Nutrient Control Design Manual

Nutrient Control Design Manual
Office of Research and Development

National Risk Management Research Laboratory - Water Supply and Water Resources Division
EPA/600/R-10/100 | August 2010 | www.epa.gov/nrmrl
EPA/600/R10/100
August2010

NutrientControlDesignManual
by
TheCadmusGroup,Inc
57WaterStreet
Watertown,MA02472
Scientific,Technical,Research,Engineering,andModelingSupport(STREAMS)
TaskOrder68
ContractNo.EPC05058
GeorgeT.Moore,TaskOrderManager
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
OfficeofResearchandDevelopment/NationalRiskManagementResearchLaboratory
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NutrientControlDesignManual iii August2010
Foreword

TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)ischargedbyCongresswithprotectingtheNations
land,air,andwaterresources.Underamandateofnationalenvironmentallaws,theAgencystrivesto
formulateandimplementactionsleadingtoacompatiblebalancebetweenhumanactivitiesandthe
abilityofnaturalsystemstosupportandnurturelife.Tomeetthismandate,EPAsresearchprogramis
providingdataandtechnicalsupportforsolvingenvironmentalproblemstodayandbuildingascience
knowledgebasenecessarytomanageourecologicalresourceswisely,understandhowpollutantsaffect
ourhealth,andpreventorreduceenvironmentalrisksinthefuture.
TheNationalRiskManagementResearchLaboratory(NRMRL)istheAgencyscenterforinvestigationof
technologicalandmanagementapproachesforpreventingandreducingrisksfrompollutionthat
threatenhumanhealthandtheenvironment.Thefocusofthelaboratorysresearchprogramison
methodsandtheircosteffectivenessforpreventionandcontrolofpollutiontoair,landwaterand
subsurfaceresources;protectionofwaterqualityinpublicwatersystems;remediationofcontaminated
sites,sedimentsandgroundwater;preventionandcontrolofindoorairpollution;andrestorationof
ecosystems.NRMRLcollaborateswithbothpublicandprivatesectorpartnerstofostertechnologies
thatreducethecostofcomplianceandtoanticipateemergingproblems.NRMRLsresearchsolutionsto
environmentalproblemsby:developingandpromotingtechnologiesthatprotectandimprovethe
environment;advancingscientificandengineeringinformationtosupportregulatoryandpolicy
decisions;andprovidingthetechnologicalsupportandinformationtransfertoinsureimplementationof
environmentalregulationsandstrategiesatthenational,state,andcommunitylevels.
ThispublicationhasbeenproducedaspartoftheLaboratorysstrategiclongtermresearchplan.Itis
publishedandmadeavailablebyEPAsOfficeofResearchandDevelopmenttoassisttheuser
communityandtolinkresearcherswiththeirclients.
SallyGutierrez,Director
NationalRiskManagementResearchLaboratory

NutrientControlDesignManual iv August2010
Notice
ThisdocumentwaspreparedbyTheCadmusGroup,Inc.(Cadmus)underEPAContractNo.EPC05058,
TaskOrder68.TheCadmusTeamwasleadbyPatriciaHertzlerandLauraDufresnewithSeniorAdvisors
CliffordRandall,EmeritusProfessorofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatVirginiaTechandDirector
oftheOccoquanWatershedMonitoringProgram;JamesBarnard,GlobalPracticeandTechnology
LeaderatBlack&Veatch;DavidStensel,ProfessorofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatthe
UniversityofWashington;andJeanetteBrown,ExecutiveDirectoroftheStamfordWaterPollution
ControlAuthorityandAdjunctProfessorofEnvironmentalEngineeringatManhattanCollege.
Disclaimer
Theviewsexpressedinthisdocumentarethoseoftheindividualauthorsanddonotnecessarily,reflect
theviewsandpoliciesoftheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Mentionoftradenamesor
commercialproductsdoesnotconstituteendorsementorrecommendationforuse.Thisdocumenthas
beenreviewedinaccordancewithEPAspeerandadministrativereviewpoliciesandapprovedfor
publication.

NutrientControlDesignManual v August2010
Abstract
ThepurposeofthisEPAdesignmanualistoprovideupdated,stateofthetechnologydesign
guidanceonnitrogenandphosphoruscontrolatmunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlants(WWTPs).
SimilartopreviousEPAmanuals,thismanualcontainsextensiveinformationontheprinciplesof
biologicalnutrientremovalandchemicalphosphorusremovaltoserveasthebasisfordesign.Adetailed
descriptionoftechnologies,bothconventionalandemerging,servesasaresourceforpreliminary
technologyselection.BecausemostWWTPsintheUnitedStatesareequippedwithsecondary
treatment,thefocusofthisdesignmanualisonretrofitstoaddnutrientremovaltoexistingWWTPs
ratherthanonnewtreatmentplantdesign,althoughguidanceforgreenfielddesignispresented.Also
newfrompreviousversions,designguidancehereinisbasedontheuseofmathematicalmodelsand
simulators.Simulatorsallowdesignerstostudykineticaswellastimebasedsolutionswhile
determiningthetotalmassbalancesofmanyconstituents.Theyhavebecomeincreasinglypowerful,
easytouse,andwidelyacceptedforthedesignofbiologicalnutrientremovalfacilities.Themanualalso
includesnewinformationonemergingissuesintheindustrysuchassustainabilityinwastewater
treatmentdesignandoperation,nutrientrecoveryandreuse,effluentdissolvedorganicnitrogen,and
measurementoflowphosphorusconcentrations.
ThisreportwassubmittedinfulfillmentofEPAContractNo.EPC05058,TaskOrder68,byThe
CadmusGroup,Inc.underthesponsorshipoftheUnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency.This
reportcoversaperiodfromNovember2007throughApril2010andrepresentsworkcompletedasof
April2010.

NutrientControlDesignManual vi August2010
Contents
AcronymsandAbbreviations .......................................................................................................xviii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................xxii

1. Introduction .......................................................................................................11
1.1 HistoryofNutrientRemoval....................................................................................11
1.2 PurposeandScopeofthisManual..........................................................................13
1.3 ManualOrganization...............................................................................................15
1.4 References .......................................................................................................16

2. NeedforandBenefitsofNitrogenandPhosphorusRemoval.............................................21
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................21
2.2 SourcesofNitrogenandPhosphorusinWastewater..............................................22
2.2.1 Nitrogen......................................................................................................22
2.2.2 Phosphorus.................................................................................................23
2.3 StatusofWastewaterTreatmentintheUnitedStates...........................................23
2.4 NutrientImpairmentofU.S.Waterways.................................................................25
2.4.1 NorthernGulfofMexico.............................................................................25
2.4.2 ChesapeakeBay.........................................................................................26
2.4.3 GreatLakes.................................................................................................26
2.4.4 LongIslandSound.......................................................................................26
2.5 ClimateChangeImpacts..........................................................................................27
2.6 FederalandStateRegulationsandInitiativestoReduceNutrientPollution..........28
2.6.1 WaterQualityStandards............................................................................28
2.6.2 TotalMaximumDailyLoads(TMDLs).........................................................210
2.6.3 NPDESPermitting.......................................................................................210
2.6.4 WaterQualityTrading................................................................................211
2.6.5 TechnologyEvaluationandGuidance.........................................................212
2.7 IndustryInitiativesTheWERFNutrientRemovalChallenge.................................213
2.8 BenefitsofNutrientRemoval..................................................................................214
2.8.1 ImprovedPlantPerformance......................................................................214
2.8.2 CoRemovalofEmergingContaminants.....................................................214
2.8.3 NutrientRecoveryandReuse.....................................................................215
2.9 ChallengesofNutrientRemoval..............................................................................215
2.9.1 EnergyRequirements..................................................................................215
2.9.2 ReleaseofNitrousOxide............................................................................217
2.10 References .......................................................................................................218
3. PrinciplesofPhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition....................................................31
3.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................31
3.2 AvailableFormsofMetalSaltsandLime.................................................................31
3.3 EquationsandStoichiometry...................................................................................32
3.3.1 RemovablePhosphorus..............................................................................32
3.3.2 ReactionsofMetalSaltsandPhosphorus..................................................32
3.3.3 ReactionsofLimewithPhosphorus............................................................35
3.4 SolidsSeparationProcesses.....................................................................................35

NutrientControlDesignManual vii August2010
3.5 EffectsonSludgeProductionandHandling.............................................................36
3.6 TwoFactorsthatMayLimittheAbilityofPlantstoAchieve
VeryLowEffluentLevels..........................................................................................37
3.7 References .......................................................................................................38
4. PrinciplesofBiologicalNitrogenRemoval...........................................................................41
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................41
4.2 NitrogenRemovalbyBiomassSynthesis.................................................................42
4.3 MicrobiologyofNitrification....................................................................................43
4.4 ReactionsandStoichiometryofNitrification...........................................................45
4.5 NitrificationKinetics.................................................................................................46
4.5.1 AOBkinetics................................................................................................410
4.5.2 NOBkinetics................................................................................................413
4.5.3 EffectsofTemperatureandDissolvedOxygenonNitrificationKinetics....414
4.5.4 AOBandNOBKineticsatHighTemperature(SHARONprocess).............416
4.6 InhibitoryEffectsofEnvironmentalConditionsonNitrification.............................417
4.7 DenitrificationFundamentals..................................................................................420
4.8 MicrobiologyofDenitrification................................................................................420
4.9 MetabolismandStoichiometryofHeterotrophicDenitrification...........................421
4.10 BiologicalDenitrificationKineticswithInfluentWastewater..................................422
4.11 DenitrificationCarbonSourcesandRelativeConsumptionRatios..........................424
4.12 DenitrificationKineticsofExogenousCarbonSources............................................428
4.12.1 DenitrificationKineticswithMethanol.......................................................428
4.12.2 AlternativeExogenousSubstratesandDenitrificationKinetics.................430
4.12.3 AcclimationTimeandDegradativeAbilityofDenitrifyingBacteriawith
ExogenousSubstrates.................................................................................431
4.13 SpecificDenitrificationRates(SDNR).......................................................................432
4.14 SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification...............................................................434
4.15 MetabolismandStoichiometryandKineticsofANAMMOX.................................435
4.16 ImpactsonSludgeProductionandHandling...........................................................436
4.17 EffluentDissolvedOrganicNitrogen........................................................................436
4.18 References .......................................................................................................439
5. PrinciplesofBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.......................................................................51
5.1 OverviewoftheBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalProcess.......................................51
5.2 SubstrateRequirements..........................................................................................53
5.3 SourcesofVolatileFattyAcids.................................................................................55
5.3.1 FermentationintheCollectionSystem......................................................56
5.3.2 AnaerobicFermentationofPrimaryorReturnActivatedSludge...............57
5.3.3 CommercialSources...................................................................................510
5.4 EnvironmentalConditions.......................................................................................511
5.4.1 DissolvedOxygenandNitratesintheAnaerobicZone..............................511
5.4.2 OxygenintheAerobicZone........................................................................511
5.4.3 pH .......................................................................................................512
5.4.4 Temperature...............................................................................................512
5.4.5 Cations.......................................................................................................513
5.5 Kinetics .......................................................................................................513
5.5.1 SolidsRetentionTime(SRT)........................................................................513

NutrientControlDesignManual viii August2010
5.5.2 HydraulicRetentionTime(HRT)................................................................514
5.6 ImportantDesignandOperationalConsiderations.................................................514
5.6.1 AvoidingSecondaryReleaseofPhosphorus...............................................514
5.6.2 AvoidingBackmixing...................................................................................516
5.6.3 FlowandLoadBalancing............................................................................517
5.7 ImpactsonSludgeProcessingandHandling...........................................................517
5.8 References .......................................................................................................518
6. OverviewofNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies...........................................61
6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................61
6.2 NitrogenRemovalTechnologies..............................................................................62
6.2.1 NitrogenRemovalinSingleProcessUnit....................................................63
6.2.1.1 ModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)Process.....................................63
6.2.1.2 4StageBardenpho........................................................................65
6.2.1.3 MLEor4StageBardephowithMembraneBioractor(MBR)........65
6.2.1.4 SequencingBatchReactor(SBR)....................................................66
6.2.1.5 OxidationDitchwithAnoxicZone.................................................67
6.2.1.6 StepFeedBiologicalNitrogenRemoval(BNR)..............................68
6.2.1.7 SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification(SNdN)........................69
6.2.1.8 IntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS)...............................610
6.2.1.9MovingBedBiofilmReactor(MBBR)..............................................611
6.2.2 SeparateStageProcessesNitrification....................................................612
6.2.2.1 SuspendedGrowthNitrification....................................................612
6.2.2.2 AttachedGrowthNitrification.......................................................612
6.2.3 SeparateStageProcessesDenitrification................................................613
6.2.3.1 DenitrificationFilters.....................................................................614
6.3 PhosphorusRemovalTechnologies.........................................................................616
6.3.1 PhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition...............................................616
6.3.2 BiologicalPhosphorusRemoval..................................................................619
6.3.2.1 Phoredox(A/O).............................................................................620
6.3.2.2 OxidationDitchwithAnaerobicZone............................................621
6.4 CombinedNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies.................................622
6.4.1 Biological.....................................................................................................622
6.4.1.1 3StagePhoredox(A2/0)...............................................................622
6.4.1.2 5StageBardenpho........................................................................623
6.4.1.3 UniversityofCapetown(UCT),ModifiedUCT,andVirginiaInitiative
Project(VIP)...................................................................................624
6.4.1.4 Westbank.......................................................................................626
6.4.1.5 OxidationDitchwithAnoxicandAnaerobicZones.......................626
6.4.1.6 SequencingBatchReactor(SBR)....................................................627
6.4.2 HybridChemical/Biological.......................................................................627
6.4.2.1 BluePlainsProcess........................................................................628
6.4.2.2 BiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval(BCFS)
Process..........................................................................................628
6.5 EffluentFiltration.....................................................................................................629
6.5.1 ConventionalDownflowFilters.................................................................629
6.5.2 ContinuousBackwashingUpflowSandFilters(Dynasand)........................629
6.5.3 PulsedBedFilters........................................................................................630

NutrientControlDesignManual ix August2010
6.5.4 TravelingBridgeFilters...............................................................................630
6.5.5 Discfilters....................................................................................................630
6.5.6 MembraneFilters.......................................................................................631
6.6 SidestreamManagement........................................................................................632
6.7 TechnologyPerformance.........................................................................................634
6.7.1 RemovalEfficienciesofBNRTechnologiesGeneralDiscussion...............636
6.7.2 TechnologyPerformanceStatisticsbasedonFullScaleOperatingData...637
6.8 FactorsinSimultaneouslyAchievingLowNitrogenandPhosphorusEffluent
Concentrations .......................................................................................................642
6.9 References .......................................................................................................643
7. EstablishingDesignObjectives..............................................................................................71
7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................71
7.2 CharacterizingExistingTreatment...........................................................................72
7.3 DesignFlowRates....................................................................................................73
7.3.1 CharacterizingExistingFlow.......................................................................73
7.3.2 ProjectingFutureConditions......................................................................75
7.3.3 SettingDesignFlowRates...........................................................................76
7.4 Wastewatercharacteristics.....................................................................................77
7.4.1 DataCollection............................................................................................77
7.4.2 DataVerification.........................................................................................710
7.5 TargetEffluentConcentrationsforTotalNitrogenandTotalPhosphorus..............715
7.6 GoalsforReliability,Sustainability,andProcessFlexibility.....................................716
7.7 SludgeTreatmentOptions.......................................................................................718
7.8 SiteConstraints.......................................................................................................718
7.9 SelectinganOverallProcessDesignFactor............................................................719
7.10 References .......................................................................................................720
8. SelectingCandidateTreatmentProcessesforPlantUpgrades...........................................81
8.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................81
8.2 TechnologySelectionFactors..................................................................................81
8.2.1 SeasonalPermitLimits................................................................................81
8.2.2 Footprint.....................................................................................................82
8.2.3 HydraulicConsiderations............................................................................83
8.2.4 Chemicalneeds...........................................................................................83
8.2.5 AvailableSludgeTreatmentandOptions...................................................83
8.2.6 EnergyConsiderations................................................................................84
8.2.7 StaffingandTrainingRequirements...........................................................85
8.2.8 TechnologySelectionConsiderationsforSmallFlowSystems...................85
8.3 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofTechnologyTypes.............................................86
8.4 OverviewofRecommendedApproach....................................................................88
8.5 RecommendedUseofAdvancedTools...................................................................811
8.6 Patentissues .......................................................................................................812
8.7 References .......................................................................................................813
9. DesignApproachforPhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition......................................91
9.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................91
9.2 SelectingaChemicalPrecipitant..............................................................................91

NutrientControlDesignManual x August2010
9.2.1 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofMetalSalts...........................................91
9.2.2 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofLime.....................................................93
9.2.3 Costs .......................................................................................................93
9.3 SelectingPoint(s)ofApplication..............................................................................94
9.4 DeterminingtheChemicalDose..............................................................................97
9.5 DesigningaChemicalFeedSystem..........................................................................910
9.5.1 Liquidfeedsystems....................................................................................911
9.5.1.1 Storagetanks.................................................................................911
9.5.1.2 FeedMethods................................................................................911
9.5.2 DryFeedSystems........................................................................................912
9.5.2.1 Storage...........................................................................................912
9.5.2.2 FeedMethods................................................................................913
9.5.2.3 LimeSlaking...................................................................................914
9.6 DesigningforRapidMixandFlocculation...............................................................915
9.6.1 TypesofMixers...........................................................................................915
9.6.2 DesignFactors.............................................................................................917
9.6.2.1 VelocityGradient...........................................................................917
9.6.2.2 PowerRequirements.....................................................................918
9.6.2.3 HydraulicRetentionTime..............................................................919
9.6.2.4 VesselGeometry............................................................................920
9.6.3 SummaryofTypicalDesignParameters.....................................................920
9.7 SolidsSeparationProcesses.....................................................................................921
9.7.1 PrimaryandSecondaryClarification...........................................................922
9.7.2 TertiaryProcesses.......................................................................................922
9.8 OperationalFactors................................................................................................922
9.8.1 DoseControl...............................................................................................922
9.8.2 MakeupWater...........................................................................................923
9.8.3 SludgeProductionandHandling................................................................923
9.8.4 pHAdjustment............................................................................................925
9.8.5 EffectonBiosolidsApplications..................................................................925
9.9 References .......................................................................................................925
10. DesignApproachforBiologicalNutrientRemoval...............................................................101
10.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................101
10.2 PreliminaryDesignApproach..................................................................................103
10.3 OverviewofRecommendedApproachforPlantModeling.....................................105
10.4 EstablishingModelingObjectivesandRequirements.............................................107
10.4.1 IntendedModelUse...................................................................................107
10.4.2 GoalsforModelAccuracy...........................................................................107
10.4.3 Dynamicvs.SteadyStateSimulation..........................................................108
10.5 SelectingaProcessSimulationModel.....................................................................109
10.6 DataCollection .......................................................................................................1012
10.6.1 ProcessConfiguration.................................................................................1013
10.6.2 OperatingConditions..................................................................................1016
10.7 CharacterizationofOrganicMaterial......................................................................1016
10.7.1 RelationshipofOrganicMaterialandSuspendedSolidsinWastewater...1020
10.7.2 MethodsforDeterminingCODFractions...................................................1022
10.7.3 DataChecks.................................................................................................1025

NutrientControlDesignManual xi August2010
10.8 CharacterizationofNutrientFractions....................................................................1026
10.8.1 Nitrogen......................................................................................................1026
10.8.2 Phosphorus.................................................................................................1029
10.9 KineticandStoichiometricParameters...................................................................1032
10.10 Calibration .......................................................................................................1033
10.11 Validation .......................................................................................................1037
10.12 SimulationofDesignAlternativesforNutrientRemoval........................................1038
10.13 AdditionalProceduresforDesign............................................................................1039
10.13.1SequencingBatchReactors(SBRs).............................................................1039
10.13.2DenitrificationFilters..................................................................................1040
10.13.3PrimarySludgeFermenters........................................................................1041
10.14 DesignChecksforBiologicalNitrogenandPhosphorusRemoval...........................1042
10.15 References .......................................................................................................1047
11. DesignApproachforEffluentFiltration...............................................................................111
11.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................111
11.2 SelectionofFiltrationTechnology...........................................................................112
11.3 GranularMediaFilters.............................................................................................113
11.3.1 InfluentWaterQuality................................................................................114
11.3.2 MediaSpecifications...................................................................................114
11.3.3 FilterLoadingRate......................................................................................116
11.3.4 Headloss......................................................................................................116
11.3.5 BackwashRequirements.............................................................................117
11.3.6 FlowControl...............................................................................................119
11.4 ClothMediaFilters...................................................................................................1110
11.5 LowPressureMembranes.......................................................................................1111
11.5.1 MembraneMaterial....................................................................................1112
11.5.2 MembraneConfiguration...........................................................................1113
11.5.3 ProcessConsiderations...............................................................................1114
11.5.4 PressureDrop.............................................................................................1115
11.5.5 FluxDetermination.....................................................................................1115
11.5.6 PerformanceData.......................................................................................1116
11.6 EmergingFiltrationTechnologiesforPhosphorusRemoval....................................1116
11.6.1 TwoStageFiltration....................................................................................1116
11.6.2 IronOxideCoatedMedia............................................................................1117
11.7 References .......................................................................................................1118
12. OperationandOptimizationtoEnhanceNutrientRemoval...............................................121
12.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................121
12.2 AnalysisofExistingOperations................................................................................121
12.2.1 DataAnalysis...............................................................................................122
12.2.2 UseofProcessSimulationModels..............................................................125
12.3 IncorporatingSCADAandotherInstrumentation...................................................126
12.4 CommonOperationalChanges................................................................................126
12.4.1 AdjustSRT...................................................................................................126
12.4.2 AdjustAerationRates.................................................................................127
12.4.3 AddBafflestoCreateHighFoodtoMicroorganism(F/M)Conditions.......127
12.4.4 ChangeAerationSettingsinPlugFlowBasins............................................127

NutrientControlDesignManual xii August2010
12.4.5 MinimizeImpactofRecycleStreams..........................................................128
12.4.6 ReconfigureFlowthroughExistingUnits....................................................128
12.4.7 IncreaseVFAsforBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.....................................129
12.5 References .......................................................................................................1210
13.InstrumentationandControls.....................................................................................................131
13.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................131
13.2 FactorsinSelectingInstrumentation.......................................................................132
13.3 BasicOnlineInstrumentation..................................................................................133
13.3.1 Flow .......................................................................................................133
13.3.2 TotalSuspendedSolids(TSS)......................................................................134
13.3.3 SludgeBlanketDepth..................................................................................135
13.3.4 DissolvedOxygen(DO)...............................................................................135
13.3.5 pH .......................................................................................................135
13.3.6 ORP .......................................................................................................136
13.4 OnlineInstrumentationforNutrientControl..........................................................136
13.4.1 NitrogenCompounds..................................................................................136
13.4.2 PhosphateandTotalPhosphorus...............................................................137
13.4.3 NADH(activebiomass)...............................................................................138
13.4.3 Respirometry..............................................................................................138
13.5 TypesofControl.......................................................................................................139
13.5.1 Feedforward..............................................................................................139
13.5.2 Feedback.....................................................................................................1310
13.5.3 Feedforwardandfeedback........................................................................1310
13.5.4 Cascade.......................................................................................................1310
13.5.5 AdvancedControl.......................................................................................1310
13.6 ControlEquipmentSCADA....................................................................................1311
13.7 References .......................................................................................................1313
14. SustainableNutrientRecoveryandReuse............................................................................141
14.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................141
14.2 SeparatingandTreatingWasteOnSite...................................................................141
14.3 UsingWastewaterTreatmentByproducts..............................................................142
14.3.1 Durham,OR,AdvancedWastewaterTreatmentFacility............................143
14.3.2 EastBayMunicipalUtilityDistrict,CA........................................................144
14.4 References .......................................................................................................145

NutrientControlDesignManual xiii August2010
Appendices
AppendixA. RecommendationsforMethanolSafety
AppendixB. OrganicCompoundsandInhibitoryConcentrationstoNitrification
AppendixC. MathematicalModelsforWastewaterTreatment

NutrientControlDesignManual xiv August2010
Tables
Table31. ChemicalPrecipitants..............................................................................................32
Table41. PhylogenyofAmmoniaOxidizingBacteria..............................................................44
Table42. PhylogenyofNitriteOxidizingBacteria...................................................................45
Table43. SummaryofTestResultsonMeasuringSpecificEndogenousDecayCoefficient
Rates(AllRatesat20C)...........................................................................................411
Table44. SummaryofAOBNitrificationKineticCoefficientValues........................................412
Table45. ComparisonofNitrificationHalfVelocityCoefficients(mg/L)inMBRand
ConventionalActivatedSludge(CAS)Systems........................................................412
Table46. SummaryofNOBNitrificationKineticCoefficientValues.......................................414
Table47. NH
4
NandNO
2
NConcentrationsthatMayInhibitNitrificationasaFunction
ofpHat20C. .......................................................................................................419
Table48. HeterotrophicBacteriaKineticCoefficientsinAnoxic/AerobicActivated
Sludge .......................................................................................................424
Table49. BiomassYieldsReportedforExogenousCarbonSources.......................................428
Table410. ReportedMaximumSpecificGrowthRatesat20CandTemperature
CoefficientsforMethanolUtilizationunderAnoxicandAerobicconditions..........429
Table411. ReportedK
s
valuesforNO
3
Nreductionwithmethanolat20C.............................429
Table412. ComparisonofMaximumSpecificGrowthratesforMethanol,Acetate,andCorn
SyrupatHighandLowTemperatures.....................................................................430
Table413. ForBNRActivatedSludge,RatioofDenitrificationRatewithSubstrateAddition
toDenitrificationRatewithNoAddition.................................................................431
Table414. RatioofDenitrificationRatesforOtherSubstratesatDay50withEthanolor
MethanolAdditionVersusnoAddition...................................................................432
Table415. RangeofreportedSDNRvaluesinBNRactivatedsludgetreatment......................433
Table4.16. ANAMMOXBacteriaBiokineticParametersat30
0
C.............................................435
Table51. VolatileFattyAcidsTypicallyFoundinFermentedWastewater.............................54
Table52. MinimumRatiosforAchievingTotalPhosphorusEffluentConcentrationof
lessthan1.0mg/L....................................................................................................54
Table53. EffectofCorrosionandOdorControlTechniquesonVFAProductionin
WastewaterCollectionSystems..............................................................................57
Table61. MatrixofBiologicalNitrogenRemovalTechnologies..............................................63
Table62. IFASMediaTypes,Applications,andDesignConsiderations..................................610
Table63. MatrixofPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies........................................................616
Table64. MatrixofCombinedBiologicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemovalTechnologies.622
Table65. MatrixofTertiaryFiltrationTechnologies...............................................................629
Table71. InfluentFlowComponents......................................................................................74
Table72. FlowCharacterization..............................................................................................74
Table73. ComparisonofFlowRatesandFlushVolumesBeforeandAfterU.S.Energy
PolicyAct .......................................................................................................75
Table74. ExamplePermitLimitsforNutrients........................................................................716
Table81. AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofTechnologyTypes............................................87
Table82. ExternalCarbonSources.........................................................................................812
Table83. IFASMediaTypes,Applications,andDesignConsiderations..................................815
Table91. AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofCommonAluminumandIronSalts...................92
Table92. AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofMetalSaltApplicationPoints...........................96

NutrientControlDesignManual xv August2010
Table93. TypesofChemicalFeeders......................................................................................910
Table94. CommonlyUsedEquipmentforRapidMixing.........................................................916
Table95. ValuesofN
P
andN
Q
forVariousTypesofImpellers................................................918
Table96. TypicalDesignParametersforTurbineandPropellerMixer...................................921
Table101. CommonlyUsedProcessSimulators.......................................................................1010
Table102. CODandParticulateFractionsinMunicipalWastewater.......................................1019
Table103. TKNFractionsinMunicipalWastewater..................................................................1028
Table104. TotalPhosphorusFractionsinMunicipalWastewater............................................1031
Table105. DesignChecksforBiologicalNitrogenRemoval......................................................1043
Table106. DesignChecksforBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.................................................1045
Table111. CommonFilterMediaandCharacteristics..............................................................115
Table112. FilterMediaDepthsandParticleSizes....................................................................115
Table113. MembraneCharacteristics.......................................................................................1114
Table114. AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofMembraneMaterials........................................1115
Table115. PhosphorusRemovalReportedFromMembranePilotStudies..............................1119
Table116. PilotTestResultsfortheBlueWaterBluePROSystem........................................1121
Table121. RecommendedParametersforDataEvaluation.....................................................123
Table131. SummaryofBasicOnLineInstrumentation............................................................132
Table132. ComparisonofOnlineNitrateAnalyzers................................................................137

NutrientControlDesignManual xvi August2010
Figures
Figure21. PopulationservedbyPOTWsnationwideforselectyearsbetween1940and2004
andprojectedto2024(ifallneedsaremet),organizedbywastewater
treatmenttype........................................................................................................25
Figure22. WaterqualitybasedapproachoftheCleanWaterAct..........................................210
Figure41. PercentnitrogenremovalduetobiomasssynthesisasafunctionofSRTand
influentBOD/Nratio................................................................................................43
Figure42. EffectofSRTandtemperatureoneffluentNH
4
+
NandNO
2
Nconcentrations
usingkineticdatainTable46and44forCMAS....................................................415
Figure43. EffectofDOconcentrationoneffluentNH
4
+
NandNO
2
Nconcentrations
usingkineticdatainTable44and46andat15CforCMAS...............................415
Figure44. EffectoftemperatureonminimalwashoutSRTAOB,HandNOB,Hfrom
Hellingaetal.(1998)andAOB,MandNOB,MfromTables42and44................417
Figure45. RatioofCODrequiredtoNO
3
NcompletelyreduceNO
3
N(CRNO3)asa
functionofthebiomassyield..................................................................................426
Figure51. TheoryofBPRinactivatedsludge...........................................................................51
Figure52. BPRataWWTP.......................................................................................................53
Figure53 BiologicalPathwaysofMethaneFormation............................................................5.8
Figure54. Exampleofsecondaryreleaseinsecondanoxiczone.............................................514
Figure61. ModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)process...............................................................64
Figure62. 4stageBardenphoprocess.....................................................................................65
Figure63. Commonconfigurationforamembranebioreactor4stagebardenphotreatment
system .......................................................................................................66
Figure64. Operatingperiodsofasequencingbatchreactor...................................................67
Figure65. Exampleoxidationditchconfiguration....................................................................68
Figure66. Stepfeedbiologicalnitrogenremoval.....................................................................67
Figure67. Downflowdenitrificationfilter................................................................................614
Figure68. Continuousbackwashupflowsand(CBUS)filters...................................................615
Figure69. Closeupofcontinuousbackwashupflowsand(CBUS)filter..................................615
Figure610. Densadeghighrateclarificationprocessflowdiagram.........................................618
Figure611. CoMagTMprocessflowdiagram............................................................................619
Figure612. Phoredoxprocess(A/O).........................................................................................621
Figure613. Oxidationditchwithanaerobiczone.......................................................................622
Figure614. 3StagePhoredoxprocess(A2/O)...........................................................................623
Figure615. 5stageBardenphoprocess....................................................................................624
Figure616. UCTandModifiedUCTprocess...............................................................................625
Figure617. Westbankprocess....................................................................................................626
Figure618. VT2processschematic.............................................................................................627
Figure619. TheBluePlainsprocess............................................................................................628
Figure620. Probabilityplotofsecondaryeffluentphosphorusdata.........................................639
Figure621. Technologyperformancestatisticsfornitrogenremovalplants.............................640
Figure622. Technologyperformancestatisticsforphosphorusremovalplants.......................640
Figure71 Netsludgeproductionversussolidsretentiontimeandtemperature..................714
Figure91. Possibleapplicationpointsforchemicaladdition(C).............................................94
Figure92. Schematicofcommonjartestingapparatus...........................................................99

NutrientControlDesignManual xvii August2010
Figure93. Typicaldrychemicalfeedsystem............................................................................913
Figure101. Unifiedprotocolforactivatedsludgemonitoring..................................................106
Figure102. Essentialrequirementsforwastewatertreatmentprocesssimulation..................1013
Figure103. Examplesimulatorconfigurationforabiologicalnutrientremovalplant..............1014
Figure104. CODcomponentsformunicipalwastewater...........................................................1018
Figure105. RelationshipbetweenBOD,COD,TSS,andVSS......................................................1021
Figure106. TKNcomponentsformunicipalwastewater...........................................................1027
Figure107. Phosphoruscomponentsinmunicipalwastewater................................................1030
Figure111. Upflowcontinuousbackflowfilter..........................................................................1111
Figure112. OperationalmodelsoftheFuzzyFilter..................................................................1112
Figure113. CutawayviewofAquaDiskclothmediafilter........................................................1113
Figure114. Hollowfibermembraneconfigurationwithinsidetooutsideflow........................1116
Figure115. ParksonDynasandD2advancedfiltersystem.........................................................1120
Figure116. BluePROprocess...................................................................................................1121
Figure121. Spatialandtemporalprofilesofammonia..............................................................125

NutrientControlDesignManual xviii August2010
AcronymsandAbbreviations
A/O Anaerobic/Oxic,Phoredox
A2/O Anaerobic/Anoxic/Oxic,3StagePhoredox
AMO AmmoniaMonooxygenase
ANAMMOX AnaerobicAmmoniaOxidation
AOB AmmoniaOxidizingBacteria
AS ActivatedSludge
ASCE AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers
ASM ActivatedSludgeModel
AT3 AerationTank3
BABE BioAugmentationBatchEnhanced
BAF BiologicalAeratedFilter
BAR BioAugmentationRegeneration/Reaeration
BCFS BiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval
bDON BiodegradableFractionofDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
BHRC BallastedHighRateClarificationProcesses
BNR BiologicalNutrientRemoval
BOD BiochemicalOxygenDemand
BOD
5
BiochemicalOxygenDemand(5day)
BPR BiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
CCF ContinuousContactFiltration
CFD ComputationalFluidDynamic
CIP CleaninPlace
CMAS CompletelyMixedActivatedSludge
C/N CarbontoNitrogenRatio
COD ChemicalOxygenDemand
COV CoefficientofVariation
CR ConsumptiveRatio
CSO CombinedSewerOverflow
CSTR ContinuousStirredTankReactors
CWA CleanWaterAct
CWSRF CleanWaterStateRevolvingFund
DAF DissolvedAirFlotation
DO DissolvedOxygen
DON DissolvedOrganicNitrogen
DSS DesignatedSuspendedSolids
EBPR EnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
EDC EndocrineDisruptingChemicals
EDTA EthyleneDiamineTetraaceticAcid
ENR EnhancedNutrientRemoval
EPA U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
FFS FixedfilmSystems
F/M FoodtoMicroorganismratio
FWPCA FederalWaterPollutionControlAct
FWS FreeWaterSurface
GAO GlycogenAccumulatingOrganism

NutrientControlDesignManual xix August2010
GMP GoodModelingPractices
HRSD HamptonRoadsSanitationDistrict
HRT HydraulicRetentionTime
iDON InertDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
IFAS IntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge
ISF IntermittentSandFilter
ISS InertSuspendedSolids
IWA InternationalWaterAssociation
JHB JohannesburgProcess
LOT LimitofTechnology
MAUREEN MainstreamAutotrophicRecycleEnhancedNremoval
MBBR MovingBedBiofilmReactor
MBR MembraneBioreactor
MCL MaximumContaminantLevel
MF Microfiltration
MGD MillionGallonsperDay
mg/L Milligramsperliter
MLE ModifiedLudzackEttinger
MLSS MixedLiquorSuspendedSolids
MLVSS MixedLiquorVolatileSuspendedSolids
MMDF MaximumMonthDesignFlow
MUCT ModifiedUniversityofCapetown
MWRDGC MetropolitanWaterReclamationDistrictofGreaterChicago
N Nitrogen
NF Nanofiltration
NTU NephelometricTurbidityUnits
NOAA NationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration
NOB NitriteOxidizingBacteria
NPDES NationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem
NTT NitrogenTradingTool
ORD EPAOfficeofResearchandDevelopment
ORP OxidationReductionPotential
OSHA OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration
OUR OxygenUptakeRate
OWASA OrangeWaterandSewerAuthority
OWM EPAOfficeofWastewaterManagement
P Phosphorus
PACl PolyaluminumChloride
PAH PolycyclicAromaticHydrocarbons
PAO PhosphateAccumulatingOrganism
PHA Polyhydroxyalkanoate
PHB Polyhydroxybutyrate
PHV Polyhydroxyvalerate
PID PhasedIsolationDitch
PLC ProgrammableLogicController
POTW PubliclyOwnedTreatmentWorks
PPCPs PharmaceuticalsandPersonalCareProducts
RAS ReturnActivatedSludge

NutrientControlDesignManual xx August2010
RBC RotatingBiologicalContactor
rbCOD ReadilyBiodegradableChemicalOxygenDemand
rDON RecalcitrantDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
RO ReverseOsmosis
RSF RecirculatingSandFilters
SAV SubmergedAquaticVegetation
SBCOD SlowlyBiodegradableChemicalOxygenDemand
SBR SequencingBatchReactors
SCADA SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition
SCM SurfaceComplexationModeling
SDNR SpecificDenitrificationRate
SHARON SingleReactorHighActivityAmmoniaRemovalOver Nitrite
SNdN SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification
SRT SolidsRetentionTime
SSO SanitarySewerOverflow
STAC ChesapeakeBayProgramScientificandTechnicalAdvisory
Committee
SWIS SubsurfaceWastewaterInfiltrationSystem
TAL TechnologyAchievableLimit
TAN TotalAmmoniaNitrogen
TDS TotalDissolvedSolids
TKN TotalKjeldahlNitrogen
TMDL TotalMaximumDailyLoads
TN TotalNitrogen
TP TotalPhosphorus
TSS TotalSuspendedSolids
TUDP BioPModeloftheDelftUniversityofTechnology
UCT UniversityofCapetownProcess
UF Ultrafiltration
UOSA UpperOccoquanSewageAuthority
USDA U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture
USEPA U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
USGS U.S.GeologicalSurvey
VFA VolatileFattyAcid
VIP VirginiaInitiativePlant
VSS VolatileSuspendedSolids
WAS WasteActivatedSludge
WEF WaterEnvironmentFederation
WEFTEC WaterEnvironmentFederationTechnicalExhibitionand
Conference
WERF WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation
WQS WaterQualityStandards
WWTP WastewaterTreatmentPlant

NutrientControlDesignManual xxi August2010
Acknowledgements
Theprincipleauthorsofthisdocument,titledNutrientControlDesignManual,were:
Dr.CliffordRandall,ProfessorEmeritusofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatVirginiaTechand
DirectoroftheOccoquanWatershedMonitoringProgram
Dr.JamesBarnard,GlobalPracticeandTechnologyLeaderatBlack&Veatch
Dr.H.DavidStensel,ProfessorofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringattheUniversityofWashington
LauraDufresne,SeniorEngineer,theCadmusGroup,Inc.
EPAtechnicaldirectionandoversightwereprovidedbyDanMurray,EPAOfficeofResearchand
Development,NationalRiskManagementLaboratory.
EPAtechnicalreviewsofthedocumentwereperformedby:
EPAOfficeofResearchandDevelopment
DonaldBrown
DouglasGrosse
RichardBrenner
JamesSmith
MarcMills
JeffryYang
EdwinBarth
EPAHeadquarters
DonaldAnderson
PhilZahreddine
JamesWheeler
EPARegions
DavidPincumbe,Region1
RogerJanson,Region1
RussMartin,Region5
DaveRagsdale,Region10
Externaltechnicalreviewsofthedocumentwereperformedby
JeanetteBrown,StamfordWaterPollutionControlAuthority
TanyaSpano,MetropolitanWashingtonCouncilofGovernments(MWCOG)
S.JohKang,TetraTech

ThefollowingmembersoftheOhioWaterEnvironmentAssociation:
DaleE.Kocarek,StantecConsulting,Inc.
WilliamBarhorst,ARCADIS
DennisP.Meek,DMEngineering
KimRiddell,CityofDelphos
PaulFletcher,Jones&HenryEngineers
JasonTincu,CityofXenia
GaryHickman,CityofColumbus
RogerF.Gyger,m
2
tTechnologies
TedMarten,CityofTwinsburg
DavidWilson,ButlerCountyWaterandSewer
KarenHarrison,Jordan,Jones,Goulding
MaryLong,Black&Veatch
RobertHollis,SummitCounty
RickNoss,StantecConsulting
ThepingChen,AECOM
ShaunBeauchesne,HachCompany
DavidFrank,ARCADIS
ThefollowingmembersoftheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)NutrientsChallenge
Team:
JBNeethling,HDREngineering,Inc.
MarioBenisch,HDREngineering,Inc.
AmitPramanik,WERF
Diagramsforillustrationofspecificconceptswereprovidedby:
Dr.CliffordRandall,VirginiaTech
Dr.JamesBarnard,BlackandVeatch
Dr.H.DavidStensel,UniversityofWashington
NutrientControlDesignManual xxii August2010

1.Introduction
Chapter1covers:
1.1 HistoryofNutrientRemoval
1.2 PurposeandScopeofthisManual
1.3 ManualOrganization
1.4 References
1.1 HistoryofNutrientRemoval
1
Biologicalnutrientremoval(BNR)atwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTP)beganintheearly
1960s.PioneerssuchasLudzackandEttinger(1961)andWuhrman(1964)madeeffortstodevelop
biologicalnitrogenremoval(nitrificationdenitrification)wastewatertreatmentsystems.Levinand
Shapiro(1965)researchedbiologicalphosphorusremoval,anddevelopedapatentedprocessforit,
knownasPhoStrip.However,thesystemsdevisedbyLudzack,Ettinger,andWuhrman,didnotutilizean
internalrecycletoobtainsignificantutilizationoftheinfluentbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD),and
theproposedbiologicalmechanismsofthePhoStripprocessremainedcontroversialbecauseitstwo
finalstepswerethereleaseofphosphorusfromactivatedsludgeunderanaerobicconditionsandthen
chemicalprecipitationofthereleasedphosphorusinaseparatereactor.
Themajorprocessdevelopmentbreakthroughsforbiologicalremovalofbothnitrogenand
phosphorusutilizingtheinfluentBODresultedfromtheworkofJamesBarnardinSouthAfricainthe
early1970s.Hefirstdevelopedasinglesludgeprocessconfigurationwithinternalrecyclethatutilized
theinfluentBODfordenitrification(1973).Itsubsequentlybecamethestandardnitrogenremoval
processforthewastewaterindustry.ItisnowknownasthemodifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)process.
Healsodemonstratedthatanaerobicaerobicsequencingofactivatedsludge,withinfluentBODfirst
flowingintotheanaerobiczone,wasnecessarytoobtainrobustbiologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR).
Thisdiscoverywasfirstpublishedin1975.Theoreticalsupportthatthemechanismwasbiologicaland
notchemicalwassuppliedbyFuhsandChen(1975)inthesameyear.Barnarddevelopedseveral
processconfigurationsforbothseparateandcombinedbiologicalremovalofnitrogenandphosphorus.
Afourstageanoxicaerobicanoxicaerobicprocessdesignedprimarilyfornitrogenremovalwas
patentedastheBardenphoProcess(1978).Thefivestageversion,createdbyaddingananaerobiczone
asthefirststagebecameknownastheModifiedBardenphoProcess.
Alsoduringthemid1970s,ananaerobicaerobicwastewatertreatmentconfigurationwasbeing
developedintheUnitedStatesforcontroloffilamentousgrowthsinactivatedsludge.Thisprocesswas
patentedbyMarshallSpectorandacquiredbyAirProductsandChemical,Inc.Theylearnedfrom
BarnardthatanaerobicaerobicsequencingofactivatedsludgealsocouldbeusedtoaccomplishBPR
andpatentedtheconfigurationastheAnaerobicOxic(AO)process,whichwasidenticaltothePhoredox
configurationdevelopedbyBarnardinSouthAfrica.Theythencombineditwithananoxiczoneand
patentedtheresultingconfigurationastheAnaerobicAnoxicOxic(A2/O)process,againidenticaltoa
configurationdevelopedbyBarnard.Atthistime,thedetrimentalimpactsofnitraterecycleinreturn
1
ByDr.CliffordRandall,ProfessorEmeritus,VirginiaTech
NutrientControlDesignManual 11 August2010
activatedsludge(RAS)totheanaerobiczoneonBPRperformancewasnotfullyunderstood,andmany
ofthePhoStrip,Phoredox/A2/O,andModifiedBardenphoplantswereremovingphosphoruserratically.
TheSouthAfricanGovernmentrequestedthatProfessorGerritMaraisandhiscoworkersatthe
UniversityofCapeTowninvestigateandresolvetheissue.Theydevelopedamodificationofthe
Phoredox/A2/Oconfiguration,dubbedtheUniversityofCapeTown(UCT)process,thatfirstsentthe
RAStotheanoxiczonethenaddedasecondinternalrecycletorecycledenitrifiedmixedliquorfromthe
effluentoftheanoxiczonebacktotheinfluentoftheanaerobiczone.Basedonthesuppositionthat
denitrificationwouldoccuronlyintheanoxiczone,amodifiedversionoftheUCTprocesswas
developedforwastewaterswithahighTotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN)toBODratio.
BNRwasintroducedtoNorthAmericaintheearly1980sthroughimplementationofBNR
facilitiesatKelowna,BC,Canada,andatOrangeCounty,FL.BNRwasintroducedtotheChesapeakeBay
regionin1984byaseminarandaworkshoporganizedbyDr.CliffordRandall(VirginiaTech)andheldat
Richmond,VA.Then,workingwiththeHamptonRoadsSanitationDistrict(HRSD)andtheVirginiaWater
PollutionControlBoard,apilotplantstudyofahighrateUCTprocesswasconductedattheHRSD
LambertsPointprimarytreatmentplantin198586,andfollowedbyfullscaleresearchdemonstrations
oftheA/O,A2/OandUCTprocessesattheHRSDYorkRiverPlantfrom198690.OverlappingtheYork
Riverdemonstrations,whichresultedinpatentingoftheVirginiaInitiativePlant(VIP)BNRprocess,were
fullscaledemonstrationsofBNR(bothNandPremoval)attheAnneArundelCounty,MD,Maryland
CityWWTP,andtheBowie,MD,WWTP.Alsooverlappingtheseeventswerethedesignand
constructionoftheMauldinRoadWWTP,Greeneville,SC,andmodificationoftwoplantsinCharlotte,
NC.NorthAmericanBNRdevelopmentsmovedrapidlyinthelate1980sandearly1990s,resultingin
BPRandBNRimplementation,designandconstructionatsitesasdiverseastheBonnybrookWWTP,
Alberta,Canada,HillsboroughCounty,FL,Frederick,MD,Atlanta,GA,andmodificationoftheHoward
County,MD,WWTPfromthePhoStriptothePhoredox/A2/Oconfiguration.
BNRbegantobeimplementedinEuropeonawidespreadbasisin1987,firstinGermanyand
TheNetherlands,followedbyDenmark,Austria,CzechRepublic,ItalyandFrance.SchreiberKlarenlagen
withtheiruniqueSimultechProcesswhereinBPR,nitrification,anddenitrificationalloccurred
simultaneouslyinonecontinuousflowreactorwasapacesetterinGermanywhileKruger,Inc.,ledthe
wayinDenmarkundertheguidanceofProfessorPoulHarremoesandhiscoworkersattheDanish
InstituteofTechnology.
TheengineeringartofBNRhasprogressedtowardsmaturityduringthepasttwodecadeswith
theadditionofadvancedpracticessuchasprefermentationofprimarysludgetoenhanceBPR,
integrationoffixedfilmmediaintoactivatedsludge(IFAS)toenhancenitrogenremoval,utilizationof
biologicalfiltersfornitrogenremoval,andwidespreaduseoftertiaryfiltersfordentrificationand
chemicalphosphorusremovaltolowerlevels.Recenteffortstodevelopeconomicalmethodsforthe
nutrientremovalinsiteswithlimitedspaceforexpansionhaveresultedintheemergenceoftwo
innovativetechnologicalapproaches:
1) Technologiessuchasmembranebioreactorsorballastedflocculationtoremovesuspended
solidstoverylowconcentrationsandsimultaneouslyeliminateorgreatlyreducethesizeof
secondarysettlingbasins.
2) SidestreamprocessessuchasSHARON,ANAMMOX,INNITRIandotherstoeitherremove
nitrogenfromammoniarichflowsfromsludgeprocessingorenhanceremovalinthemain
streamprocess.
NitrogenremovalhasbeenwidelyimplementedalongtheConnecticutcoastofLongIsland
Sound.Morestringenteffluentstandards,typically3.0milligramsperliter(mg/L)totalnitrogen(TN)and
0.1orlowermg/Ltotalphosphorus(TP),inregionssuchastheChesapeakeBaywatershed,coastal
areasofNorthCarolina,OkanaganLakeareaofBritishColumbia,Canada,midColoradoandKalispell,
WY,haveadvancedtheartfromBNRtoenhancednutrientremoval(ENR).AcombinationofBNR,
chemicaladditionsandeffluentfiltrationaretypicallyusedtoaccomplishENR.
Acleartrendofthewastewatertreatmentindustryisagreateremphasisonincorporating
elementsofrecycle,recovery,andreuseintoplantdesignandoperation.Sustainablenutrientrecovery
andreuseisgainingnationalandinternationalattentionaswastewaterutilitieslookforwaysto
decreaseenergycostsandgreenhousegasemissions,utilizeexcesscapacity,generatenewrevenue,
andaddressevermorestringentregulatoryrequirements.Thisevolutioninthinkingismoving
wastewatertreatmenttoenhancedenergyefficiencyandchangingtheroleofwastewatertreatment
facilitiesfromwastegeneratorstoresourceproviders.
1.2 PurposeandScopeofthisManual
Researchandtechnologydevelopmentthroughthemid70swerethebasisforEPAsfirstdesign
manualfornitrogencontroltechnologies.Thisdocument,ProcessDesignManualforNitrogen
Control,(EPA,1975)waspublishedin1975.Thismanualcoveredabroadrangeofprocessesthatwere
beingevaluatedandappliedatthetime.Theintentofthemanualwastopresentdesigninformationfor
technologiesthatappearedtohaveaviable,practicalapplicationtonitrogencontrol.Twobroad
categoriesoftreatmentprocesseswereaddressed.Thefirstgroupofprocessesprovidesforthe
conversionoforganicandammoniumnitrogenbyoxidationtonitratenitrogen.Theseprocessesare
biologicalandaregenerallyreferredtoasnitrification.Thesecondgroupofprocessesremovesnitrogen
fromthewastewater.Theseprocessesarealsobiological,usingananoxicdenitrificationstepwith
nitrification.Physical/chemicalprocesseswerealsopresentedfornitrogenremoval,includingion
exchange,ammoniastripping,andbreakpointchlorination.Betweenthepublicationofthefirstnitrogen
controlmanualandtheupdateofthemanualin1993,thetrendinnitrogencontroltechnologywas
almostexclusivelytowardsbiologicalprocesses.Biologicalprocessesbecameprovenandwell
demonstratedandweremostefficientlyexpandedorupgradedforbiologicalnitrificationortotal
nitrogenremoval.Thefocusofthe1993updateddocument,ManualNitrogenControl,(EPA,1993)
wasonbiological/mechanicalprocessesthatwerefindingwidespreadapplicationfornitrificationand
nitrogenremoval.
In1971,EPApublisheditsfirstphosphoruscontroldesignmanual.Thismanual,ProcessDesign
ManualforPhosphorusRemoval,(EPA,1971)focusedonphosphorusremovalmethodsthatinvolve
chemicalprecipitation.Primarily,themanualfocusedonthechemicalprecipitationofphosphorususing
saltsofaluminumandiron,andlime.Thechemicalapplicationpointsaddressedinthemanualwere
beforeprimarysettling,intheaerationtanks,beforefinalsettling,orinatertiaryprocess.In1976,
ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemoval(EPA,1976)wasupdated.Specifically,design
guidanceforphosphorusremovalusingmineraladditionandlimeadditionbeforeprimarysettlingwas
revised.Also,guidanceforchemicalstorage,chemicalfeedsystemsandresidualshandlinganddisposal
wasupdated.In1987,EPApublishedtwotechnicaldocumentsthataddressedphosphoruscontrol.The
firstwasanupdatetothe1976ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemoval(EPA,1987a).The
secondwasahandbooktitled,HandbookRetrofittingPOTWsforPhosphorusRemovalinthe
ChesapeakeBayDrainageBasin.(EPA,1987b)Theupdateofthedesignmanualincludedamajor
additionofguidanceforbiologicalphosphorusremoval.Also,theuseoflimeadditionwasnotcovered
inthisupdateduetoitslossofpopularityinthe80s.Thetechnicalguidanceprovidedinthe1987
handbookwasfocusedontheuniquephosphorusremovalrequirementsbeingappliedtomunicipal
wastewatertreatmentplantsintheChesapeakeBaywatershed.Becauseofthevaryinglevelsof
phosphoruscontrolwithinthewatershed,thehandbookincludedanassessmentoftechnologiesfor
meetingtotalphosphoruseffluentlimitsof0.2mg/L,0.5mg/L,1mg/L,and2mg/L.Becausesome
treatmentplantsintheChesapeakeBaywatershedneedtocontrolbothnitrogenandphosphorus,the
handbookincludedachaptertitled,CompatibilityofChemicalandBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalwith
NitrogenControl.
In2007,EPAinitiatedtheprocesstodevelopupdateddesignguidanceforbothnitrogenand
phosphorusremovalatmunicipalWWTPs.Thefirststepwasanextensive,stateofthetechnology
reviewofnitrogenandphosphoruscontroltechnologiesandtechniquescurrentlyappliedandemerging
atmunicipalwastewatertreatmentplants.Thistechnologyreviewculminatedwiththepublicationof
theNutrientControlDesignManual:StateoftheTechnologyReviewReport(USEPA2009)asan
interimdocumentinthedevelopmentoftheupdateddesignmanuals.
ThepurposeofthisEPAdesignmanualistoprovideupdated,stateofthetechnologydesign
guidanceonnitrogenandphosphoruscontrolatmunicipalWWTPstowastewaterutilityownersand
operators,stateandEPApermitwriters,andenvironmentalengineeringprofessionals.Similarto
previousEPAmanuals,thismanualincludesextensiveinformationontheprinciplesofbiological
nutrientremovalandchemicalphosphorusremovaltoserveasthebasisfordesign.Adetailed
descriptionoftechnologies,bothconventionalandemerging,servesasaresourceforpreliminary
technologyselection.Themanualpresentsnewinformationonemergingissuesintheindustrysuchas
sustainabilityinwastewatertreatmentdesignandoperation,nutrientrecoveryandreuse,effluent
dissolvedorganicnitrogen,andmeasurementoflowphosphorusconcentrations.Althoughthismanual
providessomeexamplesofproprietaryandemergingtechnologies,EPArecognizesthattheindustryis
continuallyevolvingandthatnewtechnologiesnotidentifiedinthismanualmayemergeinthefuture.
BecausethemajorityofWWTPsintheUnitedStatesareequippedwithsecondarybiological
treatment,thefocusofthisdesignmanualisonprocessandtechnologymodifications/additionsfor
nutrientremovalatexistingWWTPsratherthanonnewtreatmentplantdesign,althoughguidancefor
greenfielddesignispresented.Alsonewfrompreviousversions,designguidancehereinisbasedonthe
useofmathematicalmodelsandsimulators.Simulatorsallowdesignerstostudykineticaswellastime
basedsolutionswhiledeterminingthetotalmassbalancesofmanyconstituents.Theyhavebecome
increasinglypowerful,easytouse,widelyaccepted,andrecommendedbyWEFandASCE(2010)forthe
designofbiologicalnutrientremovalfacilities.EarlierversionsofEPAnutrientcontrolmanuals(USEPA
1993;USEPA1987a;USEPA1987b)stillcontainveryusefulguidance(includingexamples)onprocess
designusinghandcalculationsthatcanbeusedforverypreliminarysizingorchecksonsimulation
results.
Thismanualcomplimentsdetailedcostdataandindepthfacilitycasestudiespublishedinthe
MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument(USEPA2008a)andanalysisofemerging
technologiesfornutrientremovalpresentedintheEmergingTechnologiesReportonWastewater
Treatment(USEPA2008b).BothdocumentsareavailablefordownloadfromEPAswebsiteat
http://www.epa.gov/OWM/mtb/publications.htm
1.3 ManualOrganization
Thisdesignmanualhas14chaptersand3appendices.Itisgenerallyorganizedwiththetheory
ofnutrientremovalpresentedfirstfollowedbyadescriptionofnutrientremovaltechnologies;guidance
onestablishingdesignobjectivesandselectingcandidatetreatmentprocesses;anddesignapproaches
forchemicalphosphorusremoval,biologicalnutrientremoval,andeffluentfiltration.Laterchapters
describeoperationalimprovementsforenhancingtechnologyperformanceandguidanceon
instrumentationandcontrols.Thelastchapter,Chapter14,discussessustainablerecoveryandreuse.A
moredetaileddescriptionofeachchapterisprovidedbelow.
Chapter2.NeedforandBenefitsofNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalprovidesbackground
informationonsourcesofnitrogenandphosphorusinwastewater.Itreviewsthestatusof
wastewatertreatmentintheU.S.,theimpairmentofwaterwaysbyexcessivenutrients,
governmentandindustryinitiativestoreducenutrientpollution,andtheadditionalbenefitsand
challengesofnutrientremoval.
Chapter3.PrinciplesofPhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAdditiondescribestheavailable
formsofmetalsaltsandlimeandtheirreactionswithphosphorus.Itprovidesageneral
descriptionofsolidsseparationprocessandtheeffectsofvarioustreatmentoptionsonsludge
productionandhandling.
Chapter4.PrinciplesofBiologicalNitrogenRemovalexaminesthefundamentalmicrobiology
behindnitrificationanddenitrificationincludingstoichiometricsandkinetics.Itdiscusses
denitrificationkineticswithinternalandexternalcarbonsources.Simultaneousnitrification
denitrificationandpotentialimpactsonsludgehandlingarealsodiscussed.
Chapter5.PrinciplesofBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalprovidesadetaileddiscussionofthe
biologicalphosphorusremovalprocessincludingkinetics,substraterequirements,
environmentalconditions,designandoperationalconsiderations,andimpactsonsludge
processingandhandling.
Chapter6.OverviewofNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologiesdescribesthe
technologiesavailableforremovingnitrogen,phosphorus,orbothfromwastewater.Diagrams
areprovidedformosttechnologies.Itpresentsinformationontechnologyperformance
includingdesignandoperationalfactorsaffectingaplantsabilitytoachieveloweffluent
concentrations.
Chapter7.EstablishingDesignObjectivessummarizesthiscriticalstepinupgradingor
retrofittinganexistingWWTP.Itprovidesguidanceonestablishingdesignflowrates,
characterizingflowandcontaminantsininfluentwastewaterincludingdetailedsampling
methodologiesanddataverificationsteps,andsettinggoalsforprocessreliability,sustainability,
andflexibility.Thechapteralsodescribessolidshandlingoptionsandsiteconstraints.
Chapter8.SelectingCandidateTreatmentProcessesforPlantUpgradesdescribestechnology
selectionfactorsincludingtreatmentgoals,availablefootprint,hydraulicconsiderations,
chemicalneeds,solidsprocessingcapabilities,andenergyconsiderations.Itsummarizes
advantagesanddisadvantagesofdifferenttechnologytypes.Italsoprovidesanoverviewofa
recommendedapproachtotechnologyselectionanddiscussesuseofadvancedtools.
Chapter9.DesignApproachforPhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAdditionprovidesguidelines
onselectingachemicalprecipitant,choosingapplicationpoints,anddeterminingchemicaldose.
Itprovidesdetailedguidanceondesigningachemicalfeedsystemandconsiderationsforrapid
mix,flocculation,andsolidsseparationprocessestomaximizephosphorusremoval.
Chapter10.DesignApproachforBiologicalNutrientRemovalpresentsastepbystepapproach
fordesigningwastewatertreatmentupgradesfornutrientremovalusingmathematicalmodels.
Itprovidespracticalrecommendationsfordatacollectionandevaluationandmodelcalibration.
Itincludesdesignchecksfornitrogenandphosphorusremoval.Thischapteralsoprovidesan
alternativedesignapproachusinghandorspreadsheetcalculationsthatdesignerscanuseto
prepareroughestimatesand/ortocheckmodeloutputs.
Chapter11.DesignApproachforEffluentFiltrationdiscussestheoptionsinfiltration
technologyforeffluentpolishingandnutrientremoval.Itprovidesdesignguidanceongranular
mediafiltersandalternativetechnologiessuchasclothfilters,diskfilters,andmembranes.
Informationonemergingfiltrationtechnologiesforremovalofphosphorustoloweffluent
concentrationsisalsoprovided.
Chapter12.OperationandOptimizationtoEnhanceNutrientRemovalincludesinformationon
howtooptimizetheperformanceofexistingoperationsbyincorporatingSCADAandother
instrumentation.Thechapteralsodiscussescommonoperationalchangestoimprovesystem
performanceandenhancethecosteffectivenessoftreatmentprocesses.
Chapter13.InstrumentationandControlsdiscussesonlineinstrumentationfornutrientcontrol
includingautomatedcontrolandoptimization,advancedautomatedcontrol,andSCADA
equipment,allofwhichcanleadtobetterprocessoptimizationandmorestabletechnology
performance.
Chapter14.SustainableNutrientRecoveryandReuseexaminesthelatestadvancesinnutrient
recoveryincludingseparatingandtreatingwasteonsiteandhowtousewastewatertreatment
byproductstodecreaseenergycostsandgreenhousegasemissions,takeadvantageofexcess
capacity,andgeneratenewrevenue.
The manual is supported by three technical appendices containing recommendations on

