu r c r 5 UI
UNBzUB WuM uI dF
WuM jd WUD uBI* `{u
uM nu WHK_ u/ dF
UdI d
H Wd
 Wu_U uBI* `{u

uM UuJ
p s vM UduOM Uud w ULO  s sOu s c Wu lOL uJ
Uud vL duO UN bu jI b ud s uJ YO UF sObON u
L nucleons UuOK uOMU UduOM
uJ b U ud uJ b cN uOK uO uI UbM
`KD b UNO UduOM Uud b uLL U U  uM w UuOK uOM b uJ U duO
tO edO Uud b U A dU tO ed wKJ bFU uM w UuOK uOM b WOL vK
N dU tO ed UduOM bZ dU
L
uJ wUU N U duO Z U ud vK u Fe bb dBM u
dBMF u vK bO

A
z

X ed b U A uOK uO U uM w UuOK uOM b

5626 Fe qJA vK c bb dBM u VJ dBMFK wzUOLOJ ed

X qL YOX

UuOKuOM hzUB
rUF q s U tUA r WMA Vu rO ud
d??? vK ULKF o??H? rKF q
U WOuL tK wL dBM u
c s bu c WK S wUU r
vK U u I r U wLu dBMF
Uu b

rG [ ud WK u
q UOI Wc WKJ b U b
YO dOGB ULO 
Wb rG [ Wc WKJ b

[ r

[ U ud WK S bu c

r [
rG

WKJ sO WF UMODF w sUAM WUF s U C

Xu dJ vL b b UMS WUD


YO dOGB ULO  q UOI

WUD UOI b?? u Xu dJ


u [ U

Xu dJ uOK [ Wc WKJ b


Xu dJ uOK [

[ U ud WK S bu c Wb


YO Xu dJ uOK
pU fLO rUF q s U tUA r b U OzUdN UF rO duOM
WK bI c tUA dbI U UeOH w qu ezU vK qB c

dJ uOK [ tK YO ud WK bI s qOKI d duOM


[ U Xu
WK tM sO WHKL buU c UNM uJ w W ULO  q b sO
d wH wu UuOK uOM s WK s dG dJ
Xu dJ uOK WKJ

WKJ

rG WKJ

rO 

duOM

ud

dJ

WHKL WKJ bu dJ ud duOM q b

(isotopes) dzUEM

UNMJ Uud b w U Wu dBMF fHM bu b


uOd
udOb

sObON

+
n

UF

sObON dzUE qJA

wKJ bF w v R c UduOM b w nK


L dzUEM vL Wu_ c
w WdFL udJ u dzUE iF s
lA UNCF dI  dzUEM c iF YO 146C 136C 126C 116C
L WFOD w dI L dzUEM uO W nK
dI L udJ dOE
[ W M 136C dI L dOEM bu sO w [ W M bu 126C
uI sJWFOD w bu UNM WFAL U uB dzUEM iF jI
u v WuM UH iF w dL q?? UNUS ULKF
1
1

H UF sObON dzUE UN Wu_ j s bF


w sObON

qJA sO UL 13H tritium uOd 12H deuterium udOb

Magic Nuclei Wd  Wu_


b u??J? w??? W??u??_ b??b??F? U???? ?? s?? k??u??
w dUMF Wu lOL rKF q
w bu s d UNUud b
dL q UNU r UL WFOD
WuM UH w

dI d sOO sb N UNUduO b pc Z UNUud


u UN N Z U uM dI U qJA e UdO s
WO WOe b_ b

U OzUIK d u v u qM uM wMF UM dI

YO 188O sO _ dOE p vK U Wd U Wu_ c Wd  b_U b_ c vL


WHUC Wu_ vL  Wd  b_ s UN N Z s q uJ w Wu_ U d b tUud b
w d  WHUC Wu_ s W L UM Wd  Wu_ s dI d Wu w d 
42 He 168 O 4020 Ca 4820 Ca 20882 Pb
L b b w UNU s d dI L dzUEM s b UN Q U C Wd  Wu_ UL
dBM u
jI dI  dOE ULNM qJK 51Sb 49In b b w UNU U dI  dzUE dA UN 50Sn dbBI
WHK_ uL vK UM uM dIU Wd  b_ W d H u qBH c s o bM w

uM r
UuJL jO b bu t v UM uM qJA UCO UNCF qJA Wd c Wu rEF
c e d w dOG eO q UduOM Uud lL sJ uM
sO UUB b UNO r w U UbB c Wu u s duL UuKFL lOL
bF sO jd WDO W v XKu U c lOL WHKL c Wu WUD WOU ULO
wQ UL o uM dD nB A uMK wKJ

[ o

e UNL vMFL UdD nB e uMK wKJ bF ULK t ZM WF c s


c vK WU UNu r v WMOF r sO W M w U w R  pU dD b
c r bL dD nB Q d c UM p q sJ UU  iF d U R 
[ oWO WFU vDF sObON w uM u dJ tO bu
oU  qBH l

U????
b dJ tu b b ud vK u u s UF sObON uJ
V cK _ bL w bu
5bON u dD nB
dJ tO bu c b* dD nB
UNu r v 5bON r 5 W
M

[ U
UdD nB S U
5bON uM wKJ bF U0
[ o S r b* w bu dJ U0
S c pc qJA Wd uM UU

sObON r

UNu r

r d wu UNu dD nB s d c sObON dD nB ZM o UL


d [ wu UNu r s d c sObON

R
23892 U uOuO u r V
d v s nK W M c wK J c r s b dOG W q uM ZM
c w dO_ dJ tO bu c bL dD nB U U C uMK wKJ bF U
sJL WDO UU UNUL sJL WKO{ QD W M UNL v uM WK W U uM WU V
p `{u w UL sJ wA iF U d UM c b b UNU w WU  Wu_ lOL ZM

U???
WU Wu_ lOL WU sO
uM WK
uM WU
uM r
S qJA Wd uM UL
r A [

uM r

UNUduO UNUud q uL UN vK UNU sJL uM WK


U UL WIO X O WOdI UL c w UU  UNUuJ q uL s dG uJ ULz u WK WIOb UUOI XMO

UU  sOKJ dF sJLO duOM WK bI s b Wd ud WK UL


ud WK
A

u W WK S wUU

ud WK
uM WU

wu _ WU bF rKF q


jI rr [

pK A vK bLF u W WU ZM UM s


XU bI w q uM

WMOF u WU bI ZM WUFL w ud WK bI iuF


 UL WU s d uN qzU bI c rr U dI u
wu
d

nuclear force WuM uI


UNMO ULO dUM Uud S wUU WuL Uud WUFL UduOM s uM uJ
WOU U_ uM pUL vK kU uu u vK VKG w uI w UL uu u dOQ WO
WO hzUB UN uI c jI uM q qLF UN_ WuM uIU uI c XOL
uM q 5ud 5 WU* WOzUdNJ d UM u s d wN UbI w dO U& u
d wu
UbM dNE uM U v YO 5 UdOQ b d b* dOB
uMU UdJ U vK k U% w WOzUdNJ uI dOQ
duO ud 5 5duO 5 WU* pK U
5ud 5 WU* WuM uI bI
ULO
' pK UM vK bLF uM q
uu u WOJOJ uI s U UNFO w tA u UN sO WuM uIK hzUB c s
UL d WuM uI WFO s tKN U WFOD w WdFL gravitational force wKJ c u
uI c vK oKD YO WIOb ULO  UeO s wQ uI c v Wb dEM v tdF
u v WU{U WFOD w WdFL WOU_ l_ uI b w strong force bbA uI r
UNFOL l_ uI c v UM U bwKJ c u weak force WHOFC uI uu
wKJ c u dO WHOFC uI uu u UbI w VKG bbA uI sJ uM q uu
uI c nF{ w w