methanolsafety(AppendixA),alistoforganiccompoundsandinhibitoryconcentrationstonitrification
(Appendix B), and background information on mathematical models for biological nutrient removal
(AppendixC).
1.4 References
Barnard,J.L.1973.BiologicalDenitrification.JournalofWaterPollutionControl72(6):705720.
Barnard,J.L.1975.NutrientRemovalinBiologicalSystems.JournalofWaterPollutionControl,143154.
Barnard,J.L.1978.TheBardenphoProcess.In:AdvancesinWaterandWastewaterTreatmentBiological
NutrientRemoval.M.P.WanielistaandW.W.Eckenfelder,Jr.(eds.),AnnArborScience,AnnArbor,MI.
Fuhs,G.W.andM.Chen.1975.MicrobiologicalBasisofPhosphateRemovalintheActivatedSludge
ProcessfortheTreatmentofWastewater.MicrobialEcology.2(2):11938
Levin,G.V.andJ.Shapiro.1965.MetabolicUptakeofPhosphorusbyWastewaterOrganisms.Journalof
theWaterPollutionControlFederation(JWPCF),37(6):800821.
Ludzack,F.J.,andM.B.Ettinger.1961.ControllingOperationtoMinimizeActivatedSludgeEffluent
Nitrogen.JournaloftheWaterPollutionControlFederation(JWPCF),34(9):920931,1961
Wuhrman,K.1964.NitrogenRemovalinSewageTreatmentProcesses.Verhandlungenden
InternationalenVereinLimnologie,15:580596,1964.
USEPA.1971.ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemoval.October1971.
USEPA.1975.ProcessDesignManualforNitrogenControl.October1975.
USEPA.1976.ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemoval.EPA/625/176001a,April1976.
USEPA.1987a.DesignManualPhosphorusRemoval.EPA/625/187/001,September1987.
USEPA.1987b.HandbookRetrofittingPOTWsforPhosphorusRemovalintheChesapeakeBayDrainage
Basin.EPA/625/687/017,September1987.
USEPA.1993.ManualNitrogenControl.EPA/625/R93/010,September1993.
USEPAb.2008a.MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument.OfficeofWastewater
Management,MunicipalSupportDivision.EPA832R08006.Availableonline:
USEPA.2008b.EmergingTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentandInPlantWetWeather
Management.EPA832R06006.Availableonline:http://www.epa.gov/OW
OWM.html/mtb/emerging_technologies.pdf
USEPA.2009.NutrientControlDesignManual:StateofTechnologyReviewReport.OfficeofResearch
andDevelopment.EPA/600/R09/012.January2009.Availableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r09012/600r09012.pdf#22

Thispageleftintentionallyblank
2.NeedforandBenefitsofNitrogenandPhosphorusRemoval
Chapter2covers:
2.1 Introduction
2.2 SourcesofNitrogenandPhosphorusinWastewater
2.3 StatusofWastewaterTreatmentintheUnitedStates
2.4 NutrientImpairmentofU.S.Waterways
2.5 ClimateChangeImpacts
2.6 FederalandStateRegulationsandInitiativestoReduceNutrient
Pollution
2.7 IndustryInitiativestheWERFRemovalChallenge
2.8 BenefitsofNutrientRemoval
2.9 ChallengesofNutrientRemoval
2.10 References
2.1 Introduction
Theharmfuleffectsofeutrophicationduetoexcessivenitrogenandphosphorusconcentrations
intheaquaticenvironmenthavebeenwelldocumented.Algaeandphytoplanktongrowthcanbe
acceleratedbyhigherconcentrationsofnutrients,leadingtoharmfulalgalblooms,hypoxia,andlossof
submergedaquaticvegetation(SAV).Dependingonthespecificwaterbodycharacteristics,either
nitrogenorphosphoruscanbelimiting(i.e.,presentinthesmallestamountcomparedtogrowth
requirements).Inadditiontostimulatingeutrophication,nitrogenintheformofammoniacanexerta
directdemandondissolvedoxygen(DO)andcanbetoxictoaquaticlife.Evenifawastewater
treatmentplant(WWTP)convertsammoniatonitratebyabiologicalnitrificationprocess,theresultant
nitratecanstimulatealgaeandphytoplanktongrowth.
Fromapublichealthperspective,eutrophicationmayalsocauseriskstohumanhealth,resulting
fromconsumptionofshellfishcontaminatedwithalgaltoxinsordirectexposuretowaterbornetoxins.
Eutrophication,inparticular,cancreateproblemsifthewaterisusedasasourceofdrinkingwater.
Chemicalsusedtodisinfectdrinkingwaterwillreactwithorganiccompoundsinthesourcewaterto
formdisinfectionbyproducts,whicharepotentialcarcinogensandareregulatedbytheUSEPA.Excess
levelsofnitratesabovethemaximumcontaminantlevel(MCL)indrinkingwater(10ppm)cancause
numerousnegativehealtheffectsduetothebodysconversionofnitratetonitrite,includingserious
illnessandsometimesdeath.Infantsinparticulararesusceptibletotheseeffects,whichcaninterfere
withtheoxygencarryingcapacityoftheblood.Thisinterferencecanleadtoanacuteconditioninwhich
healthdeterioratesrapidlyoveraperiodofdays.Symptomsincludeshortnessofbreathandbluenessof
theskin(methemoglobinemia;alsoknownasBluebabySyndrome).
Forthesereasons,itisimportanttolimitnitrogenandphosphoruscontaminationofsurfaceand
groundwater.Onewaytominimizethiscontaminationistoreducelevelsofnitrogenandphosphorus
inwastewatertreatmentplanteffluent.Thischapterwilldiscussthevarioussourcesofthese
contaminants,theimpactstheyhaveintheenvironment,initiativesthatarebeingtakentoreducethese
pollutants,andthebenefitsthatcanberealizedbytheseefforts.
2.2 SourcesofNitrogenandPhosphorusinWastewater
Thissectionprovidesanoverviewofthesourcesofnitrogenandphosphorusinwastewater.
2.2.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogenisanessentialnutrientforplantsandanimals.Approximately80percentoftheEarths
atmosphereiscomposedofnitrogen,anditisakeyelementofproteinsandcells.Themajor
contributorsofnitrogentowastewaterarehumanactivitiessuchasfoodpreparation,showering,and
wasteexcretion.Thepercapitacontributionofnitrogenindomesticwastewaterisaboutonefifthof
thatforbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD).Totalnitrogenindomesticwastewatertypicallyranges
from20to70mg/Lforlowtohighstrengthwastewater(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Factorsaffecting
concentrationincludetheextentofinfiltrationandthepresenceofindustries.Influentconcentration
variesduringthedayandcanvarysignificantlyduringrainfallevents,asaresultofinflowandinfiltration
tothecollectionsystem.
Themostcommonformsofnitrogeninwastewaterare:
Ammonia(NH
3
)
Ammoniumion(NH
4
+
)
Nitrite(NO
2
)
Nitrate(NO
3
)
Organicnitrogen
TotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN)isacommonnitrogenmeasurementparameter.Thismeasurement
combinesammoniumandorganicnitrogen,i.e.reducedformsofnitrogen.Italsoistypicallyequalto
thetotalnitrogen(TN)inwastewatersinfluenttosewagetreatmentplantsbecauseconditionsinsewers
usuallyresultinthereductionofalloxidizedformsofnitrogen.However,thisisnottrueinsome
collectionsystems,notablythoseinsteepterrainswheresheetflowmaydominateflowinthesewers,
resultinginaerationofthesewageandtheformationofnitratesduringflow.Theoxidizedformsof
nitrogenmustbemeasuredinadditiontoTKNtodetermineinfluentTNforsuchcollectionsystems.
Nitrogenindomesticwastewaterconsistsofapproximately60to70percentammonianitrogen
and30to40percentorganicnitrogen(Tchobanoglousetal.2003;CritesandTchobanoglous1998).
Mostoftheammonianitrogenisderivedfromurea,whichbreaksdownrapidlytoammoniain
wastewaterinfluent.

WWTPsdesignedfornitrificationanddenitrificationcanremove80to95percentofinorganic
nitrogen,buttheremovaloforganicnitrogenistypicallymuchlessefficient(PehlivanogluMantasand
Sedlak,2006).Domesticwastewaterorganicnitrogenmaybepresentinparticulate,colloidal,or
dissolvedformsandconsistofproteins,aminoacids,aliphaticNcompounds,refractorynatural
compoundsindrinkingwater(e.g.,humicsubstances),orsyntheticcompounds(e.g.,ethylenediamine
tetraaceticacid(EDTA)andtextiledyes).Organicnitrogenmaybereleasedinsecondarytreatmentby
microorganismseitherthroughmetabolismorupondeathandlysis.Somenitrogenmaybecontainedin
recondensationproducts.Hydrolysisofparticulateandcolloidalmaterialbymicroorganismsreleases
someorganicnitrogenasdissolved,biodegradablecompounds.Aminoacidsarereadilydegraded
duringsecondarybiologicaltreatment,with90to98percentremovalinactivatedsludgesystemsand
76to96percentremovalintricklingfilters.However,otherformsoforganicnitrogenmaybemore
persistentinwastewatertreatmentprocesses.
Theimportanceoftheorganicnitrogenfractionhasincreasedaseffluentlimitsonnitrogen
havebecomemorestringent.Withmoreimpairedwaterwaysfromnutrientloads,effluentlimitsfor
totalnitrogen(TN)concentrationsof3.0mg/Lorlessarebecomingmorecommon.Thedissolved
organicnitrogen(DON)concentrationintheeffluentfrombiologicalnutrientremoval(BNR)treatment
facilitieswasfoundtorangefrom0.50to1.50mg/Lin80percentof188plantsreportedbyPagilla
(STACWERF2007),andvaluesashighas2.5mg/Lwereobserved.Thus,forsystemswithouteffluent
filtrationormembranebioreactors(MBRs)thataretryingtomeetaTNtreatmentgoalof3.0mg/L,the
effluentDONcontributioncaneasilybe20to50percentofthetotaleffluentnitrogenconcentration,
comparedtoonlyabout10percentforconventionaltreatment(PehlivanogluMantasandSedlak2004).
SeeChapter4ofthismanualforadditionaldiscussionofeffluentDONanditsimplicationsfornutrient
removal.
2.2.2 Phosphorus
Totalphosphorus(TP)indomesticwastewatertypicallyrangesbetween4and8mg/Lbutcanbe
higherdependingonindustrialsources,waterconservation,orwhetheradetergentbanisinplace.
Sourcesofphosphorusarevaried.Somephosphorusispresentinallbiologicalmaterial,asitisan
essentialnutrientandpartofacellsenergycycle.Phosphorusisusedinfertilizers,detergents,and
cleaningagentsandispresentinhumanandanimalwaste.
Phosphorusinwastewaterisinoneofthreeforms:
Phosphate(alsocalledOrthophosphate)
Polyphosphate
Organicphosphorus
Theorthophosphatefractionissolubleandcanbeinoneofseveralforms(e.g.,phosphoricacid,
phosphateion)dependingonthesolutionpH.Polyphosphatesarehighenergy,condensedphosphates
suchaspyrophosphateandtrimetaphosphate.Theyarealsosolublebutwillnotbeprecipitatedoutof
wastewaterbymetalsaltsorlime.Theycanbeconvertedtophosphatethroughhydrolysiswhichis
verysloworbybiologicalactivity.
Organicphosphoruscanbesoluble,colloidalorparticulate,i.e.settleable.Itcanalsobedivided
intobiodegradableandnonbiodegradablefractions.Particulateandcolloidalorganicphosphorusis
generallysettledorprecipitatedoutandremovedwiththesludge.Solubleorganicbiodegradable
phosphoruscanbehydrolyzedintoorthophosphateduringthetreatmentprocess.Solubleorganicnon
biodegradablephosphoruswillpassthroughaWWTP.AssuminganinfluentTPof68mg/L,atypical
wastewaterwillcontain3to4mg/Lphosphorusasphosphate,2to3mg/Laspolyphosphate,and1
mg/Lasorganicallyboundphosphorus(WEFandASCE2006).
2.3 StatusofWastewaterTreatmentintheUnitedStates
The1972AmendmentstotheFederalWaterPollutionControlAct(FWPCA)(PublicLaw92500),
alsoknownastheCleanWaterAct(CWA),establishedthefoundationforwastewaterdischargecontrol
intheUnitedStates.TheCWAsprimaryobjectiveistorestoreandmaintainthechemical,physical,
andbiologicalintegrityoftheNationswaters.TheCWAestablishedaprogramtoensurecleanwater
byrequiringpermitsthatlimittheamountofpollutantsdischargedbyallmunicipalandindustrial
dischargersintoreceivingwaters.DischargesareregulatedundertheNationalPollutantDischarge
EliminationSystem(NPDES)permitprogram.Asof2004,therewere16,583municipalwastewater
treatmentplants[alsoknownasPubliclyOwnedTreatmentWorks(POTWs)]regulatedundertheCWA,
servingapproximately75percentofthenationspopulation(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA2008)
withtheremainingpopulationservedbysepticorotherdecentralized(cluster)systems.
Wastewatertreatmenthasgenerallybeendefinedascontainingoneormoreofthefollowing
fourprocesses:(1)preliminary,(2)primary,(3)secondary,and(4)advanced(ortertiary)treatment.
Preliminarytreatmentconsistsofgritremoval,whichremovesdenseinertparticles,andscreeningto
removeragsandotherlargedebris.Primarytreatmentinvolvesgravitysettlingtankstoremove
settleablesolids,includingsettleableorganicsolids.Theperformanceofprimarysettlingtankscanbe
enhancedbyaddingchemicalstocaptureandflocculatesmallersolidparticlesfortheprecipitationand
removalofphosphorus.Secondarytreatmentfollowsprimarytreatmentinmostplantsandemploys
biologicalprocessestoremovecolloidalandsolubleorganicmatter.Effluentdisinfectionisusually
includedinthedefinitionofsecondarytreatment.
EPAclassifiesadvancedtreatmentasaleveloftreatmentthatismorestringentthansecondary
orproducesasignificantreductioninconventional,nonconventional,ortoxicpollutantspresentinthe
wastewater(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA2008).
Othertechnicalreferencessubdivide
advancedtreatment,usingthetermssecondarywithnutrientremovalwhennitrogen,phosphorus,or
bothareremovedandtertiaryremovaltorefertoadditionalreductioninsolidsbyfiltersor
microfilters(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Effluentfiltrationandnutrientremovalarethemostcommon
advancedtreatmentprocesses.
TheCWArequiresthatallmunicipalWWTPdischargesmeetaminimumofsecondary
treatment.Basedondatafromthe2004CleanWatershedsNeedsSurvey,16,543municipalWWTPs
(99.8percentofplantsinthecountry)meettheminimumsecondarywastewatertreatment
requirements.Ofthosethatprovideatleastsecondarytreatment,approximately44percent(7,322
plants)providesomekindofadvancedtreatment(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA2008).Figure2
1showshowsecondaryandadvancedwastewatertreatmenthasbeenimplementedsince1940and
alsoprovidesprojectedtreatmentfor2024.NotethatNoDischargereferstosystemsthatdonot
dischargetreatedwastewatertothenationswaterwaysbutinsteaddisposeofwastewaterviamethods
suchasindustrialreuse,irrigation,orevaporation.
0.0%
20.0%
40.0%
60.0%
80.0%
100.0%
1940 1950 1962 1968 1972 1978 1982 1988 1992 1996 2000 2004 Projected
Year
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

o
f

T
o
t
a
l

U
.
S
.

P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
R
e
c
e
i
v
i
n
g

W
a
s
t
e
w
a
t
e
r

T
r
e
a
t
m
e
n
t
No Discharge
Advanced
Secondary
Less Than Secondary
Raw
Figure21.PopulationservedbyPOTWsnationwideforselectyearsbetween1940and2004andprojectedto2024(ifallneeds
aremet),organizedbywastewatertreatmenttype.Source:U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPACleanWatershedsNeeds
Surveys2004ReporttoCongress(U.S.PublicHealthServiceandUSEPA2008).
2.4 NutrientImpairmentofU.S.Waterways
Accordingtothe2007reportEffectsofNutrientEnrichmentintheNationsEstuaries:ADecade
ofChange,
increasednutrientloadingspromoteaprogressionofsymptomsthatbeginwithexcessive
growthofphytoplanktonandmacroalgaeandadvancetothepointwheregrazerscannotcontrol
growth(Brickeretal.,2007).Thesebloomsmaybeproblematic,potentiallylastingformonthsatatime
andblockingsunlighttolightdependentSAV.Inadditiontoincreasedgrowth,changesinnaturally
occurringratiosofnutrientsmayalsoaffectwhichspeciesdominate,potentiallyleadingto
nuisance/toxicalgalblooms.Thesebloomsmayalsoleadtoother,moreserioussymptomsthataffect
biota,suchaslowDOandlossofSAV.Oncewatercolumnnutrientshavebeendepletedby
phytoplanktonandmacroalgaeandthesebloomsdie,thebacteriadecomposingthealgaethen
consumeoxygen,makingitlessavailabletosurroundingaerobicaquaticlife.Consequently,fishand
invertebratekillsmayoccurduetohypoxiaandanoxia(conditionsoflowtonoDO).
Fourexamplesofimpairedlargewaterbodiesimpactedbynutrientloadingsaredescribed
below.Therearemorethan80additionalestuariesandbays,andthousandsofrivers,streams,and
lakesthatarealsoimpactedbynutrientsintheUnitedStates.Infact,allbutonestateandtwo
territorieshaveCWAsection303(d)listed
1
waterbodyimpairmentsfornutrientpollution.Collectively,
stateshavelistedover10,000nutrientandnutrientrelatedimpairments.
2.4.1 NorthernGulfofMexico
Advancedeutrophicconditionscanleadtodeadzoneswithlimitedaquaticlife,which
describesthehypoxiaconditionthatexistsintheNorthernGulfofMexico.ArecentU.S.Geological
Survey(USGS)reporttitledDifferencesinPhosphorusandNitrogenDeliverytotheGulfofMexicofrom
1
RequiredbySection303(d)oftheCWA,the303(d)listisalistofstateswaterbodiesthatdonotmeetorarenot
expectedtomeetapplicableWaterQualityStandardswithtechnologybasedcontrolsalone.
theMississippiRiverBasindocumentsthecontributionofnitrogenandphosphorusfromagricultural
andnonagriculturalsourcesintheMississippiRiverbasin(Alexanderetal.2008).OnJune16,2008,the
jointfederalstateMississippiRiver/GulfofMexicoWatershedNutrientTaskForcereleasedits2008
ActionPlanforReducing,Mitigating,andControllingHypoxiaintheNorthernGulfofMexicoand
ImprovingWaterQualityintheMississippiRiverBasin,whichbuildsuponits2001planbyincorporating
emergingissues,innovativeapproaches,andthelatestscience,includingfindingsfromEPAsScience
AdvisoryBoard.ImprovementsincludemoreaccountabilitythroughanAnnualOperatingPlan,better
trackingofprogress,stateandfederalnutrientreductionstrategies,andaplantoincreaseawarenessof
theproblemandimplementationofsolutions(USEPA2008c).
2.4.2 ChesapeakeBay
NutrientpollutionhascausedsignificantproblemsintheChesapeakeBay.Elevatedlevelsof
bothnitrogenandphosphorusarethemaincausesofpoorwaterqualityandlossofaquatichabitatsin
theBay.Significantalgaebloomsonthewatersurfaceblockthesunsraysfromreachingunderwater
baygrasses.Withoutsunlight,baygrassescannotgrowandprovidecriticalfoodandhabitatforblue
crabs,waterfowl,andjuvenilefish.Createdin1983,theChesapeakeBayProgram(CBP)isa
comprehensivecooperativeeffortbyfederal,state,andlocalgovernments;nongovernmental
organizations;academics;andotherentitiesthatsharethemissionofrestoringandprotectingthe
ChesapeakeBayanditswatershed.TheCBPestimatesthat22percentofthephosphorusloadingand19
percentofthenitrogenloadingintheBaycomesfrommunicipalandindustrialwastewaterfacilities
(ChesapeakeBayProgram,2008).
ToaddresstheneedtodecreasethesepollutantsandrestorethehealthoftheBay,theUSEPA
ChesapeakeBayOffice(CBO),alongwithitspartners,developedtheChesapeakeActionPlan(CAP),
whichincludedgoalsfortheyear2000.TheCAPprovidedastrategicframeworkthatunifiedCBPs
existingplanningdocumentsandclarifiedhowCBPpartnerswouldpursuetherestorationand
protectiongoalsfortheBayanditswatershed;createdanactivityintegrationplanwithcomprehensive,
qualityassureddatafor2007thatidentifiesandcatalogsCBPpartnersimplementationactivitiesand
correspondingresources;andprovidedhighlevelsummariesofkeyinformation,suchasclearstatusof
progress,expectedprogresstowardcertainChesapeake2000goals,summariesofactionsandfunding,
andabriefsummaryofthechallengesandactionsneededtoexpediteprogress.Asummaryofthe
progresstodatecanbefoundinaJuly2008ReporttoCongress:StrengtheningtheManagement,
Coordination,andAccountabilityoftheChesapeakeBayProgram.Todate,uniformwaterquality
standardshavebeenadoptedacrosstheBay,anaggressivepermittingapproachforWWTPshasbeen
established,themostcosteffectiveagriculturalbestmanagementpractices(BMPs)havebeen
implemented,andforestsandwetlandssurroundingtheBayhavebeenrestored.
2.4.3 GreatLakes
TheGreatLakeswerethefirstbodiesofwatertoattractnationalattentiontotheproblemof
nutrientcausedeutrophication.Inthe1960s,LakeEriewasdeclareddeadwhenexcessivenutrients
intheLakestimulatedexcessivealgaebloomsthatcoveredbeachesandkilledoffnativeaquaticspecies
asaresultofoxygendepletion.Atthattime,phosphoruswastheprimarynutrientofconcerndueto
theuseofphosphatedetergentsandinorganicfertilizers.Algalassaysshowedthatphosphoruswasthe
limitingnutrientintheLakes,whichistypicalforfreshwaterbodies.Thus,thefocuswasonthecontrol
ofphosphorus.WiththeenactmentoftheCWAandtheGreatLakesWaterQualityAgreementin1972,
aconcertedeffortwasundertakentoreducepollutantloadings,particularlyphosphorus,totheLake.
AlthoughthehealthoftheLakeimproveddramatically,inrecentyears,therehasbeenrenewed
attentiontothereemergenceofadeadzoneinLakeErie,againduetonutrientloadings.Recent
studiesbyscientistsandtheNationalOceanicandAtmosphericAdministration(NOAA)havealso
hypothesizedarelationshipbetweenexcessivenutrientsintheLakeandthepresenceoftwoaquatic
invasivespeciesthezebramusselandthequaggamussel(Vanderploegetal.2002).
2.4.4 LongIslandSound
DevelopmentandpopulationincreasesintheLongIslandSoundWatershedhaveresultedina
significantincreaseinnitrogenloading,thecurrentlimitingnutrienttotheSound.Theincreased
nitrogenloadshavestimulatedplantgrowth,increasedtheamountoforganicmattersettlingtothe
benthiczone,loweredDOlevels,andchangedhabitats.TheprimaryconcernsintheSoundinclude
hypoxia,thelossofseagrass,andalterationsinthefoodweb.Managementeffortsarecurrently
underwaytoreducenitrogenpollutionbymorethanhalfwithafocusontwoareas:(1)upgrading
WWTPswithnewtechnologiesand(2)removingnitrogenbyreducingpollutedrunoffthroughBMPson
farmsandsuburbanareas(LongIslandSoundStudy2004).Theemphasishasbeenprimarilyonreducing
nitrogendischarges,butinrecentyearsphosphoruslimitationshavebeenplacedonupstreamWWTPs
dischargingtoriversthatdischargeintotheSound.
2.5 ClimateChangeImpacts
Climatechangemayalsobeasignificantinfluenceonthedevelopmentoffutureeutrophic
symptoms.AccordingtothereportEffectsofNutrientEnrichmentintheNationsEstuaries:ADecadeof
Change,thefactorsassociatedwithclimatechangethatareexpectedtohavethegreatestimpactson
coastaleutrophicationare:
Increasedtemperatures
Sealevelrise
Changesinprecipitationandfreshwaterrunoff
Increasedtemperatureswillhaveseveraleffectsoncoastaleutrophication.Mostcoastalspecies
areadaptedtoaspecificrangeoftemperatures.Increasesinwatertemperaturesmayleadtoexpanded
rangesofundesirablespecies.Highertemperaturesmayalsoleadtoincreasedalgalgrowthandlonger
growingseasons,potentiallyincreasingproblemsassociatedwithexcessivealgalgrowthand
nuisance/toxicblooms.Additionally,warmerwatersholdlessDO,thereforepotentiallyexacerbating
hypoxia.Temperaturerelatedstratificationofthewatercolumnmayalsoworsen,havingafurther
negativeeffectonDOlevels.
Climatechangemodelspredictincreasedmeltingofpolaricecapsandchangesinprecipitation
patterns,leadingtosealevelriseandchangesinwaterbalanceandcirculationpatternsincoastal
systems.Sealevelrisewillgraduallyinundatecoastallands,causingincreasederosionandsediment
deliverytowaterbodies,andpotentiallyfloodingwetlands.Theincreasedsedimentloadand
subsequentturbidityincreasemaycauseSAVloss.Aserosionincreases,sedimentassociatednutrients
alsoincrease,stimulatingalgalgrowth.Thispositivefeedbackbetweenincreasederosionandalgal
growthmayalsoincreaseturbidity.Thelossofwetlands,whichactasnutrientsinks,willfurther
increasenutrientdeliverytoestuaries.Incontrast,anincreaseinfreshwaterinflowmayreduce
residencetimeofpollutants,reducingtheprobabilityofbloomsinsomesystems.Inregionsof
engineeredwaterflow(e.g.,SouthAtlanticandGulfofMexico),theimpactsofchangesintheamountof
runoffwilldependonhowwatermanagementstrategiescontrolregionalhydrology.
AnotherreporttitledAquaticEcosystemsandGlobalClimateChangePotentialImpactson
InlandFreshwaterandCoastalWetlandEcosystemsintheUnitedStatesnotesthatclimatechangeofthe
magnitudeprojectedfortheUnitedStatesoverthenext100yearswillcausesignificantchangesto
temperatureregimesandprecipitationpatternsacrossthenation(Poffetal.2002).Suchalterationsin
climateposeseriousrisksforinlandfreshwaterecosystems(lakes,streams,rivers,wetlands)andcoastal
wetlands,andmayadverselyaffectnumerouscriticalservicesprovidedtohumanpopulations.
2.6 FederalandStateRegulationsandInitiativestoReduceNutrientPollution
ThissectiondescribesthefollowingFederalandstateregulationsandinitiativestoreduce
nutrientpollution:
WaterQualityStandards(WQSs)
TotalMaximumDailyLoads(TMDLs)
NationalPollutionDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)Permitting
Waterqualitytrading
Technologyevaluationsandguidance
Inadditiontotheseefforts,stateandEPAsurfacewateranddrinkingwaterprogrammanagersformed
anadhocNutrientInnovationsTaskGroupinOctober2008toidentifyandframekeynutrientissues,
questions,andoptionsonhowtoimproveandacceleratenutrientpollutionpreventionandreduction
atthestateandnationallevel(StateEPANutrientInnovationsTaskGroup,2009).Theirfinalreportis
availableonlineathttp://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/.
2.6.1 WaterQualityStandards
Waterqualitystandards(WQS)arethefoundationofthewaterqualitybasedpollutioncontrol
programmandatedbytheCWA.WQSdefinethegoalsforawaterbodybydesignatingitsuses,setting
criteriatoprotectthoseuses,andestablishingprovisionstoprotectwaterbodiesfrompollutants.The
WQSregulationrequiresthatstatesandauthorizedIndiantribesspecifyappropriatewaterusestobe
achievedandprotected.Appropriateusesareidentifiedbyconsideringtheuseandvalueofthewater
bodyforpublicwatersupply;forprotectionoffish,shellfish,andwildlife;andforrecreational,
agricultural,industrial,andnavigationalpurposes.Indesignatingusesforawaterbody,statesandtribes
examinethesuitabilityofawaterbodyfortheusesbasedonthephysical,chemical,andbiological
characteristicsofthewaterbody;itsgeographicalsettingandscenicqualities;andeconomic
considerations.
Statesandtribestypicallyadoptbothnumericandnarrativecriteria.Numericcriteriaare
importantwherethecauseoftoxicityisknownorforprotectionagainstpollutantswithpotential
humanhealtheffects.Narrativecriteriaarealsoimportantnarrative"freefrom"toxicitycriteria
typicallyserveasthebasisforlimitingthetoxicityofwastedischargestoaquaticspecies.Inadditionto
narrativeandnumeric(chemicalspecific)criteria,statescanandoftenadoptnutrientcriteria,whichare
definedasameanstoprotectagainstnutrientoverenrichmentandeutrophication.
In1998,EPApublishedaNationalStrategyfortheDevelopmentofRegionalNutrientCriteria,a
roadmapfordesigningguidanceforstatestouseinthedevelopmentofnumericwaterqualitycriteria
fornutrients.Thesetechnicalguidancedocumentsdescribethetechniquesusedtodevelopnutrient
criteriaforuseinstateandtribalwaterqualitystandards.Theycover:
EstuarineandCoastalWaters
LakesandReservoirs
RiversandStreams
Wetlands
Inadditiontotechnicalguidancefordevelopingnutrientcriteria,EPAhaspublishedadditional
technicaldocumentsandtoolstoaidstatesandtribesinassessingnutrientsintheirwaters.These
include:
MethodsforEvaluatingWetlandConditions:Aseriesofdocumentstohelpstatesandtribes
buildtheircapacitytomonitorandassessthebiologicalandnutrientconditionsofwetlands.
Thesemodulesaredesignedtohelpstatesandtribesestablishbiologicalandnutrient
assessmentandmonitoringprogramsforwetlands.Thesedocumentsareavailableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/guidance/wetlands/#modules
NSTEPS:Adatabasethatprovidestechnicalassistancetostateandregionalscientistsand
managerswhoaredevelopingnumericnutrientcriteriaandprovidesinformationtothepublic
regardingnutrientpollutionandEPA'sactivities.Thisdatabaseisavailableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/nsteps.html
OtherNutrientDatabases:DatabasesdevelopedbyEPAthatcontainsampledatafromvarious
watersthroughouttheUnitedStates,availableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/database/index.html
Numericnutrientwaterqualitystandardsdrivewaterqualityassessmentsandwatershed
protectionmanagement.TheysupportimproveddevelopmentofnutrientTotalMaximumDailyLoads
(TMDLs;describedbelow).Perhapsmostimportantly,theycreatestateandcommunitydeveloped
environmentalbaselinesthatallowstatesandEPAtomanagemoreeffectively,measureprogress,and
supportbroaderpartnershipsbasedonnutrienttrading,BMPs,landstewardship,wetlandsprotection,
voluntarycollaboration,andurbanstormwaterrunoffcontrolstrategies.
Thereareanumberofkeyadvantagestoadoptingnumericstandards,including:
EasierandfasterdevelopmentofTMDLs
Quantitativetargetstosupporttradingprograms
EasiertowriteprotectiveNPDESpermits
Increasedeffectivenessinevaluatingsuccessofnutrientrunoffminimizationprograms
Measurable,objectivewaterqualitybaselinesagainstwhichtomeasureenvironmentalprogress
InDecember2008,EPApublishedareporttitled,StateAdoptionofNumericNutrientStandards
(19982008).Thereport,whichcanbefoundat
http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/criteria/nutrient/files/report19982008.pdf,providesanupdateof
stateeffortstodevelopnumericnutrientstandards.
Figure22depictstherelationshipsamongWQSandthetoolsusedtohelpmeetthese
standardssuchasTMDLs,NPDESpermits,andwaterqualitytrading.Thesetoolsarediscussedinmore
detailbelow.

Figure22.WaterqualitybasedapproachoftheCleanWaterAct
Source:USEPA2008f.
2.6.2 TotalMaximumDailyLoads(TMDLs)
CWASection303(d)requiresstatestodevelopTMDLsforwaterbodiesonthe303(d)listof
impairedwaters(e.g.,watersnotmeetingtheirdesignateduses).ATMDLisacalculationofthe
maximumamountofapollutantawaterbodycanreceiveandstillmeetWQS.TMDLsserveasatoolfor
implementingWQS.TheTMDLtargetsorendpointsrepresentanumberwheretheapplicableWQSand
designateduses(e.g.,publicwatersupply,contactrecreation,andthepropagationandgrowthof
aquaticlife)areachievedandmaintainedinthewaterbodyofconcern.TMDLsidentifythelevelof
pollutantcontrolnecessarytomeetWQSandsupportthedesignatedusesofawaterbody.Oncea
TMDLisset,thetotalloadisallocatedamongallexistingsources.Theallocationisdividedintotwo
portions: (1) aloadallocation(LA)representingnaturalandnonpointsourcesand(2)awasteload
allocation(WLA)representingNPDESpermittedpointsourcedischarges.Inmanyregions,waterbodies
haveapoorabilitytoassimilatenutrientsortheyarealreadyimpairedfrompastpollutionandcannot
handlelargeloadsofadditionalnutrients.Inthesecases,TMDLsmayrequirenutrientpermitlevelsto
beevenlowerthanwhatmightotherwisebeallowedbynutrientcriteria.
Althoughstatesarenotrequiredundersection303(d)todevelopTMDLimplementationplans,
manystatesincludeimplementationplanswiththeTMDLordevelopthemasaseparatedocument.
Whendeveloped,TMDLimplementationplansmayprovideadditionalinformationonwhatpointand
nonpointsourcescontributetotheimpairmentandhowthosesourcesarebeingcontrolled,orshould
becontrolledinthefuture.OnceaTMDLhasbeendefinedandvariousloadallocationsestablished,the
CWArequiresthatallNPDESpermitsassociatedwiththewaterbodymustreflecttheloadsestablished
intheTMDL.ForWWTPs,thismayincludespecificcriteriafornutrients.
2.6.3 NPDESPermitting
EstablishedbytheCWAAmendmentof1972,EPAsNPDESpermitprogramhasbeenthe
primarymechanismforcontrollingpollutionfrompointsources.Pointsourcesarediscreteconveyances
suchaspipesormanmadeditches.Individualhomesthatareconnectedtoamunicipalsystem,usea
septicsystem,ordonothaveasurfacedischargedonotneedanNPDESpermit;however,POTWsand
otherfacilitiesmustobtainpermitsiftheydischargedirectlytosurfacewaters.
NPDESpermitsforwastewaterdischargescontain,amongotherinformation,effluentlimitsfor
conventionalpollutantssuchasBOD,totalsuspendedsolids(TSS),andpHaswellaslimitsforspecific
toxicantsincludingvariousorganicandinorganicchemicals.Permitsmayalsoincludeeffluentlimitsfor
nonconventionalpollutantssuchasnitrogenandphosphorus.Effluentlimitscanbetechnology
basedand/orwaterqualitybased.EPAhasestablishedtechnologybased,secondarytreatmenteffluent
limitsforBODas5daybiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD
5
),TSS,andpH.Waterqualitybasedeffluent
limitsaresetifthetechnologybasedlimitsarenotsufficienttomaintaintheWQSofthereceiving
water.
InDecember2003,EPApublishedtheWatershedBasedNationalPollutantDischarge
EliminationSystem(NPDES)PermittingImplementationGuidance
(http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/watershedpermitting_finalguidance.pdf),whichdescribesthe
conceptofandtheprocessforwatershedbasedpermittingundertheNPDESpermitprogram.
WatershedbasedNPDESpermittingisanapproachtodevelopingNPDESpermitsformultiplepoint
sourceslocatedwithinadefinedgeographicarea(watershedboundaries)tomeetWQS.Thisapproach,
aimedatachievingnewefficienciesandenvironmentalresults,providesaprocessforconsideringall
stressorswithinahydrologicallydefineddrainagebasinorothergeographicarea,ratherthanaddressing
individualpollutantsourcesonadischargebydischargebasis.Thisreportwasfollowedbytechnical
guidanceissuedinAugust2007titled,WatershedbasedNationalPollutantDischargeElimination
System(NPDES)PermittingTechnicalGuidance,availableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/npdes/pubs/watershed_techguidance_entire.pdf
FederalandStateregulationsrelatedtoWQSandTMDLsasdescribedpreviouslyareexpected
toresultinmorestringentNPDESeffluentlimitsfornitrogenandphosphorus.
2.6.4 WaterQualityTrading
Waterqualitytradingisamarketbasedapproachtoimproveandpreservewaterqualityonce
WQSand/orTMDLshavebeendefined.Tradingcanprovidegreaterefficiencyinachievingwaterquality
goalsbyallowingonesourcetomeetitsregulatoryobligationsbyusingpollutantreductionscreatedby
anothersourcethathaslowerpollutioncontrolcosts.Forexample,underawaterqualitytrading
program,aPOTWcouldcomplywithdischargerequirementsbypayingdistributedsourcestoreduce
theirdischargesbyacertainamount.Theuseofgeographicallybasedtradingratiosprovidesan
economicincentive,encouragingactiontowardthemostcosteffectiveandenvironmentallybeneficial
projects.
EPAissuedaWaterQualityTradingPolicyin2003toprovideguidancetostatesandtribeson
howtradingcanoccurundertheCWAanditsimplementingregulations
(http://www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/trading/finalpolicy2003.pdf).ThepolicydiscussesCWA
requirementsthatarerelevanttowaterqualitytradingincluding:requirementstoobtainpermits;anti
backslidingprovisions;developmentofWQS,includinganantidegradationpolicy;NPDESpermit
regulations,TMDLs;andwaterqualitymanagementplans.EPAalsodevelopedanumberoftoolsand
guidancedocumentstoassiststates,permittedfacilities,nonpointsources,andstakeholdersinvolved
inthedevelopmentoftradingprograms(www.epa.gov/owow/watershed/trading.htm).Recently,the
U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA)NationalResourcesConservationServicereleasedaNitrogen
TradingTool(NTT)prototypeforcalculatingnitrogencreditsbasedontheNitrogenLossand
EnvironmentalAssessmentPackageModel(Grossetal.2008).
Waterqualitytradingprogramshavebeensuccessfullyimplementedinseveralstatesand
individualwatershedsacrossthecounty.Forexample,nitrogenpollutionfrompointsourcesintothe
LongIslandSoundwasreducedbynearly25percentusinganinnovativenitrogencredittrading
program.InConnecticut,theprogramwasimplementedacross79sewagetreatmentplantsinthe
state.ThroughtheNitrogenCreditExchange,establishedin2002,theConnecticutprogramhasagoalof
reducingnitrogendischargesby58.5percentby2014.
ArecentAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersjournalarticle(Landers2008)pointsout,however,
thatregulatoryframeworksforwaterqualitytradingprogramshaveyettobeadoptedbythemajority
ofstates.Barrierstoadoptingsuchprogramsincludeuncertaintyin:(1)themechanismsfor
determiningappropriatecreditsandratiosbetweenpointsourcesanddistributedsources;and(2)
approachestoensurethatpromisedreductionsactuallyoccur.Otherbarriersincludelackof
resources/stafftoorganizesuchprogramsandlackofspecificnutrientgoals/TMDLstodrivemarkets.
2.6.5 TechnologyEvaluationandGuidance
Inadditiontoregulatoryandpolicyinitiatives,EPAhelpscontrolnutrientsthroughthe
developmentanddisseminationoftechnicalinformation.Forexample,EPAsOfficeofWastewater
Management(OWM)hasdevelopedanumberoftechnologyfactsheetsonsecondaryandadvanced
biologicaltreatment(USEPA,1999b;1999c).OWMhasalsopublishedseveraltechnologyreports,
includingEmergingTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentandInPlantWetWeatherManagement
(USEPA,2008a).Thistechnologyguide,publishedinFebruary2008,isdesignedtohelpmunicipal
wastewatertreatmentsystemownersandoperatorsfindinformationonemergingwastewater
treatmentandinplantwetweathermanagement.InSeptember2008,OWMpublishedtheMunicipal
NutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument(USEPA2008d).Volume1ofthisreportprovides
detailedtechnicalandcostinformationonbiologicalandphysiochemicaltreatmenttechnologiesforthe
removalofnitrogen,phosphorus,oracombinationofthetwo.Thereportalsoincludesatleastone
yearsworthoffullscaleperformancedatafor27wastewatertreatmentfacilitiesintheUnitedStates
andCanadaand9detailedcasestudies.EPAsRegion10initiatedaprojecttoevaluatemunicipal
WWTPsthathavedemonstratedexemplaryphosphorusremovalthroughtheirtreatmentprocesses.In
April2007,theRegionpublishedareporttitled,AdvancedWastewaterTreatmenttoAchieveLow
ConcentrationofPhosphorus(EPARegion102007).
In1975,EPAsOfficeofResearchandDevelopment(ORD)publisheditsfirsttechnologydesign
guidancefornitrogenremoval:ProcessDesignManualforNitrogenControl.Themanualwasupdatedin
1993andfocusedonbiological/mechanicalprocessesthatwerefindingwidespreadapplicationfor
nitrificationandnitrogenremovalatthattime.Thedevelopmentofguidanceforphosphorusremoval
followedasimilarschedule,withORDpublishingthedocumentProcessDesignManualforPhosphorus
Removalin1971.In1976,themanualwasupdatedtoincludedesignguidanceforphosphorusremoval
usingmineraladditionandlimeaddition.In1987,EPApublishedtwotechnicaldocumentstoaddress
phosphoruscontrol:(1)anupdatetothe1976ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemovaland(2)a
handbooktitled,HandbookRetrofittingPOTWsforPhosphorusRemovalintheChesapeakeBay
DrainageBasin.EPAhasrevisedthesematerialstoprovideupdatedstateofthetechnologydesign
guidanceforbothnitrogenandphosphoruscontrolatmunicipalWWTPsaspresentedinthismanual.
2.7 IndustryInitiativesTheWERFNutrientRemovalChallenge
Inearly2007,theWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)createdtheNutrient
RemovalChallengeprogramwiththegoalsof:
Identifying,assessing,andmakingrecommendationstoimprovesustainablewastewater
nutrientremovaltechnologies.
Providinginformationtohelpagenciesmeetvariousreceivingwaterbodyrequirementsand
otherwastewatertreatmentgoals(e.g.,climatechange,sustainability,costeffectiveness,
reliability).
Conductingresearchtoinformregulatorydecisionmakingandhelppractitionerscomply
withincreasinglyhighlevelsofnitrogenandphosphorusremovalwithafocusonimproving
plantperformance.
Thismultiyearprogramwillbefundedfor5yearswithWERFandexternalfundsanticipatedtototal$8
10million.
Aspartoftheprogram'skickoffactivities,theWERFNutrientResearchStakeholderWorkshop
washeldonMarch7and8,2007inBaltimore,MD,tofurtherrefinetheChallenge'sresearchneedsand
toseekfundingpartnersandcollaborators.Atotalof25priorityareaswereidentified,manyofthem
analogoustothoseidentifiedinasimilarworkshopconductedbyWERFin2006.Generally,these
researchareasfallintooneofthefollowingthreecategories:
Characterizationofeffluentorganicnitrogen
Accuracyofanalyticalmeasurementtechniquesforlowconcentrationsofphosphorus
Alternativecarbonsourcesfordenitrification
WERFwillalsobedevelopingaNutrientCompendium,acomprehensive,livingdocumentthat
willdescribethecurrentknowledgeofregulatoryandtechnologicalnutrientremovalissues.The
documentwilldetailthekeyknowledgeareasaffectingnutrientremovaltoverylowlimitsandidentify
knowledgegapsrelatedtonutrientremoval.
Asof2009,WERFhas:
Launchedanewwebportal(http://www.werf.org/nutrients)withresearchinformation
andrelevantlinks
DevelopedtechnicaldocumentsfortheNutrientCompendium(preparationofadditional
technicalsummariesisunderway),including:
- Tertiaryphosphorusremoval
- Lowphosphorusconcentrationmeasurement
- Effluentdissolvedorganicnitrogen
- Externalcarbonaugmentationanddenitrification
Initiatedcollaborativeresearchinthreekeyareas
- Effluentorganicnitrogen/refractorydissolvedorganicnitrogen(RDON)
- Lowphosphorusanalysisandmeasurementatverylowlimits
- Alternativeexternalcarbonfordenitrificationtoreducecostandimproveefficiencyof
nitrogenremoval
2.8 BenefitsofNutrientRemoval
2.8.1 ImprovedPlantPerformance
BiologicalnutrientremovalatPOTWscanleadtoseveraloperationalimprovements.Inmost
cases,theadditionofananaerobiczoneforbiologicalphosphorusremovalwillincreasethesludge
densitybecauseofphosphorusaccumulation,andreducethegrowthoffilamentousorganismsbecause
oftheabsenceofDO,therebyimprovingsettleability.Apreanoxiczonefordenitrificationcanalso
leadtoamorestable,bettersettlingactivatedsludgeprocessastheanoxicaerobicprocessesfavor
goodsettlingflocformingbacteriaoverfilamentousgrowth.Additionalbenefitsofapreanoxiczone
includelessaerationenergyrequiredintheaerobiczoneasthenitrateproducedcanbeusedforBOD
removal,andlesssludgeproductioncomparedtopostanoxictreatmentwithsupplementalcarbon.
Anaerobicandanoxiczonesalsoprovidebettercontroloffoamingifbackmixingiseliminatedandthe
recycleofNOxandDOtothezonesisminimized.Further,goodremovalofnitrogenreducesconcern
overdenitrificationandfloatingsludgeinthesecondaryclarifiers,andprovidestheoptionofoversizing
theclarifierstobetterhandlewetweatherflows.
Theadditionofananaerobicoranoxiczoneaheadoftheaerobiczonecanimprovetherateof
oxygentransferinthewater.Asanexample,WEFandASCE(2006)reportedanalmostdoublingofthe
oxygentransferefficiencywhenthe23
rd
AvenuePlantinPhoenix,AZ,addedapreanoxiczone.
Nitrificationintheaerobiczonecansignificantlyreducethealkalinityofthemixedliquorand,in
situationswheretheinfluentalkalinityislow(e.g.,amunicipalitywithsoftwater),cancompletely
depletethealkalinityandcausearapiddropinpH.Thenitrificationratewillslowsignificantlybelowa
pHofapproximately6.8.Tchobanolgousetal.(2003)reportthatnitrificationratesatapHof6.0may
onlybeabout20percentofthatwithapHof7.0.Thus,plantswithlowalkalinitymayexperience
periodsofreducednitrificationandelevatedammonialevelsintheplanteffluent.Denitrificationfor
totalnitrogenremovalcanreplenishmuchofthealkalinitylostduringnitrificationandimprove
operationalstability.Approximately62.5percentoftheamountconsumedduringnitrateformationis
recoveredfromthenitratesreducedtonitrogengas.Thetotalrecoveryisseldommorethan50percent
forrecycleconfigurationssuchasMLEwithcompletedenitrificationintheanoxiczone.
2.8.2 CoRemovalofEmergingContaminants
Thetermemergingcontaminantsrefersbroadlytothosesyntheticornaturallyoccurring
chemicals,ortoanymicrobiologicalorganisms,thathavenotbeencommonlymonitoredinthe
environmentbutareofincreasingconcernbecauseoftheirknownorsuspectedadverseecologicalor
humanhealtheffects.Severalstudieshaveexaminedtheeffectivenessofcurrentwastewater
treatmenttechnologiesintheremovalofemergingcontaminants.Significantfindingsare:
Removalefficiencieswereenhancedforseveralinvestigatedcontaminantsatlongersolids
residencetimes(SRTs),withcriticalSRTsforsomecontaminantsbeyondwhichremovalrates
didnotimprove.
LongerSRTsallowfortheestablishmentofslowergrowingbacteria(e.g.,nitrifyingbacteriain
activatedsludge),whichinturnprovideamorediversecommunityofmicroorganismswith
broaderphysiologicalcapabilities,andthepotentialforgreaterbiodegradationofemerging
contaminants.
Reverseosmosishasbeenfoundtoeffectivelyremovepharmaceuticalandpersonalcare
products(PPCPs)belowdetectionlimitsincludingthosethatwerenotconsistentlyremovedat
longerSRTs.
AmoredetaileddiscussionofremovalofemergingcontaminantscanbefoundinEPAsNutrient
ControlDesignManualStateofTechnologyReport(EPA/600/R09/012,January2009)at
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/600r09012/600r09012.pdf.
2.8.3 NutrientRecoveryandReuse
Nutrientrecoveryandreuseisgainingnationalandinternationalattentionasakeyaspectin
sludgemanagementplans.Ratherthanbeingdisposedasawaste,sludgeisnowbeingharvestedfor
valuableresourcesandusedasanalternativesourceofenergy.InFebruary2008,theGlobalWater
ResearchCoalitionincooperationwithUSEPAandWERFreleasedareporttitledStateoftheScience
Report:EnergyandResourceRecoveryfromSludge(KalogoandMonteith2008).Inthereport,energy
recoverytechnologiesareclassifiedintosludgetobiogas,sludgetosyngas,sludgetooil,andsludgeto
liquidprocesses.Thereportalsodescribesvarioustechnologiesavailableforresourcerecovery,
includingthosetorecoverphosphorus,buildingmaterials,nitrogen,andvolatileacids.RefertoChapter
14ofthisManualformoreinformationonresourcerecoveryandsustainability.
2.9 ChallengesofNutrientRemoval
Twopotentiallynegativeenvironmentalimpactsofemployingadvancedtechnologiestoremove
nutrientsfromwastewateraretheincreaseintheenergyuseandreleaseofnitrousoxide(N
2
O),a
greenhousegas,intotheatmosphere.
2.9.1 EnergyRequirements
Whilesomeoperationalstrategiesforenhancingnutrientremoval,suchascyclicaerationfor
denitrificationandtheutilizationoffixedmediaforintegratedfixedfilmactivatedsludge(IFAS)
operationinpartiallyorfullynitrifyingsystems,donotrequireadditionalelectricitytooperate,many
BNRtechnologiesrequireaninputofenergybeyondthatneededforconventionalmunicipaltreatment.
Thisisobviouslytrueifthesystemtoberetrofittedwasnotdesignedtonitrifyduetoadditional
aerationrequired.Otherexamplesofretrofitsthatrequireadditionalenergyinclude(Kangetal.2009):
Additionalmixingbasins
Chemicaladdition
Additionalpumpingforrecycleflows
Additionalpumpingforfiltration
Useofanexternalcarbonsource
ItisnotunusualfortheadditionalenergyrequirementsofupgradingtoBNRtorequireanupgradeto
theentirepowersystem,includingphysicalspaceformotorcontrolcenters.
Nitrificationrequires50to100percentmoreaerationenergythannonnitrifyingsystems,
dependingupontheoperatingSRTselected.ThetotalBODNODaerationcosts,however,willbe
reducedbyabout20percentbydenitrificationto810mg/LTNfortypicalmunicipalwastewaters.The
quantityofWASproducedwillbegreatlyreducedwhichcansubstantiallyreducetheamountofenergy
neededfordewateringanddisposal.Thus,conversionofanonnitrifyingactivatedsludgesystemto
EBPRmaynotrequiremuchinthewayofadditionalenergy.Note,also,thatadditionofeitheran
anaerobicoranoxiczone(andparticularlyboth)aheadoftheaerobiczonereducestheaerationvolume
neededfornitrificationthroughremovalfromsolutionorthroughstabilizationofBODaheadofthe
aerobiczone,whichincreasestheeffectivenitrificationrateintheaerobiczone.
Chapter8ofthisdesignmanualprovidesadditionaldiscussionofenergyandidentifies
strategiesthatcanbeimplementedbynutrientremovalplantstoreduceenergyrequirementsand
improvesustainability.TheremainderofthissectionidentifiesEPAtoolsandothergeneralstrategies
thatcanbeusedtoreduceenergyneeds.
EPAencouragesutilitiestoidentifyapproachestointegrateenergyefficientpracticesintotheir
dailymanagementandlongtermplanning.The2008publication,EnsuringaSustainableFuture,an
EnergyManagementGuidebookforWastewaterandWaterUtilities(USEPA2008i),providesa
recommendedapproachforenergymanagementusingthePlanDoCheckActapproach.This
guidebookisavailableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/bettermanagement_energy.html.
ASeptember2008publicationtitledNationalWaterProgramStrategyResponsetoClimate
Change(USEPA20008b)outlinesanumberofstepsthatEPAhastakenandthatutilitiescantaketo
improveenergyefficiency.Forexample,EPAsENERGYSTARprogramhasdevelopedaFocusinthe
waterandwastewaterindustries.AnENERGYSTARFocusisatargetedefforttoimprovetheenergy
efficiencywithinaspecificindustryorcombinationofindustries.Itcreatesmomentumforcontinuous
improvementinenergyperformance,providestheindustrysmanagerswiththetoolstheyneedto
achievegreatersuccessintheirenergymanagementprograms,andcreatesasupportiveenvironment
whereenergyefficiencyideasandopportunitiesareshared.
Significantprogressisbeingmadeinthedevelopmentofnewtoolsforbenchmarkingenergy
performanceamongpublicwaterandwastewaterutilities.Forexample,theENERGYSTARprogramis
expandingthecapabilityofitsEnergyPerformanceRatingSystemtoenabledrinkingwaterand
wastewaterutilitiestoassesstheirenergyuseovertimeandcompareittootherutilitiesnormalized
forweatherandfacilitycharacteristics.AsofOctober2007,WWTPenergyperformancecanberated
usingtheENERGYSTARprogramsonlinetool,PortfolioManager.PortfolioManagercanbeusedto
establishbaselineenergyuse,prioritizeinvestments,setgoals,andtrackenergyuseandcarbon
emissionsreductionsovertime.
Many facilities have already installed alternative energy power production facilities, including
solar, wind, and hydro, for heating and electricity generation. For example, Calera Creek Water
Recycling Plant in Pacifica, CA is using solar panels that provide 1015 percent of its energy needs,
resultinginanestimated$100,000savingsannuallyinenergycosts(USEPA2006).
Wastewaterfacilitiescanalsogenerateenergyfromthecaptureanduseofmethane.Combined
heatandpower(CHP)systemscanrecoverbiogas(amixtureofmethane,carbondioxide,watervapor,
andothergases)fromanaerobicdigesterstoheatbuildingsortogenerateelectricity.Forexample,the
EastBayMunicipalUtilityDistrict(EBMUD)capturesandusesbiogastogenerateenoughenergyto
cover90percentofenergyneededatitsmainwastewaterfacility.Ifall544largesewagetreatment
plantsintheUnitedStatesoperatinganaerobicdigestersweretoinstallcombinedheatandpower,
about340megawattsofcleanenergycouldbegenerated,offsetting2.3millionmetrictonsofcarbon
dioxideemissionsannually(i.e.,equivalenttoplantingabout640,000acresofforest,ortheemissionsof
about430,000cars)(USEPA2007a).Thisenergyisalsomarketableasgreenpowertopowerutilities
thatarenowrequiredbyStatelawstohavealternativeorgreenpowerasapartoftheiroverall
production.
2.9.2 ReleaseofNitrousOxide
Nitrousoxide(N
2
O)isconsideredtobeagreenhousegaswithaglobalwarmingpotential
approximately300timesthatofthecontributionofcarbondioxide(CO
2
).N
2
Oaswellasnitricoxide
(NO)areknowntobeintermediatesofheterotrophicdenitrification(Ahnetal.2009).Untilrecently,
therehasbeenconsiderableuncertaintyregardingthemechanismsofN
2
Ogenerationandwhetheritis
producedandreleasedduringthenitrificationanddenitrificationprocesses.
In2008,WERFinitiatedaresearchproject(no.U4RO7)toquantifyN
2
Oemissions,determine
themechanismsbywhichitforms,anddevelopoperationalstrategiestopreventitsformationand
release.ThefirststepofthisprojectwastodevelopadetailedprotocolformeasuringN
2
OandNO
emissionsfromanactivatedsludgereactor.ThismethodhasnowbeenreviewedbyEPAand
implementedatseveralWWTPs(WERF2009).Preliminaryfindingsbasedonmonitoringconductedat
nitrogenremovalplantswerepresentedattheWEFSpecialtyConference:NitrogenRemoval2009and
aresummarizedbelow(Ahnetal2009;WERF2009).
N
2
Oemissionsarerelatedtoanimbalanceofthemetabolicpathwayor,insimplerterms,
recoveryfromstress.N
2
Ocanbeproducedbynitrifyingbacteriaintheaerobicanddenitrifying
bacteriaintheanoxiczone;however,denitrifyingbacteriacanconsumeN
2
Owhereasnitrifying
bacteriacannot.
MeasuredN
2
Oemissionsfromtheaerobiczonewerealwayshigherthanemissionsfromthe
anoxiczone,contrarytopreviousthinking.
N
2
Oemissionsfromtheaerobiczoneexhibitedspatialvariabilitywithinthezone.Thehighest
N
2
Olevelswereobservedclosetotheeffluent.
N
2
Oemissionsformasignificantdiurnalpatternthatcanbecorrelatedwithdiurnalloading
patternsofammonia.
ReleaseofN
2
OintheaerobiczoneislargelyafunctionofDOandammoniaconcentrations.
Samplingcampaignsatadditionaltreatmentplantsareunderway.Researchersareplanningtopublish
aninterimPhase1reportonthefindingsbytheendof2009(WERF2009).
2.10 References
Ahn,J.H.,S.Kim,H.Park,D.Katehis,K.Pagilla,andK.Chandran.SpatialandTemporalVariabilityinN20
GenerationandEmissionfromWastewaterTreatmentFacilities.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.
Washington,DC.WEF.
Alexander,R.B.,R.A.Smith,G.E.Schwarz,E.W.Boyer,J.V.Nolan,andJ.W.Brakebill.2008.Differencesin
PhosphorusandNitrogenDeliverytotheGulfofMexicofromtheMississippiRiverBasin.Environmental
ScienceandTechnology.42(3):822830.Availableonline:
http://water.usgs.gov/nawqa/sparrow/gulf_findings.
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3.PrinciplesofPhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition
3.1 Introduction
Chemicalprecipitationiswidelyusedtoremovephosphorusatwastewatertreatmentplants
(WWTPs).Chemicalssuchasmetalsaltsorlimecanbeaddedtoprimary,secondary,ortertiary
processesoratmultiplelocationswithintheplant.Solidsremovalfollowingchemicalprecipitationcan
beconventional,suchasprimaryorsecondaryclarification,oradvanced,suchastertiaryfiltrationor
alternativetechnologies.Chemicalprecipitationcanbeusedaloneorinconjunctionwithbiological
phosphorusremoval(BPR)toreducethecostsassociatedwiththechemicaldoseandsludgeproduction.
Thischapterdescribestheprinciplesofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladdition.Itincludesa
descriptionofchemicalsavailable,thelatestresearchonthemechanismsofphosphorusremoval,and
factorsaffectingperformancesuchaspointofapplicationandsolidsseparation.Lastly,itpresents
informationonsludgeproductionandlimitsofremoval.Chapter9followswithmoredetailed
recommendationsfordesigningachemicalphosphorusremovaltreatmentsystem.
3.2 AvailableFormsofMetalSaltsandLime
Chemicalsusedforphosphorusprecipitationaretypicallyeithermetalsaltsorlime.Thetwo
mostcommonmetalsaltsarealuminumsulfate(commonlyknownasalum)andferricchloride.Sodium
aluminatecanserveasasourceofalum,althoughitcanincreasethepHsubstantially(WEFandASCE
2009).Variousformsofpolyaluminumchloride(PAC)canalsobeusedforchemicalprecipitation.
Ferroussulfateandferrouschloride,whichareavailableasbyproductsofsteelmakingoperations
(pickleliquor),arealsoused.Limeistypicallyavailableinsolidformaseitherquicklime(CaO)or
hydratedlimeCa(OH)
2
.Table31summarizesthemostcommonchemicalprecipitantsusedfor
phosphorusremoval.Chapter9providesadditionalinformationonchemicalpropertiesandguidance
forchemicalselection.
Chapter3covers:
3.1 Introduction
3.2 AvailableFormsofMetalSaltsandLime
3.3 EquationsandStoichiometry
3.4 SolidsSeparationProcesses
3.5 EffectsonSludgeProductionandHandling
3.6 TwoFactorsthatMayLimittheAbilityofPlantsto
AchieveVeryLowEffluentLevels
3.7 References
Table31.CommonChemicalsUsedforPhosphorusRemoval
Chemical Formula Description TypicalWeight