WuM jd W U
UNUuJ q uL U uM WK dH wFOD s UduO Uud s uM nQ
q uJ U Lz uM WK X WHKL Wu_ qJ WIOb UUOI lOL U w X O c sJ
u _
t dHM UNUduO UNUud q uL s
udU uM WK duOM WK UduOM b ud WK Uud b
u

N Z
N Z

uM dHM uM UuJ sO WKJ w dH


d u??M? WK XU u?? rKF q
UNUduO UNUud q uL s
UNUuJ v?? qM u??M?  S?? d??H?M?
c UM bNM

tM
YO

w WuM jd WU bIL UOI u WKJ w dH c UN H


WKJ sO WF UMODF w sUAM WUF sWJUL uM wI
WuM jd WU S WUD

uM s b uOK uO XKH v W WUD bF


d vMFL uOK uO qJ WuM jd WU U sJL

U???
WuM jd WU V [ U 42He uOKON u WK XLK
Xu dJ bu uKO uO qJ jd WU uM cN
u

N Z

[ [ [ [

Xu dJ uOK [ [


Xu dJ uOK [
Xu dJ uOK [ [

dJ s sO WFC U uOK uO qJ WuM jd WU bI oU  UL s `C
dJ WFC U c dJ qJ Wc jd WU bI l tU U qzU bI c Xu
jI Xu

Mev uOK uO qJ WuM jd WU

10

dOJK uOK uO qJ WuM jd WU bF UO r bI

He

35

Cl
20
Ne
12
C
19
14

N
11
B
9
Be
6

62

Ni

89

Y
110

75

F
56

Fe

As

Cd 141Pr

126

100

Mo

180

Hf

209

t qJA s ZM qJA w UL dI L Wu_ s


S A WHOH Wu
ULK Wd be

Bi

Te
160

Dy

197

Au

238

Xu dJ uOK [ wu UN WLO d v qB A

Li

Wu U bb dzUE WuL Ni qJOM uM A UbM


S A UbM WKOI
A ULK j hUM

bO WOzUIK Wu_ UH s dOJ qJA `{u

0
0

100

200

A wKJ bF

d _ WIDML w bu v UNFOD vF Wu_ lOL


uOuO u q WKOI Wu_U vMML WL w dI
sOu v dDAM v qOL vMML sOL vB w uuL

uOK uO qJ WuM jd WU qJA

vMML WL w uuL Wu_ s


wu q WHOH Wu_ U uM UDA vL WKOI Wu wzUIK qJA b WOKLF c
s b u JA U F UbM v OL vMML U vB w sOuuL sObON uOKON
uM sU w wzUIK qJA b uM Ub vL WOKLF c vMML WL w uuL Wu_
UI qBH w dFM UL WuM UUb c s WUD s WKzU UOL ZM fLA q

(shell model) uMK WHK_ u/

ULM c dN s c?? UM WOHO `O{u WHK UL uF{ ULKF nO U IU XLK F


l se d l ULM c uD nO U C XdF u uL u c n w U U Ud
WdIL ULM w huM iF UM U YO c WFO s ULKF b duL WdFL uD
Wb ULM w UNUH r U Lb
c s bOIF d UNFOD uM d c UM bO uM s Yb bM U cU oKF ULO c
WuML U WKOB u uM s tdF U qJ uM nB WKUJ WdE v bu t UL
vK U nK s t r U vK UM UL c w sOOzUeOH q s quL qLF
WdIL ULM uM q UduOM Uud VOd WOHO `{u UL b ULKF d bI Wu_
p b w sLJ uL
bzU WOL dFL s sJ UM UNFOL UN dF s WHK dO

s oI sJL w RM iF Ube vK uLM b U C Wu_ hzUB dO H vK uLM


v shell model WHK_ uL u uM n w U U d _ uLM Wd od s UN
HANS s U fU MARIA MAYER dU UU sOOzUeOH s q uLM c l{ w rU b

c ULNKLF U w UeOHK qu ezU nB w U UA b U w JENSEN


c??K?  u?? u??L? dO b?? v?? W??H?K?_ u??L? tA
uM q b WU Uu  w bu UduOM Uud
UNCF WUI bu w WUD Uu  s WuL q UN H
shell U  qJA iF s
tOCI UL U F WUD Uu  w UuOK uOM Vd wU b
s U fU

dU UU

s d vK u sJL WU u  YO wU b


e G w sO UF UuJ dA Xu fH w sOduO sOud


Uu  w UNOd bM UdJ tF t H bL c spin
XLKF UL c w WUD
OK nK UduOM UNK w WUD Uu  UM d c

u L WU

WU bI YO s Uud UNO bu w WUD Uu  s


qOKI vK UNU uJ Uu  w Uud bu u L
1S

Uud

Uud v uF V  UduOM UNO bu w pK s


L WdUM uu uI dQ U OzUdN WuA
1S u L WU

1S

UduO

c 1S u L WU s qOKI d sOud vK u c


Uud s q lu qJA `{u sOduO vK u

WDO u w UuOK uOM lu qJA

sOud vK u WDO u?? w UNUu  vK UduOM


u L w sOuOK uOM s q v rN_ dOA YO sOduO
Uud Uu  WU bI U C k e G w U UF
UduOM Uu  WU bI s qOKI vK
U UL WKL UNHK v?? Wd  W??u??_ dI w?? V  uF u??L?M? c?? vK U??M?
WKLL WHK_U b tO ctUuOK uO b bIH TKLL GK VFB s UuOK uOMU
UdJ UNO bu WKL UNHK YO WKOM UG l{ c w UdJ WU w
v U UMS TKL dO G U TKLL G s UuOK uOM b hK v dO WU WU{ v WU UM wMF UM WuFB
tM UuOK uOM b eM v q WU WU{

b u UNUduO b UNUud b uJ w Wu_U WuN qUH WKU UNKF UL d


UNu V  d H c WKL UNHK uJ Wd  b_
b_ b u UNUduO b UNUud b s q uJ w d  WHUC Wu_ pc dI 
WKL uJ UduOM u w UNHK pc WKL uJ Uud u w UNHK S Wd 
WU U UMS U ud vK u w 12151 Sb u Uc u UL qO vK UdI s be UL
ud sO L s U ud e U UNUud b e Xu dJ uOK [ Ub
WOU WU w UM u V  Xu dJ uOK Ub d WU v U UMS uM c w WOIL
WUD s d bI WU{ v U wUU TKL s ud eM
UNUduO b pc UNUud b uJ w pK w dI L Wu_ WOU UOzUB XMO
w t YO WHK_ uL vK UM U C dO H sJL c b w sO u UL U O b
s uOK uO bu d uOK uO l U e uJ UuOK uOM s q S WOe b_ WU
tO bu c l{u S wUU U u UNFO w w WuM uI S XLKF UL oO
c l{uK nU c dI d WU w uM qF _ w qJ vK UuOK uOM
c qF UL _ w d bu qCH UdJ YO c w UdJ_ tO Vd
dI d

N UduOM b

Z Uud b

dI L Wu_ b

d

d

d

d

UNUduO UNUud b WFO l t dI L Wu_ b b

qBH WK
U
WU WM qL% uM c WU Vc XU 19779 AuVc u UduO b r
uM c u b w UdJ b rJ dJ WM
wKJ Ub V
r wdO wdO [ UdD nB qJA Wd u
WU UN WO WO qL'
UNUuJ q uL s d uM WK
ud vL
Wu WM qL c uOKuOM
ud vL
U OzUdN UF* uOKuOM
UduO W vK u% udJ dzUE lOL
c WK s d_ e' w rU
UdJ
UdJ Uud w UuOKuOM
UdJ UduOM s U U
 b u% WUF* c
UN U w WU
 c Wu lOL U sJ1
U
WUF* u rUF v W
r cN wL uu dBM WK XLK
V
[
c WK s UdJ WK dD UMS W u WK U
( `OLK