PercentinCommercial
Solutions
2
Aluminum
(Alum)
Sulfate Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
.
14(H
2
0) Crystallized,
liquid
dryform or 48%
SodiumAluminate Na
2
Al
2
O
4
Powderorliquidform.
Granulartihydrateis
commoncommercialform
20%
Polyaluminum
Chloride(PAC)
Al
n
Cl
(3nm)
(OH)
m
EX:Al
12
Cl
12
(OH)
24
Rangeinthedegreeof
basicityandaluminum
concentration
51%
Ferric
Chloride
1
FeCl
3
Orangebrown
solution
aqueous 3747%
Pickleliquor(Ferrous
sulfateorFerrous
iron)
Fe
2
SO
4
orFe
2+
Greenaqueoussolution Varies
Lime CaO,
Ca(OH)
2
Drywhitepowderorliquid
formasquicklime,CaO,or
hydratedlime,Ca(OH)
2
NA
1. FerricisalsocommontradenameforFeCl3andalso40%FeCl
3
solution
2. Source:WEFandASCE2006Tables8.6and8.9
3.3 EquationsandStoichiometry
Thissectiondescribestheformsofphosphorusthatcanberemovedbychemicaltreatment.It
followswithadetaileddiscussionofthechemicalreactionsamongmetalsalts,lime,andphosphorus
includingfactorsaffectingremovalefficiency.
3.3.1 RemovablePhosphorus
Chemicalprecipitationwillremoveonlythephosphate(i.e.,orthophosphate)fractionoftotal
phosphorusinwastewater.Influentphosphateistypically50to80percentoftotalphosphorusand
generallyexistsinoneoftwoforms,H
2
PO
4
andHPO
2
4
,withthefirstbeingdominantatpHbelow8.3.
Polyphosphateswillnotreactwithmetalsaltsorlime;however,theywillbeconvertedtophosphate
duringbiologicaltreatment
1
.Organicallyboundphosphorustypicallymakesupthesmallestfractionof
totalinfluentphosphorus(1<mg/L).Thecolloidalandparticulateportionwillgenerallyberemoved
duringsolidsseparationprocesses.Thesolubleorganicfractionmayeitherbehydrolyzedinto
orthophosphateduringthetreatmentprocess(ifbiodegradable)orwillpassthroughaWWTP(ifnon
biodegradable).
SeeChapter2,Section2.2.2foradditionalinformationontheformsofphosphorusininfluent
wastewater.SeeSection3.8foradiscussionontheimplicationsofrecalcitrantphosphorusonachieving
loweffluenttotalphosphorus(TP)concentrations.
1
Colorimetrictechniquesusedtoquantifyphosphateconcentrationsgiveresultsforreactivephosphorus,which
isprimarilyorthophosphatebutincludesasmallcondensedphosphatefraction.
3.3.2 ReactionsofMetalSaltsandPhosphorus

Themetalsaltdoseforchemicalphosphorusremovalhasbeenrecognizedasacriticaldesign
andeconomicparameterforchemicaltreatmentsystems.Inadditiontodose,thewastewater
characteristics,methodofchemicaladdition,chemicaladditionfeedingpoint(s),reactionpH,
flocculationmethod,andtimeafterchemicaladditionareimportantdesignandperformanceissuesthat
canaffecttherelationshipbetweendoseandphosphorusremovalefficiency.
Themetalsaltdoseiscommonlydescribedintermsofthemolesofmetaladded(Me
dose
)per
moleofsolublephosphorusintheinfluent(P
ini
).Thetermstoichiometricdoseisbasedon1.0Me
addedperMoleofPremoved(i.e.,1.0Me
dose
/P
ini
)whichwouldbethemolarratiorequirementfor
strictlyachemicalreactionbetweenaluminumorironsaltstoformaMPO
4
precipitateasshownin
Equations31and32(WEFandASCE2009,chargesomitted).
Al
2
(SO4)
3
14H
2
O+2H
3
(PO
4
)2Al(PO
4
)+3H
2
SO
4
+18H
2
O Eq.31
FeCl
3
(6H
2
O)+H
2
PO
4
+2HCO
3
FePo
4
+3Cl+2CO
2
+8H
2
O Eq.32
AtrelativelyhigheffluentPconcentrations(above1.0mg/L),thestoichiometricrelationshipfor
metalsaltdoseiscommonlyobserved.Themolarratiotypicallyincreaseswellabovethestoichiometric
ratioaslowereffluentphosphorusconcentrationsareneeded.Thishascommonlybeenattributedto
substantialmetalhydroxideformationinadditiontometalphosphorusprecipitates(Sedlak,1991).
ResearchbySzabetal.(2008)andSmithetal.(2008)definedamechanismforphosphorus
removalbyferricchloridebasedonasurfacecomplexationmodel.Conceptually,theadditionofferric
chlorideresultsintheprecipitationofhydrousferricoxide(HFO),whichprovidessurfacesitesfor
reactionwithphosphorus.Thebasisofthephosphorusremovalmechanismisthatphosphateandiron
canshareanoxygenmoleculeandthatinteractionscanberepresentedbythefollowingsymbolic
reaction(chargesomitted)(Smithetal.2008):
FeOOH+HOPO
3
=FeOOPO
3
+H
2
O Eq.33
Thereactiveoxygensaretermedsurfacesites,andtheiravailabilityisrelatedtomixingandaging
conditions.Underrapidmixing,surfacesitesarereadilyavailable.Withslowmixing,however,muchof
theHFOwouldformintheabsenceofphosphorusandresultinlessefficientphosphorusremoval.
AstheHFOforms,phosphateissimultaneouslyremovedthrough(1)coprecipitationof
phosphateintotheHFOstructure,and(2)adsorptionofthephosphateontopreformedHFOparticles
(Smithetal.2008).AftertheinitialHFOformationandphosphorusremoval,additionalphosphoruscan
beremovedovertimebydiffusionofphosphorusintothefloc.Theeffectofagingistoreducereactive
sitesandHFOphosphorusremovalcapacity.Additionalresearchisneededtoconfirmasimilarremoval
mechanismforaluminum.
ChemicalDoseandPhosphorusRemovalEfficiency
Inallobservationsonchemicalremovalofphosphorus,thepercentphosphorusremoval
increasesandeffluentphosphorusconcentrationdecreasesasthemolarchemicaldoseformetalsalts
increases,buttheincrementalremovaldiminisheswithincreaseddosages(Sedlak1991,Szaboetal.
2008,WEFandASCE2009).Smithetal.(2007)foundthatfortypicalinfluentphosphorus
concentrations,ferricdosesabove1.5to2.0Me
dose
/P
ini
ratiosaresufficienttoremove80to98percent
ofsolublephosphorus.ReachingveryloweffluentTPconcentrations,i.e.below0.10mg/L,requires
significantlyhigherratiosofabout6or7Me
dose
/P
ini
.Asimilardosewasreportedfor75to95percent
phosphorusremovalfromwastewaterusingalum(WEFandASCE2009).Forsimilarphosphorusremoval
efficienciesusingprepolymerizedsaltssuchasPAClorsodiumaluminate,ahigherdoseisneeded.
FactorsthatinfluencedoseandremovalefficiencymayincludepH,alkalinity,competingsubstancesin
thewastewater,initialmixingconditionsandflocculation.
MixingattheDosagePoint
Mixingatthedosagepointisnecessarytoensurethatthemetalandphosphatemolecules
react.Mixingintensitycanberepresentedbythevelocitygradient,G,inunitsofseconds
1
.Smithetal.
(2007)reportedthatthereactionsofphosphatesatthesurfaceofthehydrousferricoxidesdepend
highlyonthemixingconditions.Rapidmixingmeansthatthesurfacesitesareavailable,whereaswith
slowermixing,manyofthemetaloxideswouldformintheabsenceofphosphateandrenderinternal
oxygenatomsunavailableforbinding.
BenchscalekineticexperimentsbySzaboetal.(2008)revealedthatamajorityofphosphatewill
reactwithironinthefirst10to20secondsunderidealmixingconditions(G=425second
1
).At
wastewaterplants,mixingatthedosagepointistypicallypoor,withGvaluesrangingfrom20to100
second
1
(Szabetal.2008).Szabetal.recommendthatplantsattempttoachieveaveryhighmixing
intensityatthedosagepoint(Gvaluesbetween200and300second
1
).Mixingtimesathighenergyare
generallyintherangeof10to30seconds.
Aftertheinitialrapidkinetics,phosphorusremovalcancontinuewithslowreactionkinetics
betweenthephosphateandironovermanyhoursandevendays(Szaboetal.2008).Theslowreaction
rateremovalismoreimportantforalumorferricadditiontoactivatedsludgebasinswithsolids
retentiontimesindays.
Flocculation
Afterrapidmixingatthedosagepoint,gentlemixingisneededtoformflocsthatcanbesettled
orremovedthroughasolidsseparationprocess.Thisiscriticalformeetingloweffluentphosphorus
requirements.Often,movementofthewastewaterthroughthetreatmentplantissufficientforfloc
formation(USEPA2008b).Flocculationcanbelimitedbyinsufficienttimeorconditionsthatdisruptfloc
formationsuchaspumpingandaeration.
pHandAlkalinity
ThehighestremovalefficiencyforchemicalprecipitationiswithinapHrangeof5.5to7.0
(Szabetal.2008).BetweenpH7and10,phosphorusremovalefficiencydeclinesbecausethesurfaces
ofmetalhydroxidesaremorenegativelycharged,andsolubleironhydroxidesbegintoform.AtlowpH
values,thesolubilityoftheprecipitantisreduced,andatextremelylowpHvalues,metalhydroxide
precipitationislimited.Szabetal.(2008)reportedsimilarrelationshipsbetweenphosphorusremoval
efficiencyandpHforbothalumandferricchloride.
CODandTSSinRawWastewater
Theefficiencyofmetalsaltadditionintheprimarytreatmentstepcanbeaffectedbythe
wastewatercharacteristics.Basedontheresultsofjartestsusingmunicipalwastewater,Szaboetal.
(2008)observedarelationshipbetweenorganiccontentandefficiencyofphosphorusremovalusing
metalsalts.Betweenchemicaloxygendemand(COD)valuesof300to700mg/L,thephosphate
removalefficiencydecreasedwithincreasingCOD.Similarresultswereobservedfortotalsuspended
solids(TSS),withlowerphosphorusremovalefficiencyathigherTSSconcentrations.Inadditionto
reducedefficiencyduringprimarytreatment,organiccontentcanreducetheefficiencyofmetalsalt
removalofphosphorusinactivatedsludgereactors.Ironandaluminumionscanreactwithhumicand
fulvicacidsubstancestoforminsolublecomplexeswiththemetalionsandtheirmineraloxides,thereby
blockingthereactivesitesforphosphateprecipitation(WERF2009).
3.3.3 ReactionsofLimewithPhosphorus
Whenlimeisaddedtowastewater,itfirstreactswiththebicarbonatealkalinitytoformcalcium
carbonate(CaCO
3
).AsthepHincreasestomorethan10,excesscalciumionswillreactwithphosphate
toprecipitatehydroxylapatite[Ca
5
(OH)(PO
4
)
3
]asshowninthereactionbelow.
5Ca
2+
+4OH
+3HPO
4
Ca
5
OH(PO
4
)
3
+3H
2
O Eq.34
Becauseitreactsfirstwithalkalinity,thelimedoseisessentiallyindependentoftheinfluentphosphorus
concentration.Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)estimatesthelimedosetotypicallybe1.4to1.6timesthe
totalalkalinityexpressedasCaCO
3
.
LimeadditioncanraisethepHtogreaterthan11.Becauseactivatedsludgeprocessesrequire
pHlevelsbelow9,limecannotbeaddeddirectlytobiologicaltreatmentprocesses.
Solidsseparationmethodsarecriticalfordeterminingphosphorusremovalefficiencywith
chemicalprecipitationasalargeportionoftheeffluentphosphorusiscontainedinchemical
precipitates.Solidsseparationtechnologies,suchasclarificationandfiltrationareoftenusedin
combinationtoachieveloweffluentTPlevels.Polymerscanbeusedinadditiontothemetalsaltsfor
phosphorusprecipitationtoenhanceremovalforfineparticlesandcolloids.
Gravityseparationinprimaryorsecondaryclarifiersisatraditionalsolidsseparationmethodat
WWTPs.Clarifiersusedinchemicalprecipitationsystemsdifferverylittlefromthoseemployedin
conventionaltreatment,althoughuseofflocculationzonesisrecommendedtoprovideflocculationtime
afterchemicaladdition.
Forsecondaryclarification,flocculationcanoccurinaerationbasinsorchannelspreceding
clarification.Theuseofflocculationzonesinsecondaryclarifiersisarecommendedpracticetoallow
flexibilityinthepointofchemicaladditionandtoprovideazoneinwhichdirectcontrolcanbeexercised
overvelocitygradientstoachieveoptimumflocculation.
Membranebioreactorsforactivatedsludgewastewatertreatmentprovidemaximumsolids
separationwitheffluentturbidityvaluestypicallylessthan0.30NTUandnondetecteffluentTSS
concentrations.
Tertiaryfiltrationfollowingsecondaryclarificationisincreasinglybeingusedasapolishingstep,
withchemicaltoreduceTSSandtoachieveeffluentTPconcentrationsbelow0.50mg/L.Thetypesof
filtersavailableincludetraditionalmediafilters,upflowcontinuousbackwashfilters,clothfilters,and
membranes.Severalpatentedballastedhighrateclarifiers(BHRC)usingdifferenttypesofballastsuch
asrecycledsludge,microsand,andmagneticballast(USEPA2008b)havebeendevelopedinrecent
years.ExamplesincludeDensaDeg,Actiflo,andtheCoMag
TM
process.Chapter6ofthisdesign
manualprovidesanoverviewofthedifferenttertiaryfiltertechnologiesandChapter11provides
recommendationsfordesign.
3.5 EffectsonSludgeProductionandHandling
Sludgeproductionandhandlingisgenerallyconsideredtobeoneofthedownsidesofchemical
phosphorusremoval.Chemicalprecipitationmethodsalwaysproduceadditionalsolidsdueto
generationofmetalorcalciumphosphateprecipitatesandmetalhydroxidesludge.Theamountof
increasedsludgeproductionwilldependonthelocationofchemicaladdition,thechemicaldoseused,
andtheconstituentspresentinthewastewater.
Thestoichiometricrelationshipsshownbelowcanprovideagoodfirstestimateofadditional
solidsproductionfromchemicalprecipitation(WEFandASCE2009).ForalumadditiontheremovalofP
withAlcanberepresentedbyAl
0.8
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
1.4
andtheremainingaluminumaddedwillbedescribed
byaluminumhydroxideproductioninaccordancewithEq.35.Forferricremovalwithironthesludge
productionfromPremovalcanbeestimatedasFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
andtheremainingferricaddedwill
bedescribedbyferrichydroxideproductioninEq.36.
Al
3+
+3H
2
OAl(OH)
3
+3H
+
Eq.35
Fe
3+
+3H
2
OFe(OH)
3
+3H
+
Eq.36
Typically,theadditionofmetalsaltstotheprimaryclarifierforthepurposesofcompletephosphorus
removalwillincreaseprimarytreatmentsludgeproductionby50to100percentduetophosphorusand
hydroxideprecipitatesandincreasedsuspendedsolidsremoval.Inthiscasethesecondarysludge
productionislowerduetoremovalofadditionalTSSandBODintheprimaryclarifier.Thetotaloverall
plantsludgeproductioncanbeexpectedtoincreaseby60to70percent(WEFandASCE2009).For
metaladditiontothesecondarytreatmentprocesstoachieveeffluentPconcentrationsintherangeof
0.50to1.0mg/Lwiththestoichiometricmetalsaltdoseintherangeof2.0,thesludgeproductionmay
increaseby35to45percentandtheoverallplantsludgeproductionmayincreaseby5to25percent
(WEFandASCE2009).FortertiaryapplicationstoachieveeffluentPconcentrationsoflessthan0.10
mg/L,thechemicalstoichiometricdosecanbe2to3timesthatindicatedintheprevioussentencefor
secondarytreatment,buttheamountofPtoberemovedismuchless,sothattheeffectonsludge
productioncanbeestimatedtobeincreasedby45to60percentforsecondary/tertiarytreatmentand
by10to40percentfortheoverallplantsludgeproduction.SeeChapter9,Section9.8.3,foranexample
calculationofsludgeproductionincreaseresultingfromtheadditionofmetalsalts.
Limetypicallyproducesamuchhighersludgevolumecomparedtometalsaltsbecauseofits
reactionwithnaturalalkalinity.Thefollowingreactionsareimportantfordeterminingthesludge
producedfromlimeaddition(Tchobanoglousetal.2003):
10Ca
2+
+6PO
4
3
+2OH
Ca
10
(PO
4
)
6
(OH)
2
Eq.37

Mg
2+
+2OH
Mg(OH)
2
Eq.38

Ca
2+
+CO
3
2
CaCO
3
Eq.39
AnadvantageoflimesludgeisthatsomestabilizationcanoccurduetothehighpHlevelsrequired.One
disadvantageisthatlimecancausescalinginmechanicalthickeninganddewateringsystems.Although
alumtendstoproducelesssludgethanferricsalts,alumsludgecanbemoredifficulttoconcentrateand
dewatercomparedtoferricsludge.
Theuseofmetalsaltscanresultinincreasedinorganicsalts(salinity)inthesludgeandinthe
effluent.Salinitycancreateproblemswhenbiosolidsarelandappliedorwhentheeffluentisreturned
toexistingwatersupplyreservoirs.BiologicalphosphorusremovalwasdevelopedinSouthAfricadueto
thehighrateofindirectrecyclingofwastewatereffluent,whichledtoexcessivetotaldissolvedsolids
(TDS)inthewatersupplyduringdryperiods.Hightotalsaltscanreducegerminationratesforcrops
andnegativelyaffectthesoilstructure,inadditiontopotentialtasteandodorproblems.
3.6 TwoFactorsthatMayLimittheAbilityofPlantstoAchieveVeryLowEffluentLevels
Twofactorsmaylimittheabilityofplantstoachieveverylowlevels:thepresenceof
recalcitrantphosphorusandchallengesinmeasuringveryloweffluentconcentrations.
Aportionoftotalphosphorusinwastewatercanberecalcitrant,meaningthatitpassesthrough
thechemical,biological,andphysicaltreatmentprocessesandintotheeffluentunchanged.Lancaster
andMadden(2008)reportedatypicalrecalcitrantphosphorusspikesashighas0.5mg/Linmunicipal
wastewater,whichweresuspectedtooriginatefromanindustrialsource.Theauthorsspeculatedthat
therecalcitrantfractionwasmadeupofeitherdissolvedacidhydrolyzablephosphorus,organic
phosphorus,oracombinationofthetwo.Neethlingetal.(2007)postulatedthatrecalcitrant
phosphorusismostlythedissolvedorganicvariety.
StudiesconductedinWashingtonStateandNevadarevealedsignificantvariabilityinmeasured
phosphorusconcentrationslessthan0.020mg/L.TheCityofLasVegasPilotStudyfoundthatthe
accuracyofthemeasurementdependedonseveralfactorsincludingthesamplematrixanddigestion
procedure(EleuterioandNeethling2009).In2007,WERFinitiatedaprojecttoevaluatethecapabilities
ofcommerciallaboratoriestoaccuratelymeasurephosphorusconcentrationslessthan0.020mg/Land
determinefactorsthataffectmethodaccuracy.Keyfindings,whichwerepresentedattheWEF2009
specialtyconferenceonnutrientremoval,areasfollows:
Totalphosphorusmeasurementsexhibitedawidevariability.Thisrangewasattributedto
sampledigestionprocedures.
Orthophosphatemeasurementswereaccuratefordeionizedwater,butnotforwastewater
effluentsamples.Variabilityinresultswasattributedtosamplematrixanddigestion
procedures.
TheAscorbicAcidmethod(eithertheUSEPAorStandardMethodsprocedure)wasthemost
oftenusedandwasfoundtobeareliabletechniqueformeasuringorthophosphateatlow
concentrations.
EleuterioandNeethling(2009)concludedthatadditionalresearchisneededtoidentifythecompounds
interferingwiththemethodanddeveloptechniquestocorrecttheseinterferences.
3.7 References
Benisch,M.,D.Clark,Neethling,J.B.,H.S.Fredrickson,A.Gu.2007.CanTertiaryPhosphorusRemoval
ReliablyProduce10ug/L?:PilotResultsfromCoeurDAlene,ID.InNutrientRemoval2007.WEF.
Lancaster,C.D.andJ.E.Madden.2008.NotSoFast!TheImpactofRecalcitrantPhosphorusonthe
AbilitytoMeetLowPhosphorusLimits.InWEFTEC2008.
Neethling,J.B.,B.Bakke,M.Benisch,A.Gu,H.Stephens,H.D.Stensel,andR.Moore.2005.Factors
InfluencingtheReliabilityofEnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.Alexandria,VA:WERFandIWA
Publishing.
Neethling,J.B.,M.Benisch,D.Clark,A.Gu.2007.PhosphorusSpeciationProvidesDirectiontoProduce
10g/L.InNutrientRemoval2007.WEF.
Sedlak,R.I.,editor.1991.PhosphorusandNitrogenRemovalfromMunicipalWastewater;Principlesand
Practice,2
nd
edition.LewisPublishers,BocaRaton,Fl.
Smith,D.S.,R.L.Gilmore,A.Szbo,I.Takcs,S.Murthy,andG.Daigger.2008.ChemicallyMediated
PhosphorusRemovaltoLowLevels:AnalysisandInterpretationofData.InWEFTEC2008.
Smith,S.,A.Szab,I.Takcs,S.Murthy,I.Licsk,andG.Daigger.2007.TheSignificanceofChemical
PhosphorusRemovalTheoryforEngineeringPractice.InNutrientRemoval2007.WEF.
Smith,S.,I.Takcs,S.Murthy,G.T.Daigger,andA.Szab.2008.PhosphateComplexationModelandIts
ImplicationsforChemicalPhosphorusRemoval.WaterEnvironmentResearch.80(5):428438.
Alexandria,VA:WEF.
Szab,A.,I.Takcs,S.Murthy,G.T.Daigger,I.Licsk,andS.Smith.2008.SignificanceofDesignand
OperationalVariablesinChemicalPhosphorusRemoval.WaterEnvironmentResearch.80(5):407
416.Alexandria,VA:WEF.
Tchobanoglous,G.,F.L.Burton,andH.D.Stensel.2003.WastewaterEngineering:Treatmentand
Reuse.NewYork,NY:McGrawHill.
USEPA.2000.WastewaterTechnologyFactSheet:ChemicalPrecipitation.OfficeofWater.EPA832F
00018.
USEPA.2008b.MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument.Volume1Technical
WEFandASCE.1998.DesignofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlantsMOP8,4thEd.Water
EnvironmentFederationandAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.Alexandria,VA:WEF.
WEFPress.
WEFandASCE.2009.DesignofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlantsWEFManualofPractice8
andASCEManualsandReportsonEngineeringPracticeNo.76,5thEd.WaterEnvironment
Federation,Alexandria,VA,andAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersEnvironment&WaterResources
Institute,Reston,Va.
WERF.2009.Chapter1,Introduction:TertiaryPhosphorusRemoval.NutrientCompendium.Website
accessed11March2009.http://www.werfnutrientchallenge.com/chapter1.asp?area=ch1

Thepageleftintentionallyblank
4.PrinciplesofBiologicalNitrogenRemoval
Chapter4covers:
4.1 Introduction
4.2 NitrogenRemovalbyBiomassSynthesis
Nitrification
4.3 MicrobiologyofNitrification
4.4 ReactionsandStoichiometryofNitrification
4.5 NitrificationKinetics
4.6 InhibitoryEffectsofEnvironmentalConditionsonNitrification
Denitrification
4.7 DenitrificationFundamentals
4.8 MicrobiologyofDenitrification
4.9 MetabolismandStoichiometryofHeterotrophicDenitrification
4.10 BiologicalDenitrificationKineticswithInfluentWastewater
4.11 DenitrificationCarbonSourcesandRelativeConsumptionRates
4.12 DenitrificationKineticsofExogenousCarbonSources
4.13 SpecificDenitrificationRates
AdditionalTopics
4.14 SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification
4.15 Metabolism,Stoichiometry,andKineticsofANAMMOX
4.16 ImpactsonSludgeProductionandHandling
4.17 EffluentDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
4.18 References
4.1 Introduction
Biologicalnitrogenremovalinwastewatertreatmentoccursbytwoprimarymechanisms:1)
biomasssynthesis(nitrogenassimilation)andsludgewasting,and2)biologicalnitrificationand
denitrification,withonlythelatterabletoachievehighlevelsofnitrogenremovalandloweffluent
concentrationsofinorganicnitrogeninbiologicalnutrientremovalprocessestreatingdomestic
wastewaters.Nitrificationisatwostepprocessinwhichonegenusofaerobicbacteriaoxidize
ammonianitrogen(NH
3
N)tonitritenitrogen(NO
2
N)followedbyanothergenuswhichoxidizesnitrite
nitrogentonitratenitrogen(NO
3
N).Undercertainconditions,e.g.inadequatedissolvedoxygen,the
processcanbestoppedatNO
2
Nformation.Inbiologicaldenitrification,acarbonsourceisoxidized
usingnitrateand/ornitriteaselectronacceptorsinbiologicaloxidationreductionreactionstoreduce
theoxidizednitrogen(NO
3
NorNO
2
N)toinertnitrogengas(N
2
).Ananaerobicprocessthatdoesnot
requireacarbonsourceforNO
2
NreductionistheANAMMOX(anaerobicammoniaoxidation)
processinwhichcertainbacteriaarecapableofoxidizingammoniawithnitritereductiontoproduceN
2
(Sliekersetal.2002).
Thischapterprovidesanoverviewoftheprinciplesbehindbiologicalnitrogenremovalincluding
autotrophicandheterotrophicmicroorganismsresponsiblefornitrificationanddenitrification,reactions
andstoichiometry,kinetics,effectsofenvironmentalfactors,andfixedfilmprocessconsiderations,as
wellassimpledesigncalculations.
4.2 NitrogenRemovalbyBiomassSynthesis
Biochemicaloxygendemand(BOD)removalinbiologicalwastewatertreatmentprocesses
occurswithbacterialcellgrowth.Acommonlyusedformulationforbiomass(HooverandPorges1952)
isC
5
H
7
O
2
N,whichsuggeststhatnitrogenaccountsfor12percentofthebiomassvolatilesuspended
solids(VSS).Fordomesticwastewatertreatment,15to30percentofinfluentnitrogencanberemoved
viabiomasssynthesisandsludgewasting.Ifthewastesludgeisprocessedbyanaerobicdigestion,about
onehalfofthenitrogenremovedcanbereleasedasammoniainthedigesterandreturnedtothe
biologicaltreatmentprocessindewateringrecyclestreams,suchthatonly10to15percentnetremoval
bysynthesisoccurs.CentrateorfiltratefromdigestersolidsdewateringcancontainNH
4
N
concentrationsrangingfrom500to1200milligramsperliter(mg/L),dependingonthelevelofsolids
thickeningpriortoanaerobicdigestionandthedigesteroperation.
Thenitrogenremovalefficiencybybiomasssynthesisdependsonthebiologicalprocessinfluent
BODtototalnitrogen(TN)ratioandthebiomasssolidsretentiontime(SRT)inthesystem.With
increasingSRT,agreaterfractionofthebiomassundergoesendogenousdecay,releasingNH
4
Nand
decreasingthenetnitrogenremovalduetobothsynthesisanddecay.Notallofthenitrogenisreleased
withcellloss,assomeofitremainsunavailableincelldebrisfollowingcelldeath.TheeffectofSRTand
influentBOD/TNratioonthepercentnitrogenremovalduetobiomasssynthesisanddecayisillustrated
inFigure41.AtlowerSRTsandhigherinfluentBOD/Nratios,theremovalduetobiosynthesisand
sludgewastingishigher.Assumptionsusedwereabiomasssynthesisyieldvalueof0.50gVSS/gBOD
removedandanendogenousdecayrateof0.08gVSS/gVSSperday(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).The
fractionofbiomassdebrisremainingfromendogenousdecaywasassumedtobe0.08gVSS/gVSS
(BarkerandDold1997).
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 5 10 15 20
BOD/ N= 6.0
BOD/ N= 4.0
SRT, days
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

N
i
t
r
o
g
e
n

R
e
m
o
v
a
l
tBOD/Nratio. Figure41.PercentnitrogenremovalduetobiomasssynthesisasafunctionofSRTandinfluen
4.3 MicrobiologyofNitrification
Ammoniaandnitriteoxidizingbacteriaarereferredtoasautotrophicbacteriabecausetheyuse
carbondioxide(CO
2
)fortheircarbonsource.Morespecifically,theyareaerobicchemoautotrophic
bacteriabecause,inadditiontousingCO
2
,theyrequiredissolvedoxygentooxidizeaninorganic
compound(NH orNO
_
4
N
2
N)toobtaincellenergy.Akeyfunctionalenzymepossessedbyallthese
bacteriaisammoniamonooxygenase(AMO).Thisenzymeoxidizesammoniatohydroxylamine,whichis
subsequentlyconvertedtonitritebyhydroxylamineoxidoreductase.Theammoniaoxidizingbacteria
(AOB)aredesignatedasNitrosoorganismsandincludethegeneraNitrosomonas,Nitrosospira,and
Nitrosococcus.Thenitriteoxidizingbacteria(NOB)aredesignatedasNitroorganismsandincludethe
generaNitrobacter,Nitrospira,Nitrococcus,andNitrospina(Rowanetal.2003).
Differencesin16SribosomalRNA(rRNA)sequencesforAOBandNOBgeneraresultsindistinct
differencesinphylogenics(Rowanetal.2003).ThephylogeneticdistributionofAOBissummarizedin
Table41.ThegeneraNitrosomonasandNitrosospiraaresoilandfreshwaterAOBthatareintheclass
Proteobacteria.FivelineagesofNitrosomonasAOBhavebeendeterminedbyKoopsand
PommereningRoser(2001)andareN.europaea/eutropha,N.communis,N.oligotropha,N.marina,and
N.cryotolerans.NitrosococcusAOBarelocatedintheProteobacteriandconsistofonlymarineAOB
specieswithstrainsNitrosococcusoceaniandNitrosococcushalophilus.Nitrosococcusmobiliswas
previouslymisnamedandnowbelongstotheProteobacterigenusNitrosomonasandnotthegenus
NitrosococcusintheProteobacteria.
Table41.PhylogenyofAmmoniaOxidizingBacteria
NH
3
Subclassof Salt affinity Preferred

Proteobacteria SubClusters Species Requirement K
s
,M Habitat
Nitrosomonas
europaea
mobilis
europea
Halotolerant,
moderately
halophilic
3061
WWTP,eutrophic
freshwater,brackish
water
Nitrosomonas
eutropha
Nitrosomonas
halophilar
Nitrosococcusmobilis
Nitrosomonas
Proteobacteria
communis
communis
Nosaltrequirement 1443 Soils(notacid)
Nitrosomonassp.I
Nitrosomonassp.II
Nitrosomonasnitrosa
Nosaltrequirement 1946
Eutrophic
freshwater
oligotrophia
Nitrosomonasureae
Nosaltrequirement
1.94.2 Oligotrophic
freshwater,
naturalsoils
Nitrosomonas
oligotropha
marina
Nitrosomonasmarina
Obligatelyhalophilic 5052
Marineenvironment
Nitrosomonassp.III
Nitrosomonas
aestuarii
Nitrosomonas
cryotolerans
Obligatelyhalophilic 4259
nitrosospira
Nitrosolobus
multiformis
Nosaltrequirement
Soils(notacid)
Nitrosovibriotenuis Soils,rocks,
freshwater
and
Nitrosospirasp.I
Proteobacteria Nitrosococcusoceani Obligatelyhalophilic Marineenvironment
Source:ModifiedfromKoopsandPommerening(2001).
ThefourNOBgenerashowmorediversephylogeneticswithNitrobacterwithinProteobacteri,
NitrococcuswithinProteobacteria,NitrospinawithintheProteobacteria,andthetwospeciesofthe
genusNitrospira,NitrospiramoscoviensisandNitrospiramarinawithinaseparatephylumclosetothe
subclassoftheProteobacteria(SiripongandRittmann2007).ThesearesummarizedinTable42(Koops
andPommereningRoser2001).WhileNitrobactergenerallyoccurasfreecells,Nitrospiraaremore
commonlyobservedattachedtoflocsorbiofilmsintheirnaturalenvironments.
Table42.PhylogenyofNitriteOxidizingBacteria
Subclassof Ecophysiological Preferred

Proteobacteria Species parameters Habitat
Proteobacteria
Nitrobacteralkalicus Alkaliandhalotolerant Sodalakes
Nitrobacterwinogradskyi
Nosaltrequirement Freshwater,soils,rocks Nitrobactervulgaris
Nitrobacterhamburgenis
Proteobacteria Nitrococcusmobilis Obligatelyhalophilic
Marineenvironments
Proteobacteria Nitrospinagracilis Obligatelyhalophilic
Nitrospiramoscoviensis Nosaltrequirement Freshwater
Nitrospiramarina Obligatelyhalophilic Marineenvironment
Source:ModifiedfromKoopsandPommerening(2001).
Usingmolecularbiologytools,researchershaveidentifieddiversepopulationsofAOBandNOB
inactivatedsludgeandfixedfilmnitrificationsystems.SiripongandRittmann(2007)examinedthe
diversityofnitrifyingbacteriacommunitiesinthesevenactivatedsludgefacilitiesoperatedbythe
MetropolitanWaterReclamationDistrictofGreaterChicago(MWRDGC)withvaryingSRT,temperature,
andinfluentcharacteristics.TheyfoundthecoexistenceofAOBNitrosomonasandNitrosospiragenera
inallfacilitiesandthecoexistenceofNOBNitrobacterandNitrospiragenera.Coldertemperatures
appearedtoincreaseproportionsofNitrosospiraandNitrospira.Parketal.(2002)foundthattheAOB
communityinanaeratedanoxicprocesswasverydiverse,withbothNitrosomonasandNitrosospira
present.OthershaveshownthatNitrosomonasisverycommoninactivatedsludgetreatmentand
NitrospiraisthemostcommonNOB(Aoietal.2000;CoskunerandCurtis2002;andHarmsetal.2003;Li
etal.2005).
Inalaboratoryfixedfilmfluidizedbedreactor,Schrammetal.(1999)foundadominanceof
NitrosospiraforAOBandNitrospiraforNOB.Incontrast,Rowanetal.(2003)foundadominanceof
NitrosomonasforAOBinabiologicalaeratedfilterandtricklingfilterreceivingcombineddomesticand
industrialwastewater.
Thoughtheirroleinwastewatertreatmenthasnotbeendetermined,itisnotablethatthe
diversityofammoniaoxidationviaAMOextendstothedomainArchaeawithammoniaoxidationfound
inmemberstothekingdomCrenarchaeota.Originallythoughttobeamarineorganismwiththeir
discoverybyFuhrmanetal.(1992),theyhavealsobeenfoundinawiderangeofsoils,insediments,and
infreshwater(NicolandSchleper2006).Furthermore,Leiningeretal.(2006)foundthattheywere
moreabundantthanautotrophicbacteriaforammoniaoxidationinsoils.AmarineCrenarchaeota
isolatedbyKonnekeetal.(2005)wasabletogrowasachemoautotrophatratescomparabletoAOB,
anditalsohadamuchhigheraffinityforammonia(0.03to1.0M).However,thepresenceoforganic
substrateappearedtoinhibititsgrowth.
4.4 ReactionsandStoichiometryofNitrification
TheenergyyieldingammoniaoxidationreactionbyAOBisasfollows:
NH
+
+1.5O NO
+2H
+
4 2 2
+H
2
O Eq.41
InEquation41,1.5molesofoxygenarerequiredtooxidize1moleofammoniaand2molesof
hydrogenareproduced.Thus,theoxygenrequirementtoproducenitriteis3.43gO
2
/gNH
4
Noxidized
toNO
2
N.TheenergyproducingreactionbyNOBisasfollowsandshowstheneedfor1.14gO
2
/gNO
2
NoxidizedtoNO
3
N:
3 2
2
NO 0.5O NO + Eq.42
Theoverallreactionforthetwostepoxidationprocesscanbewrittenasfollowsandaccounts
foralkalinityconsumptionbythehydrogenproduced:
O 3H 2CO NO 2HCO 2O NH
2 2
3 2 4
+ + + +
+
Eq.43
Basedontheabovestoichiometry,ammoniaoxidationtonitraterequires4.57gO
2
/gNH
4
N
oxidizedtoNO
3
Nandconsumes7.14galkalinity(asCaCO
3
)pergNH
4
Noxidized(Tchobanoglousetal.,
2003).
TheoxygenrequiredandalkalinityconsumptionpergNH
4
NremovedcalculatedfromEquation
43willbelessinreactorsbecausesomeoftheNH
4
Nremovedisconsumedforbiomasssynthesisby
thenitrifyingbacteria.WerzernakandGannon(1967)foundthattheoxygenconsumptionnormalized
tonitrogenremovalwas4.33gO
2
/gNH
4
NoxidizedtoNO
3
Nwith3.22gO
2
usedforNH
4
Noxidationto
NO
2
Nand1.11gO
2
foroxidationofNO
2
NtoNO
3
N.Thisfitsreasonablyclosetothestoichiometry
presentedbyHaugandMcCarty(1972)inwhichbiomassyieldsof0.15gVSS/gNH
4
Nand0.02gVSS/g
NO
2
Nremovedweredetermined.Theirbalancesareasfollows:
Ammoniaconsumption:
O 57H CO 104H 54NO NO H C

HCO 09 1 O 6 7 55NH
2 3 2
2 2 7 5
3 2 4
+ + +
+ +
+
Eq.44
Nitriteconsumption:
Eq.45
O 3H 400NO NO H C
CO 4H HCO 195O NH 400NO
2
3 2 7 5
3 2
3 2 4 2
+ +
+ + + +
+
Whenaccountingforsynthesispertheabovereactions,thecalculatedoxygenandalkalinity
consumptionsforNH
4
Nremovalarelowerbyabout5percentand1percent,respectively.Atlonger
SRTswithdecayofnitrifiers,ammoniawillbereleasedandthedifferenceisless.Byignoringsynthesis
andusingtheoxidationonlyvaluesof4.57gO
2
/gNH
4
NoxidizedtoNO
3
Nand7.14galkalinity(as
CaCO
3
)pergNH
4
Noxidized,theresultsareslightlyconservativebutpracticalfordesignestimates.
4.5 NitrificationKinetics
Whereammoniaremovalisneeded,nitrificationkineticswillgoverntheactivatedsludge
aerobiczonedesignasthenitrifyingbacteriahaveslowergrowthratesthentheBODconsuming
heterotrophicbacteriaandthusrequirealongerSRT.Bacterialgrowthratemodels(Monodmodel)or
substrateutilizationmodelsarecommonlyusedtodescribenitrificationkinetics.Themodelsareused
tofitdatafromsteadystateornonsteadystatenitrificationsystemstoobtainappropriatecoefficients.
BecauseithasasignificanteffectonAOBandNOBgrowthrates,substrateutilizationrates,and
endogenousdecayrates,temperatureisaccountedforinnitrificationkineticmodels.Themodelswillbe
reviewedfirstbeforepresentingkineticcoefficientinformation.
TheMonodmodelisusedtodescribethespecificgrowthrateofnitrifyingbacteriaasafunction
oftheconcentrationofthenitrogenspeciesbeingoxidized,DOconcentration,andendogenousdecay
rateasshowninEquations4.6and4.7belowforAOBandNOB,respectively.Forcompletelymixed
activatedsludgesystemsattemperaturesbelow25C,theprocessissufficientlymodeledbyconsidering
onlytheAOB,astheNOBareabletousenitritemuchfaster.However,athighertemperatures,the
kineticsofbothgroupsmustbeconsideredastheeffectofhighertemperaturefavorsAOBmorethan
NOB.ThisisanunderlyingbasisfortheSingleReactorHighActivityAmmoniaRemovalOverNitrite
(SHARON)processfornitrogenremoval,whichisdescribedlaterinthischapter.Fornitrificationin
batchfedsystemsorforaerobicreactorsinseries,itmaybemoreappropriatetomodelbothAOBand
NOBtodeterminetreatmentNH
4
NandNO
2
Nconcentrations(ChandranandSmets,2000).
AOB
AOB o, NH NH
NH
AOB max, AOB
b
K K S
S

+
=
o
o
S
S
Eq.46
NOB
NOB o, NO NO
NO
NOB max, NOB
b
K K S
S

+
=
o
o
S
S
Eq.47
Where:
AOB
=Specificgrowthrateofammoniaoxidizingbacteria,gVSS/gVSSd
NOB
=Specificgrowthrateofnitriteoxidizingbacteria,gVSS/gVSSd
MAX,AOB
=Maximumspecificgrowthrateofammoniaoxidizingbacteria,gVSS/gVSSd
MAX,NOB
=Maximumspecificgrowthrateofnitriteoxidizingbacteria,gVSS/gVSSd
bAOB =Specificendogenousdecayrateofammoniaoxidizingbacteria,gVSSlost/gVSSd
bNOB =Specificendogenousdecayrateofammoniaoxidizingbacteria,gVSSlost/gVSSd
S
NH
=NH
+
4
Nconcentration,mg/L
K
NH
=HalfvelocitycoefficientforNH
+
4
N,mg/L
S
o
=DOconcentration,mg/L
K
o,AOB
=HalfvelocitycoefficientforDOforAOB,mg/L
S
NO
=NO
2
Nconcentration,mg/L
K
NO
=HalfvelocitycoefficiencyforNO
2
N,mg/L
K
o,NOB
=HalfvelocitycoefficientforDOforNOB,mg/L
ThenextseveralequationsdescribethespecificgrowthrateofAOB,volumetricNH
4
Noxidation
rates,andeffluentNH
4
NconcentrationasafunctionofkineticparametersandsystemSRT.An
identicalsetofequationscanbeusedforNOBtodescribeNO
2
Noxidationkineticsandarenotwritten
here.
SRT
1
AOB
= Eq.48

1.0 ) b SRT(
SRT) b (1 K
S
AOB DO AOB, max,
AOB NH
NH
+
= Eq.49
) K (S
) )(S (
AOB o, o
o AOB max,
DO AOB, max,
+
= Eq.410
Where:
SRT =Solidsretentiontime,days
max,AOB,DO
=
max,AOB
correctedforDOconcentration,g/gday
Thenextsetofkineticequationsdescribesnitrificationratesinbatchtestsusingactivated
sludgeornitrifierenrichmentsgrowninbenchscalestudies.Inthiscase,onlytheequationsforAOBare
shownbutasimilarsetofequationswouldapplytoNOB.FromtheMonodequation,bacteriaspecific
growthratecanbedescribedasafunctionofsubstrateutilization.
+
= =
AOB o, NH NH
NH
AOB max,
AOB
AOB x,
AOB
K K S
S
X
r
o
o
S
S
Eq.411
Where:
r
x,AOB
=AOBgrowthrate,mg/Lday
X
AOB
=AOBconcentration,mg/L
AOB
AOB o, o
o
NH NH
NH
AOB max, AOB x,
X
K S
S
K S
S
r

+
= Eq.412
Therateofbiomassgrowthisafunctionofthesubstrateutilizationrateandsynthesisyieldcoefficient:
) (r Y r
NH AOB AOB X,
= Eq.413
Where:
r
NH
=NH
+
4
Noxidationrate,mg/Lday
CombiningEquations4.12and4.13givestheNH
4
Nutilizationrate.
AOB
AOB o, o
o
NH NH
NH
AOB
AOB max,
NH
X
K S
S
K S
S
Y
= Eq.414
Besidesthekineticmodelparameters,theammoniautilizationratedependsontheAOB
concentration,whichcanbecalculatedfromamassbalanceontheaveragedailyamountofammonia
oxidized,theAOBsynthesisyieldandendogenousdecaycoefficient,andtheaverageSRT
(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
SRT) b V(1
)(Nox)SRT Q(Y
X
AOB
AOB
AOB
+
= Eq.415
Where:
XAOB =AOBconcentration,mg/L
Q =Averagedailyinfluentflow,L/day
Nox =NH
+
4
NoxidizedbyAOBfrominfluent,mg/L
V =VolumeofreactorcontainingAOB,L
CombiningEquations414and415givestheNH
4
NutilizationratewiththegrowthreactorAOB:
+
=
SRT) b V(1
Q(Nox)SRT
K S
S
K S
S
r
AOB AOB o, o
o
NH NH
NH
AOB max, NH
Eq.416
Equations49and416representexpressionsthatcanbeusedfortwodifferenttypesoftests
toobtainnitrificationkinetics.Inthefirstcase,theeffluentNH
4
Nconcentrationismeasuredat
differentoperatingSRTstofitthemodeltoobtainthemaximumspecificgrowthrate,
max,AOB
.For
Equation416,carefulmeasurementofNH
4
NoxidationovertimeandSRTcontrolandmaintenanceis
neededbeforeusingthereactorbiomassinbatchnitrificationtestsinwhichr
NH
versusS
NH
ismeasured
toobtain
max,AOB
bymodelfitting.Itshouldbenotedthatinbothcasesthevalueusedforthe
endogenousdecayrate,b
AOB
,affectsthecalculated
max,AOB
value.
4.5.1 AOBkinetics
Inthenitrificationmodelequationsshownpreviously,thevalueusedforthespecificdecay
coefficientdirectlyaffectsthecalculated
max,AOB
value.Foragivenobservednitrificationrateoreffluent
NH
4
NconcentrationwithSRT,higherspecificdecaycoefficientvaluesresultinhigher
max,AOB
valuesand
viceversa.Thus,itisdifficulttocomparenitrificationkineticvaluesbetweenstudieswithoutknowing
thevalueforb
AOB
,andthemaximumspecificgrowthrateisnotaccuratelydeterminedwithoutan
accuratedeterminationofthespecificendogenousdecayratecoefficient(Doldetal.2005).
Inearlyworkonnitrificationkinetics,thespecificendogenousdecayratewasbelievedtobe
verylowandgenerallyignored(Downingetal.1964;USEPA1993).TestsevaluatingAOBnitrification
kineticsrevealedtheimportanceofthespecificendogenousdecayratevalue(Melceretal.2003).
Similar
max,AOB
valueswereobtainedinastudyusingthreedifferentexperimentalmethodstoobtain
nitrificationkineticsandapplyingab
AOB
valueof0.17g/gdobtainedinaseparatetestmethod(Doldet
al.2002;Melceretal.2003).ThespecificendogenousdecaycoefficientobtainedintheWater
EnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)studyisincludedinTable43andcomparescloselytoresults
fromotherstudiesaimedatdeterminingb
AOB
.Manseretal.(2006)obtainedsimilarspecific
endogenousdecayratesforAOBandNOBand,inaddition,obtainedsimilarratesformembrane
bioreactor(MBR)andconventionalclarificationactivatedsludge.
Lowerspecificendogenousdecaycoefficientshavebeenfoundforanoxicaerobicsystemswith
LeeandOleszkiewicz(2003),Nowaketal.(1994),andSiegristetal.(1999)reportingabouta50percent
reductioninthedecayrate.Temperatureisalsoknowntoaffecttheendogenousdecayrateofboth
heterotrophicandautotrophicmicroorganisms.TheeffectoftemperatureontheAOBendogenous
decayratewasalsodeterminedintheWERFstudy(Melceretal.2003)from10to20C,andthe
temperaturecoefficient,,wasfoundtobe1.029inthetemperaturerelationshipgiveninEq.417
below.
b
(T 20)
AOB,T
=b
AOB,20
(u)

Eq.417
Where:
b
o
AOB,T
=EndogenousdecayrateattemperatureT, C
b
AOB,20
=Endogenousdecayrateat20oC
=Temperaturecoefficient,1.029
Table43.SummaryofTestResultsonMeasuringSpecificEndogenousDecayCoefficient
Rates(AllRatesat20C)
Specificendogenous
Nitrifier decayrate(b),gVSS/g
Bacteriaorsource group VSSday Reference
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.17 Melceretal.,2003
Nitrobacter NOB 0.14 CoppandMurphy,1995
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.17 CoppandMurphy,1995
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.15* Manseretal.,2006
Aerobicactivatedsludge NOB 0.14* Manseretal.,2006
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.20** Nowaketal.,1994
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.21** Siegristetal.,1999
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.15 LeeandOleszkiewicz,2002
Anoxicaerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.10 LeeandOleszkiewicz,2003
Aerobicactivatedsludge AOB 0.09 Katehisetal.,2002
*Showedsimilarresultsformembranebioreactorandconventionalactivatedsludgesystems.
**Reportedthatthedecayrateunderanoxicconditionswasaboutoftheaerobicsystemrate.
Oftenreferredtoasu
AUT
,the
max
valueforAOBandNOBisacriticalkineticparameterand
showntobeafunctionoftemperature.AOBhashistoricallybeenthefocusofthesekineticevaluations,
andresultsonthe20Cvalueandeffectoftemperaturehavevariedwidely.Reportedvaluesforearly
studiesonAOB
max
at20Crangefrom0.320.77g/gday(Downingetal.1964;DowningandHopwood
1964;Barnard1975;LawrenceandBrown1976;HallandMurphy1980;Randalletal.1992),butthese
studiesassumednegligibleorverylowspecificendogenousdecayrates.Atthehighermeasureddecay
rate,theWERFstudy(Melceretal.2003)obtaineda20C
max
valueof0.90g/gdayforthreedifferent
testmethods.However,morerecentstudiesalsoshowawiderangeinAOB20C
max
values;0.63
4.55g/gday(Chandranetal.2008;MarsiliLibellietal.2001,andIacopozzietal.2007).
Similarly,thereportedeffectoftemperatureonthe20C
max
valuehasalsorangedwidelywith
theratioofthe20C
max
/10C
max
from2.2to3.7.TheratiointheWERFstudy(Melceretal.2003)was
2.0.Reporteddifferencesinkineticdataaretheresultofdataanalysismethods,activatedsludge
characteristics,andoperatingconditions.Comparingorusingonlysinglekineticparametervalues
betweenstudiesmaynotbevalidasthecalculatedkineticvalueisrelatedtothedeterminedor
assumedvaluesforotherkineticparametersinthenitrificationmodel.Becauseacompletesetof
modelparametersweredeterminedintheevaluationofAOBkineticsintheWERFstudy(Melceretal.
2003),thesevaluesaregiveninthefollowingnitrificationAOBkineticvaluesinTable44forusein
nitrificationkineticmodeling(Eq.49through416).ThesestudiesweredoneatDOconcentrationsin
the46mg/LrangesotheDOhalfsaturationvaluewasnotevaluated.ThevaluefromtheIWAactivated
sludgemodelreportisusedhere(Henzeetal.2000).Designersshouldnottakethesevaluesas
absoluteandifatallpossiblemeasureandcalibratenitrificationkineticvaluesforthedesignfacility
(SeeChapter10,Section10.8foradditionaldiscussion).
Table44.SummaryofAOBNitrificationKineticCoefficientValues.
20C Temperature
Parameter Units Value correctionvalue,
Yield,Y gVSS/gNoxidized 0.15 1.0
Specificendogenous
rate,b
decay
gVSS/g
VSSday
0.17
1.029
Maximumspecific
rate,
max
growth
gVSS/g
VSSday
0.90
1.072
Halfvelocitycoefficient,
K
NH
mg/L
0.70
1.0
Halfvelocitycoefficient,K
0

mg/L
0.50
1.0
Source:AllfromMelceretal.(2003)excepttheDOhalfvelocitycoefficient;fromHenzeetal.(2000).
Mixing,flocsize,andsitespecificoperatingconditionscanaffectnitrificationkinetics.Largefloc
sizesandlessmixingwillhavemorediffusionlimitationswithlowerinorganicnitrogenandDO
concentrationswithinthefloc.Thus,lowerspecificnitrificationrateswillbeobservedastheratesare
normalizedtothetotalVSSconcentrationorbiomassconcentration.Theeffectofkineticlimitations
wasdiscussedbyManseretal.(2005)inwhichtheyobservedlowerAOBandNOBhalfvelocity
coefficientvalues(Table45)foraconventionalactivatedsludgeversusMBR.TheMBRhadsmallerfloc
size,whichtheyreasonedwasduetogreateragitationformembranescour.Theeffectwasgreateston
theoxygenhalfvelocitycoefficient.Ifconstanthalfvelocitycoefficientvalueswereassumedin
interpretingthetestdata,alowerobserved
max
valuewouldhavebeendetermined.

Table45.ComparisonofNitrificationHalfVelocityCoefficients(mg/L)inMBRand
ConventionalActivatedSludge(CAS)Systems
Nitrifiergroup MBR CAS
AOB
Oxygen,Ko 0.18 0.79
Ammonia,K
NH
0.13 0.14
NOB
Oxygen,Ko 0.13 0.47
Ammonia,K
NH
0.17 0.28
Source:Manseretal.2005.
Inadditiontoflocsize,theoxygenuptakerate(OUR)oftheactivatedsludgecanaffectthe
observednitrificationrateatagivenbulkliquidDOconcentrationduetomoreoxygenlimitationinthe
flocatgreaterOURs.Stenseletal.(1993)showedthatforastagednitrificationaerationtank,ahigher
DOconcentrationwasneededtomaintainthesamenitrificationrateatagivenbulkliquidNH
4
N
concentrationformixedliquorintheinitialaerobicstagesversusmidtolatterstages.ThehigherOUR
resultedingreateroxygenlimitationsintheactivatedsludgeflocandaffectednitrificationrates.The
effectsofmixedliquorsuspendedsolids(MLSS)concentration,flocsize,andOURarenotcurrently
factoredintonitrificationkineticmodels.AlsonotethatthetransferrateofDOtothenitrifiersceases
tobeasignificantnitrificationfactorinlonghydraulicresidencetime(HRT)longSRTsystemssuchas
extendedaerationsystems.Forthesesystems,completenitrificationcanbeaccomplishedatverylow
DOconcentrations,i.e.<0.3mg/L,eventhoughthekineticratewouldbefasterifDOconcentrationwas
higher.
4.5.2 NOBkinetics
NOBkineticsareofmajorinterestwithregardtotreatinghightemperatureanaerobicdigestion
centrateorfiltratestreamsfornitrogenremovalwiththeSHARONprocess(discussedbelow)orfor
operatingconditionsthatleadtohighereffluentNO
2
Nconcentrations.StudiesonNOBkineticshave
beenbasedonmodelfittingofpilotplantorbenchscaleresultsinwhichselectedparametershave
beenarbitrarilyfixedoronevaluatingoneparticularkineticeffectsuchasDOconcentration.Previous
workhasshownthatNOBareinhibitedatlowDOconcentrationswithNO
2
Nconcentrationsincreasing
atlowDO(Picioreanuetal.1997;Garridoetal.1997;PengandZhu2006;Contrerasetal.2008),
suggestingahigherK
o
forNOBthanAOB.ValuesforK
o
forstudieswithNOBrangedfrom0.50to1.75
mg/L.ForstudieswithbothNOBandAOB,theratiooftheNOBtoAOBDOhalfvelocitycoefficients
were2.36(Guisasolaetal.2005),1.4(Ciudadetal.2006),and0.59(Manseretal.2005).Absolute
valuesofoxygenhalfvelocitycoefficientsdependontheoperatingandactivatedsludgeflocconditions
andpossiblediffusionlimitationsinadditiontothebacterialaffinityforDO.
NitriteoxidationKineticcoefficientsusedinmodelfitsvarywidely(Sinetal.,2008).Lacopozzi
etal.(2007)presentedamodelforthetwostepnitrificationprocessusing20C
max
valuesfromMarsili
Libellieetal.(2001)of0.63g/ddforAOBand1.04g/gdforNOB.BasedonEq.417,theirassumed
temperaturecoefficient,,valuesfor
max
were1.06forbothAOBandNOB.However,Kaelinetal.
(2009)fitatwostepAOBandNOBkineticmodeltoBNRpilotplantdataatwinterandsummer
conditionswithconstantorintermittentaeration.Theirdatafitresultedin20C
max
valuesof0.90and
0.65g/gdforAOBandNOB,respectively.Theyfoundthattheeffectoftemperaturewasmore
pronouncedwithAOBversusNOB,andbasedonEq.417,theirtemperaturecoefficient,,valuesfor
both
max
andbwere1.13forAOBand1.08forNOB.Theseresultsareconsistentwithobservationsthat
athighertemperatures,above25C,effluentNO
2
NconcentrationscanbehigherthanNO
3
N
concentrations.ThereislittleworkonhalfvelocitycoefficientsforNO
2
NoxidationbyNOB.Manseret
al.(2005),inacomparativestudy,foundthattheNOBNsubstratehalfvelocitycoefficientwasslightly
higherthanthatforAOB,butobservationsonactivatedsludgenitrificationsuggestsalowerhalf
velocitycoefficientvalue.BasedontheinformationinTable43,thespecificendogenousdecayrate
maybeassumedequalat20CforAOBandNOB
ApossiblesetofkineticcoefficientsforNOBaregiveninTable46andareselectedto
representthegenerallyobservedeffectsoftemperatureandDOconcentration.TheDOhalfvelocity
coefficientismuchlowerthanthatforAOB,asshownbyContrerasetal.(2008)andGuisasolaetal.
(2005).MoreresearchisneededonNOBkinetics,andsitespecifictestingformodelcalibrationmay
giveadifferentsetofvaluesthanthatshowninTable46.
Table46.SummaryofNOBNitrificationKineticCoefficientValues
20C Temperature
Parameter Units Value correctionvalue,
Yield,Y gVSS/gNoxidized 0.05 1.0
Specificendogenousdecay
rate,b gVSS/gVSSday 0.17 1.063
Maximumspecificgrowth
rate,
max
gVSS/gVSSday 1.00 1.063
Halfvelocitycoefficient,
K
NO
mg/L 0.20 1.0
Halfvelocitycoefficient,K
0

mg/L 0.90 1.0
4.5.3 EffectsofTemperatureandDissolvedOxygenonNitrificationKinetics
TheeffectsoftemperatureandaerationtankDOconcentrationoneffluentNH
4
NandNO
2
N
concentrationsareillustratedinFigures42and43,respectivelyforasinglecompletelymixedactivated
sludge(CMAS)aerationtankusingEqs.49and410.Nosafetyfactorsarebuiltintothesegraphical
presentations.Figure42showsthatamuchlongerSRTisneededatalowertemperaturetoachieve
loweffluentNH
4
NconcentrationsandthattheeffluentNO
2
Nconcentrationisalwayslowerthanthe
NH
4
Nconcentration.TheexampleinFigure43showsthatatthelongerSRTneededtohaveaneffluent
NH Nconcentrationof1.0mg/LinaCMASsystemat10
0
4
CtheeffectofDOconcentrationonthe
effluentNO
2
Nconcentrationisminimal,butatthehigher20
0
CtemperatureandlowerSRTneededto
achieveaneffluentNH
4
Nconcentrationof1.0mg/L,lowerDOconcentrationsresultinmuchhigher
effluentNO
2
Nconcentrations.
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
NO2-N, 20
NO2-N, 10
N
O
2
-
N
,

m
g
/
L
DO, mg/ L
NH
4
-N = 1.0 mg/ L
Figure42.EffectofSRTandtemperatureoneffluentNH
+
4
NandNO

2
NconcentrationsusingkineticdatainTable46and44
forCMASwithnosafetyfactor
Figure43.EffectofDOconcentrationoneffluentNO

2
NconcentrationsforSRTsat10
0
Cand20
0
CthatgiveaneffluentNH
4
N
concentrationof1.0mg/LusingkineticdatainTable44and46forCMASwithnosafetyfactor
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
0 5 10 15 20
NH4-N, 10
NO2-N, 10
NH4-N, 20
NO2-N, 20
N
H
4
-
N
,

N
O
2
-
N
,

m
g
/
L
SRT, days
ItshouldbenotedthattheaboveexamplesontheeffectofSRT,temperatureandDO
concentrationwerebasedonsteadystateconditionsofconstantflowandinfluentconcentrations.
Undertypicaldiurnalflowandconcentrationsfordomesticwastewaters,theSRTwouldhavetobe
increasedtoachievethesameeffluentconcentrationsshown.Dynamicsimulationmodelsareusedfor
designtoaccountforvariableloadingeffects.(SeeChapter10fordetailedguidelinesonusingmodels
fordesignofbiologicalnitrogenremovalsystems.)TypicallytheSRTmaybe40to80percentgreater
thanindicatedbythefigures.
TherequiredSRTfornitrificationcanbereducedsignificantlyformanyapplicationsbyusinga
seriesofaerationtanks(stagedsystems)versusasingleaerationtank.Theeffectdependsonthe
influentnitrogenconcentrationtotheaerationtank,temperature,andeffluentNH
4
Nconcentration
goal.Theeffectislesspronouncedforsystemswithhighreturnsludgerecyclerates,suchasMBRs,in
whichtheinfluentnitrogenissubstantiallydiluted.
4.5.4 AOBandNOBKineticsatHighTemperature(SHARONprocess)
TheeffectoftemperatureontherelativeAOBandNOBkineticsisimportantintheSHARON
(SingleReactorHighActivityAmmoniaRemovalOverNitrite)processusedinsidestreamtreatmentof
highammoniaanaerobicdigestioncentrate/filtratefrombiosolidsdewatering(VanHulleetal.2007;
Volckeetal.2007).Theprocesstakesadvantageofahightemperaturecondition(25Cto35C)inwhich
thespecificgrowthrateofAOBishigherthanthatforNOB,sothatatlowenoughoperatingSRTsthe
NOBcanbewashedoutandammoniaisoxidizedtomainlynitrite(nitritationprocess).Lowdissolved
oxygenconditionscanalsohinderNOBgrowthratesintheprocess.Basedontheoxygenrequirements
shownaboveof3.22gO
2
usedforNH
4
NoxidationtoNO
2
Nand1.11gO
2
foroxidationofNO
2
Nto
NO
3
N,thenitritationprocessreducestheenergyrequiredforcompletenitrificationby26percent.The
carbonneededfordenitrificationisalsodecreased.
WashoutoccurswhentheSRTislowerthanthatneededtoaccommodatethemaximumnet
growthrateofthenitrifiersinthereactor.FromEquations46and48,thewashoutorminimalSRTis
asfollowsassumingexcessNsubstrateandDOconcentration:
b
1
SRT
max
min
= Eq.418
ThewashoutSRTforAOBandNOBasafunctionoftemperatureusingthekineticcoefficientsin
Tables42and44,respectively,iscomparedtothatclaimedbyHellingaetal.(1998).Above20C,the
washoutSRTforAOBissimilarandbelowthatforNOB.
AcomprehensivemodelfortheSHARONprocess,includingalkalinityeffects,pH,freeammonia
andnitrousacidtoxicity,andAOBandNOBkineticswasevaluatedbyMagrietal.(2007)withabench
scalereactoroperationat35C.Themodelhightemperature
max
anddecaycoefficient(b)valuesfor
AOBandNOBthatbestfitthelabresultswere1.75and0.56g/gdand0.23and0.04g/gd,respectively.
ThesevaluesresultinwashoutSRTsof0.66daysforAOBand1.92daysforNOB,whichisintherangeof
thatshownforFigure44at35C.
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0
AOB,H
AOB,M
NOB,H
NOB,M
Temperat ure,
0
C
M
i
n
i
m
a
l

W
a
s
h
o
u
t

S
R
T
,

d
a
y
s
Hellingaetal.( Figure44.EffectoftemperatureonminimalwashoutSRTAOB,HandNOB,Hfrom 1998)andAOB,MandNOB,

MfromTables42and44.

4.6 InhibitoryEffectsofEnvironmentalConditionsonNitrification
EffectofpH
AmmoniaoxidationratesdecreaserapidlywithdecreasingpHbelowapHof6.8,andanoptimal
pHisintherangeof7.5to8.0(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).TheeffectoflowerpHontheammonia
oxidationratemaybeduetothereductioninfreeammonia(NH
3
)concentration,asSuzukietal.(1974)
reportedthatNH
3
NisthetruesubstrateforAOB.AnoperatingpHof7.0to7.2isoftenusedfordesign
andoperationtoassurereliablenitrificationrates,andforsomefacilitiesitisnecessarytoaddalkalinity
tomaintainpH.
EffectofFreeAmmoniaandNitrousAcid(HNO
2
)
Forhighammoniastrengthwastewaters,suchasfromanaerobicdigestercentratereturn,
animalfeedlots,andindustrialwastewater,theissueofNH
3
NandHNO
2
concentrationinhibitionon
AOBandNOBbecomesimportant.ConditionsthatinhibitNOBactivitytostopnitrificationatNO
2
N
havebeenmodeledforsequencingbatchreactors(Pambrunetal.2006;KyungandChoi2001).
NH
3
NismoreinhibitorytoNOBthantoAOB(PengandZhu,2006),whileHNO
2
ismore
inhibitorytoAOB.Anthonisenetal.(1976)andTurkandMavinic(1986)foundNOBinhibitionatNH
3
N
concentrationsfrom0.10to1.0mg/L,whereasMauretetal.(1996)foundinhibitionat6.6to8.9mg
NH
3
N/L.WongChongandLoehr(1975)reportedinhibitionbyNH
3
Nat3.5mg/Lforunacclimated
bacteriaand40mg/Lafteranacclimationphase.KyungandChoi(2001)found50percentinhibitionat
11.1mgNH
3
N/L.
ForAOBinhibitionbyNH
3
N,Anthonisenetal.(1976)reportedhigherconcentrationsthanfor
NOBat7.0mg/L,andAbelingandSeyfried(1992)foundcompletelossofactivityata20mgNH
3
N/L
concentration.However,withacclimationWongChongandLoehr(1975)foundstableAOBactivityat
50mgNH
3
N/L.HNO
2
concentrationsfoundinhibitorytoAOBwere0.065to0.83mg/LbyAnthonisen
etal.(1976).
TherelativeconcentrationofNH
3
NandHNO
2
areafunctionofpHandtemperatureandcanbe
calculatedaccordingtoAnthonisenetal.(1976):
pH
a
pH
3
10
K
1
) TAN(10
N NH
+
= Eq.419
and Eq.420
| | T) 6,334/(273 exp
K
1
a
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
pH
n
2
2
10 * K
N NO
N HNO Eq.421
and
| | T) 2,300/(273 exp K
n
+ = Eq.422
Where:
TAN =Totalammonianitrogen,NH
3
N+NH
4
Nconcentration,mg/L
HNO
2
N =FreenitrousacidconcentrationasN,mg/L
NO
2
N =NitriteconcentrationasN,mg/L
T =Temperature,
o
C
K
a
=Ionizationconstantforammonium
K
n
=Ionizationconstantfornitrousacid
ValuesforK
a
andK
n
at25Care10
9.24
and10
3.4
,respectively.
TheaboveequationswereusedtocalculatepossibleTANandNO
2
Nconcentrationsthatmay
inhibitAOBandNOBatpHvaluesfrom6.0to8.0at20C.ResultsaresummarizedinTable47
Table47.NH
4
NandNO
2
NConcentrationsthatMayInhibitNitrificationasaFunctionofpH
at20C.
NH
3
Inhibition
AOB(7.0mgNH
3
N/L) NOB(0.10to3.5mgNH
3
N/L)
pH NH
4
N,mg/L NH
4
N,mg/L
6.0 17,100 2448,500
6.5 5,400 772,700
7.0 1,700 25860
7.5 550 8274
8.0 178 389
HNO
2
Inhibition
AOB(0.065to0.80mgHNO
2
/L)
pH NO
2
N,mg/L
6.0 25311
6.5 80986
7.0 2533,118
7.5 8019,861
8.0 2,53331,185
Effectofsalinity
Nitrifyingbacteriaareabletomaintainactivityunderhighsalineconcentrations.Camposetal.
(2002)found100percentnitrificationat13.7gNaCl/Lbutadeclineatcloseto20g/L.
InorganicandOrganicCompoundInhibitorstoNitrification
Nitrifyingbacteriaaremuchmoresusceptibletoinhibitionthanareheterotrophicbacteria.
Theyareaffectedbyawiderangeoforganicandinorganiccompoundsthatinmanycasesdoesnotkill
thembutgreatlyreducestheirgrowthrate.Becauseoftheirsensitivity,theyhavebeenproposedas
indicatorsofthepresenceoftoxiccompoundsatlowconcentrations(BlumandSpeece1991).Toxic
organiccompoundsincludeorganicsolvents,amines,phenoliccompounds,alcohols,cyanates,ethers,
carbamates,andbenzenes.Themostsignificantheavymetalsthataretoxictonitrifyingbacteriaatlow
reactorsolubleconcentrationsarenickel(0.25mg/L),chromium(0.25mg/L),andcopper(0.10mg/L)
(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).AppendixBpresentsalistofknownorganiccompoundsthathavebeen
identifiedasinhibitorytonitrification(WEFandASCE1998).
4.7 DenitrificationFundamentals
Denitrificationisthebiologicalreductionofnitrateornitriteandcanbeassimilatoryand/or
dissimilatory.AssimilatorydenitrificationinvolvesthereductionofnitrateornitritetoNH
4
Nforusein
biomasssynthesiswhenNH
4
Nisnototherwiseavailable.Mostreferencestobiologicaldenitrification
fornitrogenremovalrefertodissimilatorydenitrificationinwhichnitrate/nitriteistheultimateelectron
acceptorinthebacteriacellrespiratoryelectrontransportchainfortheoxidationofvariousorganicand
inorganicsubstrates.
Nitratereductionfollowsaseriesofintermediateproducts,nitrite(NO
2
),nitricoxide(NO),and
nitrousoxide(N
2
O)tonitrogengas(N
2
),witheachstepusingaspecificreductaseenzymeinthe
respiratorychaintotransferelectrons.NOandN
2
OarenitrogengasesandtheemissionofN
2
Oisof
greatconcernbecauseitisoneofthemostsignificantgreenhousegases(SeeChapter2foradditional
discussion).
2 2
3
N O N NO NO NO Eq.423
Denitrificationcanbeaccomplishedbyheterotrophicbacteriaoxidizingorganicsubstrates,
heterotrophicnitrifyingbacteria,andautotrophicbacteria.Heterotrophicbacteriaaremainly
responsiblefordenitrificationinthebiologicalnitrificationdenitrificationprocesses.Most
heterotrophicbacteriaresponsibleforbiologicaldenitrificationuseBODininfluentwastewaterare
facultativeaerobicbacteriawiththeabilitytouseelementaloxygen,nitrate,ornitriteastheirterminal
electronacceptorsfortheoxidationoforganicmaterial.Whenoxygenispresent,theywilluseoxygen
astheelectronacceptor,butthereductaseenzymesfordenitrificationareinducedintheabsenceof
oxygen(Payne1973).Autotrophicdenitrificationisofinterestforhighertemperaturerecyclestreams
fromanaerobicdigestioncentrate/filtratewiththeANAMMOXbacteriaprocessbeingtheprime
example.
Microbiologistsgenerallyusethetermanaerobictodescribebiologicalreactionsinthe
absenceofoxygen.Todistinguishanaerobicconditionsforwhichthebiologicalactivityoccursmainly
withnitrateornitriteastheelectronacceptorinbiologicalnitrificationdenitrificationprocesses,the
termanoxichasbeenapplied.
4.8 MicrobiologyofDenitrification
Heterotrophicbacteriacapableofdenitrificationareverycommoninwastewatertreatmentand
includethefollowinggenera:Achromobacter,Acinetobacter,Agrobacterium,Alcaligenes,Arthrobacter,
Bacillus,Chromobacterium,Corynebacterium,Flavobacterium,Hypomicrobium,Moraxella,Nesseria,
Paracoccus,Propionibacteria,Pseudomonas,Rhizobium,Rhodopseudmonas,Spirillum,andVibrio
InmanyBNRprocessapplications,asupplementalcarbonsourcehasbeenneededto(1)
providesufficientcarbonfornitrate/nitritereductionforwastewaterswithlowerC/Nratios,(2)
acceleratedenitrificationratestoreducetankvolumerequirements,or(3)provideacarbonsourcefor
furthernitrate/nitritereductioninpostanoxicsystemssuchasdenitrificationfilters.Methanol(CH
3
OH)
hasbeencommonlyusedbecauseitisinexpensive,butbecauseofitsuniquesinglecarboncompound
structure,itsupportsgrowthofalessdiverse,morespecificbacterialpopulation.Themethanolutilizing
bacteriacommonlyfoundindenitrifyingsystemarebacteriaofthegenusHyphomicrobium
(TimmermansandVanHaute1983;SperlandHoare1971)andpossiblyParacoccusdenitrificans(Van
VerseveldandStouthamer1978).Recently,usingstableisotopeprobing,Baytshtoketal.(2008)
identifiedaMethyloversatilisuniversalisstraininadditiontoHyphomicrobiumzavarzinili.
AheterotrophicnitrifyingbacteriumthatcandenitrifyandhasbeenstudiedoftenisParococcus
pantotropha,whichobtainsenergybynitrateornitritereductionwhileoxidizingammoniaunder
aerobicconditions.Areadilyavailablecarbonsource,suchasacetate,isneeded(Robertsonand
Kuenen,1990).Theconditionsrequiredforthisformofdenitrificationarenotpracticalinbiological
wastewatertreatment.
Denitrificationhasbeenobservedforanumberofautotrophicbacteriausingnitrate/nitriteto
oxidizeavarietyofelectronacceptorsincludingzerovalanceironandFe(II)byParacoccusferrooxidans,
Paracoccusdenitrificans,P.pantotrophus,andP.versutus(Kumaraswamyetal.2006Kielemoesetal.
2000),reducedsulfurcompoundsbyThiobacillusdenitrificans(Bocketal.1995)andammoniaby
Nitrosomonaseutropha,nitrosomonaseuropaea,andnitrosolobusmultiformis(PothandFocht1985;
ZartandBock1998;Schmidtetal.2003).Ammoniaoxidationbynitrosomonasunderanoxicconditions
hasbeenshowntobeslowandoflittlepracticalsignificanceinactivatedsludgetreatment(Littletonet
al.2003).
MorerecentlyMulderetal.(1995)discoveredauniqueautotrophicbacteriainadenitrifing
fluidizedbedreactorwiththeabilitytooxidizeammoniatonitrogengasusingnitriteastheelectron
acceptor.ThisbiologicalreactionwastermedANAMMOX(ANaerobicAMMoniaOXidation).The
autotrophicorganismscapablenitritereductionwithoutcarbonadditionhavebeenidentifiedinthe
ANAMMOXprocess(Schmidtetal.2003)asCandidatusBrocadiaanammoxidansandCandidatus
KueneniastuttgartiensisandbelongtotheorderPlanctomycetales,adivisionwithinthedomain
Bacteria(Strousetal.1999).Underanaerobicconditions,ammoniaisoxidizedwiththereductionof
nitritetoproducenitrogengas.Theyareslowgrowingorganisms,andthereactionisbestaccomplished
attemperaturesabove25C.
4.9 MetabolismandStoichiometryofHeterotrophicDenitrification
Solubleorganicsubstratesareconsumedduringheterotrophicdenitrification,withaportionof
thesubstrateCODoxidizedusingnitrateornitriteastheelectronacceptorandtheotherCODportion
foundincellbiomass.Fordenitrificationofinfluentwastewatersuchasinpreanoxiczonesbefore
aeration,thesolubleorganicsubstrateconsumedisfromthefollowing:
- ThesolubledegradableCODintheinfluentwastewater
- HydrolysisofbiodegradableparticulateandcolloidalCODintheinfluentwastewater
- DegradableCODreleasefromendogenousdecay
OxidationreactionsareshownasfollowsforwastewaterrepresentedasC
10
H
19
O
3
N(Tchobanoglouset
al.2003)andcommonexogenoussubstrates.
Wastewater:
3 2 2 2
3 3 19 10
OH 10 NH O 3H 10CO 5N 10NO N O H C + + + + + Eq.424
Methanol:
2 2 2
3 3
OH 6 O 7H 5CO 3N 6NO OH 5CH + + + + Eq.425
Ethanol:
2 2 2
3 2 3
OH 12 O 9H 10CO 6N 12NO OH CH 5CH + + + + Eq.426

Acetate:
2 2 2
3 3
OH 8 O 6H CO 0 1 4N 8NO COOH 5CH + + + + Eq.427
Inallthesereactions,1moleofhydroxidealkalinityisproducedpermoleofNO
3
reducedorone
equivalentOHperequivalentN.Thisequatesto50mgalkalinityasCaCO
3
per14mgNreducedor3.57
mgalkalinityasCaCO
3
producedpermgNO
3
Nreduced.ThesamealkalinityratioalsoappliestoNO
2
N
reduction.
Intheabovereactions,nitrateservesasanelectronacceptorforoxidationreductionreactions
tooxidizetheorganicsubstrateasisdonewithoxygenastheelectronacceptor.BecauseCODbalances
areusefulinbiologicalprocessdesigntoequatethebiodegradablesubstrateconsumedtooxygenor
electronacceptorneedsplusbiomassCOD,itisconvenienttounderstandtheoxygenequivalentofNO
3
NandNO
2
N.Thiscanbedonebycomparingthehalfreactionsforamoleofelectrontransferas
follows:
Oxygen:
O 0.5H e H 0.25O
2
2
+ +
+
Eq.428
Nitrate:
O 0.6H 0.1N e 1.2H 0.20NO
2 2

3
+ + +
+
Eq.429
Nitrite:
O 0.67H 0.17N e 1.33H 0.33NO
2 2

2
+ + +
+
Eq.430
ForNO
3
N,0.20molesareequivalenttotheoxidationby0.25molesofoxygen,andthusthe
oxygenequivalentofNO
3
Nequals(0.25*32)/(0.20*14)=2.86gO
2
equivalent/gNO
3
Nreduced.
Similarly,theoxygenequivalentofNO
2
Nis1.73gO
2
/gNO
2
Nreduced.Thus,lesssubstrateoxidationis
neededperunitofoxidizednitrogenremovedforNO
2
NreductioncomparedtoNO
3
Nreductionso
thatprocessesthatstopnitrificationatNO
2
Nneedlesscarbonfordenitrification.
4.10 BiologicalDenitrificationKineticswithInfluentWastewater
DenitrificationratesinpreorpostanoxiczonesinBNRprocessesdependonmanyfactors.A
semiempiricalapproachhasbeentoassesstherateintermsofaspecificdenitrificationrate(SDNR)in
termsofgNO
3
Nreduced/gmixedliquorVSS(MLVSS)day.Dependingonthewastewater
characteristics,temperature,anddesignloadingtoapreanoxiczone,theSDNRmayrangefrom0.03to
0.20gNO
3
N/gMLVSSday.Forpostanoxictanksitmayrangefrom0.01to0.03gNO
3
N/gMLVSSday,
wherethedenitrificationrateisdrivenmainlybyendogenousrespirationrates(Tchobanoglousetal.
2003).Thedenitrificationrateinanactivatedsludgereactorisaffectedbymanyfactorsandcanbe
determinedusingsimulationmodelsbasedonkineticequations.
Theorganicsubstrateremovalratebydenitrifiersdeterminesthenitratereductionrate.The
substrateremovalrateiscommonlydescribedbyMonodkineticsasfollowsandisaffectedbythe
organicsubstrate,NO
3
NandDOconcentrations,andthebiomassinthereactorthatarefacultative
nitratereducers:
H
X ) (
K S
K
S K
S
S K
) (S
Y
1
r
H O, O
H O,
NO NO
NO
s s
s max
H
Ss
n
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= Eq.431
Where:
r
Ss
=Substrateutilizationrateinthereactor,mg/Ld
Y
H
=Heterotrophicbacteriasynthesisyield,gVSS/gCODused
max
=Maximumspecificgrowthrateofdenitrifyingheterotrophs,gVSS/gVSSd
andisafunctionoftemperature
S
S
=Solubledegradablesubstrateconcentration,mgCOD/L
K
S
=Substrateutilizationhalfvelocitycoefficient,mgCOD/L
S
NO
=NO
3
Nconcentration,mg/L
K
NO
=Nitratehalfvelocitycoefficient,mg/L
K
O,H
=DOinhibitionconstantfornitratereduction,mg/L
S
O
=DOconcentration
=Fractionofheterotrophicbacteriathatcanusenitrateinlieuofoxygen
X
H
=Heterotrophicbacteriaconcentration,mg/L
Additionalequationsandmassbalancesarerequiredforthereactortodeterminethereactor
solubledegradableCODconcentrationasafunctionofutilizationwithnitrate,solublesubstrate
enteringthereactor,andsolublesubstrateproducedviahydrolysisofparticulateandcolloidal
degradableCODandfromcelllysisduetoendogenousdecay.Wastewaterswithahigherinfluent
solublebiodegradableCODfractionwillhavehigherdenitrificationratesasthehydrolysisstepto
convertparticulateandcolloidalCODtoreadilyuseablesolubleCODisslowerthanthesolubleCOD
uptakerate.
ThenitrateutilizationrateisrelatedtothefractionofbiodegradableCODusedthatisoxidized
andincorporatedintocellmass.AmassbalanceondegradableCODaccountsforCODoxidizedusing
NO
3
NandCODincorporatedintocellsynthesisasfollows(Tchobanoglousetal.2003):
Ss
H
NO
r
2.86
1.42Y 1
r

= Eq.432
Where:
r
NO
=NO
3
Nreductionrate,mg/Lday
andcombiningEq.431and432givesthereactorNO
3
Nreductionrateasfollows:
H
X ) (
K S
K
S K
S
S K
) (S
2.86Y
1.42Y 1
r
H O, O
H O,
NO NO
NO
s s
s max
H
H
NO
n
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
= ` Eq.433
Thevalueforisaffectedbythesystemoperatingconditionsandhowmuchofthegrowth
substrateisconsumedunderanoxicconditions.StenselandHorne(2000)showedthatthiscanbeat
least0.80foranoxic/aerobicBNRsystemswithsignificantBODremovalinapreanoxiczone.Literature
valuesfortheheterotrophickineticscoefficientsinEq.431varywidelyandmaybesystemspecificfor
theDOinhibitionandhalfvelocitycoefficients.ExamplesofcoefficientvaluesaregiveninTable48.
Table48.HeterotrophicBacteriaKineticCoefficientsinAnoxic/AerobicActivatedSludge
KineticModelParameter Units TypicalValue

Maximumspecificgrowthrate,
max
gVSS/gVSSd 3.2
Temperaturecoefficient, 1.029
Heterotrophicbacteriasynthesisyield,Y
H
gVSS/gCODremoved 0.47
Substrateutilizationhalfvelocitycoefficient,K
s
mgCOD/L 5.0
Nitratehalfvelocitycoefficient,K
NO
mgNO
3
N/L 0.10
DOinhibitionconstant,K
O,H
mgDO/L 0.02
Source:BarkerandDold(1997)
TheDOinhibitioncoefficientinEq.433attemptstoaccountfortheinhibitoryeffectofoxygen
ondenitrification.DOinhibitionondenitrificationhasbeenshownatDOconcentrationsof0.20mg/L
bySkermanandMori(1975)andDawsonandMurphy(1972).Oxygeninhibitionisgreateronnitrite
reductionthanonnitratereduction.ThereislessconcernaboutpHeffectsondenitrificationthanfor
autotrophicbacteria,thoughDawsonandMurphy(1972)showedadecreaseindenitrificationratesas
thepHwasdecreasedfrom7.0to6.0inbatchtests.
4.11 DenitrificationCarbonSourcesandRelativeConsumptionRatios
Denitrifyingbacterianeedareadilyavailablecarbonfoodsource,suchassolubleBOD,torapidly
convertnitratetonitrogengas.WWTPsthatmeetverylowtotalnitrogenlimitsoftenuseasecondary
anoxiczoneinwhichsupplementalcarbonisadded.
Ageneralruleofthumbisthat4gofwastewaterinfluentBODisneededpergofNO
3
Ntobe
removedthroughbiologicaltreatment(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Whendenitrificationisneeded
afternitrification,thereislittleBODremainingsoasupplementalcarbonsourceisoftenneeded.
Supplementalsourcescanbeinternal,suchasfermentedwastewaterorsludge,orexternalor
exogenoussources,suchaspurchasedchemicals.Themostcommonexogenouscarbonsourceinuseis
methanol;however,duetoissuesregardingitssafety,kineticrates,andavailability,somewastewater
systemsareusingalternativecarbonsourcessuchasaceticacid,ethanol,sugar,glycerol,and
proprietarysolutionsdependingontheneedsoftheirparticularfacility(deBarbadilloetal.2008).
Equation432canberearrangedtoshowtheratioofbiodegradableCODrequiredforcomplete
NO
3
Nreductionasafunctionofthebiomasssynthesisyield.Thisissimilartotheconsumptiveratio
advancedbyMcCartyetal.(1969),inwhichtheyshowedthatexogenoussubstrateswithlowerbiomass
synthesisyieldshadlowerconsumptiveratios,andthusrequiredlesssubstrateadditionrelativetothe
amountofNO
3
Ntoberemoved.Theconsumptiveratioformethanolwasabout70percentofthatfor
glucose,whichhadahigherbiomasssynthesisyieldcoefficient.Alowerbiomasssynthesisyieldmeans
thatthebacteriaoxidizeagreaterportionofthesubstratetoprovideenergyforbiomassgrowthand
thusagreaterportionoftheCODusedisoxidizedbyNO
3
Nwithlessendingupinsludgeproduction.
bCOD 2.86
CR
NO3
= = Eq.434
NO3 N 11.42Y
H

Where:
CR
NO3
=gCODused/gNO
3
Nthatiscompletelyreducedintheanoxiczone.
Notethatthevalueof1.42(Y
H
)isequaltothebiomassyieldingbiomassCODproducedpergCOD
consumedforanassumedbiomassformulaofC
5
H
7
N
2
O.
Basedontheoxygenequivalentoftheelectronacceptor,asimilarCRcanbedeterminedfor
bacteriausingNO
2
Noroxygeninananoxiczone.Oxygenmayentertheanoxiczoneinrecycleflowsor
intheinfluentwastewater.Thusthetotalexogenouschemicaldosemustaccountforotherelectron
acceptorsenteringtheanoxiczonebesidesNO
3
N.
H
NO2
1.42Y 1
1.73
N NO
bCOD
CR
2
=
= Eq.435
Where:
CR
NO2
=gCODused/gNO
2
Nthatiscompletelyreducedintheanoxiczone.
ComparisonofEquations434and435showsthattheCODadditionforNO
2
reductionisabout60
percentofthatforNO
3
reduction.
H
O2
1.42Y 1
1.0 bCOD
CR
= =
DO
Eq.436
Where:
CR
O2
=gCODused/gDOthatiscompletelyreducedintheanoxiczone.
Figure45showstheeffectofthebiomassyieldontheratioofelectrondonorneededasCODto
NO
3
NreducedtoN
2
.Substratesthathavelowerbiomassyieldswillrequirelowerconsumptiveratios.
Figure45
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50
g

C
O
D
/
g

N
O
3
-
N
Bi omass Yiel d, gVSS/ gCOD
assyield. .RatioofCODrequiredtoNO
3
NcompletelyreduceNO
3
N(CR
NO3
)asafunctionofthebiom
ItshouldbenotedthatthebiomassyieldvalueinEquations434through436canalso
representtheoverallobservedyielddependingonthedenitrificationprocessdesignandwhere
endogenousdecayoccursforthebiomassgrownontheelectrondonor.Forexample,iftheexogenous
substrateisaddedinatertiaryapplicationinwhichthereactorismainlyanoxic,theyieldintheCR
equationscanbetakenastheobservedyield(Y
obs
)forthesystemasfollows:
2.86
CR
NO3
= Eq.437
11.42
Yobs

Y
Y
H
obs
= Eq.438
1+bSRT
IftheexogenoussubstrateisaddedtoananoxicreactorinaBNRsystem,Equation434ismore
applicableforNO
3
reductionasmostoftheendogenousdecayforthemethylotrophswilloccurinother
aerobicandanoxiczones,whichrepresentalargeproportionofthetotalvolume.However,the
estimatedsubstrateadditionshouldalsotakeintoaccountthenitratedemandfromendogenousdecay
bythemixedliquorintheanoxiczone,whichwouldincludethatbymethylotrophsandother
heterotrophs.Theelectronacceptordemandbytheendogenousdecaywouldconsumeacertain
amountofNO
3
N.TheconsumptiveratiocanthenbeappliedtotheremainingNO
3
Ntoberemovedin
thatzonetoestimatetheexogenoussubstratedemand.Afurtherconsiderationthatwillraisethe
substratedemandisthatnotalloftheexogenoussubstrateaddedwillbeused.Equation433shows
thattheremustbeafinitesubstrateconcentrationtodrivethenitratereductionrate.Forsystemswith
smalleranoxictankvolumes,ahigherreactorsubstrateconcentrationisneededtoremovetheNO
3
Nat
afasterrate,whichincreasesthelossofsubstratetothereactoreffluentandincreasesthetotal
exogenoussubstratedemandabovethatpredictedbytheconsumptiveratio.Systemswithhigher
internalrecycleflowsthroughtheanoxiczonereceivingexogenoussubstrateswillhaveahigheroverall
feedCOD/NO
3
Nratio.
Valuesforbiomasssynthesisorobservedyieldsarehelpfulforestimatingexogenousorganic
carbonfeedquantitiesfornitrate/nitriteremoval.Informationonbiomassyieldsformethanol(the
mostcommonlyusedexogenoussubstrate)andotherpossibleexogenoussubstratesaresummarizedin
Table49.Inmanycases,theyieldsareobservedyieldsbasedondatafitsfromtestdataorcalculated
usingEq.437andthereportedCOD/NO
3
Nratio.
Thehigherthebiomassyield,thehigherwillbetherequireddosefortheexogenoussubstrate.
Formethanol,theyieldsrangedfromabout0.20to0.30gVSS/gCOD.UsingEq.437orFigure44,the
CR
NO3
requirementformethanolis4.0to5.0gCOD/gNO
3
N.MethanolhasaCODof1.5gCOD/g
CH
3
OH,sotherequirementbasedonmethanolis2.7to3.3gCH
3
OH/gNO
3
N.Fieldapplicationsinthe
rangeof3.5to3.8arecommonandaccountfortheyieldandtheneteffectofmixedliquorendogenous
decay,enteringDO,andeffluentmethanol.BasedontheyieldsinTable49,thedoseforacetateand
ethanolwillbehigherthanthatformethanol.CR
NO3
valuesrangedfrom2.2to0.2inanevaluationof30
industrialwasteorganicsbyMonteith(1980).
Table49.BiomassYieldsReportedforExogenousCarbonSources
Substrate
Biomass
gVSS/g
Yield
COD
Reference
Methanol
0.18 Stenseletal.(1973)
0.28
1
Doldetal.(2008)
0.29 Daiggeretal.2007
0.21 Christenssonetal.(1994)
0.33
1
Sobieszuketal.(2006)
0.16
2
Carreraetal.(2003)
0.29
2
Cherchietal.(2008)
0.29 Baytshtoketal.(2008)
0.30 PurtschertandGujer(1999)
Ethanol 0.36
2
Christenssonetal.(1994)
Acetate
0.35
2
Cherchietal.(2008)
0.66 Kujawa&Klapwijk(1999)
Glycerin 0.32
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.28
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.30
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.27
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.32
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.34
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.26
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glycerin 0.32
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
Glucose 0.42
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
CornSyrup 0.38
2
Bilyketal.(2009)
1
Observedyield
2
FromCOD/Nratio

4.12 DenitrificationKineticsofExogenousCarbonSources
Becausemethanolhashistoricallybeenthemostcommonlyusedexogenouscarbonsource,it
hasreceivedthemostattentionfromindustryexpertsregardingitsdegradationkinetics.Morerecently,
therehasbeengreaterinterestindenitrificationkineticsusingethanol,acetate,andglycerol.
4.12.1 DenitrificationKineticswithMethanol
KineticcoefficientsformethanolutilizershavebeenevaluatedbasedonaMonodmodel(Eq.4
10),andresultsfor
max
,fromvariousinvestigatorsaresummarizedinTable410alongwith
temperatureeffectsaccordingtoEquation417.Therangeoftemperaturecorrectioncoefficients
shownbyDoldetal.(2008)arebasedontwodifferentmethods.Thehighervalueisbasedontheirhigh
foodtomicroorganism(F/M)testproceduretoobtain
max
.Theauthorsbelievethattheendogenous
decaycoefficientassumptionmayhavebiasedthetemperaturecorrectionvalue.Thelowercorrection
valueisbasedonobservedspecificdenitrificationratesfortheirmethanolenrichments.Inthestudyby
Baytshtoketal.(2008),
max
wasalsodeterminedunderconditionsusingnitriteasanelectronacceptor
insteadofnitrate,andamuchlowerspecificgrowthratewasfoundat0.28gVSS/gVSSday.
Althoughthereareconsiderableresultsreportedfortheyieldcoefficientformethanol
utilization(Table49),thereisminimalinformationontheendogenousdecayratecoefficient.Stenselet
al.(1973)reportedavalueof0.04g/gd,andPurtchertandGujerobtainedavalueof0.25g/gdintheir
modelfittodenitrificationkineticswithmethanol.Itshouldbenotedthatanendogenousdecay
coefficientvalue(b)of0.04g/gdaywasusedbyNicholsetal.(2007)andDoldetal.(2008).Theuseof
highervaluesinthedatafittingmethodswouldhaveresultedinhigher
max
values.
TheresultsreportedbyPurtschertandGujerareofpracticalinterestforBNRprocesseswith
methanolfeeding.Overdosingmethanoltotheanoxiczoneorhavingahighmethanolconcentrationin
theanoxiczoneeffluenttosupporthighdenitrificationrateswillthensupportgrowthofmethylotrophs
underaerobicconditions.Theirresultssuggestthatthesubstrateutilizationratesbymethylotrophic
organismsgrownunderaerobicconditionsmaybelowerthanthatgrownunderanoxicconditions.
Thus,kineticmodelsformethanolutilizationinBNRprocessesmayhavetoconsidertwomethylotrophic
populations:thosegrownunder(1)anoxicand(2)aerobicconditions.
Table410.ReportedMaximumSpecificGrowthRatesat20CandTemperatureCoefficients
forMethanolUtilizationunderAnoxicandAerobicconditions
Growth
max
,
max
, Temp.
Condition Anoxic Aerobic Reference
Anoxic 1.86 1.12 Stensel(1973)
Anoxic 1.25 1.13 Nicholsetal.(2007)
Anoxic 1.30 1.091.13 Doldetal.(2008)
Anoxic 1.25 1.14 Cherchietal.(2008)
Anoxic 0.94 Baytshtoketal.(2008)
Anoxic 1.30 1.72 PurtschertandGujer(1999)
Aerobic 0.81 3.88 PurtschertandGujer(1999)
Littleinformationexistsonthemethanolhalfvelocity(K
s
)coefficientvalue,andmore
informationisneededasthisgreatlydeterminesthereactormethanolconcentrationwhentryingto
achievesufficientdenitrificationrateswhilekeepingthereactoreffluentmethanolconcentrationlow.
Table411summarizesreportedK
s
valuesdeterminedinlaboratorykineticstudies.Theresultsmaybe
highlydependentondatafittingmethods,andfurtherworkisneededtoevaluatedenitrificationatlow
methanolconcentrationstobetterdefineK
s
.
Table411.ReportedK
s
valuesforNO
3
Nreductionwithmethanolat20C
Growth K
s
,
Condition mgCOD/L Reference
Anoxic 9.1 Stensel(1973)
Anoxic 15.6 Cherchietal.(2008)
Anoxic 31.7 Baytshtoketal.(2008)
Anoxic <1.0 PurtschertandGujer(1999)
Becauseoftherelativelyslowdenitrificationkineticsformethanolanditsrisingcost,thereisan
interestinusingotherexogenoussubstrateseitherlongterm,shorttermduringcoldweather
conditions,orincombinationwithmethanol.Inaddition,wherecarbonisneededonlyperiodicallyto
enhancedenitrificationrates,othercarbonsourcesaremoreattractiveastheydonotrequireaslongan
acclimationperiodcomparedtomethanol.