262
107

Bh uu u WK

uOKuO qJ WuM jd WU


Xu dJ_ bu
5U dD wHB 5 W
M b 22286 Rn d u dD nB 42He u dD nB V

ULNOL 5 W
M 5uM
WuM uI hzUB b
uOKuO qJ WuM jd WU XLK
dJ uOK [ U
12H udOb uM
13H uOd uM V
Xu
s UNU l WUI wzUM qJA b dI
 UH rO
U C vL
42He uOKON u qK
b b' w Wu_

tUIOD uM UF

YU qBH

Xu p w c u u s nAJU u U U w t oU  qBH w Ud


bF wzUIK qJA d Wu v u WFAL Wu_ vL Wu_ iF ULKF b U dF U
c nA s wzUIK wUF UAMU vL w c u WOKL ULO  iF YF
iF d U UbM U WbB od s Henry Becquerel quJO dM rUF u dUE
r UNOK jU  uC UB vK UNb WuKH UNOU U uOuO  vK U
wduu duB rKO s dIU UNFC r fLA WF_ uOuO  dF
U YO tUF U
WF UO V c tU d s quJO sJL r rzU u w tOK d d XU U dO
WO nK b duB rKO b U bF rFL tJ w rKOH uOuO  d fLA
uOuO  s U OzUIK YFM UUF s bb u c quJO ZM UUF t{dF
U dS ULKF s dOJ U U I WOU fLA WF v uOuO idF v WU
YO Marie and Pierre Curie u dOO U sOe R dN s U OUF WDAM Wu_ vK
l UeOH w qu ezU u Ue rUI b ud uOuu UL sbb sdBM UHA
U quJO
q q WO d UNU bI U XF w UUF WFO w U lA Wu_ qF c U
WFA `B dI L Wu_ eOH sJL q dI  UNCF U OzUIK lA Wu_
vK U uJ qBH c p bF UNM WU s sJL UdO d WK_ c
wzUIK wUF UAM dU dF
UU UO UH WF 5 UI
dUMF iF nBM dL V
%
wFOD wUF L{ q dF
wUF UAM Ub iF dF
uM Ub uM UDA 5 UI
UDA uM qUH* qL b ZM

wzUIK wUF UAM dU


U uB wUF UA UN dI  dO UNFOD Wu_ iF
bbC rO  u du rKF q
U dJ WK U tK dJ
w dJ WMA W UF wN tM
q s U tUA r b U
dL U Carl David Anderson rUF
UeOHK qu ezU vK qB b WM
UA cN U

v u ULO  iF YF qLC YO WKOI Wu_


v WU U OzUIK Wu_ iF qLC bb d Wu
F qB U c wU eH
w uOuO _
WUM Wu_ q uL uJ WU c w quJO VJ
WOK_ uM WK s q L{ s

Wu_ L{
nOMB V W??u??_ ???L?{ s?? WFML ULO 
WKJ rb rO u uuH dc
rJ b u WM t fO uJ  bM
WO OUMGdNJ u

ULO

particles

qL UL_ c

UH ULO u W s uJ u

particles UU ULO particles UO

ULO u s s WOU U_ XOI UL wzUeO vMF


WM wHF{ U Wu WM qL 24He uOKO Wu UNFO w UH
WU UNM XU UdJ s U wN UO ULO U ud
rO WK s d UH rO WK rKF q
d s d Q UO

UU ULO U Wu UNM XU positrons Udu


s iF s UNCF ULO  c eOOL sJL WUD WOU Uuu wN
wzUdN UL UN{dF bM tF c U L od

UU WU  UO ULO cM YO wzUdN UL UNCdF bM ULO  c dQ nO qJA sO


UN_ UU  s dOG  UU ULO U WU  WOHB UU WuL UH ULO cM WuL WOHB
UO ULO s d UNK _ d dD nB U b q uJ UH ULO U  UL WMA WUF

w OUMG U wzUdN U UNCdF bM UU UO UH ULO U  qJA

R
qJA s w OUMGL UL w W UUF d Q WOHO d
UNd b qF c dOJ UNM V UNOK dR w uL sOQ vK WOU b UH ULO 
ULO s q sOQ vK UNb S UO ULO U WUH Wu Ub sJL YO WKOK uL w UNUH
sOQ vK b q wN WUF UN V UU ULO U d uL d vK UNb uJ wUU UH
UHM vK W ULO  b sO qJA pOL wML b s cHM sJLL s U d d
uL

UH

uOML

XML jzU

U

WUH d wN UU ULO U WUH q_ w UH ULO qJA

UNMO tA t pc W ULO  hzUB r b sO

dH

WM v W WMA
ud

WUD WOU Uuu

Udu

UdJ

uOKON Wu

WOzUeOH WFOD

dH

WKJ

v WUJ qI b WOU
U rK nBM

rK UNHu WOU


uOML

UNHu WOU
uOML rK

rK UNHu WKOK


rK[ u

d vK bI

[ wu

[ wu

[ wu

Wd v W Wd 
uC

dQ

dM

dM

dM

wzUdNJ UL dOQ


w OUMGL UL

WCHM

WOU

WOU

b WOU

sOQ vK bI

UF u

UU UO UH ULO hzUB b

UH ULO
UNL{ bM UH rO YF w uM S wUU 24He uOKON u tFO w UH rO Ud
sJL UH rO YF w uM L{ WUF WGOB bb u v u sOduO sOud bIH
A
Z

A-4
Z-2

Y + 24He

hIMO wKJ Ub U bIL UNUud b hIM UH rO YF UbM


Y WUM uM U _ uM
uM vL  A-4
Z-2

Y
X WKLCL uM vL A-4
Z-2

A
Z

A
Z

qJA vK UNU
uM k

bb u ZM bIL

p vK WK_ s XM
238
92

223
88

Ra

234
90

219
86

Th + 24He

uu dOE v uOuO dOE L{

Rn + 24He

d dOE v ud dOE L{

wQ UL Q qUHK L{ WU dF

WUM uL q uL WOK_ UL WK

XM _

XM uM WK XM _ uM WK _

YO

UH rO WK

iuF sJL Q U bM WE


b Wc qJ dUI
WuM qJ s
vGK U??d???J? q uL YO
WOK_ UL WK sO dH V UbM
WUM uL q uL

WUDK U qUH uI UMS Wu qUH _ Q XU


WUDK U qUH S WU Q XU U U OzUIK b sJL
q uL U WFM WU uJ Q U OzUIK b sJL
U WBL WU Q uJ WOK_ UL WK s q WUM uL
WOK_ UL WK s d WUM uL q uL

U????
L{ Xu dJ uOKL bu Q bI V
238
92

WKJ

234
90

Th + 24He

c
238

b w WMO UNU w Wc qJ Q U LK

Th

sJL q WBL WFM WU Q q U??