4.12.2 AlternativeExogenousSubstratesandDenitrificationKinetics
Evaluationofalternativesubstrateshasshownthatdenitrificationratesaremuchfasterwith
acetate,ethanol,andglycerolthanwithmethanol.UsingthesamehighF/Mtestmethodasusedfor
methanolkinetics,Doldetal.(2008)obtainedmuchhighervaluesof
max
foracetateorsugar;atabout
4.0g/gdayat20C.Cherchietal.(2008)usingthesametesttechniqueasDoldetal.(2008)obtaineda
20C
max
valueforacetateof2.2g/gday.Incomparingthemaximumspecificgrowthrateofbacteria
grownonmethanol,acetate,andcornsyrup(Table412),Mokhayerietal.(2006)foundthatacetate
andcornsyrupresultedinratesthatwereabout2.5timesthatformethanolgrownbacteriaat13Cand
about3.5timesfasterat19C.Christenssonetal.(1994)foundasimilareffectincomparingethanol
andmethanol.Themaximumspecificgrowthrateforethanolcomparedtomethanolwasabout2.5
timesfasterat15Candabout2.3at25C.
Table412.ComparisonofMaximumSpecificGrowthratesforMethanol,Acetate,andCorn
SyrupatHighandLowTemperatures
Reference Substrate
max
,gVSS/gVSSday
Mokhayerietal. 13C 19C
(2006) Methanol 0.5 1.0
Acetate 1.2 3.7
CornSyrup 1.3 3.5
Christenssonetal., 15C 25C
1994 Methanol 0.8 2.1
Ethanol 1.9 4.8
Mokhayerietal.(2008)alsofoundasimilarratecomparisonusingthreeenrichmentsgrownon
methanol,acetate,andethanolbycomparingSDNRswithunlimitedsubstrateat13C.Theratioofthe
acetatetomethanolSDNRswas3.4andforethanoltomethanolitwas3.3.Fillosetal.(2007)presented
theequationsshownbelowtodescribeSDNRswithmethanolorethanoladditiontoanactivatedsludge
BNRprocessasafunctionoftemperature.TheyshowedappreciabledifferencesinSDNRwithethanol
versusmethanol,butincontrasttotheabove,therelativedenitrificationrateswithethanolversus
methanolwasnotaslargeandgreaterathightemperature;ethanol:methanolSDNRsare2.2at20C
and1.8at10C.Aftera50dayacclimationperiodinafullscaleandpilotscaleanoxicaerobicBNR
systems,HallinandPell(1998)foundthatthesystemwithethanoladditionhadanSDNRthatwasabout
2.2timesthesystemwithmethanoladdition.
MethanolSDNR(Fillosetal,2007):
SDNR
(T20)
T
= 0.0738(1.11) Eq.439
EthanolSDNR(Fillosetal.,2007):
SDNR
T
= 0.161(1.13)
(T20)
Eq.440

4.12.3 AcclimationTimeandDegradativeAbilityofDenitrifyingBacteriawithExogenous
Substrates
ForsomeBNRapplications,theneedforanexogenoussubstratemaybeseasonaltoincrease
denitrificationratesatlowtemperaturesorintermittentduetowetweatherconditionsorlowweekend
loads.Insuchcases,theabilityoftheBNRactivatedsludgemixedliquortorapidlyrespondtothe
exogenoussubstrateadditionisdesired.Formethanoladditions,aconsiderableacclimationperiodis
neededtofullyutilizethemethanoladdedandtoachievethefulldenitrificationratepossiblewiththe
methanoladdition.Acclimationtimeisnotasignificantissuewithsomeotherexogenoussubstrates,
suchasethanolandacetate.InfullscaleandpilotplantBNRsystemstudiestreatingmunicipal
wastewater,HallinandPell(1998)foundanimmediateresponsewithethanolandacetateaddition.In
contrast,atimeperiodofover50dayswasrequiredtoreachfulldegradationrateswithmethanolas
shownbybatchtestsusingtheBNRmixedliquorwithexcesssubstrate.Table413showstheincreased
denitrificationratesovertimerelativetotheBNRactivatedsludgewithoutsubstrateaddition.
Methanoladditiondidhavesomemildimmediateeffecttothedenitrificationratepotential,although
approximately1SRT(26daySRTforsystem)wasneededtofullydevelopthemethanoldegrading
population.Nybergetal.(1992,1996)alsoshowedtheneedforsignificantacclimationtimeoftwoand
threeSRTs(50and70days)withmethanolfeedingbeforethemethylotrophicpopulationreachedits
fulldegradativecapacity.
Table413.ForBNRActivatedSludge,RatioofDenitrificationRatewithSubstrateAdditionto
DenitrificationRatewithNoAddition
TimePeriod Substrate
Methanol Ethanol
Day1 1.2 4.0
Day50 2.0 4.1
Source:HallinandPell(1998)
AnotherimportantobservationbyHallinandPell(1998)wasthatthebacteriapopulations
developedbyethanolandmethanolfeedingcouldalsodegradeotherexogenoussubstrates(Table4
14).TheabilityofthemethanolfedBNRactivatedsludgetodegradeethanolwasalsoobservedbyDold
etal.(2008)inwhichtheycommentedthatitviolatedtherulethatmethylotrophscanonlyusesingle
carboncompounds.However,SperlandHoare(1971)notedthatthemethylotrophHyphomicrobium
sp.candenitrifywithethanol,propanol,butanol,acetate,formate,formaldehyde,methylamine,and
glycerol.ItshouldbenotedalsothatDoldetal.(2008)obtaineda
max
valueforethanolof0.37g/gdat
9.8C,whichisclosetothatpredictedformethanolatthesametemperature;however,anethanol
enrichedactivatedsludgeshouldhaveamuchhigherrate.Nybergetal.(1996)raisedthepossibilityof
usingethanolwithmethanoltoacceleratetheacclimationtimeofamethanolfeddenitrification
system.Cherchietal.(2009)foundthatamethanolacclimatedbiomasscouldalsouseacetate,
ethanol,andMicroC
TM
withoutanacclimationperiod,althoughglucosedidrequireanacclimation
period.MicroC
TM
acclimatedbiomasswasfoundtobeabletodenitrifyusingmethanol,ethanol,
acetate,andglucosewithoutanacclimationperiod.Theyreportedthatacetateacclimatedbiomass
couldnotuseanyothercarbonsourcestodenitrifywithoutanacclimationperiod.

Table414.RatioofDenitrificationRatesforOtherSubstratesatDay50withEthanolor
MethanolAdditionVersusnoAddition
TestSubstrate EthanolFedMixedLiquor MethanolFedMixedLiquor

Methanol 7.0 2.0
Ethanol 4.1 1.7
Acetate 2.4 1.0
Propionate 1.9 0.8
Butyrate 2.3 0.8
Glucose 1.8 0.8
Source:HallinandPell(1998)

FortheresultsshownaboveinTable414,theethanolutilizationratebythemethanolfed
systemwas85percentofitsmethanolutilizationrate.Cherchietal.(2008)observedanethanol
degradationratethatwas18percenthigherthanthemethanolutilizationrateforamethanolfed
enrichment.Themethanolutilizingbacteriacontainmethanoldehydrogenaseenzymesthatcanacton
anumberofalcohols.
4.13 SpecificDenitrificationRates(SDNR)
SDNRvalueshavebeencommonlyusedtoestimatethesizeofpreandpostanoxiczonesfor
nitrogenremoval.Theyprovideasimplefirstcutapproximationoftheanoxicreactorsizing.More
precisecalculationsforanoxicreactorsizeandtheeffectofstagesarecommonlydonetodaywith
commercialsimulationmodelsoftwarethatmodelsthefateofdegradableparticulateandsoluble
substrates,activebiomass,andnitrogenspeciesandtheeffectoftemperatureandDOconcentration.
SeeChapter10forguidanceonusingsimulationmodelsforthedesignofbiologicalnutrientremoval
systems.Thissectionpresentsthefundamentalequationsusedinmodelstosizereactorsandpresents
typicalvaluesforkineticparameters.
TherequiredanoxicvolumefordenitrificationcanbeestimatedfromSDNRswiththefollowing
equation.

(NO )
V =
R
Eq.441
SDNR(X)
Where:
V =Anoxiczonevolume,m
3
SDNR =Specificdenitrificationrate,mgNO
3
Nremoved/mgMLVSSday
X =MLVSSconcentration
NO
R
=Nitrateremovalrateinanoxiczoneequaltonitratefedratetoanoxiczoneviainternaland
returnsludgeflowsorfromupstreamnitrificationzone.
TypicalvaluesforSDNRaresummarizedinTable415.Temperaturecorrectionsformethanoladdition
havebeengivenpreviously.Forwastewaterfeedonly,reportedvaluesrangefrom1.03to1.08
(DawsonandMurphy,1972,Ekamaetal.,1984).

Table415.RangeofreportedSDNRvaluesinBNRactivatedsludgetreatment
Condition SDNR,20C
gNO
3
N/gMLVSSd
Preanoxic 0.050.15
Postanoxic 0010.04
Withmethanoladded 0.100.25
Source:Tchobanoglousetal.2003
ThefollowingequationwasusedtofitSDNRdataversusthepreanoxiczonefoodtomassratio
(lbBODapplied/lbMLVSSday)foraBardenphoprocessat18Cwithnoprimarytreatment(Burdicket
al.,1982).
SDNR = 0.03(F/M) + 0.029 Eq.442
F QSo
= Eq.443
M X
A
V
Where:
SDNR
0
20
=Specificdenitrificationrateat20 C,gNO
3
N/gMLVSSd
F/M =BODfoodtomassratiototheanoxiczone,gBOD/gMLVSSd
Q =Influentflowrate,m
3
/day
So =InfluentBODconcentration,mg/L
X =MLVSSconcentrationoftheanoxiczone,mg/L
V
A
=Anoxiczonevolume,m
3
Equation442hastobeadjustedforotherconditionsofSRTandwastewatercharacteristicsthatwill
resultinadifferentactivebiomassfractionintheMLVSS.Theactivebiomassfractionforthedatafitwas
estimatedat0.30usingEquation444.Thus,Equation442isadjustedasfollows:
|
F
|
SDNR = 0.03(F/M)
b
20
|
+0.029 Eq.444
\
0.30
.
|
Y
H
|
(1+b SRT)
|
F
b
=

T
| Eq.445
|
H
+ Y
\

(1+b
I |
T
SRT)
Where:
F
b
=ActivebiomassfractionofMLVSS
Y
H
=Heterotrophicbiomasssynthesisyield,0.47gVSS/gBODremoved
b
T
=EndogenousdecayrateatMLVSStemperature,gVSS/gVSSd
b
20
=Endogenousdecayrateat20C,0.10gVSS/gVSSd
Y
I
=InfluentinertVSSfraction,gVSSinert/gBOD

Y
TheinfluentinertsolidsconcentrationgreatlyaffectstheactivebiomassfractionoftheMLVSS.
ValuesforY
I
aresitespecificbutgenerallyrangefrom0.10to0.30forsecondaryinfluentwastewaters
withprimarytreatmentand0.30to0.50withoutprimarytreatment(Tchobanoglousetal.,2003).
TemperaturecorrectionsappliedtotheSDNRinEquation444andfortheendogenousdecay
rate(b
T
)areasfollows:
) (1.029 b b
20) (T
20 T

= Eq.446
) (1.07 S
20) (T
20 T

= SDNR DNR Eq.447
Forpostanoxicsystemsorfortheanoxiczoneofoxidationditchprocesses,ReflingandStensel(1978)
usedthefollowingequationtoestimatetheSDNR.
|
.
|
\
|
=
SRT
1
) 2.86(Y
) (A
SDNR
N
N
E,T
Eq.448
Where:
SDNR
E,T
=SDNRinanoxiczonesfollowingnitrificationandwithnoexogenouscarbonaddition,gNO
3
N/gMLVSSd
=Fractionofheterotrophscapableofnitratereduction,0.50to0.85
A
N
=Netoxygenrequirementbyheterotrophs,gO
2
/gBODremoved
Y
N
=Netheterotrophicbiomassyield,gVSS/gBODremoved
Y
N
andA
N
arecalculatedwithEquations449and450,respectively.
SRT b 1
Y
Y
T
H
N
+
= Eq.449
) 1.42(Y 1.6 A
N N
= Eq.450
4.14 SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification
Simultaneousnitrificationdenitrification(SNdN)referstoaconditioninactivatedsludge(or
biofilm)processesinwhichthepositivebulkliquidDOconcentrationislowenoughthattheDOdiffusing
intotheflocisremovedbeforeitcanpenetratetheentireflocdepth.Thus,nitrificationisoccurringon
theexteriorportionsoftheflocanddenitrificationisoccurringintheanoxic,interiorportion.
SNdNcommonlyoccursinoxidationditcheswithsufficientSRTandwithaerobicandanoxic
zonesasflowmovesdownstreamfromaerationintheditchchannels.Nitriteaccumulationdoesnot
typicallyoccurunderlowDOconditionswhenSRTsaremaintainedatappropriatevalues,meaningthat
theAOBandNOBpopulationsremainbalanced.Parketal.(2002)evaluatedtheAOBpopulationinan
aeratedanoxicOrbalprocessandfoundthatNitrosospiralikeorganismswereamajorcontributorto
ammoniaoxidation.Nitrosospirahaveahighaffinityforoxygenwhichallowsthemtogrowunderlow
DOconditions.
Daiggeretal.(2007)illustratedthattheflocsizeforagivensystemisanimportantparameter
thatcanaffecttheDOpenetrationandamountofdenitrification.TheDOconcentrationthatispossible
forSNdNdependsonanumberoffactorsincludingthemixedliquorconcentration,temperature,
oxygenuptakerate,substrateloading,andflocsize.InSNdNsystems,thenitrificationand
denitrificationratesarelowerthanthatforsystemswithseparatenitrificationzoneswithhigherDO
concentrationandseparatedenitrificationzoneswithnoDOpresent.Thus,thereactorvolumesfora
SNdNsystemshouldbelargerthanthatforasystemwithaseparateanoxicdenitrificationzoneand
higherDOaerobicnitrificationzone.
4.15 Metabolism,StoichiometryandKineticsofANAMMOX
Theautotrophicbacteriaanaerobicoxidationofammoniawithnitritehasbeentermedthe
ANAMMOXprocessorAnammoxreaction(Strousetal.,1998).Thestoichiometryforthebiological
reactiongivenbyStrousetal.(1998)isasfollows,showingthat1.32molesofNO
2
Narereducedper
moleofNH
4
Noxidized:
NH
+ 1
4
+1.32NO
2
+ 0.13H
+
+ 0.066HCO
1
3

Eq.451
1.02N
2
+ 0.26NO
1
3
+ 0.066CH
2
O
0.5
N
0.15
+2.03H
2
O
Theseareslowgrowingorganismswithdoublingtimesofabout11daysat30
0
C(Jettenetal.,1999).
BiokineticparameterswithselectedvalueshavebeenassembledbyCapunoetal.(2008)aspart
ofamodeldevelopmentfortheprocessinabiofilmreactor(Table416).
Ta
ble416.ANAMMOXBacteriaBiokineticParametersat30
0
C
Parameter Units Value
Maximumspecificgrowthrate gVSS/gVSSd 0.08
Growthyield gVSS/gNoxidized 0.11
NH
4
Nhalfvelocitycoefficient mg/L 0.07
NO
2
Nhalfvelocitycoefficient mg/L 0.05
Oxygeninhibitioncoefficient mg/L 0.01
SpecificEndogenousdecayrate gVSS/gVSSd 0.003
Source:(Capunoetal.,2008)
Theprocessissensitivetonitriteconcentration.AnNO
2
Nconcentrationof4.8mg/Lwasfound
todecreaseanammoxactivitybyWettetal.(2007).Musabyimanaetal.(2008)reportedthata
preferredpHoperatingrangeis7.0to7.7andthatactivitycouldbesustainedat50mg/LNO
2
N,though
inhibited.Theyalsonotedthatnitriteinhibitionwasreversible.
TheoriginalAnammoxprocessreliedonastepprocessinwhichnitriteisproducedunder
aerobicconditionsinaportionoftheammoniarichstreamandthenthestreamsarecombinedand
subjecttoanaerobicconditions.Otherprocessmodifications,suchastheDEMON,CANON,andOLAND
processesaredescribedinChapter6.

4.16 ImpactsonSludgeProductionandHandling
Lesssludgeproductionandbettersettlingandthickeningsludgeisfoundforactivatedsludge
systemsusinganoxic/aerobictreatmentfornitrogenremovalversusaerobictreatmentonly.Thesludge
productionislessbecausethebiomassyieldfromBODconsumptionusingnitrateasanelectron
acceptorinsteadofoxygenisabout40percentlower.Thenetreductioninsludgeproductionissite
specificanddependsontheportionoftheinfluentBODthatisoxidizedviabiologicaldenitrification.For
manyapplications,reductionsofbiomassproductionby10to20percentarepossible.Theimpactthis
willhaveontotalsludgeproductionbyatreatmentplantwilldependuponhowmuchwastesludgeis
producedbyothertreatmentunitssuchasprimaryclarifiersandchemicaltreatmentwithprecipitating
chemicals.
Implementationofbiologicalnitrogenremovalatconventionalactivatedsludgeplantsimproves
thesludgethickeningcharacteristicsduetoitsabilitytodecreasetheamountsoffilamentousbacteriain
theactivatedsludge.Theeffectofadditionalsolidproductionfromaddinganexogenouscarbonsource
toincreasedenitrificatonratesmustbeconsideredaspartoftheoverallsludgeproduction.Solids
producedfromnitrogenremovalprocessesgenerallythickenanddewaterwellandshownonegative
impactonanysolidsprocessingsystem.
4.17 EffluentDissolvedOrganicNitrogen
Aseffluentlimitationshavebecomemorestringent,theDONfractionintheplanteffluenthas
becomeincreasinglyimportant.MostBNRprocessescanremove80to95percentoftheinorganic
formsofnitrogen(ammonianitrogen,nitrate,andnitrite),butarelessefficientatremovingtheresidual
organicfractions(Sedlak2007).TheconcentrationofDONintheplanteffluent(alsocalledeffluent
DONorEDON)dependsoninfluentconcentrationandspecifictreatmentprocessandvariesfromplant
toplant.Basedoneffluentsfrom188BNRplants,Pagilla(2007)reportedconcentrationstypically
between0.5and1.5mg/Lwithsomevaluesashighas2.5mg/L.Likewise,Bratbyetal.(2008)found
EDONconcentrationsbetween0.4and2.2mg/Lwithanaveragevalueof1.8mg/Lbasedona
compilationoftheavailableliterature.TheEDONfractionisnotasimportantforplantstryingto
achieveaTNeffluentlimitof10mg/L,butbecomesamuchlargerpercentageofeffluentTNandmore
problematicforplantsattemptingtomeeta5mg/Lor3mg/Llimit.
ThetextboxbelowprovidesinformationonEDONintheformofquestionsandanswers.One
veryimportantandtimelyquestionfortheindustryiswhetherEDONcandegradeinthenatural
environmenttobioavailableinorganicnitrogenspecies.Bioavailableformscanbeusedbyalgaeand
otherphytoplanktonandthus,contributetotheproblemofeutrophication.AlthoughmuchofEDON
hasbeenthoughttoberecalcitrant,meaningthatitisinertandnotbioavailableinthenatural
environment,Mullhollandetal.(2007)notedthatphotochemicalreactionsandsalinityconditionscan
convertrecalcitrantmaterialtoinorganicformsofnitrogensuchasnitriteandammonium.Bacteriacan
alsoplayanimportantroleinthebreakdownofEDON(SedlakandPehlivanoglu2007).Summarizing
resultsofseveralresearchprojects,theWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)(2008)
estimatesthatforthoseWWTPsdischargingintofreshwaterwatersheds,20to60percentofEDON
couldbeconvertedtobioavailableforms.Theauthorsnote,however,thattheproportionsareverysite
specificandadditionalresearchisneededinthisarea.


QuestionsandAnswersRegardingEffluentDissolvedOrganicNitrogen(EDON)
WhatarethesourcesofEDON?Therearetwoprimarysources:
(1) InfluentDONthatisrecalcitrantandpassesthroughtheplantunchangedorinfluent
biodegradableDONthatisnotremovedduringtreatment.DONindomesticwastewatercan
bepresentasaminoacids,proteins,aliphaticNcompounds,syntheticcompoundssuchas
EDTA,andhumicorganicsubstances(WEF2008).
(2) DONcanalsobeproducedduringbiologicaltreatmentprocesseswithintheplantthrough
cellmetabolicprocesses,celldecay,andcelllysis.
Whatareitscharacteristics?EDONiscomposedprimarilyofdegradedaminosugars,peptides,and
porphyrins(Leenheeretal.2007ascitedinBratbyetal.2008).Themolecularweightvariesfrom
sourcetosourcebuthasbeenreportedtoberelativelysmalloverall(Bratbyetal.,2008).Sedlakand
Pehlivanoglu(2007)hypothesizedthatthehighmolecularweightportion(>1,000Daltons)isnot
biologicallyavailable,whereasalargeportionofthelowmolecularweightportion(<1,000Daltons)
maybebiodegradable.
Howisitmeasured?EDONisusuallydeterminedasthedifferencebetweenthemeasuredeffluent
solubleKjeldahlnitrogenandeffluentammoniawithfiltrationofbothsamplesthrougha0.45micron
filter.BecauseofchallengesassociatedwithmeasuringfractionsineffluentswithverylowTN
concentrations,researchersareinvestigatingothermethods.SattayetewaandPagilla(2008)
reportedsuccessusingapersulfatedisgestionmethodandsecondderivativeultraviolet
spectrophotometric(SDUS)combinedmethod.Currently,thereisnostandardmethodfor
differentiatingbetweentheinertportionandtheportionthatcanbeconvertedtobioavailable
inorganicnitrogeninthewatershed.
Howisitremovedattheplant?DONcanberemovedthroughhydrolysisandammonification.
Removalisdependentontemperatureandsolidsresidencetime.
Whatareitsenvironmentalconcerns?Themainconcerninthewastewaterindustryisthe
bioavailabilityofeffluentDONwhenitisalargefractionoftheeffluenttotalnitrogenconcentration.
Formoreinformation,seetheWEFNutrientCompendium,availableonlineat
http://www.werf.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Content_Folders&CONTENTID=8726&TEMPLATE=/
CM/ContentDisplay.cfm

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5.PrinciplesofBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
Chapter5covers:
5.1 OverviewoftheBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalProcess
5.2 SubstrateRequirements
5.3 SourcesofVolatileFattyAcids
5.4 EnvironmentalConditions
5.5 Kinetics
5.6 ImportantDesignandOperationalConsiderations
5.7 ImpactsonSludgeProcessingandHandling
5.8 References
5.1 OverviewoftheBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalProcess
Biologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR)inwastewatertreatmentisaccomplishedbyencouraging
thegrowthofphosphateaccumulatingorganisms(PAOs).PAOsareheterotrophicbacteriathatoccur
naturallyintheenvironmentandinaerobicactivatedsludge.ThegrowthofPAOsisencouragedby
cyclingthembetweenanaerobicandaerobicconditions.
Inthepresenceofoxygen(i.e.,aerobicconditions),PAOsobtainenergyfromstoredfoodand
uptakelargeamountsofphosphorusintotheircells,whichtheystoreaspolyphosphates.These
polyphosphatescontainhighenergybondsandfunctionlikeenergystoragebatteries.Intheabsenceof
oxygen(i.e.,anaerobicconditions),PAOscanbreakthepolyphosphatebondsandusetheresulting
energytouptakeeasilybiodegradablecompounds,namelyshortchainvolatilefattyacids(VFAs)
1
.PAOs
polymerizeandstoretheVFAsintheircellsasintermediateproductsknownaspolyhydroxy
alkanoates(PHAs),ofwhichthemostcommonispolyhydroxybutyrate(PHB).Whenoxygen
becomesavailableagain(i.e.,aerobicconditions),theycanmetabolizethePHAstogenerateenergyand
uptakephosphorus(intheformofphosphate)andstoretheexcessamount.SeeFigure5.1fora
conceptualrepresentationofthetheoryofBPR.
Figure51.TheoryofBPRinactivatedsludge.
1
Forbiologicalnutrientremoval(BNR),itisimportanttodistinguishbetweenanaerobicconditionsinwhereno
oxygenispresentandanoxicconditionswhereoxygenisavailableincombinedformonly(e.g.,NO

2
,NO

3
)and
thereisnofreeoxygen.Anoxicconditionsaresufficientfordenitrification,whereasanaerobicconditionsare
requiredforBPR.
WhatmakesPAOsspecial?PAOshaveacompetitiveadvantageovermostaerobicbacteria
becausetheycanuptakeandstorefood(i.e.,VFAs)underanaerobicconditions.Mostother
microorganismsmustwaituntiloxygenisavailabletouptakeVFAs.Onenotableexceptionisglycogen
accumulatingorganisms(GAOs),whichcanalsouptakeVFAsinananaerobicenvironmentusingenergy
storedinglycogen.GAOscompetewithPAOsintheanaerobiczone;however,PAOsnearlyalwaysout
competeGAOsintemperateandcoldzonetreatmentplants.Thereisstilladebateamongresearchers
abouttheconditionslikelytofavorGAOsoverPAOs.Summarizinganumberofpublications,itwould
appearthatthefollowingconditionsfavorthegrowthofGAOsoverthatofPAOs:
Temperatureover28
o
C.
Strongerwastewithlownitrogencontent.
Polysaccharidessuchasglucosearethedominantfeedtotheanaerobiczone.
LowpHintheaerobiczone.
OtherfactorsthatmayfavorGAOsbutneedfurtherconfirmationarehighsolidsretentiontime(SRT),
longernonaeratedzones,andperiodsofintermittentloworganicsubstratelevelsintheplantinfluent.
NotethatsomeGAOsarealwayspresentintheanaerobiczonesofmunicipalBPRplants.Typicallytheir
impactsarenotnoticeablebecausethePAOsstillobtainenoughVFAstoremovethephosphorustothe
desiredeffluentconcentration.
ThekeystepsforachievingBPRatwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTPs)areillustratedinthe
simplifieddiagraminFigure52andsummarizedbelow.
1) Returnactivatedsludgefromthesecondaryclarifier,whichcontainsPAOs,isaddedtothe
influentwastewater.
2) Intheanaerobiczone,PAOsbreakpolyphosphatebondstogenerateenergy.Theyusethis
energytotakeupVFAsandstorethemasPHAcompoundssuchasPHB.WhenPAOsbreakthe
polyphosphatebonds,theyreleasephosphateions(PO
4
3
)intheircells.Becauseeach
phosphatemoleculeisnegativelycharged,itmustfirstbondwithpositivelychargedionssuchas
magnesiumorpotassiumtomoveacrossthecellmembraneandbereleasedintothewater.
3) Whenthemixedliquor(i.e.,wastewaterandreturnsludge)enterstheaerobiczone,thePAOs
useoxygentometabolizethestoredPHAstogenerateenergyforgrowthandmaintenance.
Theystoretheexcessenergybytakingupphosphateionsalongwithmagnesium,potassium,
andotherpositiveionsintotheircellsandformingpolyphosphates.Thisluxuryuptakeof
phosphorusresultsinmorebeingremovedintheaerobiczonethanwasreleasedinthe
anaerobiczone.
4) Asthewaterenterstheclarifier,PAOssettletothebottomwiththerestoftheactivatedsludge.
ThephosphorusstoredinthePAOsisremovedwiththewasteactivatedsludge,thereby
resultinginanetremovalofphosphorusduringtreatment
2
.
Infl
1
Infl
11
Figure52.BPRataWWTP
5.2 SubstrateRequirements
Theavailabilityofreadilybiodegradableorganiccarbon(i.e.,VFAs)intheanaerobiczoneis
criticaltothesuccessofBPR.Table51showstheVFAstypicallyfoundinfermentedwastewaterand
theobservedratioofmg/Lphosphorusuptakepermg/LofeachVFAconsumedduringthetreatmentof
municipalwastewater(AbuGhararahandRandall1991).Aceticacidandpropionicacidarethe
dominantVFAsindomesticwastewater,withtheotherformspresentinminimalconcentrations.
Commonpercentagesfromthefermentationofmunicipalwastewatersettledsolidsare60percent
acetic,30percentpropionic,and10percentoftheremainingfour.Largevariationsoccur,however.
Propionicacid,forexample,mayvaryfromlessthan20tomorethan50percent,andisovalericacid
maybeashighas10percent.ResearchhasshownthatGAOsdonotgrowwellonpropionicrelativeto
PAOs(ChenandRandall2004;LopezVazquezetal.2009).Therefore,theratioofpropionictoacetic
affectstheperformanceofBPR,withhigheramountsofpropionicrelativetotheaceticproducing
improvements.

2
Ifwastingisdirectlyfromareactorratherthanfromtheclarifierasispracticedatsomeactivatedsludgeplants
andatplantswithmembranebioreactors,theactivatedsludgeshouldbewastedfromanaerobiczone,preferably
whenthesludgephosphorusconcentrationisatamaximum(i.e.beforesignificantreleaseoccursfromextended
aeration).
uent
Clarifier
Effluent
PhosphorusWastedwith
WasteActivatedSludge
ReturnActivatedSludge
4
2 3
Anerobic Zone
PAOs store
volatilefattyacids
asPHAs.
AerobicZone
PAOs breakdownPHAs forenergyandto
obtaincarbonforgrowth.Theyusethis
energyforphosphorusuptakeandcell
growth
uent
Clarifier
Effluent
PhosphorusWastedwith
WasteActivatedSludge
ReturnActivatedSludge
4 4
22 33
Anerobic Zone
PAOs store
volatilefattyacids
asPHAs.
AerobicZone
PAOs breakdownPHAs forenergyandto
obtaincarbonforgrowth.Theyusethis
energyforphosphorusuptakeandcell
growth
Table51.VolatileFattyAcidsTypicallyFoundinFermentedWastewater
VolatileFattyAcid ChemicalFormula PhosphorusUptake/VFAas

(VFA) CODConsumed
Aceticacid CH
3
COOH 0.37
Propionicacid CH
3
CH
3
COOH 0.10
Butyricacid CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
COOH 0.12
Isobutyricacid CH
3
CH
3
COOHCH
3
0.14
Valericacid CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
CH
3
COOH 0.15
Isovalericacid CH
3
CH
3
COOHCH
3
CH
3
0.24
Note:AceticacidandpropionicacidarethemostcommonVFAsfoundinfermentedwastewater.
Source:AbuGhararah&Randall(1991)aspresentedinTable4.2fromWEFandASCE(2006)
Table52summarizestheminimumratiosofsubstratetototalphosphorustoobtaineffluent
phosphorusconcentrationsoflessthan1mg/Lthathavebeenreportedintheliterature.Evaluatingthe
chemicaloxygendemandtototalphosphorus(COD:TP)andfivedaybiochemicaloxygendemandto
totalphosphorus(BOD
5
:TP)
3
ratioswillprovideonlyaroughapproximationofBPRcapabilities,butwill
provideausefulruleofthumbforestimations.EvaluatingtheratioofreadilybiodegradableCODtoTP
(rbCOD:TPratio)oftheprocessinfluentisamorereliablewayofassessingtheBPRcapabilitiesofa
wastewaterplantandofdeterminingifadditionalsubstrateisrequiredtoachievethedesiredeffluent
phosphateconcentration.AnalysisoftherbCOD:TPratioissuperiortoanalysisofVFA:TPbecausemuch
ofthenonVFArbCODcanbefermentedtoVFAintheanaerobiczoneaslongasthereissufficientSRT
(typicallyatleast1to2daysbutvarieswithtemperature;WEFandASCE2006).Hence,designersmay
underpredictperformanceandoverpredicttheneedforadditionalsubstrateifonlyVFA:TPratiosare
considered.SeethetextboxfollowingTable52forinformationonhowtoestimatetherbCOD:TPratio.
Table52.MinimumRatiosforAchievingTotalPhosphorusEffluentConcentrationoflessthan1.0
mg/L
SubstrateTypetoTotal RecommendedMinimumRatio References

Phosphorus
COD:TP 4045 WEFandASCE2006
BOD:TP 20 WEFandASCE2006
rbCOD:TP
1
1016 Barnardetal.2006
VFA:TP 416 Neethlingetal.2005
1
Mostaccurate
COD=chemicaloxygendemand;BOD=biochemicaloxygendemand;rbCOD=readilybiodegradablechemicaloxygendemand;
VFA=volatilefattyacid;TP=totalphosphorus

3
Unlessotherwiseindicated,BODisbasedonthe5daytest.UltimateBOD(BODU)isbasedonthe20daytest
perstandardmethods(APHA,AWWA,andWEF2005).
ResearchresultssuggestthattheinstantaneousCOD:TPratioismoreimportantthantheoverall
average(Neethlingetal.2005).ShorttermdropsintheBOD:TPratiointheprimaryeffluenttobelow
thatrequiredforthedesiredquantityofphosphorusremovalcorrelatedwellwithrisesineffluent
phosphorus.Intermittentrecyclesofphosphorusrichreturnstreamsmaycauseshorttermvariability
intheBOD:TPratio.WeekendchangesintheBOD:TPratioalsocanaffectperformance.
5.3 SourcesofVolatileFattyAcids
Section5.2describedhowfermentationofthenonVFAportionofrbCODcanoccurinthe
anaerobiczoneofWWTPstoproduceadditionalVFAs.OthersourcesofVFAsinclude:
Fermentationinthewastewatercollectionsystem
Fermentationatthetreatmentplant(requiresnewprocessequipment)
Commercialsources
Eachsourceisdiscussedseparatelybelow.
HowcanIdeterminetherbCOD:TPratioatmywastewaterplant?
TotalPhosphorus(TP).InformationoninfluentTPlevelsshouldbeavailableforyourtreatment
plant.TPindomesticwastewatertypicallyrangesbetween4and8mg/Lbutcanbehigher
dependingonindustrialsources,waterconservation,andwhetherornotaphosphatedetergentban
isinplace.Itistypicallymeasuredusingcolorimetricanalysisorionchromatographyandrequiresa
digestionsteptoconvertpolyphosphateandorganicphosphorustoorthophosphate.TPloading
typicallyfollowsadiurnalpatternwithhighestconcentrationsduringtheday.Influent
concentrationsareusuallylowerduringpeakwetweatherflowevents.
ReadilyBiodegradableChemicalOxygenDemand(rbCOD).Theliteraturedescribesseveral
experimentalmethodsthatcanbeusedtoestimaterbCOD.Afterextensivereview,Melceretal.
(2003)concludedthattheAerobicBatchMethodisthemostpracticalofthebioassaymethods,has
theleastrequirementforanalyticallaboratoryfacilities,andlendsitselftoonsiteuseatWWTPs.For
detailedinstructionsonhowtoperformthismethod,refertoMelceretal.Asecond,lesstime
consumingmethodwaspublishedbyMamaisetal.(1993)andisbasedontheassumptionthattruly
solubledegradableCODisrepresentativeoftherbCOD.Themethodrequiresremovalofsolidsand
colloidsbyflocculationfollowedbyfiltrationthrougha0.45micronfilterpriortoCODanalysis.The
differenceinresultsforaninfluentandeffluentsampleistakentoberbCOD.Melceretal.found
thatalthoughtheMamaismethodiscomparabletobioassaymethods,resultscanbeupto5percent
higher.InfluentrbCODcanvarysignificantlybetweenseasonsintemperateclimateswithranges
from25to125mg/L.SeeChapter10foradditionalinformationonestimatingCODfractions.
5.3.1 FermentationintheCollectionSystem
Fermentationofwastewaterunderanaerobicconditionsoccurstoatleastsomeextentinall
wastewatercollectionsystems.Factorsthatfavoranaerobicconditionsare:
Longdetentiontimes(e.g.,inrelativelyflatcollectionmainsorpumpstationwetwells)
Highstrengthwaste
Warmtemperatures
ForcemainsarealsoexcellentfermentersfortheproductionofVFAsbecausetheyflowfullandthereis
noairwaterinterfaceforoxygentransfer.Often,theconcentrationofinfluentVFAsvariesfrommonth
tomonthdependingontemperatureandflowconditionsinthecollectionsystem.Furtherchangeswill
occurwithintheplantdependingontheextentandtypeofpretreatment,thetypesofsludgeprocessing
equipment,andtheutilizationofanaerobicdigestion.
InadditiontoVFAs,fermentationproducessulfide.Sulfideisconvertedtohydrogensulfide
(H
2
S)whenitentersairsuchastheheadspaceingravitysewersorinforcemaindischargemanholes.
Hydrogensulfidehasanobjectionableodor,anditsreleasecancausecorrosionproblemswhenitis
convertedtosulfuricacidbybacteriaonthepipewall.
Sometechniquesusedforodorandcorrosioncontrolinwastewatercollectionsystemsdosoby
reducinganaerobicconditions,whichcanhavedetrimentalimpactsonBPR.Kobylinskietal.(2008)
reportedthatchemicaloxidation,nitrateaddition,pHcontroltogreaterthan11,superoxygenation,
andvaporphaseodorcontrolcansloworstoptheproductionofVFAs.Othertechniquessuchasiron
additionandpHcontroltobetween9and10donotadverselyimpacttheproductionofVFAs.Table5
3providesasummaryoftheeffectofodorandcorrosioncontroltechniquesonVFAformationin
wastewatercollectionsystems.
Table53.EffectofCorrosionandOdorControlTechniquesonVFAProductioninWastewater
CollectionSystems
Corrosion/OdorControlTechnique EffectonVFAProduction
OxidationofH
2
Sbyaddingastrongoxidant
(e.g.,chlorine,sodiumhypochlorite,
hydrogenperoxide)

StrongoxidantseasilyoxidizeVFAs.
Application
method)
ofnitratesalts(common
Nitratecreatesanoxicconditionandpreventsfermentation,whichin
turnpreventsVFAformation.
Nitratecanalsoactasanelectronacceptor(similartooxygen),sothat
oxidizableVFAsareconsumedbybacteria.
pHcontrol
pHbetween9and10willkeephydrogensulfideinionizedform
preventreleasetoheadspacewithoutaffectingVFAproduction.
and
pHof11willsloworstoptherateofVFAfermentation.
Superoxygenation
Excessoxygenaddedincollectionsystemorinforcemainseliminates
productionofVFAs.
Excessoxygencanserveaselectronacceptorforheterotrophicbacteria
touptakeVFAs,butwithoutVFAstorage.
Vaporphaseodorcontrol
Chemicalblow
concentration,
down
which
fromwetscrubbing
canoxidizeVFAs.
hashighchlorine
Ironaddition(commonmethod)
IronadditionwillprecipitatesulfidewithoutimpactingVFAformation.
However,ifhydrogenperoxideisaddedata
reactivatetheiron,VFAswillbeoxidized.
downstreamlocationto
Source:DerivedfromKobylinskietal.(2008).

IndustrialdischargestothecollectionsystemcansignificantlyimpactVFAformation.Discharges
withhightemperaturesand/orBODloadingcanincreasefermentation,whiledischargescontaining
nitratewillinhibitVFAproductionbecausedenitrifyingbacteriawillusethenitratestofullymetabolize
theorganicsratherthanfermentthem.Someindustriesonlydischargeseasonallyoratcertaintimes
duringtheweek,whichcancausegreatvariationsinVFAsandrbCODenteringthewastewaterplant.
Thisismorelikelytobeaproblemonweekendswhenindustriesshutdown.Weekendeffectsalso
occurmostlyinsuburbanbedroomcommunities.
5.3.2 AnaerobicFermentationofPrimaryorReturnActivatedSludge
Sometreatmentconfigurations,suchastheWestbankprocess,makeuseofanaerobic
fermentationoftheprimarysludgetoprovideVFAstotheBPRprocess(SeeChapter6foradetailed
descriptionofthistechnology).Afermentationprocess,however,canbeaddedtoanyconfigurationto
provideVFAs,especiallyinareaswherelittlefermentationtakesplaceinthecollectionsystem.This
approachhasbeenusedverysuccessfullyincoldclimates.
FermentationoftheprimarysludgeortheRASwillproduceVFA.Primarysludgefermentationis
usedmorefrequentlyandisgenerallypreferredoverfermentationofRASforreasonsprovidedlaterin
thissection.
Inthenormalanaerobicfermentationofprimarysludge,thelargerproteinsandcarbohydrate
compoundsarereducedbyacidfermentationtoavarietyofsimpleproducts.Typicalfermentation
productsare:
Aceticacid
Propionicacid
Butyricacid
Hydrogen
UndernormaloperatingconditionsatpHnearneutral,60ormorepercentofthebyproductsformed
areaceticacid.Atotalof20to30percentcouldbeintheformofpropionicandbutyricacidwithonly
smallquantitiesofotherfattyacids.VFAproductionfromfermentingprimarysludgetypicallyyields
0.066to0.15gVFA/gtotalsolids(bothexpressedasCOD),althoughvaluesupto0.3gVFA/gsolidshave
beenreported(Barnardetal.2005).
Inanaerobicdigesters,methanefermentationisestablishedspontaneouslyfollowingthe
biologicalpathwaysshowninFigure53.Astheredoxpotentialdrops,methaneorganismswillsoon
reachanequilibriumwhereintheacetatesareconsumedattherateatwhichtheyareproduced.IfVFA
productionandaccumulationisdesiredthegrowthofmethaneorganismsshouldbeavoidedasmuchas
possible.ThisusuallycanbeaccomplishedbyoperatingthefermenteratSRTsofnomorethan4days.
Ac
Form
Meth
Forma
Figure53.BiologicalPathwaysofMethaneFormation
Thereareseveralprimarysludgefermenterdesignsthathavebeenusedsuccessfullyinfullscale
plants.Thesimplestconfigurationallowstheformationofathicksludgeblanketintheprimaryclarifier
itselfwherefermentationtakesplace.Someofthethickenedsludgeisreturnedtotheinfluentofthe
primaryclarifiertoallowforelutriationoftheVFAtotheprimaryeffluent.Thisisreferredtoasan
activatedprimarysedimentationtank(Barnard1984).Anothervariationistopumpsludgetoa
completemixtankaheadoftheprimaryclarifiertoaccomplishfermentation.Thesludgeisthenpassed
totheprimaryclarifierforelutriationoftheVFA.Bothoftheseprocessesleadtoanincreasedsolids
loadontheprimaryclarifier.Sludgeageshouldbecontrolledtopreventmethanogenicbacteriafrom
growingandconvertingtheVFAtomethane.TheSRTofthesolidsinthefermenterwilldependonthe
Complex
Waste
Propionic
Acid
Other
Intermediates
Acetic
Acid
Methane
20%
15%
17% 35%
72%
15% 13%
15% 65%
id
ation
ane
tion
wastewatertemperaturewhichcanvaryfromwintertosummer,butusuallylessthan4daysis
sufficient.
Analternativemethodaccomplishesfermentationinanoversizedgravitysludgethickenerby
holdingthesludgeunderanaerobicconditionsfortypically4to8days
4
(thisisreferredtoasastatic
fermenter).Thesupernatantcanthenbefeddirectlytotheanaerobiczone,avoidingahighloadonthe
primaryclarifier.Thickeningcaneitherbeaccomplishedwithasinglethickenerorintwostages.The
twostageprocesscaneitherbeacompletemixtankfollowedbyathickenerortwothickenersinseries.
IthasbeenshownthataddingmolassesorothersourcesofreadilybiodegradableCODcanimprovethe
performanceoffermenters(Bottetal.2007).Staticortwostagefermentershavetheadvantageover
fermentationintheprimarysedimentationtankbecausetheVFAsinthesupernatantcanbedischarged
directlytotheanaerobiczoneratherthanmixedwiththemaininfluentstream.Thisconfiguration
allowsthebypassingofstormflowswithoutsignificantlyaffectingthemassofVFAtotheanaerobic
zone.Elutriatingwater(eitherfromtheprimaryeffluentorthefinaleffluent)canbefedtothe
fermentertoflushouttheVFAsproducedandsendthemtotheanaerobiczone.
SomeoftheRAScanalsobefermentedinasidestreamprocessatsimilarSRTs;however,itis
criticalthatdesignerscarefullyconsiderandaccountforthepotentialforphosphorusrelease.Evidence
fromfullscaleplantsshowedthatwhensomeRASormixedliquorisfermentedinanupflowfermenter,
sufficientVFAisproducedtoovercomethereleaseofphosphorus.RASormixedliquorfermentation
couldbeusedinanyBPRprocess,butismostcommoninprocesseswithoutprimaryclarifiers.
FermentershaveseveraladvantagesoverexternalcarbonsourcesforBPR,including:
VFAgenerationresultsinafavorableratioofacetictopropionicacids.
TheVFAproducedcanenhancedenitrificationbyincreasingthegrowthrateofthe
denitrifiersbecauseVFAsaresimple,readilybiodegradablesubstrates.
Thesizeoftheanaerobiczonecouldbereducedtoabout5percentofthetotalvolume.
ThefermenterswillsupplyVFAataconstantrateeventhroughstormflows.
VFAfermentationforBPRresultsinsmallerincreaseinsludgeproductionwhencompared
withprecipitatingchemicals.
FermentationcanimprovesludgesettleabilityduetoselectionforPAOsthataregoodfloc
formers.
Disadvantagesoffermentationinclude:
Increasedbiologicalloadtotheaerationbasin.
Odorissueswhencomparedwithchemicalremovaladditionforphosphorusremoval(odor
controlistypicallyneeded).
4
TheactualSRTwilldependonthetemperatureandshouldbedesignedtoreducethegrowthofmethanogens.
Willreducedigestergasproductionwhichcanreduceenergyoutputiftheplantuses
digestergastoproduceelectricity.
Capitolcostsofequipment.
SeeChapter10forrecommendationsondesigningsludgefermentationsystems.
5.3.3 CommercialSources
ExternalsourcesofVFAscanbeaddedtotheWWTPtostimulateBPR.Acetateistypicallyused
becauseitisthemostefficientVFA.Acetatealone,however,doesnotmatchtheVFAsproducedduring
fermentationofmunicipalsewage.AsnotedpreviouslyinSection5.2,acetateusuallycomprises40to
60percent,propionate20to40percent,andtheotherVFAsupto10percentoftotalVFAsinmunicipal
wastewater.Thus,amixtureofacetateandpropionateplussmallamountsofbutyrateandvalerateand
theirisoformsmorecloselyrepresenttheproductsofsewagefermentation.Researchhasshownthat
themixturesignificantlyaffectsthecompetitionbetweenPAOsandGAOs.Thiswillbediscussedin
greaterdetailinsubsequentparagraphs.
Yuanetal.(2008)examinedtheeffectoftheorganiccarbonsourceonBPR.Theauthors
comparedtheproductionofPHB(butnottheotherPHAs)andtheuptakeandreleaseofphosphorus
achievedusingfourdifferentsourcesoforganiccarbon:acetate,beefextract,glucose,andmunicipal
wastewater.Experimentalresultsshowedthatthemosteffectivesubstratesforphosphorusuptakeand
releaseandPHBproductionandutilizationweresmall,simplemoleculessuchasacetateandglucose.
Glucosewasthesubstratethatresultedinthemostdissolvedorganiccarbonuptake,butthatwas
partiallybecauseitwasaddedinthelargestamount.Thefastestrateofphosphorusreleaseandhighest
uptakeoccurredwhenacetatewasusedasasubstrate,asexpected.Interestingly,theamountof
phosphorusreleasedperamountofdissolvedorganiccarbonuptakeobservedwasthesameforacetate
andmunicipalwastewater,indicatingthatthewastewaterorganicswerefermentedprimarilyto
acetate.Itshouldalsobementionedthattheyacclimatedtheactivatedsludgeusedforthebatchtests
usingsequencingbatchreactors(SBRs)fedbyasubstratethatwasphosphoruslimitedratherthan
organiccarbonlimited.
Severalstudieshaveexaminedtheeffectsofrelativeconcentrationsofaceticandpropionicacid
onthegrowthofPAOsandGAOs.AnAustralianstudyshowsthatwhilebothPAOsandGAOscoulduse
acetate,PAOswillhaveacompetitiveadvantagewhentheVFAsconsistofroughlyequalpartsofacetic
andpropionicacidasagrowthmedium.ThisisbecausePAOsthatarefedonacetateareabletoswitch
topropionatemuchmorequicklyandeffectivelythanGAOs(Oehmenetal.2005).Thisfindingledtoa
strategytofeedequalamountsofaceticacidandpropionicacidastheoptimalforstimulatingPAO
growth(Oehmenetal.2006,Bottetal.,2007).NotethatstudiespublishedbyChen,etal.(2004),
RandallandChen(2008),andLopezVasquezetal.(2009)haveshownthatanincreaseinthepropionic
toaceticacidratio,eveniftheaceticacidconcentrationisgreater,resultedinhighernetphosphorus
removalbecausethecombinationfavorsthePAOsovertheGAOs,therebyresultinginhigher
concentrationsofPAOsintheMLSS.
AnotherstudyshowedthatisovalericaciddrivesBPRevenbetterthanaceticacid(Bottetal.,
2007).ThisfindingisincontrasttotheresultsobtainedbyAbuGhararahandRandall(1991),who
concludedthatisovalericwasthesecondbestVFAforBPRbutonly65percentasefficientasacetic.
Isovalericacidismuchmoreexpensivethanaceticacidandismoreodorous.Italsoisnotsignificantly
generatedintheprimarysludgefermentationprocess.AdditionofrbCODsuchassugarsandalcohols
containingtwocarbonsormorecanincreasephosphorusuptakebyPAOswhenaddedtotheanaerobic
zonebutmaycausesludgebulkingifdosedinexcess(JenkinsandHarper2004).
5.4 EnvironmentalConditions
5.4.1 DissolvedOxygenandNitratesintheAnaerobicZone
Whendissolvedoxygenispresentintheanaerobiczone,heterotrophicaerobicorganismscan
usetheoxygenastheelectronacceptorandwillcompetewiththePAOsforVFAs.Thisresultsinless
VFAstorageand,subsequently,lessBPR.Moreover,ifoxygenisavailable,PAOscanmetabolizeVFAs
completelyandusetheenergyandcarbonobtainedforgrowthinsteadofstoringVFAsusingenergy
frompolyphosphatebondsforsubsequentphosphateuptake.IfPAOsuseoxygentometabolizeVFAs,
theydonotreleasephosphorusintheanaerobiczoneduringVFAstorage,andtheydonottakeup
excessphosphorusintheaerobiczone.
Nitratescanalsobeusedasanelectronacceptorbyfacultative(denitrifying)heterotrophs,
whichincludesomePAOs.Thepresenceofnitrateintheanaerobiczonewilldepletetheamountof
VFAsavailabletoPAOs,justasthepresenceofdissolvedoxygendoes.Nitratescanalsoinhibit
fermentationofrbCODandreducetheproductionofVFAsbecausemostofthefermenting
microorganismsarefacultativeandcanusenitrateasanelectronacceptortofullyoxidizethenonVFA
rbCODinsteadofproducingVFAsastheendproduct.
Oxygencanbeinadvertentlyaddedbacktotheanaerobiczonethroughrecycleflowssuchas
theRASandbybackmixingfrominadequatelybaffledaerobiczones.Nitratescanbeintroducedtothe
anaerobiczonebytheRAS,bymixedliquorrecyclesfromanoxiczones,bybackmixingfrom
inadequatelybaffledanoxiczones,andbyplantrecyclessuchassupernatantfromsludgehandling
facilities.SignificantnitrateinterferenceofBPRismuchmorecommonthandissolvedoxygen
interference,andeffortstocontrolnitrateintroductiontotheanaerobiczoneshouldbepracticedatall
BPRplants.Seesection5.6.2foradditionaldiscussion.
5.4.2 OxygenintheAerobicZone
PAOsneedoxygentodigestthestorageproductsanduptakeandretainphosphorusinthe
aerobiczone.MaintainingasufficientlyhighDOtransferintheaerobiczoneenhancesprocessstability
andhasbeenfoundtobeakeyfactorinphosphorusremoval(Bottetal.2007).However,itshouldbe
recognizedthattheappropriateDOconcentrationinthemixedliquorforanonlimitingoxygentransfer
rateisafunctionofthewaythebiologicalprocessisbeingoperated,notablytheSRT,themixedliquor
suspendedsolidsconcentration,andtheactualHRTinthereactor.Forhighratesystems,theDOneeds
tobe2.0mg/Lorgreaterintheeffluent,i.e.,priortoadeoxygenationzoneifoneisbeingused.Under
theseconditions,phosphorusremovalcanbeimprovedbyincreasingthemixedliquorDO
concentration.However,forlongresidencetimesystemssuchasoxidationditches,excellent
nitrification,denitrification,andexcessBPRarepossiblewhenDOinthesystemneverexceeds0.5mg/L,
andvariesfromnearzeroinsomesectionsoftheditchtoaneffluentconcentrationof0.25mg/L(Senet
al.1990).SimilarresultsarepossiblewithotherhighHRTconfigurationssuchastheSchreiberProcess.
ReaerationmaybeusefultoensurethatthereissufficientDOintheMLSSinthefinalclarifiersto
preventreleaseofphosphorusduringsettling.
5.4.3 pH
LowpHcanreduceandevenpreventBPR.BelowpH6.9,theprocesshasbeenshowntodecline
inefficiency(WEFandASCE2006).ResearchhasshownthatitisnotpossibletoestablishBPRwhenthe
pHintheanaerobiczoneislessthan5.5,evenifanabundantamountofVFAsarepresentinthe
anaerobiczone(TracyandFlammino1987;RandallandChapin1997).
Filipeetal.(2001)foundthatGAOsdonotgrowwhenthepHisgreaterthan7.25inthe
anaerobiczone.TheyalsoshowedthatlowpHvaluesintheaerobiczonewillinhibitBPR,butPAOs
havetheadvantageovertheGAOsifthezonepHis7.0orgreater.Fortunately,robustcontinuousflow
BPRsystemscommonlyexperiencealargepHswingbetweentheanaerobicandaerobiczones(e.g.,
from7.20.2to8.4ormore),andpHcontrolisunlikelytobeneededandinfactmaybedetrimental
whentreatingmunicipalwastewaters.Becausemanywastewaterprocessessuchaschemicaladdition
andnitrificationcanlowerthepH,itshouldbemonitoredintheanaerobiczoneandchemicallyadjusted
ifnecessary.
5.4.4 Temperature
Hightemperatures(i.e.,above20
o
C)stimulateGAOacetateuptakeratesmorethanPAOuptake
rates,andtemperaturesofapproximately30
o
Ccanhaveanadverseeffectonphosphorusremoval
(WhangandPark2006).Bottetal.(2007)havereportedthatphosphorusremovalwillgenerallybe
impairedattemperaturesgreaterthan28C.ModelingstudieshaveshownthatGAOscandominateat
highertemperaturesbecauseoftheirincreasedabilitytouptakeacetateatthosetemperatures
comparedtoPAOs(Whangetal.2007).
Panswadetal.(2003)kineticallyinvestigatedmicrobialpopulationdynamicsinresponseto
gradualtemperatureincreasesinanenhancedBRPsystem.Asthetemperaturerosefrom20
o
Cto30
o
C
to35.5
o
C,thepredominantmicrobialgroupchangedfromPAOs(4770percentoftotalvolatile
suspendedsolids(VSS))toGAOs(6475percentoftotalVSS)totheordinaryheterotrophs(90percentof
totalVSS),respectively.Despitethespeciesalteration,thephosphoruscontentsofthePAOsappeared
tobesteadywithin0.182to0.308mg/mgVSS(PAO)regardlessofthetemperaturelevel.Theinitial
specificphosphorusreleaserates,whicharesolelyduetotheactivitiesofthePAOs,increasedwith
temperaturefrombetween37.5and55.9tobetween51.8and61.3,52.0and76.9,147.2and210.3,
and374.2and756.3mgP/gmVSS(PAO)hr,at20
o
C,25
o
C,30
o
C,32.5
o
C,and35.5
o
C,respectively.
Althoughthemeaninitialspecificphosphorusuptakeratesofthebiomassdecreasedasthe
temperatureincreased,thedataimpliedthattheuptakerateofthePAOswashigherthantheothertwo
microbialgroups.TheseresultsindicatethatthePAOsarelowerrangemesophilesorpossibly
psychrophiles.Asthetemperaturerises,theportionofenergyrequiredformaintenanceincreases
substantially,whichreducestheenergyavailabilityforcellreproduction;hence,thePAOscanbe
washedoutfromthesystem.
Lowtemperaturescanalsolowerphosphorusuptake,althoughthishasnotbeenanissuein
welloperatedandproperlyacclimatizedplants(WEFandASCE2006).Reducedphosphorusremoval
performanceinthewinterisusuallycausedbyreducedfermentationorincreasedDOandnitrateinputs
totheanaerobiczone.Ingeneral,BPRcapacityisgreaterattemperaturesbelow15
o
Cthanathigher
temperaturesifelectronacceptorinputs(DOandnitrates)arecontrolled.Inlabexperiments,Erdalet
al.(2002)foundthatPAOsoutcompetedGAOsat5CeventhoughthePAOmetabolismwasslowerat
5Cthanat20C.ThisoutcomewasbecauseGAOsrelyonglycolysisforenergy,andglycolysisisvery
sensitivetolowtemperatures,resultinginmuchslowergrowthratesfortheGAOs.TheGAOsvirtually
disappearedinthe5Creactor,resultinginamuchgreaterexcessphosphorusremovalcapacityofthe
biomassat5
o
Ccomparedtothatobservedat20
o
CbecauseofthemuchhigherconcentrationofPAOs
intheMLSS.
AlthoughBPRcapacityisgreateratlowtemperatures,ithasbeenshownthatlowtemperatures
cancausePAOstowashoutofactivatedsludgebeforetheheterotrophscapableofremovingBOD
(McClintocketal.1991;McClintocketal.1993;MamaisandJenkins1992).MamaisandJenkins(1992)
showedthatthewashoutpointisdeterminedbyacombinationoftemperatureandSRTvalues.Thatis,
ateachSRTvalue,thereisatemperaturethatwillcauseBPRwashout.Thishasbeendemonstratedat
bothpilotplantandlargeplantscale.
5.4.5 Cations
Thebreakdownofpolyphosphatesincreasesthephosphateconcentrationinthecellandthe
releaseofphosphatesfromthecells.However,becauseeachphosphatemolecule(PO
4
3
)contains
threenegativecharges,itisunabletopassthroughthecellmembraneonitsown.Topassthroughthe
cellmembrane,thephosphatemoleculemustbondwithpositivelychargedionssuchasmagnesium
(Mg
+2
)andpotassium(K
+
).Oncethephosphatemoleculebondswiththesechargedions,itbecomes
neutralandcanbetransportedacrossthecellmembrane.Experimentshaveshownthatmagnesium
andpotassiumareessentialcationsforBPRratherthanjustprovidingchargeneutralization,whereas
calciumandothercationsthatmightbecomeinvolvedarenotessential(PattarkineandRandall1999).
ThereleaseofphosphatefromPAOcellsisacriticalstepintheanaerobiczoneofBPR
wastewatertreatmentsystems.Thephosphatewillnotbereleasedintheanaerobiczoneonceeither
magnesiumorpotassiumisdepleted,andBPRwillcease.Therearenoknowncases,however,ofBPR
limitationbecauseofinadequatemagnesiumindomesticandmunicipalwastewaters,butithasbeen
observedinindustrialwastewaters,aswellasinthelaboratoryunderexperimentalconditions.
5.5 Kinetics
ThebiologicalprocessesofWWTPsaredesignedonthebasisofSRTandHRT.ThedesignSRTis
basedonthegrowthrateoftheactivatedsludgemicroorganismsfortheorganicloadingrateofthe
influentwastewater,whichdeterminestheoxygentransferrequirementsandwasteactivatedsludge
production.ThenominalHRT(i.e.,thetimeittakestofillthereactor(s)ifonlythewastewaterisflowing
intoit)isusedforreactordesign.Itdeterminesthemixedliquorsuspendedsolids(MLSS)
concentrationforthedesignSRTvalue.
5.5.1 SolidsRetentionTime(SRT)
Ingeneral,aminimumsystemSRTof3to4daysbasedontotalreactorvolumeissufficientfor
BPRintemperateclimateconditions.AslongastherearesufficientVFAsavailable,higherSRTs(asgreat
as30days)willnotincreasephosphorusuptakebecausethePAOconcentrationinthemixedliquorwill
increaseuntileithertheVFAsortheavailablephosphatesbecomelimiting.IfSRTbecomestoogreat,
however,thequalityoftheeffluentwilldecreasebecauseendogenousrespirationwillcausereleaseof
phosphorusasbiomassdegrades.TheSRTlevelatwhichthissecondaryreleaseoccursissitespecific
basedonVFAuptake,PHApolymerizationanduse,andtheglycogenbreakdownandpolymerization
ratesincorrespondingzonesofthesystem(WEFandASCE2006).
5.5.2 HydraulicRetentionTime(HRT)
BothanaerobicandaerobicHRTcanimpactBPR.Intheanaerobiczone,sufficienttimeis
neededforthefermentationofnonVFArbCODtoVFAsandforthestorageofPHAs.AnHRTof1to2
hoursistypicallyrequiredifmostofthefermentationneedstotakeplaceintheanaerobiczone.VFA
uptakeandstorageasPHAs,however,isfairlyrapid.Thus,theHRTcanbemuchshorteriffermentation
ofrbCODintheanaerobiczoneisnotasignificantsourceofVFAs(aslowas30minutes,althoughone
hourwouldtypicallybeused).TheanaerobicHRTmayvaryfrom5to15percentofthetotalnominal
HRTofafullbiologicalnutrientremoval(BNR)system(removesbothnitrogenandphosphorus),with
theactualvaluedependingprimarilyuponwhetherornotVFAsaresuppliedtotheanaerobiczonefrom
asourceotherthantheinfluentwastewater.
5.6 ImportantDesignandOperationalConsiderations
ThissectionidentifiessomekeydesignandoperationalparametersthatcanimpactBPR.See
Chapter6fordiscussionofspecificwastewaterplantconfigurations.
5.6.1 AvoidingSecondaryReleaseofPhosphorus
ThereleaseofphosphorusintheanaerobiczoneisanessentialstepofBPRbecauseitindicates
thatPAOsareuptakingandstoringVFAsasPHBsandothercompounds.However,phosphorusrelease
canoccurforotherreasonssuchaslowpH,chemicaltoxicity,andexcessiveanaerobicrespiration
resultingindestructionofPAOcells.Thus,releaseofphosphoruscanalsooccurintheabsenceofa
sourceofVFAs.Forexample,someoftheenergystoredaspolyphosphateisusedforcellmaintenance,
andphosphorusisreleasedtotheliquidphase.IfPAOsreleasephosphoruswithoutstoringpolymerized
VFAs,theywillnothavesufficientenergytoremoveallofthereleasedphosphorusintheaerobiczone.
Thisoccurrenceisknownassecondaryrelease.
IfPAOsentertheaerobiczonewithinadequatePHA,theywillnothavetheenergyneededfor
completephosphorusuptakeandtheefficiencyofphosphorusremovalwilldecrease.Thismayoccurin
thefollowingprocessstages:
IntheanaerobiczoneiftheHRTistoolongandtheVFAsaredepletedaconsiderableperiod
beforetheendoftheretentiontime.
InthemainanoxiczonewhenthenitratesareexhaustedwellbeforetheendoftheHRT.
InthesecondanoxiczoneasshowninFigure54whentherearenonitratestoberemoved.
InthesludgeblanketsoffinalclarifierswhentheRASrateistoolowandsludgeisnotremoved
fastenough,resultingintheflowofreleasedphosphatesovertheeffluentweir.
Secondaryreleasemayalsohappeninaerobiczonesthataretoolarge,resultinginstored
substratedepletionanddestructionofPAOcellsbyendogenousmetabolism.Further,excessive
depletionintheaerobiczoneofthestoredglycogeninthePAOswillreduceVFAstorageand
phosphorusreleaseintheanaerobiczone,andresultinreducedphosphateremovalbytheBPRsystem
(PunrattanasinandRandall2000).
2
n
d