U OzUIK L{ c b

92
234

90

4
2

He

WUM uL q uL WOK_ UL WK Q

[ [ [

Xu dJ uOK [ [


Xu dJ uOK [
U OzUIK b L{ cN sJL WFM WU uJ UNS Wu Q UL
b c q rO UMb UM UM k
Q U vK dR c Wu_ q s
vGK UdJ q uL YO

R
L{ Xu dJ uOKL bu Q bI V
228
90

224
88

Th

Ra + 24He

U 22488 Ra ud dOEM [ U 22890 Th uu dOEM Wc WKJ Q U LK


U OzUIK L{ c b sJL q WBL WFM WU Q q [
dHM UH rO ZM c L{ UuH WOKJ WUD d WOL W d WU b
WOKJ WUD L{ q WOKJ WUD WUD kH uU s tS XKL{ WM U XU _ uM
L{ bF

XM

XM

UH rO  W d WU XM uMK W d WU XM YO


ZM WUFL VOd US
XM

XM _

XM

XM

XM

XM uM Wd

XM

UH rO Wd YO

S d WOL kH uU s

XM

XM

XM

XM

ZMO WUFL w c uF
r WM U XU _ uM dc
U f UF UH rO Wd U dJ
UL XM uM Wd

XM

XM

Q
XM
XM

WGO U Wu uJ V

Q S WU uJ sJL

UL WUFL c s

ZMO w uF UMS

tM

XM

U 


Q XM

XM
XM

WO d WUD s d uJ UH rO  WO d WUD S UH rO s qI uJ XM uM UL


XM uM Wd s dOJ d uJ UH rO Wd XM uMK

U???
s ZUM UH rO UNKL w Xu dJ uOKL bu W d WU bI V
238
92

234
90

Th + 24He

L{

oU  UL w u Q WLO pc qJ rO b WM U XU uOuO u Q U LK

Q
XM
XM

[
[
[ [
Xu dJ uOK [

WMOF u L{ s ZUM UH rO UNKL w W d WU bI WUFL s U C sO


pc WF Wu_ q dUI vK jI bLF t YO L{ pc bd U U bI uJ
L{ pc Q vK UL s vK bLF U F L{
UU rO U uB ZM UH rO S UH rO ZM WMOF u UNO qLC w U iF w
bO UH rO Z u ULO UNM q WO d UH rO WU uJ U c w WOU WU uu
s q UNJKL w WO d WUD dUIL WHK bF U LO UM WIOb UUOI s ku b
L{ fHM UH rO uuH
w dI WU w WUM XM uM tO uJ bO UH rO tO ZM c L{ wH
uJ XM uM S UU rO U uB UH rO tO ZM c L{ U v_ UNU u 
bIH bF dI WU v XM uM qIM r s U WU u  w ZON WU w X b
sOKd vK qB tQ L{ c qOL sJL UL UU rO
A
Z

X
A-4
Z-2

A-4
Z-2

Y*

Y* + 42He
A-4
Z-2

Y+

ZON WU w XM uM v dOA Y* YO


UL sOIdD b sJL
228
90

Th

Ra

u v

WUD uJ YO

228
90

228
90

Th uu L{ UL qO vK

Th

224
88

Ra + 42He

UU rO v_

v_ u L w

224
88

224

Ra*

UH

MeV

88

MeV

UH

dJ uOK [ U ZUM UH rO  WO d


dI WU w ud u uJ Xu
[ U WO d tU uuH U uB UH rO ZM WOU
U UH rO  WO d WUD Xu dJ uOK

MeV [

UL jDLU tKOL sJL Xu dJ uOK [


224

v_ u L w

88

Ra

sOO sOUFL w qJA w


ZMO uu L{ qJA
WHK WO d UUD UH rO

228
90

Th
224
88

Ra*

224
88

Ra* + 42He
224
88

Ra +

UO ULO
XU Udu WMA WU XU UdJ UNFO w UO ULO S U IU Ud UL
neutrino uMduOM vL rO tF ZM U Lz UO rO ZM w L{ w WMA Wu

dJ U U UO rO ZM c L{ qL w WUF WGOB `{u w WUFL


A
Z

A
Z+1

Y + e- + e

sJLO du U u UO rO ZM c L{ U
d??u??O?M? u??M?d??u??O?M? rKF q
L WOzUeOH ULNUH w dO UNUA

WOzUdNJ WMA UF UL


duOM WK s dOJ dG uMduOM WK
U c u wdO uJd wzUeOH rUF
r u ULO  cN uMduO r
WOUD WGK w duO s dOGB

WUFLU tKOL
A
Z

A
Z-1

Y + e+ +

UO rO  VUBL uMduOM v wUuO d ed YO


XM uM Uud b S VU UO rO U WU w t k
 wKJ bF U _ uM Uud b s b ud be
XM uM Uud b S Vu UO rO U WU w dOG
_ uM Uud b s b ud qI

w UuH d WOL WOKJ WUD S UH rO ZM w L{ w U w UL


UO UOL ZM w L{
L{ u UO ULO ZM w L{ dN s
WUFL V ud v tu duOM
1
1
n
p + 0e +
0

VFB WOd W??O?U?? s?? rKF q


dG V uMduOM u?? s nAJ
dQ  WMA UF t V tK
w OUMGL UL wzUdNJ ULU
U w U dE uMduOM u ULKF d
U?? U?? f??M? U??L?U??F? U?? 
U u s nAJK Wd rOLB
rUF qB U??F? w??
tMO w UO bO vK U c fM
vK t?? d??b??I? UeOHK qu e??zU?? vK
uMduOM UA

-1

L{ cud v ed 11p duOM v ed 10n YO


duOMK U OzUIK b sJL t UL uM q duOMK b
L{ c b WOUJ w V  uM U bu d
WK s d duOM WK v uF uM U d duOMK
 WUM uL WK s d WOK_ UL WK ud
tb s lU
v u U u UO rO YF udK U C sJLL s
WUFL V duO
1
1

1
0

n+

0
+1

e+

d qJA ud bu sJ jI uM q wzUIK qJA b sJL L{ c


UL dF q U OzUIK b L{ cN qO L sL uM U
UM t H uMduOM WIOI w uN duK VUBL uMduOM U t H uMduOM fO uMduOM bb{ u dJ VUBL uMduOM WIOI w
WMA UF ULNOK U uB bb{ uMduOM sO eOL s

ULO  WML L{ iF w tS UH rO  WML L{ w U w UL


uM u uuH UF w V  uJ UU rO WUD wU uuH U uB UO rO uJ UO
U uu YF UN b  dI WU v qIM v ZON WU w X d XM
L
sOIdD bS 126 C udJ u v u U U UO rO bIH 125 B u u
udJ u uJ Xu dJ uOK [ U
WOd( tU U U UO rO
bIH b v_
WO WUF* V
dI WU w
12
5

12
6

C + e- + e

12

v_ u L w

12

C*

tU
MeV

MeV

t

U e

uOK U WO d tU U U UO rO bIH b WOU


ZON WU w WUM udJ u uJ Xu dJ
bF dI WU v UIU udJ u UbF uI
dJ uOK [ U WO d tU uu bIH
qJA w UL jDLU tKOL sJL Xu

MeV [

sOO sOUFL w
12

v_ u L w

C
6
12
5

12
6

C* + e- + e

ZMO u L{ qJA
WHK WO d UUD U U UO rO

12
6

C*

12
6

C+

UU ULO
lA UbM uM S wUU WK UN WM WUD WOU Uuu UNFO w UU ULO
b pc uMK A wKJ bF WOzUOLOJ WOzUeOH UNUH YO s dOG UNS UU rO
WU v U WU u  w ZON WU s qIM uM u b U q dOG Z UNUud
v_ WUD u  w dI
uM vK tU sJL UU rO ZM L{ _ WUF WGOB
A
Z

X*

A
Z

X+

ZON b ZON uM qF c UL ZON WU w uJ UN b UU rO uM YF v


uJ bF ZON WU w uM uJ UO_ VK w sJ WUD WOU ULO l UNUB bM uM
UH rO UO rO YF qLC UbM _ uMU U IU UM UL UO rO UH rO bI b
WUD s hKU XM uM uI UbM dI b ZON s WU w uJ U U U XM uM S
UU ULO vL U WUD WOU UuuH UNF od s dI WU v UI bze

nBM dL d
tS U OUF WDAM Wu_ s b vK u WMO UMb U
uJF w UO b?? rKF q
 se UO b

b vI Wu_ c s sOF b qLCO WOM d d bF


WO WGOB V se l d qJ vK tKOL sJL bI
?

U_ u dOOM bF vL [ ? XU WEK w wK_ Wu_ b u YO


UdO s UeOL L{ XU UN WFA u q L{ XU vL O ed U wFOD rUuK
q uJ wIL Wu_ b vMFL d L{ U

bI ULK t UL Wu_ s


WOMe dH fHM

WMOF
w WOIL Wu_ b sO WFK U OUO U L qJA sO hUM w d w WF
U d q u WU  d v se u rO I r wUO rd c wse L{
bF nB qLC v W WOMe dH t vK U dBMF nBM dL dF
dBMFK nBM dL

lAL dBMF Wu s wK_

WOIL Wu_ b

Wu_ b qJA
se l dU wIL

b uJ

WOM d d bF tS qJA s nBM dL vK bO ed b


wK_ bF nBM U U  L{ WOIL Wu_

uJ WOIL Wu_ b S nBM dL UHF{ b s d bF


uJ WOIL Wu_ b S nBM dL UF{ W b s d bF

uJ WOIL Wu_ b S nBM dL s nF{ d bF t


WUFL s UNU sJL u d b YO

UL se

nBM dL
Wu_ b nB vI YO WUFL b UMS L{ XU nBM dL sO W U
nBM dL b s d bF wK
?

ZM WUFL wdD wFOD rUuK cQ


j

[ j

tM
YO

l U O J VUM U dBMF nBM dL WUFL s ZM


nBM dL

dBMF
238

WM [

92

235

WM [
U u [

92
32
15
64

WU [

29
108

WIO [

47

Cu

Ag

92

WOU [

36

U dBMF L{ XU U S dBMF pc L{ XU


dBMF L{ Wd uJ wUU dOB nBM dL uJ dO
t nBM dL S dOG U dBMF L{ XU U U dO
dOG L{ Wd uJ dO uJ

Kr

iF nBM dL b
WFAL dUMF

U UNML UNM qJ nBM dL dUI w WFAL dUMF UH


lC t nBM dL uJ U UNM sOM  sO t nBM dL uJ
WFAL dUMF iF nBM dL b sO u

U???
s UMb U WU [ U lA dBMF nBM dL XLK
V
dBMF c
WU [ d bF vI w c b
WU [ d bF qLC w c b

[
[
nBM dL U u WU [se

WOI* c b wK_ c b qLC w c b


U???
131

cN L{ XU V U [ U

53

lAL uO dOEM nBM dL

bu dBMF


u v U s nBM dL u

[ [

WF s V U OU
[

[
[

tM

R
u bu dBMF cN L{ XU V WM [ U

60
27

Co XUuJ dOEM nBM dL XLK

wFOD wUF L{ q
v u tS qLC UbM lAL dBMF Xd UL wFOD UF dU vK U IU XdF
WK K dL cJ d dBM tM ZM qLC tS U FA dO_ dBMF c U d dBM
dI  lA dO dBMF wNM v L{

dL lA dBMF b  q  c s b q wFOD wUF L{ s q UM


WFAL dO Ud dzUE bQ wNM WK K  w tF w dUMF s _ nBM dL s d t nBM
w  q  c
20682 Pb Ud dOEM wNM 23892 U uOuO dOEM b w uOuO WK
K
20782 Pb UdU wNM uOMO_ U C vL

235
92

U uOuO dOEM b w uOuO WK


K

20882 Pb Ud dOEM wNM 23290 Th uu dOEM b w uu WK


K

Th232

Ra228

Ac228

U235

Th231

Th228

Ac227

Ra224
Fr223

U238

Pa231

Th234

Pa234

U234

Th230

Th227

Ra223

Ra226

Rn220
At219

Rn219

Rn222

Po216

Pb212

Bi212

Tl208

Pb208

Po212

Bi215

Po215

Pb211

Bi211

Tl207

Pb207

At215

Po211

Po218

At218

Pb214

Bi214

Po214

Tl210

Pb210

Bi210

Hg206

Tl206

Rn218

Po210

Pb206

 wFOD UF q qJA

qLC r UH rO ZM u??d?? v uu qLC uu WK K wH


Ud dOEM wNM v WK
K
 dL
cJ 228 Ac v u VU UO rO ZM ud
uOuO uOuO wK K U C qJA sO qJA w sO u UL 208Pb dI
*
Ube wFO bBL qLF t YO s bzu t WFOD w WOUF q  c q u
LWFALdUMFU
dOB dLF c _ dE jI WM t nBM dL 22688 Ra ud dOE
WK K u WFOD s ud e UH luL s tS WM w LA UEM dLF W MU b
UN wNM w dI L Wu_ UM d c WM [ U t nBM dL c uOuO
Wu UNFOL c 20882 Pb 20782 Pb 20682 Pb Ud dzUE WuL w  wFOD UF q
dI d _ UNQ UL w d  WHUC Wu_ s 20682 PbdOEM UL Wd
kHK X O  q  c

q U
vL U WOFO dO d WOUF q UM
b?? w???  d??U??M?F? l??O?L? dc
w b??u??? s?? d??? U??N? U??u??d??
dL q UNU r UL WFOD
WuM UH w

UL WFOD w bu lA dBMF WK K  b YO eHL


uOuM WK K q  c dN s dL w tU r
WM [ U t nBM dL c 23793 Np dBMF b w
20983 Bi dBMF wNM

wUF UAMU aQ


UOIL dBMF cN qK Zu b sJLL s tS lA dBM _ nBM dLF UMdFL
w WFAL dUMF b sJLL sL uB _ dL q WKuD U_ UOI seK
u UN nBM dL uJ
uOuO q
_ b cM uu U uOuO UM{d _ w dJ bu uOuOU
UO uOuO WOL UOI _ dL dbI sJLL sL WOUML quFU dQ wUF UAM
sJL uOuOK nBM dLF UMdF s uB s WMO w uOuO qK s WUM Ud WOL
W??M wu _ dL b b _ dL U
se s vC r dbI WM U t nBM dL 146 C lAL udJ dOE b U C
U uO U U U U U u w szU u vK
wU UCH s WOuJ UUF s UMKB YO UOKF u G UI w 14C bu
 uuL 12C UF udJ l 14C eL r
s b W M CO2 qJ vK u G w
12C udJ s v 14C
udJ v lAL udJ s W M c fH vK u UO bO vK w WO UMzUJ lOL
qOL fHM s UN uI w WuO UOKLF d u G l udJ U UN_ UF
nu wUU wKOuKJ qOL fHM UOKL nu w szUJ uL UbM wKOuK
udJ V s qI UF udJ v lAL udJ W S r  v udJ u
U U UO rO YF qLC lAL

eH; wUF UAM dU WuM UH


Wu_ s WFML UUF WFO vK U C XdF wzUIK wUF UAM dU U IU XdF
WDA dO dI  u eOH sJL q R  wFOD UF q r U OUF WDAM
U OUF WDA u v UNKu U OUF

sOu v WFAL Wu_ nOMB sJL


 uu Wu
WIU
 uM w UM{dF U c UOzUIK UFU uI WFOD w
bM c w t dFM U c WuM UH s d* w UNU r Wu
WOU WO d WU rO U dBM u c tO r c qUH t vK uM qUH ndF sJL
WOzUOLOJ WOzUeOH UNUH w bb u v WcIL uM u YO
WU  WcIL uM s d s sJL v WOU WO d WU pKL s UI rO K b
dOOG b WcIL uM WOM w dOOG qB UbF WuM uI dOQ UbM b _ wHJ b Wd
WDA bb uM c uJ U U U bb u ZMO U F ULNOK UNUduO b UNUud b w
wUMD eHL wUF UAMU dUE vL U OUF
UH d s u u?? rUF
dOE v UF sOdOM Wu qu U U u
sOUFL V lAL sO _
4
2