A
n
o
x
i
c
R
e
-
a
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
A
n
o
x
i
c
P
h
o
s
p
h
o
r
u
s

a
s

P

(
m
g
/
L
)
nda nd
Figure54.Exampleofseco ryreleaseinseco anoxiczone.
PhosphoruswillbereleasedfromPAOsinsludgetreatmentprocessesthatareanaerobic.
GravitythickeningofsludgefromBPRprocessescanleadtophosphorusreleaseiflongretentiontimes
areused.Mechanicaldewateringinsteadofgravitydewateringallowslessretentiontimeandless
phosphorusrelease(Bottetal.2007).Dissolvedairflotation(DAF)isusuallyrecommendedtothicken
sludgetoreducetheamountofphosphorusrelease.DAFthickeningcanbequitesuccessfulforthe
reductionofrelease,butifthethickenedsludgeisleftontheDAFbeachtoolongbeforeremoval,excess
releasewilloccurjustasitwillwhenthesludgeislefttoolonginagravitythickener.
Anaerobicdigestioncanalsoleadtoextensivephosphorusrelease.Someofthephosphorus
will,however,beprecipitatedoutaseitherametalsalt(e.g.,calciumphosphate)orasstruvite
(magnesiumammoniumphosphate,MgNH
4
PO
4
).PAOstakeupandreleasemagnesiumalongwith
phosphates,andthesetwoionscombinewithammonium(whichisalwayspresentinabundancein
anaerobicdigesters)toformstruvite(MgNH
4
PO
4
6H
2
O).Struviteformationisveryfastandwill
continueuntiloneofthethreeionsisreducedtoitssolubilityconcentration.Magnesiumisusually
presentinthelowestconcentration,anditsdepletiontypicallylimitsstruviteformationwithinthe
anaerobicdigester.
Calciumphosphateprecipitatesalsotendtoforminanaerobicdigesters,buttheyarenon
stoichiometricandformmuchmoreslowlythanstruvite.Ifsubstantialamountsofphosphatesare
precipitatedbycalciumalongwiththestruviteformation,therewillbelittleifanypropensityfor
struvitetoformwhenthesludgeexitstheanaerobicdigesters.Fewstruviteproblemsoccurwithbelt
filterpressdewateringoftheanaerobicallydigestedsludge,butplantsusingcentrifugesfordewatering
havereportedproblemswithcloggingoftheports.Notethatifthedigestedsludgeiscompostedafter
dewatering,theresultingClassAsludgewillbeenrichedinmagnesium,phosphorus,nitrogen,and,toa
lesserextent,potassium,whichalsoistakenupandreleasedwithphosphorusbyPAOs.Onlythirty
percentofthephosphorusenteringtheanaerobicdigestersattheYorkRiverplantduringfouryearsof
BPRexperimentationwasrecycledbacktotheheadworksfrombeltfilterpressdewatering.However,it
waspossibletoconsistentlyproduceaneffluentoflessthan1mg/LTPwithouteffluentfiltration,in
spiteofthephosphorusrecycle,followingtheenactmentandimplementationofaphosphatedetergent
baninVirginia(Randalletal.1992).
Alternativestoanaerobicdigestionsuchascomposting,drying,oralkalinetreatmentcanbe
usedtoreducephosphorusreleaseandrecycle.Therehavebeenseveralstudiesthathaveexamined
struviteprecipitationasawaytorecoverphosphorusfromdigestersupernatant.Theseprocesseswere
testedatfullscalefacilitiesinTreviso,ItalyandEdmonton,Canada(SCOPE2004),andcurrentlyarestill
operatingatthosetwoplantsandothersincludingplantsinDurham,NC,andOlburgeninthe
Netherlands.
Whenanaerobicreleaseofphosphorusoccurs,recyclingthesestreamscanoverload
phosphorusremovalprocesses.Theeffectcanbeworsenedwhenthewastehandlingprocessisonly
operatedintermittently.Insomeinstances,thereisahighdegreeofphosphorusprecipitationinthe
anaerobicdigesters,andwithsufficientVFAsintheinfluent,thereturnedphosphorusmayberemoved.
However,inmanycircumstances,somechemicalsneedtobeaddedtothereturnstreamsortothe
anaerobicdigesteritselfsothatthemetalprecipitatewillberemovedwiththedewateredsludge.The
chemicalrequirementisusuallyconsiderablylessthanwhenaddedtothemainstreamplantinthe
absenceofBPR.RemovingphosphorusfromtherecyclestreamcouldalsoreducetheVFAdemandin
theanaerobiczoneandinsomecases,allowtheplanttoavoidaddingafermenterorexternalcarbon
source.
5.6.2 AvoidingBackmixing
Inconfigurationswheretheanaerobiczoneisfollowedimmediatelybyananoxicoraerobic
zone,backmixingcanoccurunlessthedesignensuresitisimpossible.Backmixingcancauseelevated
concentrationsofnitratesand/ordissolvedoxygenintheanaerobiczonewhichfavorsgrowthof
organismsotherthanPAOsandthuscaninhibitBPRbyreducingtheVFAsavailabletothePAOs.In
addition,backmixingcancausethickscumtoformonthesurfaceoftheanaerobiczone.
Aerationofmixedliquor,eitherdiffusedormechanical,increasesthedepthoftheliquid,which
causesahydraulicgradientbacktowardthenonaeratedzone.Ifthebafflingisinsufficient,flowfrom
theaeratedzonecanseepbackintothenonaerated(anaerobicoranoxic)zones.Backmixingcanbe
avoidedbyincreasedbafflingsuchasanunderflowbafflewithopeningssizedtomaintainaforward
velocityof1footpersecond(0.3m/sec)orgreateratalltimesorbychangingthemixingratesatthe
WWTP.

5.6.3 FlowandLoadBalancing
FlowsandloadstoWWTPscanvarywidelybecauseofregulardiurnalflowpatternsandbecause
oflarger,moreirregulardisturbancessuchasstormevents.Peaksineitherflowornutrientloadcan
stresstheBPRsystemandcausereducedperformanceasmeasuredbyeffluentphosphorus
concentrations.Flowpeakscanbeevenedoutbyusingequalizationtanksattheheadoftheplant.
Equalizationtanksincombinationwithnutrientsensorscanalsobeusedtobalancenutrientloads.In
thiscase,recyclestreamshighinnutrientconcentrationssuchasdigestersupernatantcanbestored
duringpeaknutrientloadsandrecycledduringtimeswhenconcentrationsarelow.
5.7 ImpactsonSludgeProcessingandHandling
SludgesfromBPRprocesseswillhavehigherphosphoruscontents,andthereforeahigher
settlingvelocity,butwillotherwisebesimilartosludgefromconventionalactivatedsludgeplants.The
storedphosphorusaddsdryweighttothesludgeandimprovessettling;however,PAOsproducefewer
VSSthanbacteriathatusedissolvedoxygeninmetabolismbecausethegrowthreactionislessefficient.
PAOscanstorephosphorusupto40percentoftheircellmass.Thus,thepercentphosphorusin
thewastedactivatedsludgewillbedeterminedbythefractionoftheactivatedsludgethatconsistsof
PAOs.ThisfractionisdeterminedbytheratiooftheVFAsthatbecomeavailabletothePAOsinthe
anaerobiczonetotheamountofavailablephosphorusintheanaerobiczone.EithertheVFAsorthe
phosphoruswillbecomelimitingintheanaerobiczone,andthePAOfractionwillbedeterminedby
whicheverislimited.
BPRforNorthAmericansewageusuallyresultsin4to8percentofphosphorusinactivated
sludgeasapercentageofmixedliquorvolatilesuspendedsolids(MLVSS).Phosphoruscontentashigh
as15percentofMLVSS,however,wasobservedforseveralweeksattheHRSDYorkRiverWWTPwhen
itwasoperatedasananaerobic/oxic(A/O)processpriortothephosphatedetergentbaninVirginia.
TheMLVSSatYorkRiverwas10percentphosphorusforseveralmonthsduring1986and1987.The
effluentsolublephosphorusconcentrationwas2.2to2.5mg/Lduringthisperiodoftime,illustratingthe
inverserelationshipbetweenpercentPintheMLVSSandeffluentTPthatiscommonforEBPR
processes.Thus,forsomewastewatersthefractionofphosphorusinthewasteddrysolidscouldbe8
percentormore,butasnotedearlieritwillcommonlybebetween4and8percentforNorthAmerican
sewage.ThereisatendencytothinkthateffluentTSSwillcontainthesameconcentrationof
phosphorusastheMLVSS,butitismuchmorelikelythattheeffluentTSSfromgravitysettlingwill
consistprimarilyofthelowspecificgravityflocsthatcontainlowconcentrationsofphosphorusrather
thanthehighspecificgravityPAOflocs.Microphotographsconsistentlyshowthatmicrobial
distributionsinactivatedsludgearenotuniform.
Withrespecttosettlinganddewatering,varyingresultshavebeenfound,withsomeplants
usingBPRreportinglittleornochangeinsludgecharacteristics(Knockeetal.1992)andothersreporting
enhancedsettlinganddewateringproperties(Bottetal.2007).ThesludgeproducedfromBPRwillhave
highermagnesiumandpotassiumconcentrationsinadditiontophosphorusbecausethePAOsalways
takeuptheseelementswithphosphorusduringBPR.
AsnotedinSection5.6.1,anaerobicdigestionofsludgewillleadtoreleaseofphosphorusinto
theliquidrecyclestreamfromdewateringorfromsupernatingofthedigester.Itisveryimportantthat
designersconsiderthispotentialwhendesigningforBPRbecausethephosphorusrecycledtothe
biologicalprocessmustberemovedinadditiontotheinfluentphosphorus.However,alsoasnotedin
section5.6.1,becausetheresultingdigesterliquidstreamisenrichedwithammonium,magnesiumand
phosphate,struvite(MgNH
4
PO
4
6H
2
O)willprecipitateinanaerobicdigestersuntiltheconcentrationof
oneoftheconstituentsisreducedbelowitssolubilitypoint.Ifthedigesterisnotsupernated(i.e.the
digestedsludgeisnotpermittedtosettleandformsupernatantthatiswastedfromthesystem),the
concentrationswillremainathighlevelsandmorestruviteprecipitationwilloccurthanifsupernatingis
practiced,therebyreducingtheamountofphosphorusthatwillberecycledtothebiologicalprocess.
Withabundantphosphorusandammonium,magnesiumisusuallytheelementinshortsupplybecause
theionicstrengthofthemagnesiumtakenupandreleasedisonlyabout50percentoftheionicstrength
ofthephosphateuptakeandrelease.Additionalprecipitationofthereleasedphosphoruswithcalcium
willusuallyoccurafterstruviteprecipitationiscomplete.DuringtheHRSDYorkRiverstudy,onlyabout
30%ofthephosphatereleasedduringanaerobicdigestionoftheBPRsludgewasrecycledafter
dewateringonabeltfilterpress(Randalletal.1992).ItwasstillpossibletoobtainaneffluentTP
concentrationoflessthan1mg/Lwithouteffluentfiltrationafterthephosphatedetergentbanwent
intoeffect.Somedesignershaveproposedchemicallyprecipitatingstruviteorotherphosphatesolidsto
avoidhighphosphorusreturninrecyclestreams(Bottetal.2007).Dependingonwherestruvitecrystals
form,i.e.intheanaerobicdigesterorafterexitingthedigester,theycanplugcentrifugeports,aswellas
pumpsandpipesusedtoconveythesludge,ifnotcontrolled.However,becauseofthehigher
concentrationsofmagnesiumandphosphorusinanaerobicdigesterswhenBPRsludgeisdigested,
most,ifnotall,ofthestruviteformationoccurswithinthesludgeandremainswiththesludgerather
thanformingafterthesludgeandsupernatantexitthedigesters.Note,however,thereversetypically
happenswhennonBPRsludgeisanaerobicallydigested.Thestruviteformsafterthesludgeor
supernatantexitthedigesterratherthanwithinthedigester.
5.8 References
AmericanPublicHealthAssociation(APHA),AmericanWaterWorksAssociation(AWWA)&Water
EnvironmentFederation(WEF).2005.StandardMethodsfortheExaminationofWaterand
Wastewater,21
st
Edition.Eds.A.D.Eaton,L.S.Clesceri,E.W.Rice,A.E.Greenberg,andM.H.Franson.
AbuGhararah,Z.H.andC.W.Randall.1991.TheEffectofOrganicCompoundsonBiologicalPhosphorus
Removal.WaterScienceandTechnology.23:585594.
Barnard,J.L.2006.BiologicalNutrientRemoval:WhereWeHaveBeen,WhereAreWeGoing?InWEFTEC
2006.
Bott,C.B.,S.N.Murthy,T.T.Spano,andC.W.Randall.2007.WERFWorkshoponNutrientRemoval:How
LowCanWeGoandWhatIsStoppingUsfromGoingLower?Alexandria,VA:WERF.
Chen,Y.,A.A.Randall,andT.McCue.2004.TheEfficiencyofEnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
fromRealWastewaterAffectedbyDifferentRatiosofAcetictoPropionicAcid.WaterResearch.38(1):
2736.
Erdal,U.G.,Z.K.Erdal,andC.W.Randall.2002.EffectofTemperatureonEBPRSystemPerformanceand
BacterialCommunity.InProceedingsofWEFTEC2002.

Filipe,C.D.M.,G.T.Daigger,andC.P.L.GradyJr.2001.pHAsaKeyFactorintheCompetitionBetween
GlycogenAccumulatingOrganismsandPhosphateAccumulatingOrganisms.WaterEnvironment
Research.Alexandria,VA:WEF.73(2):223232.
Fuhs,G.W.andM.Chen.1975.MicrobiologicalBasisofPhosphateRemovalintheActivatedSludge
ProcessfortheTreatmentofWastewater.MicrobialEcology.2(2):11938.
Jenkins,D.I.andW.F.Harper.2004.UseofEnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalforTreating
NutrientDeficientWastewater.Alexandria,VA:WERFandIWAPublishing.
Knocke,W.R.,J.W.Nash,andC.W.Randall.1992.ConditioningandDewateringofAnaerobicallyDigested
BPRSludge.JournalofEnvironmentalEngineering.118(5):642656.
Kobylinski,E.,G.V.Durme,J.Barnard,N.Massart,andS.Koh.2008.HowBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
isInhibitedbyCollectionSystemCorrosionandOdorControlPractices.InWEFTEC2008.
LopezVazquez,C.M.,A.Oehmen,C.M.Hooijmans,D.Brdjanovic,H.J.Gijzen,Z.Yuan,andM.C.M.van
Loosdrecht.2009.ModelingthePAOGAOCompetition:EffectsofCarbonSource,pHand
Temperature.WaterResearch.43(2):450462.
Mamias,D.andD.Jenkins.1992.TheEffectsofMCRTandTemperatureonEnhancedBiological
PhosphorusRemoval.WaterScienceandTechnology.26(56):955965.
Mamias,D.,D.Jenkins,andP.Pitt.1993.ARapidPhysicalChemicalMethodfortheDeterminationof
ReadilyBiodegradableSolubleCODinMunicipalWastewater.WaterResearch.27(1):195197.
McClintock,S.A.,C.W.Randall,andV.M.Pattarkine.1991.TheEffectsofTemperatureandMeanCell
ResidenceTimeonEnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.InProceedings,1991SpecialtyConference
onEnvironmentalEngineering.AmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers.NewYork,N.Y.pp.319324.
McClintock,S.A.,C.W.Randall,andV.M.Pattarkine.1993.EffectsofTemperatureandMeanCell
ResidenceTimeonBiologicalNutrientRemovalProcesses.WaterEnvironmentalResearch.65(2):110
118.
Melcer,H.,P.L.Dold,R.M.Jones,C.M.Bye,I.Takacs,H.D.Stensel,A.W.Wilson,P.Sun,andS.Bury.2003.
MethodsforWastewaterCharacterizationinActivatedSludgeModeling.WERFFinalReport.Project
99WWF3.
Publishing.
Oehmen,A.,A.M.Sanders,M.T.Vives,Z.Yuan,andJ.Keller.2006.CompetitionbetweenPhosphateand
GlycogenAccumulatingOrganismsinEnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalSystemswithAcetate
andPropionateCarbonSources.JournalofBiotechnology.ElsevierScienceBV.123(1):2232.
Oehmen,A.,Z.Yuan,L.L.Blackall,andJ.Keller.2005.ComparisonofAcetateandPropionateUptakeby
PolyphosphateAccumulatingOrganismsandGlycogenAccumulatingOrganisms.Biotechnologyand
Bioengineering.91(2).NewYork,NY:JohnWiley&Sons,Inc.
PanswadT.,A.DoungchaiandJ.Anotai.2003.TemperatureEffectonMicrobialCommunityofEnhanced
BiologicalPhosphorusRemovalSystem.WaterResearch.37(2):409415.
Pattarkine,V.M.andC.W.Randall.1999.TheRequirementofMetalCationsforEnhancedBiological
PhosphorusRemovalbyActivatedSludge.WaterScienceandTechnology.40(2):159165.
Punrattanasin,W.andC.Randall.2000.FactorsAffectingtheProductionandStorageof
PolyhydroxyalkanoatesinActivatedSludgeBiomass.Proceedings,1stWorldCongressofthe
InternationalWaterAssociation.July37.Paris,France.ISBN:2951541600.
Randall,C.W.andR.W.Chapin.1997.AceticAcidInhibitionofBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.Water
EnvironmentResearch.69(5):955960.
Randall,A.,andY.Chen.2008.TheKineticsofAnaerobicandAerobicCarbonandPhosphorus
TransformationforaSepticWastewaterwithVaryingPropionate:AcetateRatios.InWEFTEC2008.
Randall,C.W.,H.D.Stensel,andJ.L.Barnard.1992.DesignofActivatedSludgeBiologicalNutrient
RemovalPlants.InDesignandRetrofitofWastewaterTreatmentPlantsforBiologicalNutrientRemoval.
Lancaster,PA:Randall,Ed.TechnomicPublishingCo.,Inc.pp.125126.
SCOPE.2004.NewsletterNo.57.July.CentreEuropendEtudessurlesPolyphosphates.Brussels,
Belgium.Availableonline:http://www.ceep
phosphates.org/Files/Newsletter/Scope%20Newsletter%2057%20Struvite%20conference.pdf
Sen,D.,C.W.Randall,andT.J.Grizzard.1990.BiologicalNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalinOxidation
DitchandHighNitrateRecycleSystems.ReportCBP/TRS47/90.ChesapeakeBayOffice,USEPA,
Washington,D.C.
Sprandio,M.,V.Urbain,P.Ginestet,M.J.Audic,andE.Paul.ApplicationofCODFractionationbyaNew
CombinedTechnique:ComparisonofVariousWastewatersandSourcesofVariability.2001.
Tracy,K.D.andA.Flammino.1987.BiochemistryandEnergeticsofBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval.
ProceedingIAWPRCInternationalSpecializedConference,BiologicalPhosphorusRemovalfrom
Wastewater.Rome,Italy.September2830.InBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalfromWastewater.pp.
1526.R.Ramadori,Ed.NewYork,NY:PergamomPress.

WEFPress.
Whang,L.M.andJ.K.Park.2006.CompetitionBetweenPolyphosphateandGlycogenAccumulating
OrganismsinEnhancedBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalSystems:EffectofTemperatureandSludgeAge.
WaterEnvironmentResearch.78(1):411.
Whang,L.M.,C.D.M.Filipe,andJ.K.Park.2007.ModelBasedEvaluationofCompetitionBetween
PolyphosphateandGlycogenAccumulatingOrganisms.WaterResearch.41(6):13121324.
Xu,S.
andS.Hasselblad.1996.ASimpleBiologicalMethodtoEstimatetheReadilyBiodegradableOrganic
MatterinWastewater.WaterResearch.30(4):1023.
Yuan,Q.,R.Sparling,andJ.Oleszkiewicz.2008.EffectofDifferentCarbonSourcesonBiological
PhosphorusRemovalandPolyhydroxyalkanoateProduction.InWEFTECProceedings2008.

6.OverviewofNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
Chapter6covers:
6.1 Introduction
6.2 NitrogenRemovalTechnologies
6.3 PhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
6.4 CombinedNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
6.5 EffluentFiltration
6.6 SidestreamManagement
6.7 TechnologyPerformance
6.8 FactorsforSimultaneouslyAchievingLowNitrogenandPhosphorus
EffluentConcentrations
6.9 References

6.1 Introduction
Thischapterdescribesthemanytechnologiesthatareavailabletoremovenitrogenand
phosphorusfromwastewater.Itpresentsfindingsfromanextensivereviewofnutrientremoval
technologiesandtechniquescurrentlyappliedandemergingatmunicipalwastewatertreatmentplants
(WWTPs).Thischapteralsoincludesadiscussionofachievableeffluentconcentrationsbasedonreal
worlddatafromwelloperatedplantsbeforeendingwithadiscussionofthekeyfactorsin
simultaneouslyachievingloweffluenttotalnitrogen(TN)andtotalphosphorus(TP)concentrations.
RefertoChapters3,4,and5fordetaileddiscussionsontheprinciplesofphosphorusremovalby
chemicaladdition,biologicalnitrogenremoval,andbiologicalphosphorusremoval,respectively.
TheinformationpresentedhereincomplementsfindingspublishedinthefollowingEPAreports
onthesubject:
NutrientControlDesignManualStateofTechnologyReviewReport(PublishedJanuary,2009):
Profilesthelatestadvancesintechnologytoachieveconsistentlylownutrientlevels,including
effluentfiltrationandadvancedclarificationtechniques,alongwithuptodateresearchonthe
removalofemergingmicrocontaminants.Thisreportwasaninterimproductinthe
developmentofthisdesignmanual.Fulltextavailableat:
MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument(PublishedSeptember,2008):
Presentsdetailedtechnicalandcostinformationaboutbothbiologicalandphysiochemical
treatmenttechnologiesfortheremovalofnitrogen,phosphorus,oracombinationofthetwo.
Includesatleastoneyearsworthoffullscaleperformancedatafor27wastewatertreatment
facilitiesintheUnitedStatesandCanadaand9detailedcasestudies.Fulltextavailableat:
EmergingTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentandInPlantWetWeatherManagement
(PublishedFebruary,2008):Describesinnovativeandemergingtechnologiesfornitrogenand
phosphorusremoval,assessestheirmeritsandcosts,andprovidessourcesforfurther
technologicalinvestigation.Fulltextavailableat:
Althoughthischapterprovidessomeexamplesofproprietaryandemergingtechnologies,itis
importanttorecognizethattheindustryisalwayschangingandthatnewtechnologiesnotidentifiedin
thischaptermayemergeinthefuture.Newtechnologiesmaybeinnovativeadaptationsofexisting
technologiesortechnologiesborrowedfromanotherindustry,andsomecouldleadtoconsiderable
performanceimprovementsandcostsavings.Whenevaluatingnewtechnologies,designersandplant
ownersshouldworkcloselywiththeirstateregulatoryagencyandusethebasictreatmentprinciplesin
Chapters3through5ofthisdesignmanualtoensurethatanynewtechnologyfollowsthesebasic
principlesandcanachieveitsclaimedremovalgoals.
6.2 NitrogenRemovalTechnologies
Nitrificationisanaerobicprocessinwhichautotrophicbacteriaoxidizeammoniaornitritefor
energyproduction.Ammonianitrogen(NH
3
N)isfirstconvertedtonitrite(NO
2
)byammoniaoxidizing
bacteria(AOB).Thenitriteproducedisthenconvertedtonitrate(NO
3
)bynitriteoxidizingbacteria
(NOB).BothreactionsusuallyoccurinthesameprocessunitataWWTP(e.g.,activatedsludgemixed
liquororfixedfilmbiofilm).Denitrificationisthebiologicalreductionofnitrateornitritetonitrogengas
(N
2
)intheabsenceofoxygen(orunderanoxicconditions).SeeChapter4fordetailedinformationon
theprinciplesofbiologicalnitrogenremoval.
Sincenitrogenintreatmentplantinfluentsismostly(70to80percent)ammonia,totalnitrogen
removalrequiresthatnitrificationoccurfirstfollowedbydenitrification.Inthepast,someWWTPswere
requiredonlytoremoveammonianitrogeninwastewatertoreducetoxicitytoaquaticorganismswith
nolimitsonnitrateortotalnitrogen.However,manytreatmentplantsarenowrequiredtoremove
nitrogenbecausebothammonianitrogenandnitratenitrogencanstimulatealgaeandphytoplankton
growthandleadtoeutrophicationofU.S.waterways(SeeChapter2foradditionaldiscussion).Many
plantsthatarentrequiredtoremovenitrogendosoanywaybyrecyclingmixedliquorfromthe
nitrificationaerationtanktoanupstreamanoxictankbecauseitproducesalkalinity,usesnitrate
producedinaerationzoneforBODremovaltothusreduceaerationenergy,andimprovessludge
settling.
Biologicalnitrogenremovalcanbeaccomplishedbyavarietyoftreatmentconfigurationsusing
suspendedgrowth,attachedgrowth,orcombinedsystems.Nitrification,denitrificationandbiochemical
oxygendemand(BOD)removalcanbeaccomplishedinasingleprocesswithbioreactorsfollowedby
secondaryclarifiers.SystemscanalsobedesignedasseparatestagesystemswithnitrificationandBOD
removaloccurringinthesamebioreactororinseparatebioreactors,anddenitrificationoccurringina
tertiaryprocess.Membranebioreactorscanbeusedforsolidsseparationinsteadofsecondary
clarifiers.Physical/chemicalmethodsfornitrogenremovalarenotcommonlyusedatmunicipalWWTPs
andarenotaddressedinthismanual.
Sidestreamtreatmentprocessescanbeusedtoenhancenitrification.Supplementalcarbonis
oftenaddedfordenitrification,andadvancedsolidsseparationsuchasmembranebioreactors(MBR)
andeffluentfiltrationcanbeusedtoachieveverylowlevels.
Table61liststhetechnologiesthatareavailabletoday(inuseandemerging)thatcanachieve
biologicalnitrogenremoval.Discussionofeachtechnologyfollowsthetable.Notethattechnologies
thatachievebothnitrogenandphosphorusremovalarediscussedinSection6.4.
Table61.MatrixofBiologicalNitrogenRemovalTechnologies
1
Configuration Type Technology Section

Reference
SingleProcessUnit Suspendedgrowth ModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE) 6.2.1.1
forNitrificationand 4StageBardenpho 6.2.1.2
Denitrification MLEor4Stage
Bioreactor
BardenphowithMembrane 6.2.1.3
SequencingBatchReactor(SBR) 6.2.1.4
OxidationDitchwithAnoxicZone 6.2.1.5
StepFeedBiologicalNitrogen Removal 6.2.1.6
Simultaneous
(SNdN)
NitrificationDenitrification 6.2.1.7
Attached
hybrid
growthor Integrated
(IFAS)
Fixed FilmActivatedSludge 6.2.1.8
Moving BedBiofilmReactor(MBBR) 6.2.1.9
SeparateStage
Nitrification
Suspendedgrowth Nitrification (Seesidestreamtreatment
processesinSection6.2.4fordiscussion
nitrificationwithbioaugmentation)
of
6.2.2.1
Attached
hybrid
growthor Biological
AeratedFilters(BAF) 6.2.2.2
SeparateStage Suspendedgrowth SuspendedGrowthReactors(notcommon) 6.2.3
Denitrification Attachedgrowth DenitrificationFilters
Downflow
UpflowContinuousBackwash
6.2.3.1
1.Thesetechnologiesarefornitrogenremovalonly.Technologiesforremovalofbothnitrogenandphosphorusarepresented
inTable63.
6.2.1 NitrogenRemovalinSingleProcessUnit
Thissectionprovidesinformationontechnologiesthatachievenitrogenremovalinasingle
sludgeprocess,typicallybyalternatingbetweenanoxicandaerobicconditions.Suspendedgrowth
processesarediscussedfirstfollowedbyfixedfilmandhybridsystems.Supplementalcarboncanbe
addedtoasingleunitprocesstoenhancedenitrification,althoughthisismorecommonwithseparate
stageprocesseswhereBODisdepletedpriortothelastdenitrificationstep.SeeSection6.2.3.3fora
discussionofthevariouscarbonsourcesandissues.Sidestreamtreatmentprocessestoenhance
nitrificationarediscussedinsection6.6.
6.2.1.1 ModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)Process
ThemostcommonnitrogenremovalprocessusedatWWTPs,theModifiedLudzackEttinger
(MLE)process,isapredenitrification,singlesludgesystem.Theprocessincludesaninitialanoxiczone
followedbyanaerobiczone.Intheanoxiczone,nitrateproducedintheaerobiczoneisreducedto
nitrogengasusingBODintheanoxiczoneinfluent.Nitrificationoccursintheaerobiczonealongwith
theremovalofnearlyallremainingsolubleBOD.Attheendoftheaerobiczone,pumpsrecyclethe
nitraterichmixedliquortotheanoxiczonefordenitrification.SeeFigure61fortheMLEprocess
schematic.
Figure61.ModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)process.
RAS=Returnactivatedsludge;WAS=Wasteactivatedsludge
Source:USEPA2008bFigure23
TheMLEisconstructedeitherbyaddingananoxiczoneaheadofanaerobicactivatedsludge
processorbyconstructingwallsinanexistingaerationbasintocreateananoxiczoneattheinfluent
end,althoughthiswillreducetheaerationzonenitrificationcapacity.Aretrofittoanexistingactivated
sludgeplantwillrequirepumpingandpipingfortheinternalrecyclestream.Nitrogenremovalmightbe
limitedbyfactorssuchascarbonsourceavailability,processkinetics,andanoxicoraerobiczonesizes.
Oxygenrecycledfromtheaerobiczonecannegativelyaffectthedenitrificationrateintheanoxiczone.
Anadditionalcarbonsourcemaybeneededfordenitrification.
OnechallengeoftheMLEprocessandanysimilarprocessesthatrelyheavilyonrecyclingisto
makesurethatthesystemhydraulicsaresuitable.RASratescanbequitehighandbafflesneedtobe
designedaccordingly.
6.2.1.2 4StageBardenpho
Thefirsttwostagesofthe4stageBardenphoareidenticaltotheMLEsystem.Thethirdstageis
asecondaryanoxiczonetoprovidedenitrificationoftheportionoftheflowthatisnotrecycledtothe
primaryanoxiczone.Thefourthandfinalzoneisareaerationzonethatservestostripanynitrogengas
andincreasethedissolvedoxygen(DO)concentrationbeforeclarification(seeFigure62).Methanolor
anothercarbonsourcecanbeaddedtothethirdstagetoenhancedenitrification.Someconfigurations
haveusedanoxidationditchwithalowDOzoneinsteadofthefirsttwostages.
The4stageBardenphoprocessinvolvesseveralbasinsandhasalargerfootprintthantheMLE
process.Thefootprintcanbereducedbyaddingexternalorganiccarbontothesecondanoxicbasin.
Pumpingandpipingarerequiredfortheinternalrecycle.TheprocesshasbeencombinedwithMBRsto
achieveloweffluentnitrogen.
Figure62.4stageBardenphoprocess.
Source:USEPA2008bFigure25.
6.2.1.3 MLEor4StageBardenphowithMembraneBioreactor(MBR)
Membranebioreactors(MBRs)usemembranesplacedinthelastaerobiczoneofeitheranMLE
or4stageBardenphotreatmentsystemforliquidsolidseparationinsteadofconventionalclarification.
Membranescanbesubmersedinthebiologicalreactororlocatedinaseparatestageorcompartment.
SeeFigure63forcommonconfigurationofamembranebioreactorina4stageBardenphonitrogen
removalsystem.
Figure63.Commonconfigurationforamembranebioreactor4stagebardenphotreatmentsystem
Lowpressuremembranes(ultrafiltrationormicrofiltration)arecommonlyused.Systemscanbe
pressureorvacuumdriven.Despitesimilardesignsolidsresidencetimes(SRTs)anddesignprinciples,
MBRsystemsoperateatahighermixedliquorsuspendedsolids(MLSS)concentration,whichresultsin
smallertanksandsmallerspacerequirementsthanbiologicalnitrogenremovalsystemswithsecondary
clarifiers.Inaddition,membraneseparationprovidesforgreatlyreducedtotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)in
theeffluent,typicallywellbelow1.0mg/L,and,hence,slightlygreaterremovalofnitrogenand
phosphorus.
Membranematerialsareeitherorganicpolymersorinorganicmaterialssuchasceramics.They
aredesignedinmodularunitsandaretypicallyconfiguredaseitherhollowfiberbundlesorplate
membranes.Allmembranesystemsuseanairscourtechniquetoreducebuilduponthemembranes
(USEPA2007b;USEPA2008a).Membranesrequireperiodiccleaning(typically2to4timesperyear)
usingcitricacidorsodiumhypochloritesolution.Operationalissuesincludemembranebiofouling,
chemicalcosts,lossofproductionforcleaning,andincreasedpumpingrequirementswithincreased
electricitycosts(USEPA2007b;WEF2005).MBRsystemsoverallproducelesswastesludgethan
conventionalsystemsbecausetheytendtobeoperatedathigherSRTs.Whenoperatedatthesame
SRTsthereisverylittledifference,withtheMBRsystemproducingslightlymoresludgebecauseof
greatereffluentTSScapture.
6.2.1.4 SequencingBatchReactor(SBR)
Sequencingbatchreactors(SBRs)arefillanddrawbatchsystemsinwhichalltreatmentsteps
areperformedsequentiallyforadiscretevolumeofwaterinasingleorsetofreactorbasins.SBRsuse
fourbasicphasesformostsystems:fill,react,settle,anddecant,followedbyanidleperiod(seeFigure
64foradepictionofoperatingcycles).TheSBRcontrolsystemallowsittomimicthetreatment
environmentsofothersuspendedgrowthprocessessuchastheMLEor4StageBardenphosystemby
useofmultipleaerationandanoxicperiods.Ittypicallycompletes4to6cyclesperdaypertankwhen
treatingdomesticwastewater
1
.
AcommondesignistwoSBRsinparalleltoallowtreatmentofthecontinuousinflowandfor
onetobetakenoutofserviceformaintenance,plusonesparebasinusedforflowstorageand
equalization,initially,andbecomingthethirdSBRwhenexpansionisdesired.Additionaltreatment
trainscanimprovereliabilityformeetingloweffluentgoals.ThekeytotheSBRprocessisthecontrol
system,whichconsistsofacombinationoflevelsensors,timers,andmicroprocessors,whichcanbe
configuredtomeetsystemneedsfornitrogenremoval(Senetal.1990).SBRsareoftensoldaspackage
plantsandaremorecommonlyusedforsmallcommunityWWTPs.IndividualSBRbasinsarerelatively
smallbecausetheydonothaveaseparateclarifier,buttheoverallfootprintistypicallymediumbecause
designsusuallycallformultipleSBRsinparallelandtheuseofanequalizationbasin.Aprimary
advantageofSBRsisthatsettlingoccursunderquiescentconditions,thusmakingitmoreefficient,and
theyareeasytoautomate.
Figure64.Operatingperiodsofasequencingbatchreactor.
Source:USEPA2008c.
6.2.1.5 OxidationDitchwithAnoxicZone
Oxidationditchesareloopedchannelsthatprovidecontinuouscirculationofwastewaterand
biomass.Theytypicallyoperateasracetrackconfigurationsaroundacentralbarrier,withforward
mixedliquorflowsofapproximately1footpersecondormoreandlongSRTs(e.g.,15to30
days),althoughshorterSRTsarepossible.Theaeratorsaretypicallyrotatingbrushesorturbinesthat
movethewateraswellastransferoxygen.Therefore,noadditionalpumpingorpipingistypically
1
SBRscanbeoperatedtoachievebiologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR)byusingalargerbatchreactorwithan
anaerobicperiod;however,chemicaladditionismorecommonlyusedfortreatmenttoloweffluentTPlevels
(Young2008).
neededcomparedtoaconventionalactivatedsludgesystem,whichreducesenergycosts.Oxidation
ditchesarewidelyusedinsmalltomediumsizedcommunities(WERF2000a).Oxidationditchesare
commonlydesignedwithalargefootprintandthus,areusedlessforlarge,urbansystems.SeeFigure6
5foratypicaloxidationditchconfiguration
Figure65.Exampleoxidationditchconfiguration.
Source:USEPA2008b,Figure26
MostoxidationditchescanbeoperatedtoremoveasubstantialamountofTNduetothelong
SRTsthatensurecompletenitrification,thehighMLSSconcentrations(ofteninexcessof3,0006,000
mg/L)thatencouragesimultaneousnitrificationdenitrification,andtheuniqueDOprofilesalongthe
flowpaththatcanbemanipulatedbycontrollingoxygentransferbytherotormixingsystems.Oxidation
ditchesthatarespecificallydesignedtoremovenitrogentypicallyworkbycyclingtheflowwithinthe
ditchbetweenaerobicandanoxicconditions.TNremovalcanbeenhancedbyusingautomaticcontrols
(typicallyDOorOxidationReductionPotential)toturnrotors/mixersonandofftomaintaindesiredDO
setpointsalongtheflowpath.
PatentedoxidationditchdesignsfornitrogenremovalincludetheCarrouselandPhased
IsolationDitch(PID)(thelatteralsoknownastheBiodenitroandBiodenipho)processes.TheCarrousel
oxidationditchisavariationofthetraditionaldesign.Theseditchesaretypicallydeeperthanstandard
oxidationditchesanduseturbineaeratorsforaeration,mixing,andpropulsioninsteadofrotors.The
PIDprocessusespairsofditchesoperatinginalternatinganoxicaerobicoranaerobicanoxicaerobic
modes.Seesection6.4.1.5foradiscussionofproprietaryoxidationditchdesignsthatcanachieveboth
nitrogenandphosphorusremoval(e.g.,theOrbalprocess)
6.2.1.6 StepFeedBiologicalNitrogenRemoval
Thestepfeedbiologicalnitrogenremovalprocesssplitstheinfluentflowanddirectsaportionof
ittoeachoftwoormore(typically3or4)anoxicaerobiczonecombinationsinserieswithsimilar
portionsoftheinfluentflowgoingtoeachzonebutalesseramounttothelastanoxicaerobic
combinationpriortoclarificationtominimizethedischargeofammoniumintheeffluent(seeFigure6
6).Thebiomassinthelaterstagesisnotjusttreatinginfluentflowbutisalsoreducingnitratefromthe
upstreamzones.
Thestepfeedsystemalsoprovidesflexibilityforsystemstohandlewetweatherevents.The
excessiveflowisdirectedtothelastorlatterstagesandnormalflowismaintainedintheinitialstages.
Stepfeedsystemscanbecompatiblewithexistingconventionalplugflowactivatedsludgeprocesses,
andtheydonotrequiretheinstallationofrecyclepumpsandpiping,juststepfeedpipes.Thefootprint
canbelargetoaccommodatebothnitrificationanddenitrification;however,asaretrofittechnology,a
stepfeedsystemisabletoredirecttheflowsofanexistingactivatedsludgesystemwithoutneedingto
increaseitsfootprintthroughaddingtankvolume.Operationaldisadvantagesincludetheneedto
controltheDOconcentrationofaerationzonesprecedingthedownstreamanoxiczonesandtheneedto
controltheflowsplittingtothestepfeedpoints.
Figure66.Stepfeedbiologicalnitrogenremoval.
6.2.1.7 SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification(SNdN)
SimultaneousNitrificationDenitrification(SNdN)isaprocesswherebyDOconcentrationsare
lowenoughsothatoxygendoesnotpenetratetheentireactivatedsludgefloc.Thus,nitrificationis
occurringontheexteriorportionsoftheflocanddenitrificationisoccurringintheanoxic,interior
portions.SNdNcommonlyoccursinoxidationditches.SNdNnecessitatesalargerreactorvolume
comparedtonitrificationonly;however,itdoesnotrequireaseparatezonefordenitrificationandcan
resultinreducedenergyrequirements.Theneedforanadditionalcarbonsourcefordenitrificationis
typicallyreducedoreliminatedbecausetheentireprocessisaccomplishedinonetank.SeeChapter4,
section4.14foradditionaldiscussionofSNdNmechanisms.
OneexampleofapatentedtechnologythatusesSNdNistheSchreiberProcess.The
wastewaterentersacircularbasinequippedwitharotatingbridgethatprovidesmixing.Aerationis
providedbyfinebubblediffusersattachedtothebridge.Theaerationcanbeturnedofftosequence
betweenaerobicandanoxicconditionswhilethemovingbridgecontinuestokeepthetankmixed.The
separationofmixingandaerationmakesthesystemveryeasytocontrolforSNdN,aswellasforBPRin
thesamereactor.
AnothertechnologythattakesadvantageofSNdNismarketedastheproprietarySymbio
systembyEnviroquip,adivisionofEmicoWatertechnologies,Inc(USEPA2008a).Itusesaprobeto
measurethelevelofnicotinamideadeninedinucleotide(NADH)inthebiomassandtheDOofthe
wastewatertopredictchangesinBOD.Basedoninstantaneousreadings,aerationisadjustedto
maintainoptimalconditions(DO<1mg/L)forSNdN.OperatingdatafromthreemunicipalWWTPs
showTNremovalto10mg/Lorless(TrivediandHeinen2000).Thistechnologyiscommonlyusedfor
industrialtreatmentsystems.
6.2.1.8 IntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS)
Integratedfixedfilmactivatedsludge(IFAS)isarelativelynewtechnologythatdescribesany
suspendedgrowthsystemthatincorporatesanattachedgrowthmediawithinthesuspendedgrowth
reactor(eitheraerobicoranoxiczone)
2
.Manytypesoffixedandfloatingmediaareavailable,as
summarizedinTable62.
Table62.IFASMediaTypes,Applications,andDesignConsiderations
MediaType Description ProductsNames

(PartialList)
DesignandOperationalConsiderations
Textileor Alsocalledloopedcordor AccuWeb RopeneedstobelocatedinareawithlowBODand
ropemedia strandmedia.Consistsofa
polyvinylchloridebased
materialwovenintoropeor
webwithloopsalongits
lengthtoprovidesurfacearea
forthebiomass.Arranged
withinarigidframe.
Cleartec
Ringlace
Biomatrix
highammoniaconcentrationforenhancednitrification.
Middleofaerationzoneisusuallytheoptimum
location.Aerationandmixingshouldprovidecrossflow
pattern.Wormgrowthhasbeenreportedbutcanbe
controlledbycreatinganoxicconditionsand
chlorinatingtheRAS.HighDOencouragesworms,while
lowDOincreasesSNdNanddiscouragesworms.
Sponge Freefloatingcuboidswith
specificgravityclosetowater
distributedthroughoutthe
media
Linpor
Requiresairknifeandairliftpumpwithanimpingement
platepassivesqueezingtokeepmediafromsinking.
Requiresdownstreamscreen.Replacementofsome
mediaisrequiredduringfirstfewyearsofoperation.
Plastic Freefloatingplasticmedia Kaldnes
Hydroxyl
Entex
iPAC
Requiresdownstream
bereplaced.
screen.Mediadoesnotneedto
Notes:RAS=returnactivatedsludge;HDPE=highdensitypolyethylene
Source:USEPA2008b;WEFandASCE2006.
2
AlthoughmostIFASsystemshavebeenusedforbiologicalnitrogenremovalratherthanbiologicalphosphorus
removal,pilotscaleresearchbySriwiriyaratandRandall(2005)hasdemonstratedthatBPRcanbecombinedwith
IFASinthesametreatmenttrain.Researchersdidnotusemediaintheanaerobiczone,andrecommendagainst
thispractice.Mediawasusedintheanoxiczonewitheffectiveness.

Afinescreenisrecommendedupstreamofthesecondaryprocesstopreventmaterialsuchas
hairfrominterferingwiththesurfaceareaofthemedium(USEPA2008b).Freefloatingsystemsrequire
installationofeffluentscreenstokeepthemediainthereactor(Gellneretal.2008).Thefreefloating
mediaalsorequiresmoreenergyinputthanfixedmediabecauseoftheneedformixing.Sponges
requirerecycleaswellasmixing.