He +
18
9

F*

14
7

18
9

N
17
8

F*

O + 11H

wQ UL u d c uM qUH w b U dO H sJL


u uJ UNK dI sOdOM WuQ bDB WOUF WO d WUD UH ULO
lA UNS dI WU v uKH u qIM v dI L dO 189 F* uKH u w bb
WOM d w r WOKLF c 178 O sO _ u v u WOU WO d WU 11H U ud
WOU U?I b dOB
d_ WuM UH s
4
2

He +

27
13

Al

30
15

U OUF U DA uJ ZUM

P + 10n
30
15

P uH H dOE YO

UNUJ WUJ WUD U bB bF


WuM UH S dUMFK WFA dzUE U v WU{U
We w b WO d_ iF hOA VD w UNUb UN dUMFK WFAL dzUEM
WOU WdFL U v bN w WOLKF U_ nK w b pc UL WOu sO 
VD w lA* uO dBM dOE lA* XUuJ dBM dOE Ub s Y UA

u qUH w WuH UNFOL WOKJ WUD wKJ bF WMA d WOL q WOzUeOH UOLJ
wQ UL dF
Q qUH WU

WUM uL q uL WKUHL uL q uL Q

WUDK U U
uJ Wu Q XU WUDK U U uJ qUH S oU  qBH w Ud UL
s d UI rO K WO d WUD XU WUDK WUL
UH b WU

XU

Q ? WIKDL WLOI

Nuclear Fission uM UDA


vB w lI w WKOI Wu_ Ud WuM jd WU vMML oU  qBH w UM{dF UbM
d _ WIDML w uuL Wu_ s sOHOH sOu v XL I dI d uJ vMML sOL
qUH t vK dF c uM UDA vL c U I WOKL vMML j w dI
UDA cN WO WUD s WKzU WOL YFM UNM dG sOu v WKOI u U I tO r u
vMFL WKOK WO d UNU WOD WHOH ULO UNc dL WKOI Wu_ dDAM U U U
L dDAM v dO eOH v U WKOI Wu_
wD duOM uOuO dOE u cI
UduOM iF pc ZM UNM n sOu v dDAM jI Xu dJ [ wu WO d tU
WO WUF WUFL V
1
0

n+

235
92

236
92

U*

X + Y + neutrons

wD duOM UNO hL UbM v_ sOKdL d uOuO UDA WOKL k


hK UbM wN WOU WKdL U WOU ZON WU w b uJ c uOuO dOE v u
u d_ WIOI wHX Y sOuM v UDA o?? d s tb bze WUD s uOuO dOE
WOK_ uOuO u X OdDAM w w WONL uOuO
UuJ ULN sJLL s sOuM sOU u u X Y sOUM sOuM WFO s U b
dA sOu W
Uud b wKJ bF kH q kH U bQ UM uJ
qJA cQ uOuO UDA sJL UL qO vK
1
0

n+

1
0

n+
1
0

92
36

Xe +

94
38

236
92

U*

141
56

235
92

236
92

U*

140
54

n+

235
92

236
92

U*

kr + 3 10n

Ba +

235
92

La +

148
57

Sr + 2 10n

qJA

Br + 10n

qJA

87
35

UDA UUEA UDA s WUM uL vL U U

L wD duOM UNc dL UDA WKU uOuO dzUE lOL fO t v UM U b

duOM tc bM dDAM d_ uOuO dzUE l WUI dJ WFOD w uuL uOuO dOE
b ZON WU v qIM duOM hL tMJ wD
dDAM s

U???
w uM UDA s WFML Xu dJ uOKL bu Q bI V
1
0

n+

235
92

236
92

U*

Xe +

140
54

94
38

Sr + 2 10n

U b w WMO UNU w Wc qJ Q U LK


WKJ

c
235

92
140
54

Xe

94

38

Sr

WUM uL q uL WKUHL uL q uL Q

[ [ [ [ [

Xu dJ uOK [ [ [


s UDA UUEA WO d WU qJ vK dNE uM UDA s WFML WUD
UDA tO qB c jOL d W UH w qL Wd WU qJ vK r
s WUM WUD l Xu U b WKzU uJ uM UDA s WFML WUD
L UF uu d
UF Wd WU b u uOuO s r UDA
rH s rG wH d s WUM Wd WUD

R
wQ UL uOuO UDA WUF WGOB XU
1
0

n+

235
92

236
92

X +Y + 2 10n

U*

Y X ?  U LO uJ sJL WO _ s
121
49

In

113
44

Ru

156
60

Nd

7932Ge?

139
55

Cs

9537Rb

141
54

Xe

93
38

Sr

Chain Reaction q K * qUH


uOuO u UDA w t oU  bM w XE
sOduO UduO W UduOM s WuL ZM
WUM UduOM c s UJS b?? duO
d uOu u w UDA bO
U rO b
b sJL d?? d?? U??d??u??O? ZM U??b?? w???
d?? uOu Wu w UDA b UduOM c??
q K L qUH r qUH c vK oKD cJ
235

UUDA WK K  jD qJA

ULO b oU UDA s WUM UduOM _


UDA WOKL dL cJ tOK c UDA b WU
qJA w UL

UDA `B v Wd vUM qUH WdL l be WKzU WU q K L qUH s bu


WUDA WuM WKMI w b U c dDO  s WU
w WJKN L UduOM b oU UDA s WUM UduOM b sO W MU rJ r U
sJL tOK dDO  q K L qUHK WU Wd vK kU sJLL s UbMF tOK c UDA
uM qUHL w b U c WUM WUD WOLJ rJ

Nuclear Fusion uM Ub


uuL WHOH Wu_ oU  qBH w WuM jd WU vMML p bM d c pKF
bb b u uJ U F UNM UM Xb u dI d uJ vMML U vB w
bb uM WK uJ vMML j w dI d _ WIDML w lI ULNM s qI
v R qJ w dH c sObML sOuM wK uL s q Ub s WUM
WKzU WU UF
uM Ub wH uM UDA WOKL w b U fJ c uM Ub WOKL
uJ b b u UB U F UuM qb v WOU WU  ULNCF s sOu VdI r
ULNd U w UuM tM wUF c dUM vK VKG WOHO u uM Ub U bOu ozUF
sO r dC sL ozUF c vK VKGK sOuL ULNOM V iF s ULNCF
WOU WO d WU ULNU WIKD W W s UbI b WOU d W v sOuM
UbM wUU

WuM UUb iF vK WK_ s


2
1

H +
2
1

3
1

4
2

H +

2
1

He + 10n 17.6

MeV

H + 11H 4

MeV

3
1

Xu dJ uOK [ UbI WU YFM _ Ub w


Xu dJ uOK UbI WU YFM wU Ub w U
Ub U qF U c dL w UdOu VFB W s WOUF d U
iF fLA e d w du d U s qzUN bIL c sJ U b v U F dL q
fLA e d w dL L WUD U WOU_ WO u uM Ub WIOI w d_ uM
WIKDL Ub s sOL dA wu fLA d W UL sObONU WOM fLA YO
uM Ub uB b WLz dE c
c qL ud ud WIK WUD U fLA e d w b w UIK dN s
WO WuM UUbU WIK

1
1

H + 11 H

2
1

H + 11 H

2
1

H + e+ +

3
2

1
1

He +

3
2

H + 11 H

2
1

He + 32 He

4
2

2
1

H + e+ +

H + 11 H

3
2

He +

He + 11 H + 11 H

w qUHU UNBOK sJL WIK cN UH WKB


4 11H

2e+ + 42He +2

+2

WML Wd WUD c Xu dJ uOK [U WIK c s WUM Q WOKJ WUD
u qJ vK fLA s bOF UNUF r r s UOb
fLA `D v qIM fLA e d w

_ v UMKB c wzdL uC UNO UL WO OUMGdN

Nuclear Reactor UDA uM qUH*


v cJ d UDAeHL qLF WuM UDA b s WUM UduOM nO X
rJ c UDA WK K vK dDO K q K L qUH WOUL UDA s WK K b
Wb UH b WUDK rEM U vK WEULK UDA uM qUHL UM r UNd
WOJd_ bL Uu w uUJO WFU w U d w UDA u qUH U r
WOU WOLUF d d UNC w WU Wd  V wdO uJd q_ wUD rUF UOI
qUHL p s WKU qOUH WOduu u du tS Xu p w
u uu uOuO b rUF U nK w uO uuL WUDA WuM UHL rEF
W WOD UduOMU tcI WO 235U uOuO dOE UDA u wU_ qUH YO WUD U
vK uJ [ WOIL dOJ W M WFOD w uOuO uL s [ s be dOEM c bu
dC s pc XLKF UL WOD UduOMU tc od s UDA qU dO u 238U dOEM qJ
`B uu w UDA qUI 235U uOuO W Ue uI uOuO VOB vL WOKLF uI
b [ [ wu
[ s
ddL r YO (diffusion) UA WId U U Ud UNb s WHK dD uOuO VOB r
s sOL vK u duKO WFC UNu WKu eu UG uOuO buK U J V d
cJ qI dO_ uJ dE 238U UA W s d uI d 235U UA W uJ dOGB uI
dD s u uu b L uOuO U w 235U W U v R UL 238U s 235U qB r
uN t UL 238U s 235U qBH e dL dD eN b uOuO VOB w Wb L Wb
eOK WF bU uOuO VOB v U b ULKF
bF uM uu UHK  bQ Depleted

Uranium

cHM L uOuOU vL
U vI

UL WuM UHL w uM UDA UOKL w lAL uOuO rEF UHM r


uOuO cHM L uOuO tA uOuO VOB WOKL s uU ZUM uJ cHM L uOuO
ULNMO dH 234U dOEM s d c WKO{ W 238U 235U uOuO dOE s uJ YO wFOD
wu q W M c cHM L uOuO w [ s be 235U lAL uOuO dOE W u
UB WuM UUF uJ cN [ wFOD uOuO w t s nB d
WKJ fH UN WMO
s WUM UUF WOL s wu q cHM L uOuO s U WMO
s
wFOD uOuO s

w UU WUM WuM UUF s WUL b WUM w cHM L uOuO b


W]K Ud WU wHF{ wu WOUF tU V p d v UJ s WFAL uL qIM b
UO WUM w cHM L uOuO b O WdJ F d_ w U tM UB UUF WOL
UbL
WHBL

WuM UH* s W&UM WuM UUHM s hKK WF* dD s ddI V UA

WUD U w tb bN UNO{ vK UDA u qUH UM v U b rEF lKD


WFHML d w b w WFAL dUMF iF U pc qJA sO UL WOzUdNJ
W  sOuI wLUF u L vK UL UM WOLKF u d We VD q WdA
w U U O w WUQL WU bF U uB u qUH UM bM UNUd V w WUF
UE w qA bF U IU wUOu  U w OO WMb d qudOA uM qUHL UNO dH
UH c WL{ UH v r s d U w qzU UH v UL bd
u uK tM Z UL WF UU  u UUA uN v WFAL dUMF d v U C
U qJA WO WO UMzUJ vK dO UD
UL w UL u
U v d

d U
U bu
uFCL UL qUH
sOdK WU U bIH
U v WOU u

bN d uL ld

sOd uL

Xu v
bN UdN ZM buL

UL

buL db
Xu U d UL
qLF L

UMOd db U

uH s qJO

wUF bN qL d
rJ UC
wUF bN q

qUH

bd d s U sU U

wzU bN

WC

bu w t{ UF U

wzUL dL

bd d v q U U

WudN WD w UDA uM qUHL qJA

uOuO s u

UNOK VKG V UuF UM UDA uM qUHL qOGA bM


w UduOM iF d b UduOM d WKJA
Wu WK WUM sJL rKF q
w b L VBL uOuO s??
dG W??U??D?A? W??u??M? UHL
VOB V t?? YO W??U??D? U???
v s?? d W v?? u??O?u??O?
U WdJ F d tb r
Wu WK

b qI wUU qUHL `D s u UDA s ZM


UDA WK K UI v R b UL UduOM
`D WU  W qOKI V WKJAL c vK VKGK
UduOM d YO tLOLB bM tL v qUHL
eO w rO UduOM U ULMO qUHL `D d uJ
qUHL VK q r t UF_ w

WOU WO d WU WFd UDA s ZM w UduOM uJ WUD WOU UduOM WKJA UOU
dJ [ UI WO d UNUWOD UduO v U s Xu dJ uOK UI
WO d UNU qOKI WFd  UduOM WzbN V pc tOK c UDA eOH jI Xu
YO UduOM W d WU qOKI UNHO bNL vL UL uOuO u jK od s p r
UduOM bIH UUB cN WO UduOM bNL
U Ue sO Wd UUB b

b bL Uu w uuL WUDA WuM UHL rEF WO d UNU s dO e


WFd  UduOMU Uud w wsObON Wu bDB YO bNL H2O UF UL
bIL YO s UUI duOM ud wK V WO d UNU s dO e cU
WzbN WOKL UduOM UB UOD WKJA UU
u UC

uOK wu s WO d UNU qOKI UduOM


dH dL UNS Xu dJ [ v Xu dJ
Xu dJ sO d WO d UNU UNO uJ
UOD W{d uJ YO UduOMK Wd d c
238

uu w dO W M bu c

uOuO WUu

W v R UL dDAM UduOM c hL


uu UC sO ob U

s qOKIK UDA WK K nu b UduOM


U uOuO u jK r tS c UB WOKL

UC bNL U VOd qJA


uM qUHL q uu

u s q l{ r sJ fU qJA UF bNL


UNCF bNL U s q l UC qJ vK uOuO
UL U Oze UDK YO qUHL r q iF u
qJA sO

qBH WK
s qJ Xu dJ uOK bu "UM UH rO
' WOd( WUD Q L{ WU V

uJ
 s XKL{ b _ uM Q U LK WO L{
210
84

Po

206
82

Pb + 24He

223
90

Th

219
88

230
90

Ra + 24He

226
88

Th

Ra + 24He

WO Wc qJ U% b
UNK

WOd( tU UU rO


U uB UH rO
YF

210
84

Po

c

230
90

226
88

223
90

219
88

Ra

210
84

Po

206
82

Pb

206
82

Pb + 24He

Th

Ra
Th

L{ w

s qJ dUIL UH sJL UH rO


' WOd( WUD V
Xu dJ uOK [
oU  R 
WO UH qL
1.

A
Z

A
Z

2.

A
Z

A-4
Z-2

Y + ..........

3.

A
Z

A
Z-1

Y + ........+..........

X*
X
X

X + .............

4. Proton + e5.

A
Z

A
Z+1

.......+........

Y +.........+...........

WO Wc qJ U% b U OzUIK b

40
20

Ca

40
19

K + e+ +

UNK
[
[

qUHK sJ1 q
c
40
20

Ca
40
19

d bF L{ WOK_ Wu_ s vI r WM lA dBMF nBM dL


WM ?

WM

WM

vK u% dBMF fH s d WMO pb uOK vK u% lA dBM s WMO pb


WMOFK L{ XU U
q d v_ WMOFK L{ XU q 5 W
5MOFK nBM dL s U WOU
b qJA w wUO rd v l
Wu_ s wK_ bF U W qLC v  nBM dL Wb se
L{ Wu_ s wK_ bF vI v nBM dL Wb se
jI Wu_ l vI Wu_ s wK_ bF U W qLC UbM `OLK
u* s WUHM 5Q vK UNb WOzUeOH UNFO YO s UU UO UH WF 5 U
uJ Xu dJ uOK [ WOd( tU UH rO
ZMO 22890 Th uu dOE qLC
WOd( tU UH rO
ZM uu fH s d WMO w dI WU w 22488 Ra XM uM
uuH U uB Xu dJ 5 [
dBMF fH qK% s Z t s rd vK "UM UH rO
' Wd( WU bI w d


5U( w UH_ VUB* uuH WU V
r pU `{u qJA w UL U DD r
UO ULO
UM 5L{ 5UF V qJA w uOuO WK
K v l
WK
K
 pK w UH ULO
UM 5L{ 5UF V pc WU

bu WK

wQ U2 qJ WOB WU e u r
u bUA* cN W
MU r
' c u S bUA* W
MU uC Wd s [ Wd
d r

[ W
M hKI ?