IFAShasseveralbenefitsoversuspendedgrowthnitrificationsystems,including(WEFandASCE
2006):
Increasedbiomasswithoutincreasedsolidsloadsonthesecondaryclarifier.
Canprovidemoretreatmentcapacitywiththesamefootprintbecausetheselectedmediais
installedwithinanexistingbasin.
Canimprovenitrificationundercoldtemperaturesbecausetheattachednitrifiershavea
muchlongerSRTthanthesuspendedgrowthones.
Sludgehasimprovedsettlingcharacteristics.
Nitrificationismoreresistancetotoxicsandwashout.
Lowadditionaloperatingcosts.
HigherresidualDOlevelsaretypicallyneededwhennonporousmediaareusedintheaerobic
zonetopenetratetheslimelayer,whichisafeatureofthistypeofmedia,iftheobjectiveistomaximize
nitrification.However,lowerDOconcentrationscanbeusedtoestablishsimultaneousnitrification
denitrification.PorousmediasystemstypicallyoperateatresidualDOlevelsof1.5to2.0mg/Lusingfine
bubblediffusers.Thomasetal.(2009)foundthatanIFASsystemcouldbeoperatedwithalower
volumefractionofmediaifhigherDOconcentrationswereusedduringlowtemperatureperiods.
6.2.1.9 MovingBedBiofilmReactor(MBBR)
Themovingbedbiofilmreactor(MBBR)issimilartothesuspendedmediaIFASsystemsinthatit
usesplasticmediawithalargesurfaceareatoincreasebiomasswithinthebiologicalreactor.However,
thereisnomixedliquorrecycleasthereiswithIFAS.TheMBBRmediaissubmergedinacompletely
mixedanoxicoraerobiczoneandcontainedinthezonewithscreensorsieves.Theplasticmediaare
typicallypolyethylenewithaspecificgravityofslightlylessthan1.0.Thecarrierelementsfrommost
manufacturersareshapedlikecylindersorwheelswithinternalandexternalfins.Theseshapesprovide
ahighsurfaceareaperunitvolumethatisprotectedfromshearforces,allowingbetterbiofilmgrowth
(USEPA2008b).Slowspeedsubmersiblemixersaretypicallyusedinanoxiczones,whileaerationis
typicallysuppliedbycoarsebubblediffusersinaeratedzones(WEFandASCE2006)toobtaingood
mixing.
LikeIFAS,MBBRcanbeusedinseparateaerobicandanoxiczones.Theycanreducesolids
loading,generatesludgewithbettersettlingcharacteristics,andpreventinhibitionandwashoutof
nitrifiersinaerobiczones.UnlikeIFAS,MBBRsystemsdonotinvolveanyreturnflowanddonotrelyon
suspendedgrowthtoprovidetreatment.
6.2.2 SeparateStageProcessesNitrification
6.2.2.1 SuspendedGrowthNitrification
SuspendedgrowthnitrificationandBODremovalarecommonlyaccomplishedinthesame
aeratedbasinaslongastwoconditionsexist:(1)thebiomassinventoryisretainedlongenoughto
establishastablepopulationofnitrifiersand(2)thehydraulicretentiontime(HRT)issuchthatthe
biomasscanreactwiththeammonianitrogenenteringthesystem.Becausenitrifyingbacteriahave
slowergrowthratesthanBODconsumingbacteria,nitrificationkineticsgoverntheprocessdesign,with
thecriticaldesignparameterbeingdesignSRT.
WithsufficientDO(generally2mg/Lorgreater)andadequatepH(generallyatleast6.8),typical
designSRTsrequiredfornitrificationrangefrom10to20daysat10
o
Cand4to7daysat20
o
C(Randallet
al.,1992).Thenitrificationkineticsandthus,designSRT,varyconsiderablyfromsystemtosystem
dependingonsitespecificfactorssuchasoperatingDO,mixing,flocsize,temperature,alkalinity,and
presenceofinhibitorsintheinfluent.Becauseofthisvariability,designersarestronglyencouragedto
determinesitespecificnitrifiergrowthratesratherthanusingvaluesfromindustryliterature.See
Chapter10forguidelinesondeterminingsitespecificnitrifiergrowthrates.SeeChapter4foranin
depthdiscussiononthemicrobiologyofnitrification,reactionsandstoichiometry,nitrificationkinetics,
andfactorsaffectingnitrifierperformanceatWWTPs.
TheSRTneededfornearcompletenitrificationofinfluentammoniacanbereducedsignificantly
byusingaseriesofaerationtanks(stagedsystems)versusasingleaerationtank.Theeffectisless
pronouncedforsystemswithhighreturnsludgerecyclerates,suchasMBRs,inwhichtheinfluent
nitrogenissubstantiallydiluted.ForplantshavingdifficultyinnitrifyingduetoinsufficientSRT,there
aresomeemergingsidestreamprocessesthatcanincreasethenitrificationrate.Oneoftheseis
bioaugmentation.Bioaugmentationisaccomplishedbyseedingtheactivatedsludgeprocesswithan
externalsourceofnitrifyingbacteria(alsoknownasexternalbioaugmentation)ormakingprocess
improvementstoincreasetheactivityoforenrichthenitrifierpopulation(alsoknownasinsitu
bioaugmentation).SeeSection6.6foradiscussionofseveralbioaugmentationtechnologies.
6.2.2.2 AttachedGrowthNitrification
Tricklingfiltersandrotatingbiologicalcontactors(RBCs)havehistoricallybeenusedfor
biologicaltreatmentofwastewaterandcanachievenitrificationwithaloworganicloadinganda
relativelyhighmediavolume.Typically,nitrificationisachievedonthemediaaftermostoftheBODis
removedbecausetheheterotrophicpopulationcompeteswiththenitrifyingorganismsforoxygenand
spaceonthemedia.Majordisadvantagesofthesetechnologiescomparedtosuspendedgrowth
systemsisthattheSRTscannotbecontrolled,anddenitrificationiseitherfullydependentonthe
additionofasupplementalcarbonsourceoratwostagesystemmustbeconstructed,e.g.anoxicfilter
followedbyanaerobicfilterwithrecycleofnitratesbacktotheanoxicfilter.Suspendedgrowth
processes,ontheotherhand,aremoreflexiblebecausetheSRTcanbepreciselycontrolled,andthey
canbedesignedtodenitrify80percentormoreofthenitrateresultingfromnearcompletenitrification
usingtheincomingBODasthecarbonsource,whichisalowercostsolution.Consequently,trickling
filtersandRBCshavefallenoutoffavorfornutrientremovalapplications.
Existingtricklingfilters,however,canbeintegratedintoaBNRsystem(Hu2001).Oneapproach
ittofirsttreatwastewaterinananaerobicactivatedsludgebasin,followedbyinternalsettlingofthe
mixedliquor.Theclarifiedliquidissenttothetricklingfilterfornitrification,whereasthesettledflowis
routedtothemainanoxictank,whichalsoreceivesthenitrifiedeffluentfromthetricklingfilter,where
denitrificationisaccomplished.Thedenitrifiedflowfromtheanoxiczonegoestoasmallaerobicbasin
tostripthenitrogengasoutoftheflowpriortosettlingthemixedliquorinananoxicbasin.Fromthe
anoxicbasin,theflowisbrieflyaeratedtostripthenitrogengasandtheflowissettledwiththeRAS
returnedtotheanaerobiczone.ThiscanbeaccomplishedwithanactivatedsludgeSRTof8to10days
intemperateclimatesandalsoisusefulforcontrollingfilamentousmicroorganisms.
Newerattachedgrowthsystemscalledbiologicalaeratedfilters(BAF)havetakentheplaceof
tricklingfiltersandRBCs.Theydifferfromtricklingfiltersinthatthemediaissmaller,i.e.hasahigher
specificsurfacearea,andabuiltinaerationsystem.BAFsoriginatedinEuropeandnowareinstalledin
severallocationsinNorthAmerica(Senetal.2008).BAFscanbeconfiguredinseriestoremoveBODin
oneunitandoxidizeammonianitrogeninthenext,ortheycanbedesignedforBODremovaland
nitrificationinasingleunit,dependingonprocessgoals.Additionally,theyareusedfordenitrification.
BAFsrequirehigherDOconcentrationsinthebulkwatercomparedtosuspendedgrowthnitrificationto
promoteDOdiffusionintothebiofilm.Vidaletal.(1997)recommendaminimumDOconcentrationof
atleast6mg/L;recentpilotandfullscalestudiesinCaliforniafoundgoodnitrificationataconsistent
minimumDOconcentrationof7mg/L(Hollowayetal.2008).AdvantagesofBAFsincludetheirsmaller
footprint,higherhydraulicloadingrate,andlesssusceptibilitytowashoutthansuspendedsludge
systems(Vermaetal.2006).BAFperformanceisalsorelativelyinsensitivetotemperature(Zhuand
Chen2002;Hollowayetal.2008),whichcanbeasignificantadvantageincoldweatherregions.BAF
technologycanalsobeconfiguredforpreorpostdenitrification,withpostdenitrificationrequiringthe
additionofasupplementalcarbonsource.
TheEPAemergingtechnologiesreport(USEPA2008a)identifiedtwoproprietaryBAFdesignsas
establishedtechnologies:theBioforsystemandtheBiostyrsystem.TheBioforfiltrationsystemisa
fixedbed,upflow,expandedbedsystemwithdensegranularclaymedia.Airisspargedintothefilterto
maintainanaerobicenvironment.TheBiostyrsystemissimilarbutusesmediathatarelessdense
thanwater,andthesystemoperatesasanupflowpackedbedheldinplaceduringoperationbyascreen
atthetopofthecell.
6.2.3 SeparateStageProcessesDenitrification
Aseparatestagedenitrificationsystemmaybeappropriateforplantsthatareregularly
achievingnitrificationandneedtoadddenitrificationcapabilities.Suspendedgrowthsystemsarenot
common,althoughtheyhavebeenusedforsometreatmentplants.Suspendedgrowthreactors
typicallyhaveshortSRTsandasmallaeratedzonefollowingthedenitrificationzonetooxidizeexcess
methanolandreleasenitrogengasbubblescontainedinthedenitrifiedmixedliquor(WEFandASCE
2006).
6.2.3.1 DenitrificationFilters
Denitrificationfilterswerefirstinstalledinthe1970sandareapopularaddontechnologyfor
wastewaterutilitiestryingtoconsistentlyachieveloweffluentTNlimits.Theyhavetheadvantageof
providingbothdenitrificationandeffluentfiltration.BecausetheBODhasbeenremovedfromthe
wastewaterduringsecondarytreatment,asupplementalcarbonsourcemustbeadded(seeChapter4
foranextensivediscussiononconsumptionratesandkineticsofexogenouscarbonsources).
Denitrificationfilterstypicallyhaveasmallfootprintcomparetoattachedgrowthsystems,butrequire
additionalpumpingandenergycosts.
Denitrificationfiltershaveevolvedintotwomainprocessconfigurations:downflowfiltersand
upflowcontinuousbackwashfilters.Downflowdenitrificationfiltersaredeepbedfiltersconsistingof
media,supportgravel,andablockunderdrainsystem.Mediadepthsaretypically8to12feet,and
loadingratesarebetween2and3gallonsperminutepersquarefoot(gpm/ft
2
).Wastewaterflowis
directedoverweirsontothetopofthefilterwhereasupplementalcarbonsource,typicallymethanol,is
added.Backwashing(typicallyairscouringandbackwashingwithairandwater)isconductedatregular
intervalstoremoveentrappedsolidsfromthefilter.Duringoperation,nitrateisconvertedtonitrogen
gasandbecomesentrainedinthefiltermedia,increasingheadlossthroughthefilter.Torelease
entrainednitrogen,mostdownflowdenitrificationsystemshaveanitrogenreleasecycleoperationthat
essentiallybumpsthefilterbyturningonthebackwashpump(s)forashortperiodoftime.SeeFigure
67foraschematicofatypicaldownflowdenitrificationfilter.
Figure67.Downflowdenitrificationfilter.
Source:USEPA(2008b),Figure21
Upflowcontinuousbackwashfiltershavetheadvantageofremaininginserviceduring
backwashing,astheyareanintegralpartofthefilteringprocess.Wastewaterentersthebottomofthe
filterwhereacarbonsource,typicallymethanol,isadded.Waterflowsupthroughaninfluentpipeand
isdispersedintothefiltermediathroughdistributors.Filteredwaterdischargesatthetopofthefilter.
Filtermediacontinuouslytraveldownward,aredrawnintoanairliftpipeatthecenterofthefilter,and
arescouredbeforebeingreturnedtothefilterbed.SeeFigures68and69forprocessschematicsof
upflowcontinuousbackwashfilters.
Figure68.Continuousbackwashupflowsand(CBUS)filters.
Source:Feldthusen2004.NordicWaterProductsAB.Usedwithpermission
Figure69.Closeupofcontinuousbackwashupflowsand(CBUS)filter.
Source:Felduthsen2004.NordicWaterProductsAB.Usedwithpermission
Performanceofdenitrifyingfiltersdependsonmanyfactorsincluding:
Influentweirconfiguration(needstoreduceDO,whichcaninhibitdenitrificationat
concentrationsaslowas0.2mg/L)
Filtermedia
Underdrainsystem
Backwashsystem
FlowandmethanolfeedcontroltoavoidincreasedBODintheplanteffluent
OperatorsatawastewatersysteminConnecticutreportedthatkeyissuesforthemwereinfluentpiping
designtominimizeaeration,maintainingaconsistentflowtothefilters,andcontrolofmethanolfeed
basedoninfluentchemicaloxygendemand(COD)(Pearsonetal.2008).
6.3 PhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
WWTPsremovephosphorusbychemicalorbiologicalmethods.Acombinationofthese
methods(e.g.,biologicalphosphorusremovalandchemicalpolishing)canbeusedtoachieveverylow
effluentTPlevelsatminimalcosts.Table63liststhechemicalandbiologicalmethodsforphosphorus
removal.Adiscussionofeachtechnologyfollowsthetable.
Table63.MatrixofPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
1
Configuration Type Technology Section

Reference
ChemicalPrecipitation Pre,co,orpost Additionoflimeormetalsaltatoneormultiple 6.3.1
FollowedbySolids precipitation locationswithintheplanttoreactwithphosphorus
Separation toformprecipitate.Solidscanberemovedthrough
conventionalclarificationoradvancedsolids
separationprocesses.Tertiaryfiltrationcanremove
additionalsolidsandproduceeffluentwithverylow
TPconcentrations.(SeeSection6.5fordiscussionof
tertiaryfiltration.)
Biological Suspendedgrowth Anaerobic/Oxic(A/O),i.e.Phoredox 6.3.2.1
OxidationDitchwithAnaerobicZone 6.3.2.2
1.Thesetechnologiesareforphosphorusremovalonly.Technologiesforremovalofbothnitrogenandphosphorusare
presentedinTable64anddiscussedinSection6.4.
6.3.1 PhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition
Chemicalprecipitationforphosphorusremovalisareliable,timetestedwastewatertreatment
methodthathasnotdrasticallychangedovertheyears.Toachieveremoval,variouschemicalsare
addedtowastewaterwheretheyreactwithsolublephosphatestoformprecipitates.Theprecipitates
areremovedusingasolidsseparationprocess,mostcommonlysettling(clarification).Chemical
precipitationistypicallyaccomplishedusingeitherlimeorametalsaltsuchasaluminumsulfate(alum)
orferricchloride.Theadditionofpolymersandothersubstancescanfurtherenhanceflocformation
andsolidssettling.Operatorscanuseexistingsecondaryclarifiersorretrofitprimaryclarifiersfortheir
specificpurposes.SeeChapter3foradetaileddiscussionontheprinciplesofphosphorusremovalby
chemicaladdition.
Theeffectivenessofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladditionishighlydependentonthesolids
separationprocessfollowingchemicalprecipitation.Thedirectadditionofmetalsaltstoactivated
sludgeprocessesfollowedbyconventionalclarificationcantypicallyremoveTPtoeffluentlevels
between0.5and1.0mg/L(Bottetal.2007).Tertiaryprocesses(postsecondarytreatment)canbeused
toremovephosphorustoverylowconcentrations.Forexample,Reardon(2005)reportsthatfour
WWTPswithtertiaryclarifiersachievedTPlevelsofbetween0.032and0.62mg/L.
Twocommontertiaryprocessesareclarificationandeffluentfiltration.Theseapproachescan
beusedseparatelyorincombination.Section6.5describeseffluentfiltrationtechnologies.
Conventionalclarificationandrecentadvancesintertiaryclarificationprocessesarediscussedbelow.
ConventionalClarification
Conventionalgravityclarifierscanbeusedveryeffectivelyforthetertiaryremovalof
phosphorusprecipitates.Theirperformancecanbeenhancedbytheadditionofsyntheticpolymers
followingprecipitationtoaidflocculationandsedimentation.Theprecipitatingchemicaltypicallywould
beaddedtotheflowupstreamoftheclarifier,andpolymercommonlywouldbeaddedatthecenter
welloftheclarifier.Thistechnologyfollowingsimultaneousprecipitationandclarificationinthe
activatedsludgeprocesswasusedtoobtaineffluentTPconcentrationsoflessthan0.18mg/L(monthly
average)attheFairfaxCounty,VA,LowerPotomacWWTPandtheArlingtonCounty,VA,WWTPfor
morethantwodecades.Thetertiaryclarifierswerefollowedbysandfiltration.
Limeclarification,althoughnotcommonlyusedtoday,isaviabletreatmentoptionfortertiary
removalofphosphorus(WEF2005).Mostexistingplantsuseatwostepprocesswherebyexcesslimeis
addedtothefirststagetoraisethepHtobetween11and12.Theeffluentispassedtoasecondstage
wherecarbondioxideandpossiblysodaashisaddedtostabilizethepHtobetween9.5and10.5andto
precipitateadditionalcalcium(recarbonation).Sandfiltrationisusedafterrecarbonation.This
technologyhasbeenusedattheUpperOccoquanSewageAuthorityAdvancedWastewaterTreatment
Plant,FairfaxCounty,VA,since1978toachieveeffluentTPconcentrationsoflessthan0.1mg/L(weekly
average).
Conventionalclarificationhasbeenusedformanyyearsanddesignandoperationiswell
coveredinothermanualssuchastheWEFmanualofpracticefordesignofmunicipalsWWTPs(WEFand
ASCE2010)andtheWEFClarifierDesignManual(WEF2005).
HighRateTertiaryClarificationProcesses
Twotypesofhighrateclarificationprocessesarecommon:densesludgeandballastedhigh
rateclarification(BHRC).Thelatterhasbeenusedsuccessfullytoachieveloweffluentphosphorus
concentrations(WEF2005).SeveralpatentedBHRCtechnologiesusingdifferenttypesofballast,suchas
recycledsludge,microsand,andmagneticballast(USEPA2008a),havebeendevelopedinrecentyears.
Theadvantagesofhighrateclarificationarethattheclarifiershaveasmallerfootprintandareableto
treatlargerquantitiesofwastewaterinashorterperiodoftime.Thefollowingpatentedprocessesare
examplesofhighrateclarification(includingperformanceestimates):
DensaDegusesacoagulantinarapidmixbasintodestabilizesuspendedsolids.Thewater
flowsintoasecondtankwherepolymer(foraidingflocculation)andsludgeareadded.The
sludgeactsastheseedforformationofhighdensityfloc.Thisflocisremovedinsettling
tubes(USEPA,2008).Themainadvantagesofthisprocessareasmallerfootprintand
densersludge,whichiseasiertodewater.PilottestingfortheCityofFortWorth,TXfounda
phosphorusremovalrateof8895percentforDensaDeg(USEPA2003).SeeFigure610for
theprocessconfigurationforthistechnology.
Figure610.DensaDeghighrateclarificationprocessflowdiagram.
Source:USEPA2008a
Actiflousesacoagulantinarapidmixbasintodestabilizesuspendedsolids.Thewater
flowstoasecondtankwherepolymer(foraidingflocculation)andmicrosandareadded.
Microsandprovidesalargesurfaceontowhichsuspendedsolidsattach,creatingadense
flocthatsettlesoutquickly.Clarificationisassistedbylamellaplatesettling.Productpilot
testinginFortWorth,TXshowedaphosphorusremovalefficiencyof9296percentfor
Actiflo(USEPA2003).
TheCoMag
TM
processusestheadditionofhighdensitymagnetiteballastwithmetalsalts
andpolymertopromoteflocformationandhighratesettling.Settlingisfollowedby
magneticseparationforfinaleffluentpolishingandrecoveryofthemagnetiteballastfrom
thetertiarysludge,utilizingitsstrongnaturalattractiontomagneticfields(USEPA2008a).
SinceNovember2007,CoMag
TM
hasbeeninoperationata1.2milliongallonperday(MGD)
WWTPinConcord,MA(EPARegion102007;ProakisEllisandCathcart2008).Shortlyafter
startup,thesystemreached0.05mg/LTPintheplanteffluentonanaveragedailybasisand
hasperformedtothislevelconsistentlyunderawiderangeofinfluentloadingconditions.
ProakisEllisandCathcart(2008)reportmanyoperationaladvantagesofCoMag
TM
including
reducedchemicalusageandlesssludgeproductioncomparedtousingalumalonefor
secondarytreatment.ThefinalpolishingelectromagnetinConcordrequiresrelativelyhigh
powerusage;however,newerinstallationsoftheCoMag
TM
systemarebeingdesignedwith
finalpolishingmagnetsthatdonotrequireanypowerusage.SeeFigure611forthe
processconfigurationforthistechnology.
Figure611.CoMag
TM
processflowdiagram.
Source:USEPA2008a
6.3.2 BiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
Biologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR)isaccomplishedbyencouragingthegrowthofphosphate
accumulatingorganisms(PAOs).Underanaerobicconditions,PAOsuptakeandstoresimplecarbon
foodsourcessuchasvolatilefattyacids(VFAs)usingtheenergyinphosphatebonds,andrelease
phosphorustosolution.WhenthePAOsaresubjecttoaerobicconditions,theymetabolizethestored
carbontogenerateenergyforcellgrowthandmaintenanceandstoreexcessenergybytakingup
phosphateionsandcreatingpolyphosphates.ThephosphorusuptakebyPAOsintheaerobiczone
resultsinanetreductioninphosphorusinthewastewaterwhensludgeiswasted.

ThesuccessofbiologicalphosphorusremovalishighlydependentontheavailabilityofVFAsin
theanaerobiczone.VFAsareproducedbyfermentationofmunicipalwastewater,whichcanoccurin
thecollectionsystemorintheanaerobiczoneitself.IfsufficientVFAsarenotpresent,plantoperators
canconsideraddingVFAsbyusingonsitesludgefermentationorbyaddingacommercialsource.See
Chapter5foradditionalinformationontheprinciplesofBPR.
Allbiologicalphosphorusremovaltechnologiesaredesignedtocycletreatmentfromanaerobic
toaerobicconditionstoencouragePAOstogrowanduptakephosphorus.Thissectiondescribestwo
technologiesthathavebeendesignedtobiologicallyremovephosphorusonly(notnitrogen)from
wastewater.Mosttechnologieshavebeendesignedtoremovebothnitrogenandphosphorusandare
presentedinSection6.4.
AsnotedinChapter5,nitrateintherecyclestreamcaninhibitBPR.Thiscanbeaproblemfor
plantsthatnitrifybutdonotdenitrify.Inthesecases,nitrificationneedstobeeliminatedorgreatly
reducedtobiologicallyremovephosphorusunlessthereadilybiodegradableCOD(rbCOD)inthe
influentisveryhigh,whichittypicallywillnotbeformunicipalanddomesticwastewaters.Operatingat
anSRTlessthan4dayswillusuallywashoutnitrifiersattemperatureslessthan25
o
C.Notethatmost
WWTPsintheEasternUSAhaveeffluentammonialimits,whichmeansthatoperatingwithout
nitrificationisfrequentlynotpossible.Onceaplantispracticingnitrification,thereareadditional
advantagestoalsopracticingdenitrificationforTNremoval(seeSection6.8).
6.3.2.1 Phoredox(A/O)
ThePho-redox(A/O)processisaconventionalactivatedsludgesystemwithananaerobiczone
attheheadoftheaerationbasin.TheRASispumpedfromtheclarifiertotheanaerobiczone.Itisalow
SRTprocessthatisoperatedtoavoidnitrification.WithnonitratesintheRAS,theprocessisreliable
andeasytooperateexceptatmixedliquortemperaturesinexcessof25Cwhennitrificationisdifficult
toavoid.Ifnitratesarepresentintherecyclestream,theanaerobiczonecanbesplitintoananoxic
chamberfornitratedenitrificationandoneormoreanaerobiczonesforbiologicalphosphorusremoval.
Figure612providesaschematicforthissystem.
Thetechnologyisrelativelyeasytoretrofitintoanexistingbasinbyinstallingabafflewalland
mixerstoproduceananaerobiczone.Theaeratorswillneedtoberedistributedintheaerobiczone,
withcloserspacingintheinfluentendofthezone.
Figure612.Phoredoxprocess(A/O)
6.3.2.2 OxidationDitchwithAnaerobicZone
Similarindesigntotheoxidationditchesfornitrogenremovaldiscussedpreviously,oxidation
ditchesforphosphorusremovalareamodificationofthestandarddesignwiththerequirementthatan
anaerobiczonebeestablished.Theanaerobiczoneismostoftenaheadoftheditch(sometimescalleda
selector)oritcanbewithintheditchiftheDObalanceiscarefullymanaged,butfilamentous
organismswilltendtogrow.SeeFigure613foranexampleofanoxidationditchwithananaerobic
basin(alsocalledaselector).
Oxidationditcheswithphosphorusremovalbutnotnitrogenremovalmayencounterproblems
withlowalkalinitybecausenitrificationwilldepletealkalinitybutdenitrificationinananoxiczoneisnot
presenttopartiallyreplenishit.LowerTPeffluentlevelscanbeachievedbyclosemonitoringand
controlofDOandflowintheanaerobiczone.Thefootprintsizeforthisprocessispotentiallylarge
comparedtoothertechnologies.Itdoesnotrequireanyadditionalrecyclepipesorpumpingandneeds
minimalenergytooperate.
Figure613.Oxidationditchwithanaerobiczone.
6.4 CombinedNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalTechnologies
Table64presentsthetechnologiescapableofsimultaneouslyachievingbothnitrogenand
phosphorusremoval.Adiscussionofeachtechnologyfollowsthetable.
Table64.MatrixofCombinedBiologicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemovalTechnologies
Configuration Type Technology SectionReference

Biological Suspendedgrowth 3StagePhoredox(A2/O) 6.4.1.1
5StageBardenpho 6.4.1.2
UniversityofCapetown(UCT), 6.4.1.3
ModifiedUCT,andVirginiaInitiative
Project(VIP)
WestbankConfiguration 6.4.1.4
OxidationDitchwithAnoxicand 6.4.1.5
AnaerobicZone
SequencingBatchReactor(SBR) 6.4.1.6
HybridChemical/ BluePlainsProcess 6.4.2.1
Biological BiologicalChemicalPhosphorusand 6.4.2.2
NitrogenRemoval(BCFS)
6.4.1 Biological
6.4.1.1 3StagePhoredox(A2/0)
The3StagePhoredox(A2/O)processaddsananoxiczonetotheA/Oprocessconfiguration
aftertheanaerobiczonetoachievedenitrification.Inaddition,nitraterichliquorisrecycledfromthe
endoftheaerobiczonetotheheadoftheanoxiczonetoenhancedenitrification,asshowninFigure6
14.Ashortcomingofthe3StagePhoredoxprocessisthattherewillbenitratespresentintheRAS,
potentiallymakingthephosphorusremovalprocessunreliable.WithA2/O,aswithallcombined
nitrogenphosphorusbiologicalsystems,somephosphorusistakenupintheanoxiczonebythePAOs,
andthesludgeresidencetimeineachzonemustbesufficienttoallowcompletephosphatereleaseor
uptake.Theclarifieralsomustbeoperatedtoregularlywastesolidstoavoidreleaseofphosphateby
theendogenousrespirationofPAOs.

Figure614.3StagePhoredoxprocess(A2/O).
6.4.1.2 5StageBardenpho
The5stageBardenphoprocessconsistsofthe4stageprocess(see6.2.1.2)withananaerobic
zoneaddedtothefrontofthesystem(seeFigure615).Anitraterichliquorisrecycledfromthefirst
aerobicstagetothefirstanoxiczone.TheRASisrecycledfromtheclarifiertothebeginningofthe
anaerobiczone.SincethenitratesintheRASaretypicallylow(from1to3mg/L),theydonothavethe
potentialtosignificantlyinterferewiththephosphorusremovalprocessaswiththeA2/Oconfiguration
(see6.4.1.1).Methanolmightneedtobeaddedtothesecondanoxiczoneforcompletedenitrification
ortominimizethevolumeofthesecondanoxiczone.
Figure615.5stageBardenphoprocess.Notethatalternativeexternalcarbonsourcescanbeusedinsteadofmethanol
6.4.1.3 UniversityofCapetown(UCT),ModifiedUCT,andVirginiaInitiativePlant(VIP)
TheUCTprocesswasdesignedtoreducenitratestotheanaerobiczonewhenhighremovalof
nitratesintheeffluentisnotrequired.Similartoothernitrogenandphosphorusremovaltechnologies,
itconsistsofthreestages:ananaerobicstage,ananoxicstage,andanaerobicstage.TheRASis
returnedfromtheclarifiertotheanoxiczoneinsteadoftheanaerobiczonetoallowfordenitrification
andtoavoidinterferencefromnitratewiththeactivationofthePAOsintheanaerobicstage.Anitrate
richstreamisrecycledfromtheaerobiczonetotheanoxiczoneinfluent.Denitrifiedmixedliquoris
recycledfromtheanoxiczoneeffluenttotheanaerobiczone.
ThemodifiedUCTprocesssplitstheanoxiczoneintotwostages.Thenitraterichrecyclefrom
theaerobiczoneisrecycledtotheheadofthesecondanoxicstage.Thedistinctionbetweenthe
modifiedandtheUCTprocessesisseeninFigure616.ThenitratecontainingRASisrecycledtothefirst
anoxicstagewhereitisdenitrified.Next,thedenitrifiedRASisrecycledfromtheendofthefirstanoxic
stagebacktotheheadoftheanaerobicstageandmixedwiththeincomingwastewater.
TheVirginiaInitiativePlant(VIP)issimilartotheUCTprocess,buttheanaerobicandanoxic
zonesarebaffledintotwoormoresectionseachtoincreaseratesofreactioninthefirstsectionofeach
zone,therebyfirmlyestablishingthedesiredanaerobicandanoxicconditionsinthesecondsection.
Theseconfigurationshaveamediumsizedfootprintand,insomecases,canbeinstalledin
existingbasins.Theyrequireextensivepumping,piping,andcontrolforthemultiplerecyclestreams.
However,internalrecyclescanbeinexpensivelyinstalledwhenretrofittingmostactivatedsludgebasins
byusinglowheadpumps,suchaspropellerpumps,andpipingalongoneinternalwallofthebasin.
UCTProcess
ModifiedUCTProcess
Figure616.UCTandModifiedUCTprocess.
Source:USEPA2008b,Figures224and225

6.4.1.4 Westbank
TheWestbankprocess,showninFigure617,hasasmall,preanoxiczonefollowedbyan
anaerobiczone,asecondanoxiczone,andlastly,alargeaerobiczone.Thepreanoxiczoneminimizes
DOandnitratesenteringtheanaerobicportion.Primaryeffluentisdividedamongthepreanoxiczone
(todenitrifytheRAS),theanaerobiczone(toprovidesomeVFAsforphosphorusremoval),andthe
secondanoxiczone(tostimulatedenitrification).Directfeedofprimaryeffluenttothesecondanoxic
zoneincreasesthedenitrificationrateandthereforedecreasesthesizeoftheanoxiczonecomparedto
the5stageBardenphosystem.Duringstormflows,excessflowispasseddirectlytothemainanoxic
zone.VFAsobtainedfromfermentationoftheprimarysludgearepassedtotheanaerobiczone.
Additionalpipingisrequiredtodischargetheinfluenttomultiplezones;however,recycle
streamsarereducedcomparedtosimilarlayouts.Thefermenterrequiresadditionalpumping,piping,
andcontrolsforoptimumfermentationandfeedingoftheVFAstotheanaerobiczone.Thedesignhasa
mediumsizedfootprint.
Figure617.Westbankprocess.
6.4.1.5 OxidationDitchwithAnoxicandAnaerobicZones
Section6.2.1.5describedoxidationditchesthatarebiologicallyconfiguredtoremovenitrogen.
Anyoftheseconfigurationscanbemodifiedwithananaerobicbasin(alsocalledaselector)beforethe
ditchtoaccomplishBPRinacombinedsystem.Becauseoftheveryhighinternalrecyclewithinthe
ditch,verylownitrateconcentrationscanbeachievedinthemixedliquorbeforesettling,which
minimizesnitrateintheRASstreamtotheanaerobicselectorzone,improvingBPRprocessefficiency.
Manyoxidationditchconfigurationshavebeendevelopedtosimultaneouslyachievebiological
nitrogenandphosphorusremovaltolowlevels.AnexampleistheVT2processdevelopedatBowie,
MD,whichoperatestwoPasveerditchesinserieswithdedicatedanoxic,nearanaerobic,andaerobic
zones(SeeFigure618).Italsohasasidestreamanaerobiczonethatreceivesapproximately30percent
oftheinfluenttoenhanceBPR.DenitrifiedMLSSfortheanaerobiczoneareobtainedfromtheendof
thenearanaerobiczoneoftheadjacentditch.Operatedwithoutprimarysedimentation,thesystem
consistentlyachievedverylowannualaverageeffluentTPconcentrations(0.160.24mg/L)without
chemicaladditionoreffluentfiltrationformorethan20years.Originallydesignedforonlyoneditch,
bothditcheshadtobeoperatedinseriesbecausetheplanthaslimitedclarificationcapacity.Series
operationofbothditchesresultedinlowerMLSSconcentrationstotheclarifiers.TheBiodenipho
processusespairsofditchesthatoperateinalternatinganoxicaerobicmodes.Ananaerobictankwith
RASreturnedtoitisplacedbeforetheditchestostimulateBPR,andtheditchesarealternatedbetween
aerobicandanoxicconditionsfornitrificationanddenitrification.TheOrbalprocessusesanaerobicand
anoxiczonesintheouterofthreeconcentricovalshapedditcheswithRASrecycledfromtheclarifierto
theanoxiczonetoremovebothnitrogenandphosphorus.
Figure618.VT2processschematic.
6.4.1.6 SequencingBatchReactor(SBR)
SBRscanbeoperatedtoaccomplishbothbiologicalphosphorusandnitrogenremovalby
progressingthroughanoxic/anaerobic/aerobicphases.BecauseofthefillanddrawnatureofSBRs,itis
necessarytoremovethenitratesremainingfromthepreviouscyclebeforeanaerobicconditionscanbe
established;thus,thetypicaltreatmentprogressionbecomesanoxic/anaerobic/aerobic.Additional
carbonmaybeneeded.SeeSection6.2.1.4foradditionaldiscussionofSBRs.
6.4.2 HybridChemical/Biological
Configurationsthatusesomeformofbiologicaltreatmentfornitrogenremovalandpossibly
phosphorusremovalcombinedwithchemicalprecipitationandadvancedsolidsremovalforphosphorus
arepopularandtypicallyreliabletreatmentoptionsforachievingloweffluentconcentrations.Many
differentcombinationsofthetechnologiesdiscussedpreviouslycanbeused.Thissectionpresentstwo
examples:TheBluePlainsProcessandtheBiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval
(BCFS)Process.
6.4.2.1 BluePlainsProcess
TheBluePlainsprocesswasaretrofittotheexistingnitrificationactivatedsludgeprocessatthe
Washington,DC,facility.AnewanoxiczonewithanHRTof0.8hourswascreatedinsidetheaeration
tankfromthenominal3.3hoursHRTofthetotalbasin(seeFigure619).Thedesignsludgeagewas13
days.Theexistingreturnactivatedsludgesystemremainedunchangedinthisretrofit.Methanolisfed
directlyintothisnewanoxiczoneforatargetnitrogenconcentrationof7.5mg/L(Kangetal.1992;
Sadicketal.1998).Phosphorusisremovedbyferricchlorideadditionandtertiaryfiltration(USEPA
2008b).
Theeffluentconcentrations(posttertiaryfilter)foundintheliteraturefortheBluePlains
processwere7.5mg/LforTNand0.12mg/LforTPonamonthlyaveragebasis(USEPA2008a),
However,thatwaswhenonlyhalfoftheplantwasmodifiedfornitrogenremoval.Whentheentire
plantwasmodified,theeffluentTNwaslessthan5mg/L(monthlyaverage).
Figure619.TheBluePlainsProcess.
6.4.2.2 BiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval(BCFS)Process
TheBiologicalChemicalPhosphorusandNitrogenRemoval(BCFS)processwasdevelopedfor
theWWTPinHolton,theNetherlands,toachievelowTNandTPeffluentconcentrationsatarelatively
lowBOD:TPandBOD:TNinfluentratio.ThedesignissimilartothemodifiedUCTprocess.Asludge
streamisremovedfromtheanaerobiczoneforthickening,andferricchlorideisaddedtothesludge
thickenertoremovephosphate.Thisprovidesanadvantageoverchemicaladditiontothesecondary
clarifierbecauseitdoesnotrequirethechemicalsludgetoberecycled.Additionalinformationcanbe
foundonthewebsiteoftheDutchFoundationforAppliedWaterResearch(STOWA),
http://www.stowaselectedtechnologies.nl/(seeFactSheets).
6.5 EffluentFiltration
ManyvarietiesoffilterscanbeusedinWWTPs.Mediarangefrommonomediasuchassandto
multimediasuchassandwithanthraciteandhighdensitygravel.Othermediasuchasclothor
membranes(operatedunderpressure)canbeusedtocapturesolids.Filterscanbeoperatedinupflow
ordownflowmodeandcanbebackwashedusingavarietyoftechniques.Designofmultiplefiltersin
seriesorfiltersprecededbyatertiaryclarifiercanimprovesolids(andtherebytotalphosphorus)
removal.Table65listssomemajorfiltrationtechnologies.Adescriptionofeachfollowsthetable.
Table65.MatrixofTertiaryFiltrationTechnologies
Configuration Technology SectionReference

TertiaryFiltration Gravity
-
(downflow)Filters
Conventional
6.5.1
- DeepBed
ContinuousBackwashUpflowSandFilters 6.5.2
PulsedBedFilters 6.5.3
TravellingBridgeFilters 6.5.4
Discfilters(includingclothmedia) 6.5.5
MembraneFiltration 6.5.6
6.5.1 ConventionalDownflowFilters
Thesefiltersconsistoffixedmediabedsthataretypicallyupto3feetindepthandaresimilarto
filtersusedtotreatdrinkingwater.Mediacanbesinglemedia,dualmedia,ormultimedia.Single
mediaistypicallysandoranthracite.Dualmediacombinesanthraciteandsand.Multimediafilters
includealayerofgarnetorilmenite.Differencesinspecificgravitymakeitpossibletohavethelargest
particles(anthracite)inthetoplayerofthefilterandthesmallerones(garnet)inthebottomlayer.
Flowinthesefiltersisbygravityfromthetopdown.Mostoftheremovaloccursinthetopfewinches
ofthemedia,butmultimediafiltersusemoreofthebeddepthforactivefiltrationthanmonoordual
mediafilters.Thefiltermustbetakenofflineperiodicallytobackwashittopreventcloggingand
excessivepressureloss.
Deepbedfiltersaresimilartoconventionaldownflowfiltersbuthavedeeperbedsandlarger
mediasize.Thereforetheyhavetheadvantageoflongerruntimesbetweenbackwashes.Thesizeof
themediaislimitedbytheabilitytobackwashthefilter.Becausethesefiltersaremoredifficultto
backwash,airscourisnecessarytofullycleanthefilterbed.
6.5.2 ContinuousBackwashingUpflowSandFilters
Duringoperationofthecontinuousbackwashingupflowfilter,waterisintroducedthrough
risersatthebottomofadeepsandbed.Waterflowsupwardthroughthesandbedandoveran
overflowweir.Sandandtrappedsolidsflowdownwardthroughthefilterandaredrawnintothe
suctionofanairliftpipeinthecenterofthefilter.Asthesandtravelsuptheairliftpipe,theairscours
theparticlesandseparatesthesandfromfilteredsolids.Atthetopoftheairliftpipe,thecleansand
settlesbackontothetopofthefilterandthesolidsarecarriedawayintoarejectline.SeeFigures6.8
and6.9inSection6.2.3.1forcutawaydiagramsofacontinuousbackwashingupflowfilter.
Thesefiltershavetheadvantagesofnomovingpartsotherthantheaircompressorandless
energyandmaintenancerequirementsthantraditionallybackwashedfilters.Theyaresometimes
referredtobythetradenameDynasand.
Amodificationofthestandardcontinuousbackwashingupflowfiltermediaisuseofsand
coatedwithhydrousferricoxide.Ferricoxidecoatedmediaprovidesadsorptioninadditiontofiltration.
OneexampleistheBluePRO
TM
systemwhereferricsaltisaddedpriortothefiltertoaidincoagulation
andtoreplacetheferriccoating,whichisabradedfromthesand.Turbulencefromthecompressedair
knocksaccumulatedironandphosphorusalongwithanysolidsofftheparticleasthesandtravels
upward.Theiron,phosphorus,andparticlesarewasted,whilethecleansandisdepositedonthetopof
thebed.Benishetal.(2006)reportthatanaverageeffluentTPof0.06mg/Lwasobservedduringa
pilotstudyinMoscow,Idaho,andnear0.02mg/LwasachievedinapilotstudyinCoeurdAlene,Idaho.
EPARegion10(2007)summarizedresultsofdemonstrationoftheBluePRO
TM
systemata0.25MGD
HaydenWastewaterResearchFacility.Secondaryeffluentwithatotalphosphorusconcentrationof
between1and4mg/LwastreatedthroughatwosinglepassBluePRO
TM
filtrationsystem.Theaverage
effluentconcentrationfortheentiretestperiod(2005to2007)was0.014mg/L.
6.5.3 PulsedBedFilters
Pulsedbedfiltersareshallowfilterswithanunstratifiedfinesandmedia.Anairpulsedisturbs
themediaandallowspenetrationofsolidsintothemediabed,allowingtheentirefilterbedtobeused
forremovalofsolids.Thepulseisdesignedtoexpandthefilteroperationandreducethenumberof
backwashcycles,althoughthefiltermuststillbeperiodicallybackwashedtoremovethesolids.
6.5.4 TravelingBridgeFilters
Travelingbridgefiltersconsistoflongshallowbedsofgranularmediadividedintocells.
Wastewaterisappliedtothetopofthemediaandflowsdownward.Eachcellisindividually
backwashedbyatravelingbridgewhiletheothercellscontinuetooperate.Thebridgeusesfiltered
watertobackwashthefilters.ThistypeoffilterisusedfortheremovalofeffluentTSS,whichcan
enhancenutrientremovalbecauseTSScontainbothnitrogenandphosphorus.EffluentTSSisusually
between5and10mg/L,whichisnotsuitableforenhancingphosphorusremovalbelow0.5mg/L.
6.5.5 Discfilters
Discfiltersareaseriesofparallelmounteddisksusedtosupportaclothfiltermedia.Water
entersacentraltubeandflowsoutbetweenthetwolayersofclothineachdisk.Thedisksrotateand
arenormally60to70percentsubmerged.Theportionabovethewaterisbackwashedusingspray
nozzles.

Theclothmediadiskfilterissimilartothediscfilterdescribedabove.Inthiscase,thewater
flowsfromtheoutsideofthesubmergedclothdisksandintoacenterpipe.Diskscontinuetorotate
duringbackwash,aswaterispulledthroughthemediafromthediscusingsuctionheads.
Discfiltersandclothmediadiskfiltershavelimitedsolidsloadingcapacitiesandarethusmost
oftenusedforBNRapplicationsratherthanfollowingchemicaladditionforphosphorusremoval.
6.5.6 MembraneFilters
Membranesystemsuseapressureheadtodrivewaterthroughapermeablemembrane.
Membranefiltersaretypicallyclassifiedbytheirporesize,whichinturndeterminesthesizeofthe
particlestheyexcludeandguidesthepressurerequirements.Microfiltration,ultrafiltration,
nanofiltration,andreverseosmosis(RO)membranesremoveincreasinglysmallerparticles.Biological
treatmentthatincludesmicrofiltrationandultrafiltrationtypicallyremove3to6logsofbacteriaand95
percentormoreBOD,alongwithmostparticles(WEF2006).Nanofiltrationremovesnearlyallparticles,
includingsomeviruses.ROremovesallparticlesaswellasmostlargedissolvedconstituents,andis
capableofproducingpurewater.Typically,thewatermustbepretreatedbeforeusingROmembranes.
Pretreatmentcouldbeconventionalfilters,cartridgefilters,orlargerporemembranefilters.The
energycostforapplyingthepressureheadandtheneedtoreplacemembranesmakemembrane
filtrationamoreexpensivetechnology.Itcanachieveverylowconcentrationsofnutrientsandother
contaminants,however,andiscommoninwaterreuseprojects.
Membranescanbeconfiguredanumberofwaysincludinghollowfiber,spiralwound,plateand
frame,cartridge,orinpressurevessels.Membranescanfoulfromorganics,biologicalgrowth,ormetals
inthewastewater.Disinfectionmayberequiredtopreventbiologicalfouling.

6.6 SidestreamManagement
Solidshandlingprocessesresultinaliquidsidestreamthatisgenerallyrecycledtotheheadof
thetreatmentplantandcombinedwiththeinfluentwastewater.Theconcentrationofnitrogenand
phosphorusinthesidestreamdependsontheinfluentconcentrationsandthemainstreamremoval
technology.Italsodependshighlyonthesolidstreatmenttechnologyandequipment,withthehighest
nutrientconcentrationresultingfromanaerobicallydigestedorthermallyconditionedsludge(WEFand
ASCE2006).AswillbediscussedinChapter10,characterizingsidestreams(e.g.,nutrientloadingsand
whentheyaredischarged)isveryimportantwhendesigningfornutrientremoval,particularlyforplants
wantingtoconsistentlyachieveloweffluentconcentrations.
Equalizationofsidestreamsisaprovenmanagementtechniquetoreducetheimpactofthe
sidestreamsonthemaintreatmenttrain.Anequalizationtankcanbesizedtoholdthetotalvolumeof
recycleflowsforacertainperiodoftimesothattheycanbesenttothetreatmentsystematselected
ratesortimestominimizetheimpactonthetreatmentprocess(e.g.,atnightwhentotalplantflowsand
nutrientloadingsarelow).Anequalizationtankcanalsobedesignedtosettleandremovesolidsto
reducetheloadsbacktotheplant,butthesettledsolidshavetobecollectedandprocessed.Aeration
withinthetankorasaseparateprocesshasalsobeenshowntoreducetheammonialoadbacktothe
plantbyupto50percentgiventhatdetentiontimeissufficientandthetankcanbefullymixed(WEF
andASCE2006).
Overthelastseveralyears,patentedprocesseshavebeendesignedtoremovenitrogenfrom
recyclestreams.Thefollowingexamplesarediscussedinthissection,butnotethatthisisnota
completelistandnewprocessesarecontinuallybeingdeveloped:
Bioaumentation(e.g.,InNitriorBABE)
BAR
MAUREEN
SHARON
ANAMMOX
DEMON
CANON
OLAND
InNitriandBABEusebioaugmentation(i.e.,theseedingofnitrifiers)toenhancenutrient
removal.InNitri(InexpensiveNitrification)growsnitrifiersinasmall,sidestreamaerationclarifier
systembytreatinghighammonia,hightemperaturewaterfromdigestionanddewateringtoobtain
completenitrificationoftheammonia.Thewasteactivatedsludge(WAS)fromthesidestreamsystemis
dischargedtothemainaerationtanktosupplementthenitrifiersinthatreactor,therebyreducingthe
SRTneededtomaintainnitrificationatlowtemperatures.InNitridoesnotremovenitrogenbut
reducesthevolumeneededinthemainstreamreactortoaccomplishnitrification.
TheBABE(BioAugmentationBatchEnhanced)processusesasinglebatchreactortotreata
mixtureofhighammoniasidestreamsfromdewatering,RASfromthemainbiologicaltreatmentsystem,
andresidualbiomassremaininginthereactorfromtheprecedingcycle.Thehighammonia
concentrationiscompletelynitrifiedandthenpartiallydenitrifiedduringeachcycleofthebatchreactor
toobtainremovalofnitrogen.TheRASispartiallyseededwithnitrifiersanddenitrifiersbytheBABE
processduringthisoperation.TheBABEprocessisdesignedtooperatebetween20and25
o
C,and
temperaturesbelow20
o
Cwilldramaticallyincreasethereactorvolumeneeded.
TheBioAugmentationRegeneration/Reaeration(BAR)processwasdevelopedintheUnited
StatesandisidenticaltotheRegenerationDeNitrification(RDN)processdevelopedindependentlyin
theCzechRepublic.Itworksbyrecyclingammonialadenfiltrateorcentratefromdewateringof
aerobicallydigestedsludgetotheheadoftheaerationtank.Thesidestreamisfullynitrifiedwhich
seedstheaerationtankwithadditionalnitrifyingbacteriaandallowsforreducedSRT.Thereare
numerousfullscaleapplicationsintheCzechRepublic,UnitedStates,andCanada.
TheMainstreamAUtotrophicRecycleEnablingEnhancedNremoval(MAUREEN)Processwas
developedforthetwosludgetreatmentconfigurationattheBluePlainsAdvancedWastewater
TreatmentPlantinWashington,DC.TheprocessinvolvesrecyclingofWASfromthenitrificationstage
toareactorwheretheAOBsareusedtooxidizethecentrateammoniatonitrite.Thenthenitriteis
reducedtonitrogengas,andtheAOBsaresenttothehighratecarbonremovalstagefor
bioaugmentationofthefirstsludgestageactivatedsludgetoaccomplishsomenitrificationinthatstage.
TheSHARON(SinglereactorforHighActivityAmmoniaRemovalOverNitrite)processtakes
placeinasinglereactoroperatedwithoutbiomassrecycle,i.e.,theSRTisequaltotheHRT.Developed
totreathighammoniaconcentrationsidestreamsfromsludgedigestion,thesystemisdesignedto
convertammoniatonitrite,thendenitrifythenitritetonitrogengas,thusavoidingtheconversionof
nitritetonitrateandtheneedtoreducenitratebacktonitritetoobtainnitrogenremoval.Thisprocess
isaccomplishedbyoperatingthereactorathightemperaturesandselectinganHRT(equalsSRT)that
willwashouttheslowgrowingnitriteoxidizers.Theprocessistypicallyoperatedat30to40
o
Cwithan
HRTrangeof1to2days.Bypreventingtheconversionofnitritetonitrate,theSHARONprocess
reducestheamountofoxygenrequiredfornitrificationby25percentandthenreducestheamountof
CODneededfordenitrificationby40percent,comparedtofullnitrificationanddenitrification.See
Chapter4,Section4.5foradditionaldiscussionontheprinciplesoftheSHARONprocess.
TheANAMMOX(ANaerobicAMMoniaOXidation)processusesonlyautotrophicbacteriato
accomplishnitrogenremoval,i.e.denitrificationaswellasnitrification,and,becauseammoniumisused
asanelectrondonor,CODdoesnothavetobeaddedtoaccomplishnitrogenremoval.Inthe
conventionalANAMMOXprocessthefirststageissimilartotheSHARONprocessexceptthatonly50
percentoftheammoniaisoxidizedtonitrite,anda5050mixtureofammoniumandnitriteissentto
thesecondreactor,wheretheanammoxbacteriauseammoniumasanelectrondonorandreduce
nitritetonitrogengas.Thus,theoxygenrequirementisonly50percentofthatrequiredforcomplete
oxidationofammoniatonitritebytheSHARONprocess,oronly37.5percentoftheamountneeded
fornitrificationtonitrate,assumingnitrificationoftheentireammoniumload.Inaddition,theneedfor
organiccarboniscompletelyeliminated.Ithasbeenreportedthatthisprocessreducestheoperating
costsby90percentcomparedtostandardnitrificationdenitrification.SeeChapter4,Section4.12for
additionaldiscussionontheprinciplesoftheANAMMOXprocess.

ThecombinationofpartialnitrificationandAnammoxprocessescanalsobecarriedoutina
singlereactorandhasbeengivendifferentnames:DEMON(DEamMONification),OLAND(Oxygen
LimitedAutotrophicNitrificationDenitrification)orCANON(CompletelyAutotrophicNitrogenremoval
overNitriteprocess).Underoxygenlimitedconditionsacocultureofaerobicandanaerobic
ammoniumoxidizingbacteriacanbemaintainedasacocultureinasinglereactor.
TheDEMON
R
processusespHandDOcontrolinanSBRtomaintainbothnitrificationtoNO
2
N
andnitritereductionbyanammoxbacteriatoconvertammoniatonitrogengas.Itallowsbothofthese
typesofbacteriatocoexistinonesinglereactorvolume,despitethecompletelydifferentgrowth
characteristicsofthesebacteria.WithintheDEMONprocess,approximately50percentoftheammonia
isnitrifiedtonitrite.Externalcarbonadditionistypicallynotneeded.
AnothervariationoftheaboveapplicationoftheanammoxprocessinasingleSBRtankisthe
CANONprocess(VazquezPadinetal.,2009).Inthisapplication,airispulsedtothereactoratarateand
frequencytomaintainlowmicroaerophilicDOconcentrations.
TheOLANDprocesshadbeenusedinlaboratorystudieswithSBRandfixedfilmapplications
(Pynaertetal.,2002,Clippelieratal.,2009).ForSBRapplicationslowDOandlowvolumetricremoval
rateswereconsideredcriticaltomaintainananammoxcultureinagranularfloc.Thefixedfilm
applicationshowedthattheanammoxreactioncouldbemaintainedinarotatingbiologicalcontactor
withaliquidDOconcentrationofnear1.0mg/L.
6.7 TechnologyPerformance
Foragivenbiologicalnutrientremovaltechnology,thedailycompositeeffluentnitrogenand
phosphorusconcentrationswillvaryfromdaytodayandvaryamongsitesduetoanumberoffactors.
CommonlyrecognizedfactorsthataffectBNRplantperformancearesummarizedbelow.
WastewatercharacteristicsareofparticularimportanceinBNRprocesses.Thecharacteristics
andrelativeamountofinfluentbiodegradableCODarekeytobiologicaldenitrificationfor
nitrogenremovalandalsofortheperformanceandcapacityofenhancedbiologicalphosphorus
removal.Thisandotherimportantwastewatercharacteristicsaregivenasfollows:
- InfluentrbCOD:TPandBOD:TNratios
- Minimaltemperatureandtemperaturevariations
- Dailyandseasonalvariationsininfluentflowrates
- Dailyandhourlyvariationsinflowandconsitutentconcentrations
- Seasonalvariationsinflowandconstitutentconcentations
- Industrialcontributions(e.g.,toxins)

BNRTreatmentplantdesignandconfigurationinvolveanumberofcomplexprocess
considerationsandequipmentselection.Forexample,choosingahighSRTmaybebeneficialfor
someprocessessuchasnitrification,butnotforenhancedbiologicalphosphorusremoval.It
shouldbenotedthatfullscaleplantdatausedtojudgeBNRtreatmentperformanceistypically
obtainedfromplantsthataretovaryingdegreesbelowtheirdesigncapacity.Keyfactorsthat
canaffectperformanceareasfollows:
- DesignconservatisminSRTandHRT
- Treatmentgoals(relatedtopermitlevelandaveragingperiod)
- Processflexibility
- Solidsprocessingmethods
- Typeandmethodsofhandlingrecycleflows
- Equalizationcapability
- Sidestreamtreatmentofrecycleflows
Installedequipment
- Equipmentperformanceandreliability
- Equipmentmaintenancerequirements
- Redundancy
Operation
- Staffing
- Instrumentationandprocesscontrolmethods
WhenevaluatingeffluentconcentrationsforaspecificBNRtechnology,itisnecessaryto
recognizethattheeffluentperformancevariesdailyasafunctionofinfluentwastewater,process
conditions,operatingmethods,andbiologicaltreatmentvariations.Thus,theeffuentismoreaptly
characterizedintermsofastatisticalperformance.
Neethlingetal.(2009)introducedamethodforusingastatisticalapproachtodescribeprocess
performance.Inthisapproach,thetreatmentplantortechnologyperformanceistiedtothestatistical
ranktoexpresstheprobabilityofachievingacertainperformance.Buildingonthisstatisticalapproach,
thetermTechnologyPerformanceStatistic(TPS)wasusedataWEFTECworkshop(WEF/WERF,2009)to
assesstheperformanceoffullscaletreatmentplants.
TheTechnologyPerformanceStatistics(TPS)describestheperformanceofatechnologyor
processorplantunderspecificconditions.TheTPSisdeterminedfromperformancedataandislinked
totheoperationalconditionsduringwhichthedatawerecollected(pilot,fullscale,summer,winter,
excesscapacityavailable,SRT,etc).Theconditionsmustalsoincludeexternalfactorsthatimpactthe
technology,industrialloadings,seasonality,absenceofrecyclestreams,etc.Inaddition,theTPS
establishedusingpastperformance,istiedtothetreatmentobjectivesorpermitlimits.
AswillbedescribedinmoredetailinChapter7,permitlimitsfornitrogenandphosphoruscan
bebasedonannualaveragevalues,quarterlyaverages,seasonalaverages,maximummonthlyaverages,
maximumweeklyvalues,orattheirmoststringent,maximumdailyrecordedlevels.Limitsmaybe
concentrationormassbased.Manypermitsincludemultipletypesoflimitsfortheeffluentparameters.