[ W
M hKI

[ W
M e

[ W
M e

WK
K w 5bON w WOzd WF sLC w nOD WK
K
u

sU ?

d*U

ULO

S uC Wd s [ UbI Wd
XU bUA* W
MU UOI d tFK{ u ld
u ldLK bUA* c d c qJA

q eO WF UC qd [ Wd
_ s bOF WOzUC Wd d
S u
u _ vK bUA t
OI c 5CM 5 se
WOU [

WOU [ ?

WOU [

WOU [

b XHUC Xu dJ WOd( UNU UdJ YFM eK `D vK u{ jI



`B Xu dJ bu UdJ WOd( WUD S jU
 uC

U
tU S d
$ tu u uu
u [ ?

u [

u [

u [

s UdJ dd% s sJL rK eK vK WMOF b 5F wu u WOzu{ We XDI


u dOG c wA S eKH c `D s UdJ dd% sJ1 v tD

jU
 uCK wu* uD UI ?

jU
 uCK wu* uD U

jU
 uC b UI

jU
 uC b U

UdJ d_ Wd( WU u w eK `D vK jU


 uuH WU XU
U
`D
 cN qGA d S w WFM*

vLEF UNU UdJ oKDM Xu dJ t qGA d eK `D vK u{ jI



bu UdJ vLEF WOd( WUD S nFCK jU
 uC d Xu dJ
`B Xu dJ

uC Wd UOzu{ bB qL% XU bUA U&U UbI Wd


d UO
U
bUALK W
MU wzuC bB* s YFM*
?


? ? U9 dBMF fHM dzUEM

WKJ fH UN ??

iF s UNCF UNKB sJ1 t

WOzUOLOJ hzUB) fH UN

WFOD w iF s UNCF WKBHM bu


l VUM WdJ uM r

UduOM b ?

wKJ bFK wOFJ c'

wKJ bF ld

wKJ bF
u lA dBMF nBM dL

tKUJ qK v dBMF tdG


c se nB
U v lA* ud dOE u v  se
dBMF s U WMO w tu_ b nB qLC v  se ??
d nB bI uJ c se
L{ XU UOI b
WO bu
d

u ??

WU

rG

WOzUdN WM qL% UU UO UH W UUF s


jI UO UH

jI UU UO ?

jI UO

jI UH

?  UDA uM qUH* w bN* b



dOD) UU UUF h1
WOd( UNU qKI WFd
 UduOM wD
WFd UduO ZM ?
WU ZM uOuO l qUH
uJ w w d
 WHUC Wu_
Wd
 b_ UHUC b u UNUud b
Wd
 b_ UHUC b u UNUduO b
Wd
 b_ b u UN wKJ bF ?
Wd
 b_ b u UNUduO b UNUud b UL
UL ULNOK dUI w UUI* ULO
'
dJ duOM ?

ud dJ

duOM ud

S u [ U
5bON dJ We d WOL XU
u
* w uu uJ czbM dJ
fU)

ld ?

YU

wU

WU* Wu* u S UbI Wd


rG [ tK rO
d%
U
d
$_U bI t WUB*

b W MU uC Wd s [ U WU Wd d UOFd


t OI UL WOU u w sOF b b s U s q w UKUL UU
b fHM w uuL WU  t OI c se r tO uuL WU 
U* WO
M WdEM V
wU suO uUI ` WO mOB

u [ UbI WU UFS fLA uI rG U


tOK_ fLA WK XU
V se s WOU q w
WOU q w WU v UNKu% r w WKJ bI
WM [ q lA b cM WIdD cN WOK_ UNK s fLA bI r
WIdD cN WU v tOK_ UNK lOL u UN UM{d fLA U se s r ??
dJ t qGA d eK `D s YFM dJ Xu dJ bu Wd WU d w U
d uU tu u u{ tOK jI
UbM Xu
V
u wu u d u U Xu dJ [ uuBK qGA d XLK
WOzuC UdJ WOd WU vB w U uuB `D s WOzu{ UdJ UF
uuB eK `D vK d
$ tu u u{ jI WFM*
c wu* uD u U d
$ U
WF d bM u
MK wu* uD U
Xu dJ [ uBI WOd( UNU UdJ YFM v tb V
u
* c dD nB U S WUDK wU u
* w 5bON dJ b
V
d [ o
u
* c w dJ wD) d WOL
dJ cN WUB* wd Wu u
U
tF{u UO w QD) U S Wd
d rG tK u rO

V

t WUB* wd Wu u
td% WOL UO w QD q
UDA s W&UM WUD V

1
0

n+

235
92

141
55

Cs +

93
37

Rb + 2 10n

WO Wc qJ U b
UNK
[

c
235
92

141
55

93
37

Cs

Rb

5L
v W&UM XM uM dDAM r U U UO rO
YF r UduO h9 WuN WuN u
WuN* uMK Zc bF A wKJ bF V
UH ULO
s
WO WbMN UJ_ V tL v tD WU
 W
qOKI V uM qUH* UM bM
dG_U b UNL v UND WU
 W
V

UNUH UNbU dD nB WuD ??

tFK{ u VFJ

tUH tbU dD nB d

UdD nB d
WO Wu_ pb

13
6

18
8

40
19

49
22

Ti

60
28

Ni

91
40

Zr

92
42

Mo

121
51

Sb

143
60

Nd

144
62

Sm

205
81

Tl

207
82

Pb

wQ UL V Wd  b_U pdF s
d UNUud b U U9 WK2 UNUud WHK uJ tu_ s
d UNUduO b U U9 WK2 UNUduO WHK uJ Wu_ s
b TK2 U b ud vK u% UNUud WHK uJ Wu_ s ??
Wd
 b_ b s bu be UNUud
TK2 U b duO vK u% UNUduO WHK uJ Wu_ s
Wd
 b_ b s bu be UNUduO b
UNUud b WK2 UNUud WHK `B v b ud UNBIM Wu_ s ?
Wd
 b_ b s bu hIM
UNUduO b WK2 UNUduO WHK `B v b duO UNBIM Wu_ s
Wd
 b_ b s bu hIM
wQ U2 qJ uBI* U
uM qUHL w UduOM UOD WKJA u??M? U??b?? uOuO VOB WOKL
uOK uO qJ WuM jd WU q K L qUH lA dBMF nBM dL UDA
WO Wc qJ U% b UU UO rO
ZM

255
101

Md

u qLC sJ1 t X

UNK
[
[

c
255
101

Md

255
102

No

qLC v d1 U u r Uu lA dBMF nBM dL


WOK_ Wu_ b s [
WOK_ Wu_ b s [
WOK_ Wu_ b nB ?
U dH WEK w Wb w WMOF s d WMO dBMF s WFA WMO pb
dBMFK L{ XU XLK WMOF w Wu_ bF U U
 WMOF w Wu_ b
wQ U s V dBMFK tM d
nBM dL YO s d ULN
U
q d WMOF s qM WOI* Wu_ b S b u d bF
5MOF s WKLC* Wu_ b s U WMOF w WOI* Wu_ b
r rEF `OLK UduOM bF U  q d Uud b q pL w
U U
U u WuM uI Wd UM uu u w uM q 5ud 5 WU* uI
d_U b UdUI YO s  uI c V gravitational force wKJ

You might also like