AnnualaveragepermitlimitsforTNandTPclearlyprovidethegreatestflexibilityinoperation
andtheleastriskofviolations.Intemperateregions,theBNRsystemcanbeoperatedwithrelatively
higheffluentnitrogenconcentrationsduringthewintermonths,andthenoperatedtoobtainverylow
concentrationsduringthelatesummerearlyfallmonths.Seasonalaveragesprovideasimilarbutlesser
amountofflexibility.Monthlyorweeklylimitsnecessitatethateffluentlimitsbemetonaconsistent
basisregardlessofseasonaloperatingconditions.Theshorterthetimeperiodthelessforgivingthelimit
isforperiodicupsetsofthebiologicalsystem,suchaspartialnitrifierwashoutduringstormevents.The
endresultisthatWWTPsareoftenoperatedtoproduceeffluentconcentrationslowerthanthe
requiredvalue,providingamarginofsafetyandprotectingagainstasingledayexceedanceand
potentialpermitviolation.Thisapproachmayrequirehigheroperatingcostsormoreexpensive
technologiesthanwouldbedesignedandconstructedforthelongertermaverages.
Theremainderofthissectionprovidesageneralizeddiscussionoftheeffectivenessofnutrient
removaltechnologiesfollowedbyadescriptionofrecentresearchtoidentifyreliableeffluent
concentrationsusingdatafromfullscaletreatmentplants.
6.7.1 RemovalEfficienciesofBNRTechnologiesGeneralDiscussion
NitrogenRemoval
Forbiologicalnitrogenremoval,theattainableeffluentlimitforasuspendedgrowthprocess
dependsonthenumberofanoxiczonesandthenitraterecycleratiototheinfluentflow.Thebasic
configurationofasingleanoxicandaerobiczone(theMLEsystem),hashistoricallyachieved70to90
percentTNremoval.TNremovalbythisbasicconfigurationhasbeenimprovedbytheuseofattached
growthfiltersfornitrification(e.g,BAF)orattachedgrowthmediaintheanoxicand/oraerobicbasinto
increaseSRTandreducetherisksofwashout.Asecondanoxiczoneaftertheaerobiczone(e.g.,the4
stageBardenphoprocess)canachieveadditionalTNremovalbydenitrifyingthatportionoftheflowthat
isnotrecycledtothefirstanoxiczone.BecausetheBODhasbeenremovedintheaerobiczone,
denitrificationinapostanoxiczoneoftenrequiresasupplementalcarbonsourceespeciallyincolder
regionswheretheendogenousdenitrificationrateislow.
Nitrificationprocessescanbeoptimizedbycontrollinginfluentammonialoading(from
wastewaterorrecyclestreams)andflowtopreventwashoutofnitrifiers.Configurationofswingzones
thatcanbeoperatedinanoxicoraerobicmodescanhelpensureconsistentremovalundervarying
operatingconditions(e.g.,seasonalvariationsininfluentloading,temperaturechanges,flowvariation).
Similarly,onlinemonitoringandprocesscontrolofaerationsystemsandrecyclestreamscanallowfor
moreconsistentperformanceofsystems.Sidestreamtreatmentsuchasbioaugmentationcanbeused
toseedtheactivatedsludgeprocesswithanexternalsourceofnitrifierstoobtaincompletenitrification
atlowerSRTs.
Forremovaloftotalnitrogentoverylowlevels(3mg/Lorless),technologiesmaybelimitedby
biologicallyresistantdissolvedorganicnitrogen(rDON),whichistypicallybetween0.5and1.5mg/L.
ResearchisongoingintothedesignandoperatingconditionsthatcanbeusedtominimizerDON.
ProcessoptimizationandautomatedcontrolsystemsbecomeveryimportantinachievingtheselowTN
levels.Denitrificationfilterswithsupplementalcarbon(e.g.,methanol)additioncanprovideenhanced
TNremovalconsistentlytoloweffluentlevels.

PhosphorusRemoval
Forbiologicalphosphorusremoval,theattainableeffluentconcentrationisfundamentally
determinedbytherbCOD:TPratioenteringtheanaerobiczone,minusthemassofelectronacceptors
(i.e.,DOandnitrates)enteringtheanaerobiczone.IftherbCOD:TPratioisfavorable(16:1orhigher)
andtherecycleofnitrateandDOtotheanaerobiczoneiscarefullycontrolled,loweffluent
concentrationscanbereliablyobtainedusingalmostanyoftheBPRtechnologies.IfVFAsareadded
fromsludgefermentation,lowerrbCOD:TPratioscanachievethesameresults,withthevariability
dependinguponthequantityandmixofVFAsformedbythefermentation.Unsettledsewagewill
producelowereffluentsolublephosphorusconcentrationsthansettledsewagebecausesettling
changestheCODtoTPratioofthewastewaterinanunfavorabledirection.
Phosphorusremovalbychemicaladdition(withorwithoutbiologicalphosphorusremoval)can
reliablyachieveloweffluentTPlevels.Metalsaltssuchasalumandferricchloridearecommonlyused.
Completemixingofthechemicalatthedosingpointandadequateflocculationassurethatthemetal
reactswithphosphatetoformaprecipitant.Thekeyfactortoachievinglowlevelsisthemethodof
liquid/solidsseparation.Tertiaryfiltration,inparticulardeepbed,dualmediasystemsandmembranes,
providenearlycompleteremovalofparticulatematterandcanachieveveryloweffluentTPlevels.
Advancedprocessessuchasballastedhighrateclarification(BHRC)andfiltrationusingironoxide
coatedmediahavebeensuccessfulatremovingTPtolowlevelsinanumberoffullscaleapplications.
Forreliablyremovingphosphorustoverylowlevels,therecalcitrantfraction(i.e.,unreactive
fractionthatgoesthroughthetreatmentprocessunchanged)maybecomelimitingdependingonthe
natureoftheinfluentwastewater.Inaddition,variabilityinmeasurementofphosphateconcentrations
lessthan0.02mg/Lcouldbealimitingfactor.SeeChapter3,section3.7foradditionaldiscussion.
6.7.2 TechnologyPerformanceStatisticsbasedonFullScaleOperatingData
TheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)sponsoredaprojecttoevaluatethe
performancecapabilitiesofnutrientremovalprocessesbycollectingdatafromsomeofthebest
performingnutrientremovalWWTPsinthecountytoimproveunderstandingofachievableeffluent
levelsfornutrientsandkeyfactorsaffectingplantperformancetotheselevels(WERFprojectno.
NUTR1R06j,2009).Preliminaryresultsoftheprojectwerepresentedatthe2009AnnualWater
EnvironmentFederationTechnicalExhibitionandConference(WEFTEC)(Neethling,etal.2009;Parker,
etal.2009;Bott,etal.2009).
Thefacilityevaluationswerebasedoncompleteoperatingdataandanalyticalinformation
providedbyplantmanagerscoveringa3yearperiod.Nospecialsamplingoroperationalchangeswere
madefortheperformanceevaluations.Statisticalmethodswereusedtodeterminetheprobability
statisticsfornitrogenand/orphosphorusremovalperformanceateachplant.Probabilityplotswere
developedusingnormalandlognormaldistributions.SeeBottetal.(2009)foradetaileddiscussionof
statisticalanalysesofplantdata.
TheWERFresearchersrecognizedthevariabilityinnutrientremovalperformancethatexistsin
allplantsduetovariationsinwastewatercharacteristicsandoperatingconditions,andconsequentlyit
wasnotconsideredpracticaltodescribetheachievablelimitsforatechnologybasedonasingle
numericalvalue.Thus,theachievableperformancewasdescribedasTechnologyPerformance
Statistics(TPS).Inthiswaytheperformancelevelscouldbedefinedintermsoffrequencyand
reliability.Inaddition,TPSresultsshouldconsidertheconditionsunderwhichthedatawerecollected
suchasprocessconfigurations,treatmentobjectives,existingversusdesignloadings,solidshandling
processes,etc.See(Neethling,etal.2009)formoreinformation.
ThreeTPSlevelscanbeusedtodefinethebest,median,andreliablyachievableperformance:
Bestperformance:Thelowestconcentrationachievedbytheplantduringa14dayperiod(TPS
14d).Neethling,etal.(2009)providestherationaleforthisvalue,explainingthata2week
periodwouldcapturetwoweeklycycles,eliminateoutlyingdata,identifyahighlevelof
treatmentthatcanoccasionallybeachieved,andperhapsalsocaptureacycleofatleastone
sludgeageinatypicalplantoperation.TheTPS14dcanbecalculatedintwoways:(1)
calculatingarunning14dayaverageanddeterminingtheminimumvalue,or(2)calculatingthe
3.84
th
percentile.
Medianperformance:Theconcentrationachievedonastatisticalmedianbasis(TPS50%)
approximatingaverageperformance.Thisvalueindicatesthemedianperformanceofthe
technologythatcanbeachievedonanannualbasiswithnomarginofsafety.Itisstatistically
exceededeveryotheryearandrequiresamarginofsafetytoprovidereliableperformanceto
complywithdischargelimits.
ReliablyAchievablePerformance:Maybethe90
th
,95
th
,or99
th
percentiledependingonthe
permitaveragingperiod.Neethling,etal.(2009)notesthatthe91.7
th
percentile(11/12
percent)translatestoaplantwithmonthlylimitsexceededonemonthperyearonastatistical
basis.TheTPS95%indicatesamonthlyvaluethatisexceeded3monthsina5yearcycle.
Figure620illustratestechnologyperformancestatisticsofaphosphorusremovalplant.The
datafromthisfacilityfollowsagoodapproximationofthetypicallognormaldistribution.When
determiningperformancestatistics,therankisusedtocalculateperformancetoaccountfortheactual
performancedistributionasreportedbythetechnology.TheTPS3.84%orbestperformanceforthis
datasetis0.040mg/L.Thisvalueexcludesthebestreportedvalueof0.002mg/Lwhichislikelyan
outlier.The50
th
percentileperformancestatisticof0.08mg/Lreflectsthemedianvalueandthe95
th
percentilestatisticof0.23mg/Lthereliableperformance.The95thpercentileeffluentPconcentration
is3timesthemedianperformanceand6timesthebestperformance.
ThedistributioninFigure620illustratestheimportanceoftheaveragingperiodindetermining
plantperformance.Thisexampleplantdemonstratesthatitcanachieve0.08mg/Lonaverage,yetthe
reliablemonthlyvalueisthreetimeshigherat0.23mg/L.Thelongeraveragingperiodincreasesthe
abilityoftheplanttoachievethelimit.Ashorteraveragingperiodrequiresahighersafetyfactorto
increasetheabilitytoachievethelimitreliably.
Figure 620. Probability plot of secondary effluent phosphorus data showing 3.84th, 50th, and 95th percentiles of the data
showingalognormaldistributionlineanddeterminingthepercentilesbasedonthislognormaldistribution(Exampledata).
SummaryofPerformanceData
TPSvaluesforthefacilitiesparticipatingintheWERFstudyaresummarizedinFigure621for
nitrogenremovalandFigure622forphosphorusremoval.Thefiguresshowthebest,median,and
reliable(95%)TPSvalues.

0.2
1% 10% 25% 75% 90% 99% 99.9% 0.1% 50%
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
10.00
Percent of values less than of equal to indicated value
m
g
/
L
SE TP (all)
22
3.84%
0.040
50%
0.080
95%
3
d Figure621.Technologyperformancestatisticsfornitrogenremovalplantsshowingthebest(TPS14d),median(TPS50%)an
reliable(TPS95%)values.
Source:Clarketal.2010.Usedwithpermission.
) Figure621.Technologyperformancestatisticsforphosphorusremovalplantsshowingthebest(TPS14d),Median(TPS50%
andreliable(TPS95%)values.
Source:Clarketal.2010.Usedwithpermission.

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0.2
0.3
0.4
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0.7
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1C 2B 1B 2C
Nitrogenremovalfacilitiesaregroupedintothreecategories:
SeparateStageprocesses.Thesenitrogenremovalplantsuseseparateunitprocessesfor
nitrificationanddenitrification.Acarbonsourcesuchasmethanolisaddedtothedenitrification
stage.
Combinednitrogenremovalprocessesrepresentconventional,multiplezoneactivatedsludge
processesdesignedforbiologicalnitrogenremoval.TheseprocessesincludeMLE,Bardenpho,
stepfeed,orotherprocesses.Effluentfiltersareusedintheseplantswithoutaddedcarbon
thefilterremovesparticulatenitrogenbutdoesnotprovidedenitrification.
MultipleStageprocessesarethosethatuseconventionalbiologicalnitrogenremoval(asinthe
combinedprocesses)withadditionalnitrogenremovalinadenitrificationfilterwithcarbon
addition.
TheperformanceofthefacilitiesinFigure621showthethreeTPSvaluesingroups.Thegraphsshow
thatcombinedprocessesarenotachievingasloweffluentnitrogenvaluesasseparateandmultistage
processes.Inaddition,thevariabilityofthecombined(orconventional)processesishigh:fortwoofthe
facilities,thereliableTNconcentrationisabout3timesthemedianperformance.Multistageand
separatestagefacilitiesachievelowereffluentTNconcentrationsandshowlessvariabilitywithreliable
TPS95%valuesabout2timestheaverage.Thereasonfortheimprovedperformanceisintheabilityto
addexternalcarbontoovercomeexcursionsinperformanceandmaintaintheperformancelevelsatthe
targetbyadjustingthecarbonaddition.
Phosphorusremovalfacilitiesaregroupedintofourcategoriesdependingonthemainremoval
process(biologicalorchemical)anddependingonadditionoftertiarychemicaladdition:
1BrepresentsBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalwithapolishingfilter,butwithoutchemical
additiontothefilters.
1CrepresentsSingleChemicalPhosphorusRemovalintheprimaryorsecondaryprocesswitha
polishingfilterbutwithoutchemicaladditiontothefilters.
2BrepresentsBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalwithpolishingfilterwithchemicalforphosphorus
removal.
2CrepresentsSingleChemicalPhosphorusRemovalintheprimaryorsecondaryprocesswitha
polishingfilterwithchemicalforphosphorusremoval.
TheperformanceofthefacilitiesinFigure622showthethreeTPSvaluesingroups.Thegraphshows
that2stageprocessesareachievinglowereffluentphosphorusvaluesthansinglestageprocesses.
Thereappearstobelittledifferenceintheperformanceofplantsusingbiologicalandchemicalremoval
fortheprimaryandsecondaryprocess.Thevariabilityinthephosphorusremovalissignificant.The
reliableperformanceis1.5to4timeshigherthantheaverage.
6.8 FactorsforSimultaneouslyAchievingLowNitrogenandPhosphorusEffluent
Concentrations

Someuniquefactorsapplywhenplantsareattemptingtosimultaneouslyachievelownitrogen
andphosphorusintheplanteffluent.Keyfactorsarediscussedbelow.Foradditionaldiscussion,see
Section2.4.1oftheMunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument(USEPA2008b).
Themicroorganismsresponsibleforbiologicalremovalofphosphorusandnitrogencompetefor
bioavailablecarboninthewastestream.Theavailablecarbonintheinfluentorreturnsidestreamscan
beusedforbothbiologicalphosphorusremovalanddenitrification,butislikelytobeinsufficientto
simultaneouslyachieveveryloweffluentlevelsofboth,forinstance,below4.0mg/LTNand0.5mg/L
TP.Thislimitationcanbeovercomebyaddingasupplementalorganiccarbonsourcesuchasmethanol
orsomeotheralternativetothesecondanoxiczoneorVFAstotheeithertheanaerobicorsecond
anoxiczones,orboth.Plantsthatarerequiredtomeetveryloweffluentphosphoruslimitswillmost
likelyrequireboththeadditionofanalternativecarbonsourcetotheanaerobiczoneandtertiary
filtration.
Phosphorusisanecessarynutrientformicrobialgrowth.IfTPisreducedtoolowbeforea
biologicalprocesslikenitrificationordenitrification,thegrowthofthemicroorganismscouldbe
inhibited,necessitatingtheadditionofsupplementalphosphorus.Thisismostlikelytooccurwhen
tertiarydenitrificationfiltersareused;however,inhibitionofnitrificationalsohasbeenobservedin
plantspracticingchemicalphosphorusremovalintheprimaryclarifiers.
Inplantswithasingleanoxiczonefornitrification,nitratesmaybereturnedintheRASstream
totheanaerobiczone.ThiscanreduceBPRbecausesomeheterotrophicmicroorganismsusenitratesto
growandwillconsumeorganicsubstrateinsteadofthePAO.Toaddressthisissue,thefollowingdesign
optionscanbeused:
Convertthelastpartoftheaerationzoneintoadeoxygenationsectionbyreducingtheaeration.
Caremustbetakennottocauserisingsludgeinthesecondaryclarifier.
DiverttheRAStoasmalltankbeforereturningittotheanaerobiczone,suchasintheRDN
configuration.ThetankwouldreducetheDOandnitrateintheRAS,whichwouldfurther
improvetheperformanceoftheanaerobiczone.Theretentiontime,however,wouldhavetobe
limitedtopreventsecondaryreleaseofphosphorus.
DiverttheRAStotheanoxiczoneratherthantotheanaerobiczone,whereitwillboth
deoxygenateanddenitrify,andthenrecycletotheanaerobiczone,asintheUCT/VIP
configurations.
Plantsshouldbedesignedandoperatedtoavoidsecondaryrelease.Anaerobicoranoxiczones
thataretoobigremoveorganiccarbonandnitratesinlesstimethantheHRT.Thiscanresultinthe
releaseofphosphatewithoutpolyhydroxyalkanoate(PHA)storage,whichmeansthattherewillbe
insufficientstoredsubstratetotakeupthereleasedphosphorusintheaerobiczone.Plantoperators
canconsideraddingachemicaltoprimarysedimentationtanks(e.g.,ferricchloride)inthewinterto
removemoresolidsandreducetheneededSRTtoachievethesamenitrificationlevels.
Ifnitrateremovalhasbeenenhancedinthesecondaryprocess,phosphoruscanbereleased
fromthesludgeinthesecondaryclarifierifDOdepletionoccurs.Thismightnotbeobserved
immediatelybutcouldresultinabuildupofphosphorusinthesecondarytreatmentsystemthatwould
eventuallyraisetheeffluentTPlevels.Ifthisisapossibleissue,plantoperatorsshouldconsider
biologicalnitrificationandphosphorusremovalinatertiaryprocessusingchemicaladdition.
Temperatureaffectsbiologicalnitrogenandphosphorusremovalprocessessimilarlyalthough
nitrificationismoresensitivethanBPR.Incoldertemperatures,fermentationmightnotprovide
sufficientVFAsfortheBPRprocess.Sidestreamfermentationhasbeenusedverysuccessfullyto
augmentVFAsintheanaerobiczoneduringwinteroperation.Therateofnitrificationdecreases
significantlywithdecreasingtemperatures,withrates50percentlowerforevery8to10
o
Cdropin
temperature(WEFandASCE2006).Tomaintainnitrificationofammonia(whichisthekeyfirststepto
nitrogenremoval),plantscandesignswingzonesandaeratethosezonesduringperiodsoflow
temperatures.Denitrificationratesalsodecreasewithdecreasingtemperature,althoughnotasrapidly.
Denitrificationratesatlowtemperaturesshouldalsobeconsideredwhendesigningandoperating
nutrientremovalsystems.
Bothnitrificationandchemicalphosphorusremovalconsumealkalinity.Lowalkalinitycan
inhibitnitrificationbecauseitisthecarbonsourceforthenitrifiers,andalsobecauselowalkalinity
usuallycauseslowpH,whichcaninhibitnitrifiers.Therefore,evenwhennitrogenremovalisnot
requiredbutphosphorusremovalis,practicingdenitrificationisusuallythemosteconomicalapproach
becausedenitrificationrestores50percentofthealkalinityconsumedduringnitrification.Ofcourse,
thisisausefulstrategyonlyifnitrificationisalreadybeingpracticed.Notethatchemicalprecipitation
willnotbecompleteifsufficientalkalinityisnotpresent.
6.9 References
Barnard,J.L.1984.ActivatedPrimaryTanksforPhosphateRemoval.WaterSA.10(3):121126.
Barnard,J.L.2006.BiologicalNutrientRemoval:WhereWeHaveBeen,WhereWeareGoing?In
WEFTEC2006.
Barnard,J.L.,H.Phillips,B.Sabherwal,C.deBarbadillo.2008.DrivingMembraneBioReactorstoLimit
ofTechnology.InWEFTEC2008.
Benish,M.,D.Clark,A.Z.Gu,J.B.Neethling.2006.HowLowCanYouGo?AchievingExtremelyLow
EffluentPhosphorusinWastewaterTreatment.WaterandWastesDigest,October2006.Volume46
Number:10.
Bott,C.B.,S.N.Murthy,T.T.Spano,andC.W.Randall.2007.WERFWorkshoponNutrientRemoval:
HowLowCanWeGoandWhatisStoppingUsfromGoingLower?Alexandria,VA:WERF.
Bott,C.B,D.Parker,J.B.Neethling,A.Pramanik,andS.Murthy.2009.WEF/WERFCooperativeStudyof
BNRPlantsApproachingtheLimitofTechnology:II.StatisticalEvaluationofProcessReliability.
PresentedatWEFTEC2009,Orlando,FL.
Clark,D.L.,Hunt,G.,Kasch,M.S.,Lemonds,P.J.,Moen,G.M.,Neethling,J.B.(2010)Nutrient
ManagementApproachestoProtectWaterQuality.Volume1ReviewofExistingRegulatoryPractices,
WERFNutrientChallengereportNUTR1R06i,WERF/IWAP.
Clippelier,H.D.,S.E.Vlaeminck,M.Carballa,andW.Verstraete,2009.ALowVolumetricExchangeRatio
AllowshighAutotrophicNitrogenRemovalinaSequencingBatchReactor,BioresourceTechnology
100:50105015.
DeBarbadillo,C.,J.Barnard,S.Tarallo,andM.Steichen.2008.GotCarbon?Widespreadbiological
nutrientremovalisincreasingthedemandforsupplementalsources.WaterEnvironment&
Dold,P.,I.Takcs,Y.Mokhayeri,A.Nichols,J.Hinojosa,R.Riffat,C.Bott,W.Bailey,andS.Murthy.
2008.DenitrificationwithCarbonAdditionKineticConsiderations.WaterEnvironmentResearch.
80(5):417427.WEF.
Ellis,E.P.andA.H.Cathcart.2008.Selection,Installation,StartupandTestingoftheWorldsFirstFull
ScaleCoMagPhosphorusReductionTertiaryTreatmentSystem.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.Chicago,
IL.
Feldthusen,M.2004.ContinuousSandFilters:TertiaryWWTandOtherApplications.SAWEA
Workshop.March22,2004.
Holloway,R.,H.Zhao,T.Rinne,G.Thesing,J.Parker,andM.Beals.2008.TheImpactofTemperature
andLoadingonMeetingStringentNitrogenRequirementsinaTwoStageBAFAComparisonofPilot
andFullScalePerformance.InWEFTEC2008.
Hu,Z.2001.EternalNitrificationBiologicalNutrientRemovalActivatedSludgeSystems:Development
andModeling.DoctoralDissertation.DepartmentofCivilEngineering,UniversityofCapeTown,
Rondebosch,7700,SouthAfrica.
Kang,S.J.,W.F.Bailey,andD.Jenkins.1992.BiologicalNutrientRemovalattheBluePlainsWastewater
TreatmentPlantinWashington,D.C.WaterScienceTechnology.UK26(911):22332236.
Publishing.
Neethling,J.B.,D.Stensel,D.Parker,C.Bott,S.Murthy,A.Pramanik,andD.Clark.2009.Whatisthe
LimitofTechnology(LOT)?ARationalandQuantitativeApproach.PresentedatWEFTEC2009,
Orlando,FL.
Parker,D.,C.Bott,J.B.Neethling,A.Pramanik,andS.Murthy.2009.WEF/WERFCooperativeStudyof
BNRPlantsApproachingtheLimitofTechnology:I.WhatCanWeLearnAbouttheTechnologies?
PresentedatWEFTEC2009,Orlando,FL.
Pynaert,K.,R.Sprengers,J.Laenen,andW.Verstraete,2002.OxygenlimitedNitrificationand
denitrificationinaLabscaleRotatingBiologicalContactor.EnvironmentTechnology.23(3):353362.
Pearson,J.R.,D.A.Dievert,D.J.Chelton,andM.T.Formica.2008.DenitrificationTakesaBAF:Starting
UptheFirstSeparateBiologicalAnoxicFilterinConnecticutRequiresSomeProblemSolvingand
KnowHow.WaterEnvironment&Technology.Alexandria,VA:WEF.20(5):4855.
Randall,C.W.,J.BarnardandD.Stensel.1992.DesignandRetrofitofWastewaterTreatmentPlantsfor
BiologicalNutrientRemoval.TechnomicPublishingCompany,Inc.,Lancaster,PA.
Reardon,RoderickD.2005.TertiaryClarifierDesignConceptsandConsiderations.InWEFTEC2005.
Sadick,T.,W.Bailey,G.Daigger,andM.McGrath.1998.LargeScaleNitrogenRemovalDemonstration
attheBluePlainsWastewaterTreatmentPlantUsingPostDenitrificationwithMethanol.Presented
atIAWQ19thBiennialInternationalConferenceonWaterQuality.Vancouver,B.C.,Canada.June
1998.
Sen,D.,C.Randall,andT.Grizzard.1990.BiologicalNitrogenandPhosphorusRemovalinOxidation
DitchandHighNitrateRecycleStreams.PubCDP/TRS47/90.USEPAChesapeakeBayProgram.
Sen,S.,VOcciano,P.Wong,andA.Langworthy.2008.ComparingImplementationofMBBRversusBAF
onaSpaceConstrainedSite.InWEFTEC2008.
STOWA.2006.BCFSProcessSheets.Websiteupdated13June2006.Availableonline:
http://www.stowaselectedtechnologies.nl/Sheets/Sheets/BCFS.Process.html
Trivedi,HirenandNicolasHeinin.2000.SimultaneousNitrification/DenitrificationbyMonitoring
NADHFluorescenceinActivatedSludge.InWEFTEC2000.
USEPA.2003.WastewaterTechnologyFactSheet:BallastedFlocculation.OfficeofWasteManagement.
MunicipalTechnologyBranch.EPA832F03010
USEPA.2007a.WastewaterManagementFactSheet:DenitrifyingFilters.EPA832F07014.
USEPA.2007b.WastewaterManagementFactSheet:MembraneBioreactors.Availableonline:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/etfs_membranebioreactors.pdf
USEPA.2008b.MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocumentOfficeofWastewater
USEPA.2008c.OnsiteWastewaterTreatmentSystemsTechnologyFactSheet3:SequencingBatch
ReactorSystems.EPA625R00008.Websiteupdated:14April2008.Availableonline:
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/625r00008/html/html/tfs3.htm
USEPA.2009.NutrientControlDesignManualStateofTechnologyReviewReport.OfficeofResearch
Vaxquez,J.R,M.Figueroa,I.Fernandez,A.MosqueraCorral,J.L.Campos,andR.Mendez.2009.Post
treatmenteofEffluentsfromAnaerobicDigestersbytheAnammoxProcess,WaterScienceand
Technology,60(5):11351143.
Verma,M.,S.K.Brar,J.F.Blais,R.DTyagi,andR.Y.Surampalli.2006.AerobicBiofiltrationProcesses
AdvancesinWastewaterTreatment.Pract.PeriodicalofHaz.,Toxic,andRadioactiveWasteMgmt.
10:264276.
Vidal,A.,R.Combeau,J.Costa,X.LeTallec.1997.BiostyrImprovements:ControlProcessofthe
Aeration.AnnualReportofAnjouResearchonBiostyrProcess.OTV,France.
WEFPress.
WEF.2006.MembraneSystemsforWastewaterTreatment.Alexandria,VA:WEFPress.
WEF.2005.ManualofPracticeFD8:ClarifierDesign,2
nd
Edition.Alexandria,VA:WEF.
WEFandASCE.2010.DesignofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlantsWEFManualofPractice8and
ASCEManualsandReportsonEngineeringPracticeNo.76,5thEd.WaterEnvironmentFederation,
Alexandria,VA,andAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineersEnvironment&WaterResourcesInstitute,
Reston,Va.
WERF.2000a.TechnologyAssessments:NitrogenRemovalUsingOxidationDitches.Alexandria,VA,
WERF.
WERF.2000b.InvestigationofHybridSystemsforEnhancedNutrientControl.FinalReport,Collection
andTreatment.Project96CTS4.Alexandria,VA:WERF.
WE&T.2007.PlantProfile:WarrentonWastewaterTreatmentPlant.WaterEnvironment&Technology.
Alexandria,VA:WEF.Availableonline:
http://www.wef.org/ScienceTechnologyResources/Publications/WET/07/07May/07MayPlantProfile.ht
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Young,T.,S.Crosswell,andJ.Wendle.2008.ComparisonofNitrogenRemovalPerformanceinSBR
Systems.InWEFTEC2008.
Zhu,S.andS.Chen.2002.TheImpactofTemperatureonNitrificationRateinFixedFilmBiofilters.
Aquacult.Eng.26,221237.
7.EstablishingDesignObjectives
7.1 Introduction
Establishingdesigncriteriaisacriticalfirststepinupgradingorretrofittingawastewater
treatmentplant(WWTP)fornutrientremoval.Designcriteriaaretheconditionsunderwhichthe
WWTPmustoperatefollowingtheupgradeorretrofit.Theyincludefactorssuchasprojectedinfluent
flowrateandmassloading,effluentrequirements(e.g.,totalnitrogenlimits),andgoalsfor
sustainability,operability,andflexibility.Designersshouldworkcloselywithfacilityownersandother
stakeholderstodevelopdesigncriteriathatcarefullyconsiderfutureneedsandtreatmentconditionsfor
theentireplanningperiod(typically20years).Thetextboxonthenextpagehighlightssomekey
questionsthatshouldbeaskedduringdesigncriteriadevelopment.
Designcriteriaareanimportantpartofanoverallfacilityplan(alsocalledastrategicormaster
plan).Thefacilityplandocumentstheplanninganddecisionmakingprocessesthatleaddirectlyto
designandconstruction.Amongotherthings,itidentifiestheproblem,presentscriteriaand
assumptions,providespreliminarylayoutandcostalternatives,andreviewsstaffrequirements.Ten
StateStandards(2004)requiresthatcomprehensivefacilityplansbecompletedforprojectsinvolving
new,upgraded,orrehabilitatedwastewatertreatmentfacilities.Facilityplansareusuallypreparedbya
consultantandsignedandsealedbyaregisteredprofessionalengineer.Additionalguidanceon
developinganoverallfacilityplanisprovidedintheWaterEnvironmentFederation(WEF)Manualof
PracticeNo.28,UpgradingandRetrofittingWaterandWastewaterTreatmentPlants(2005).
Chapter7covers:
7.1 Introduction
7.2 CharacterizingExistingTreatment
7.3 DesignFlowRates
7.4 WastewaterCharacteristics
7.5 TargetEffluentConcentrationsforNitrogenandPhosphorus
7.6 GoalsforReliability,Sustainability,andProcessFlexibility
7.7 SolidsHandlingOptions
7.8 SiteConstraints
7.9 SelectinganOverallProcessDesignFactor
7.10 References
Thischapterprovidestechnicalguidanceonestablishingdesigncriteriaforthepurposesof
upgradinganexistingfacilitytoprovidenutrientremoval(nitrogen,phosphorus,orboth)orimprove
nutrientremovalcapabilitiesiftheyalreadyexist.Itisimportanttonotethatthedatagatheringstepsin
Sections7.2through7.4gohandinhandwiththedevelopmentandcalibrationofaprocesssimulation
model.AswillbeexplainedinChapter10,modelingistherecommendedapproachfordesigning
WWTPupgradesforbiologicalnutrientremoval(BNR)becauseof(1)itsflexibilityinenablingdesigners
toquicklytestmanydifferentconfigurationsandoperatingscenariosand(2)itsabilitytosimulate
treatmentperformanceunderawiderangeofconditionsusingdynamicmodeling.
Manystateshavespecificrequirementsfordesigncriteriasuchasdesignflowsandreliability.
Designersshouldcarefullyreviewstaterequirementsandguidelineswhendevelopingcriteriafor
nutrientremovalupgradesorretrofits.Inadditiontothischapter,readersareencouragedtoreview
Chapter5,UpgradingExistingFacilities,intheMunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReference
Document(USEPA2008),availableonlineathttp://www.epa.gov/OWM/mtb/mnrtvolume1.pdf.
GeneralinformationonWWTPdesigncanalsobefoundinTenStateStandards(2004),WEFandASCE
(1998),andTchobanoglousetal.(2003).
7.2 CharacterizingExistingTreatment
Technologyselectionanddesignforefficientnutrientremovalrequiresanextensive
understandingoftheexistingplantsconfiguration,operation,andperformance.Forexample,an
operationsteamwishingtooptimizetheplantsactivatedsludgesystemfornitrificationneedsindepth
knowledgeofflowconfiguration,hydraulicresidencetime(HRT),solidsresidencetime(SRT),and
KeyQuestionstoConsiderwhenEstablishingDesignCriteria
Willtheserviceareaboundarychangeinthefuture?Aplannedresidentialcommunityor
annexationofanexistingcommunitycansignificantlychangeinfluentflowsandcharacteristics.
Whatisthepopulationprojectedtobeattheendofthedesignperiod(typically20years)?
Populationprojectionsshouldconsiderseasonalchangesinpopulationandnonpermanent
residents.
Isdecentralizedoronsitetreatmentbeingencouragedfornew,remotecommunities?Some
statesandlargewastewaterutilitiesareencouragingdecentralizedtreatmenttoreducethe
loadontheexistingcollectionsystemandsaveenergy.
Arethereanyanticipatedchangesinindustrialusers?Additionofamajorindustryorindustrial
plantshutdownscanhaveasignificantimpactonwastewaterquantityandquality.
Isthereastrongwaterconservationprograminyourserviceareaorisonebeingplanned?
Waterconservationcouldresultinreducedflowvolumesbuthigherconcentrationsofnitrogen
andphosphorusinthewastewater.
Howcertainareyouaboutfutureregulationsandflowquantity?Flexibilityindesigncanhelp
addressuncertaintyinfutureconditions.
dissolvedoxygenlevelswithinthebasin(s)duringbothnormalandpeakflowconditions.Recycle
streams,suchassupernatantfromsludgedewateringoperations,canincreaseammoniaintheactivated
sludgebasinsandhaveanegativeimpactonnitrification.Theconfigurationofexistingsludgehandling
systemscanbeadrivingfactorinthedesignofchemicalphosphorusremovalsystems.Odorcontrol
practicesinthecollectionsystemcanreducetheamountofsubstrateavailableforbiological
phosphorusremoval.
Inadditiontoconfigurationandperformance,itisimportanttoascertaintheconditionof
existingequipmentsuchaspipingandpumpstodeterminetheirremaininglifeandrehabilitation
requirements.WEF(2005)recommendsplantwalkthroughsandinterviewswiththeownersand
operatorstogatherthisinformationanddeterminehowexistingequipmentwouldfitintotheupgraded
facilityplan.
7.3 DesignFlowRates

ThetotalflowdeliveredtoaWWTPcanvaryfromyeartoyearduetopopulationandindustrial
changeswithintheservicearea.Influentflowratecanalsovaryseasonallyespeciallyforareaswith
largeseasonalpopulationssuchasresortcommunities.WWTPscanexperiencesignificantpeakflows
duringwetweathereventsduetoinflowandinfiltrationoriftheyhaveacombinedcollectionsystem.
Forsmallplants,peakhourlyflowbasedonindividualusagepatternscanhaveasignificantimpacton
design.

Retrofitsfornutrientremovalshouldbedesignedforaverageandpeakflowconditions.These
flowconditionsshouldbeprojectedforinitialoperationandthroughtheendofthedesignperiod.The
typicaldesignperiodis20years;however,shorteralternativedesignperiods(e.g.,10years)maybe
usedforthephasedimplementationofretrofits.Energyefficiencyshouldbeconsideredforexisting
operationandattheendofthedesignperiod.
Thissectiondiscussesthevariousdesignflowratesthatareimportantfordesigningupgradesor
retrofitsfornutrientremoval.
7.3.1 CharacterizingExistingFlow
Designersshouldusehistoricaloperatingdatafromtheplanttoidentifythevarious
componentsoftheexistingflowandtocharacterizeitsvariabilityovertime.Atleastthreeyearsof
historicalflowdatashouldbeanalyzedifavailable.Graphicalandstatisticalanalysisofthisdatacanbe
extremelyuseful.Flowcharacterizationisalsoanimportantcomponentofdevelopingandcalibratinga
processsimulationmodel.Designersmaydecidetocollectdetailedflowdataformodelingpurposes.
Table71providesadescriptionofinfluentflowcomponents.Flowfromdomesticsourcesisa
keycomponentthatprovidesthebasisforflowprojections.Infiltrationandinflow(I&I)andstormwater
flowareneededfordefiningpeakflowvalues.Table72liststheflowcharacteristicsthatshouldbe
identifiedbasedonexistingplantrecords.
Existingflowdatashouldbeusedtoidentifyapeakingfactorfortheplant.Thepeakingfactor
isthepeakflowrate(typicallypeakhourlyflow)dividedbytheaveragelongtermflowrate.Atleast
threeyearsofflowdatashouldbeusedtodeterminethepeakingfactor(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
Table71.InfluentFlowComponents
Flowcomponent Description EstimationMethodology

Domesticwastewater Wastewater
institutional,
fromresidential,commercial,
andsimilarfacilities.
Averagedryweatherflowminus
industrialflow.Canbeestimated
assumingatypicalflowperdayper
person.
Industrialwastewater Wastewateroriginatingfromindustrial
processes.Characteristicsarehighly
variable.Cancontaincomponentsthat
inhibitbiologicalnitrogenremoval.
Fromwaterutilitymeter
interviewswithowners.
recordsor
Infiltration
(I&I)
andinflow Stormwater,snowmeltorgroundwater
thatentersthecollectionsystemeither
throughcracksandothertypesofbreaksin
thesystem(infiltration)ordirectstorm
drainconnectionssuchasfoundationand
basementdrains(inflow).Muchlower
contaminantconcentrationscomparedto
domesticwastewater.
I&Icanbeestimatedasthedifference
betweenaveragedailywetweather
flowandaveragedailydryweather
flow.Infiltrationcanbedetermined
separatelyfrominflowbycomparing
flowduringwetperiodswhenthe
groundwateriselevated,toflow
duringandshortlyafteraheavy
rainfall.
Stormwater Afactoronlyforlocalitiesthatusethe
samesystemforcollectingwastewaterand
stormwater(combinedsystems).Infiltration
frompeakrainfallisincludedinI&Iabove.
Difficulttodifferentiatebetween
inflowandstormwaterflow.Canbe
estimatedasthedifferencebetween
dryweatherflowandwetweather
flow.
Table72.FlowCharacterization
FlowCharacterization Description
Annualaveragedaily Averageflowrateoccurringwithina1dayperiodbasedonannualflowdata,i.e.1/365
th
1
flow oftotalAnnualFlow.
Averagedailydry Averageofdailyflowssustainedduringadryweatherperiod. Determinedasthedaily
weatherflow averageflowforalldryweatherperiodsduringanaverageyear.
Averagedailywet AverageofdailyflowssustainedduringawetweatherperiodwhenI&Iandstormwater
weatherflow arefactors.Determinedasthedailyaverageflowforallwetweatherperiodsduringan
averageyear.
Maximumorpeak Thelargestvolumeofflowoccurringwithina1dayperiod duringanaverageyear.
dailyflow
Maximummonthly Theaverageofdailyflowsforthemonthwiththehighesttotalflowduringanaverage
flow year.Oncedeterminedshouldbeusedfordesignflow.
Peakhourlyflow Thelargestvolumeofflowoccurringwithina1hourperiod duringanaverageyear.
Peakinstantaneous Highestrecordedflowrate.Maybeconsiderablybelowtheactualpeakflowbecauseof
flow equipmentlimitations,butshouldbeestimatedifso.
Diurnalflowpattern Thetypicaldailyflowpatternfordomesticwastewater,i.e. withpeaksoccurringinthe
morningandevening.
Atypicalevents Typesofeventsincludestormflowsandlargeindustrialdischarges.Basedonhistorical
recordsgoingbackasmanyyearsaspossible(e.g.,basedonreviewofpast10years).
1. Anaverageyearisusuallytheaverageofthreeyears,ormore,atthediscretionofthedesigner.However,itsdefinition
maychangedependinguponwhetherornotthereisasteadyannualincreaseordeclineforknownreasons.
7.3.2 ProjectingFutureConditions
Thefollowinginformationisneededtoprojectfutureflowsandestablishdesignflowsforthe
project:
Projectedpopulationgrowthforthedesignperiodincludingtheestimatednumberofpeopleto
beservedattheendofthedesignperiod.
Perperson(percapita)flowrateestimateingallonsperday(gpd).
Projectedcommercialgrowth(includingzonedareasandexpectedtypesofbusinesses)andnew
institutionalandrecreationalfacilities.
Plannedindustrialcontributionsandanallowanceforunplannedcontributions.
Populationgrowthprojectionsareoftenmadebythecityorcountygovernment.Iftheseare
notavailable,historicalpopulationdatacanbeextrapolatedtopredictpopulationincreasesintothe
future,althoughthismethodiscrudeatbest.
Historicalflowrecordscanbeusedtoestimateaverageperpersonflowforagivencommunity
bydividingtheaverageannualdryweatherflow(expressedasadailyvalue)bythenumberofpeople
served.Industrialflowsshouldbesubtractedfromtheaverageannualdryweatherflowifpossible.
Historicalrecords,however,cannotalwaysbedependedupontogiveanaccuratepredictionoffuture
flows.Initsonsitewastewatertreatmentmanual,EPA(2002)reportsthataveragedailyflowsbetween
50and70gpdperpersonaretypicalforresidencesbuiltbefore1994.Newhomesandresidences
constructedafter1994aresubjecttotheU.S.EnergyPolicyAct(EPACT)standards,whichsetmaximum
flowvaluesforhouseholdplumbingfixturessuchastoilets,showerheads,andfaucets(Table73shows
thedifferenceinwaterusebetweenstandardfixturesandEPACTfixtures).EPAestimatesthathomes
builtafter1994orhomesthathavebeenretrofittedwithEPACTstandardfixtureshaveaveragedaily
wastewaterflowsbetween40and60gpdperperson(EPA,2002).Averagepercapitaflowmaybeeven
lessinregionsthathaveenactedwaterconservationprograms.
Table73.ComparisonofFlowRatesandFlushVolumesBeforeandAfterU.S.EnergyPolicy
Act
Fixturesinstalled EPACTrequirements Potentialreduction
priorto1994 (effectiveJanuary, inwater
Fixture 1994) used(%)
Kitchenfaucet 3.0gpm(0.19L/s) 2.5gpm(0.16L/s) 16
Lavatoryfaucets 3.0gpm(0.19L/s) 2.5gpm(0.16L/s) 16
Showerheads 3.5gpm(0.22L/s) 2.5gpm(0.16L/s) 28
Toilet(tanktype) 3.5gal(13.2L) 1.6gal(6.1L) 54
Toilet(valvetype) 3.5gal(13.2L) 1.6gal(6.1L) 54
Urinal 3.0gal(11.4L) 1.0gal(3.8L) 50
Source:Konen,1995.
Designtextbooksalsoprovidetypicalrangesofflowperpersonperday.WEFandASCE(1998)
providearangeoftotalflowpercapitaofbetween60and110gpd/person.Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)
presentapossiblerangeofperpersonflowratevaluesofbetween46and97gpdbasedonthenumber
ofpersonsperhousehold,withhigherperpersonvaluesforsmallerhouseholds(citingMayer1999).
Somestatesprovideguidanceonselectingpercapitaflowrateestimates.TheWisconsinDepartmentof
NaturalResources(DNR)recommendsthatdesignengineersassume60to70gpd/personforplants
serving5,000orfewerpeople,andbetween65and80gpd/personforplantsservingmorethan5,000
people.Thishighervaluereflectsgreaterinfluenceofcommercialandindustrialcustomers(Wisconsin
DNR2006).Whencompletingflowprojections,regionalandstateguidanceshouldbeconsultedto
accountforthepotentialregionaldifferencesinwateruseandwastewatergeneration.
Wateruserecordsareanothersourceofdatathatcanbeusefulinpredictingpercapitaflow
andfutureflows.The1999report,ResidentialEndUsesofWater(Mayer1999),isoneofthemost
commonlycitedsourcesforwaterusedata.Theproportionofwaterconsumedthatbecomes
wastewaterdependsonregionalconditions.Higherproportions(ashighas90percent)canbeassumed
fornorthernstatesduringcoldweatherwhenirrigationuseislow.Asmallerproportion(60to70
percent)becomeswastewaterinaridregions(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
Futureflowprojectionsfornewcommercial,institutional,andrecreationalfacilitiescanbe
basedonmeterrecordsfromsimilarfacilities.DataTables32through34inTchobanoglousetal.
(2003)providetypicalvaluesifflowdataarenotavailable.
7.3.3 SettingDesignFlowRates
Averageannualdesignflowisimportantforconductingsteadystatemodelingsimulations.It
shouldbebasedonpopulationprojectionsandestimatedfutureflowsfromcommercial,institutionAL,
recreational,andindustrialfacilitiesfortheendofthedesignperiod(oratsomepointinthedesign
periodifusingaphasedapproachasdescribedinSection7.3).Averageannualflowshouldrepresent
normal,dryweatheroperatingconditions.
Biologicalreactors(e.g.,activatedsludgebasins)areusuallysizedusingtheMaximumMonth
DesignFlow,althoughshortSRTsystemsmayrequiresizingbasedonmaxweekorevenshortrunning
averages.Clarifiers,filters,andpumpstationsaretypicallysizedbasedonmaximumhydraulicorsolids
load,whichisoftenbasedonPeakHourlyDesignFlow.Maximumandpeakratesareusuallyderived
bymultiplyingtheaverageannualdesignflowbyapeakingfactor.Peakingfactorsarebasedonanalysis
ofexistingpeakflowscomparedtoaverageflows(seeSection7.3.1),withengineeringjudgmentapplied
toaccountforfuturechangesinI&I(e.g.,collectionsystemupgradescansignificantlyreduceI&I,but
aginginfrastructureincreasesI&I).Flowequalizationisasignificantfactorflowequalizationatthe
plantorinthecollectionsystemcanreducethepeakingfactor.Diurnalflowpatternforthedesignyear
arealsoveryimportantformodeling.
Designersshouldconsultwithstateregulatorstoensurethatdesignflowsadheretostate
requirementsandmeetstheforecastedneedsofthecommunitythroughtheendofthedesignperiod.
7.4 Wastewatercharacteristics
Measureddatacharacterizingthequalityofwastewaterintheinfluentandatkeylocations
throughouttheplantareextremelyimportantfordesigningbiologicalnutrientremovalprocesses.
Mathematicalmodelsdependonaccuratedatatopredicttheperformanceofvarioustreatment
scenarios.Thephrasegarbagein,garbageout(GIGO)isveryappropriateheremodelpredictionsare
onlyasgoodasthedataonwhichtheyarebased.AswillbeexplainedfurtherinChapter10,oneofthe
keybenefitsofmodelingistheabilitytosimulatevariationsinwastewaterflowandcharacteristicsand
thus,produceatighterdesignwithlowerprocesssafetyfactors,savingoncapitalandoperations
costs.Tightdesignswithlowsafetyfactorsarehighlydependentongoodqualitydata.Toaddressthe
importanceofwastewatercharacterization,thebasicguidanceondatacollectioninSection7.4.1is
followedbyrecommendedstepsfordataverificationinSection7.4.2.
Itisveryimportanttonotethatcharacterizationofinfluentflowratesandmassloadingof
contaminantsgohandinhand.Acommonerrorindesignistoassumethatnutrientloadingsare
independentofflowratevariability,whichisnotthecaseinsystemsthatreceiveanyI&Iorstormwater
flow.Conversely,nutrientloadingsfromdomesticsourcesoftenvarydiurnallyandcanbegreatest
duringperiodsofhighflows.Asnotedthroughoutthisdocument,returnstreamscandischargehigh
nutrientconcentrationstotheheadofthetreatmentplant
7.4.1 DataCollection

Whichdataaretypicallyavailablefromtheplant?
Plantsroutinelymeasureflowandwastewaterqualitytoaidinbasicoperatingdecisionsandto
ensureregulatorycompliance.Mostmaintainhistoricaldatainelectronicformatsuchasspreadsheets,
databases,or,inthecaseofsmallsystems,handwrittenlogsheets.Dailycompositesorgrabsamplesof
theinfluentandeffluentaretypicallyavailablefromplantpersonnelforthefollowingparameters
(Melceretal.2003):BiochemicalOxygenDemand(BOD)
1
,TotalSuspendedSolids(TSS),mixedliquor
suspendedsolids(MLSS),ammoniaand/orTotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN),nitrate,andphosphorus
(sometimesonlyorthophosphorus).
Designersshouldstartbyobtainingasmuchhistoricaldataaspossiblefromthewastewater
utility.Whenworkingwithlargeplantswithelectronicrecords,designersshouldobtainasmanyas8to
10yearsofhistoricaldatatohelpidentifyannualtrendsandeliminatedataanomaliesanderrors.Itis
important,however,toonlyincludedatafromtimeperiodsthatrepresentcurrentconditions.Datesof
majorplantconfigurationoroperatingchangesshouldbediscussedwithplantoperatorsand
consideredwhenreviewinghistoricaldata.Suddenchangesininfluentconditionscouldalsorepresent
additionorremovalofamajorindustryorachangeinlaboratories.
1
ForthepurposesofthisdesignmanualBODrepresentsthe5dayBODmeasurementmethod(sometimes
referredtoasBOD
5
)unlessotherwisenoted.
Whatadditionaldataareneededformodelingnutrientremovalprocesses?
Ingeneral,thefollowingdataareneededtomodelnutrientremovalprocesses:
1) Averagevaluesforthefollowingparametersinthetreatmentplantinfluent,primaryeffluent,
andsecondaryeffluent.
Chemicaloxygendemand(COD)CODisusedinsteadofBODtomodelorganicsubstrate;
seethetextboxinthissectionforfurtherexplanation.Ifthe
Totalsuspendedsolids(TSS)
Volatilesuspendedsolids(VSS)
TotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN,whichisthesumoforganicandammonianitrogen)
Ammonianitrogen(NH
4
N,NH
3
N)
Nitratenitrogen(NO
3
N)
Totalphosphorus(TP)
Orthophosphate(OP)
Alkalinity
Temperature
pHspotsamples.Averageofsamplesismeaningless
2) DiurnalinfluentloadingpatternsforCOD,ammonia,andphosphatearealsoveryimportantfor
bothsteadystateanddynamicmodeling.
Datashouldrepresentnormaldryweatheroperatingconditionsandbebasedonseveralyearsof
historicaldata.
Inmostcases,historicaldataareinsufficienttomeetdesignobjectivesfornutrientremoval.If
timeandfundingallow,measurementcampaigns,alsocalledspecialsampling,canbeconductedearly
intheprocessbeforecalibrationbegins.Thisstepisrecommendedifkeydataaremissingorif
designersdonothaveconfidenceinexistingdata(e.g.,grabsamplinglocationsarenotrepresentative,
historicaldatadonotmatchexpectedvalues).Thedurationofatypicalmeasurementcampaignis1to
2weeks.24hourcompositesamplesshouldbecollectedfromwellmixedlocationsrepresenting
influentflow,primaryeffluent,andsecondaryeffluentandanalyzedforkeyparameterssuchasCOD
2
,
BOD,VSS,TSS,ammonia,nitrate,phosphate,alkalinity,andpH.Designersshouldconsider
supplementalsamplingoftheinfluenttoobtaindiurnalprofiles(e.g.,hourlygrabsamplesfor24to48
hoursmeasuringCOD,ammonia,andphosphate).Specialsamplingofoperatingparameterscould
includespotchecksofdissolvedoxygen(DO)concentrationsinaeratedzones,dailygrabsamplesof
mixedliquor,monitoringofRASrecyclerateandconcentration,andsamplingtocharacterizeside
streams(Melceretal.2003).WhereamplehistoricalBODinformationandnoCODdataareavailable,
designersshouldtrytoestablisharelationshipbetweentheCODandBODforrawandsettled
wastewater.SeethetextboxattheendofthissectionforguidanceonestimatingCODifonlyBODdata
areavailable.
2
LaboratoryanalysisforCODshouldbedoneassoonaspossibleaftersamplecollectiontominimizepossible
errorsintroducedbypreservationtechniques(Takacs2009).
Totalcostofa2weekcompositesamplingcampaignisestimatedtobeabout $20,000(Takacs 2009)
WhydomathematicalmodelsuseCODinsteadofBODtorepresentorganicmaterial?
ToexplainwhyCODistherecommendedmeasurementfororganicmaterialinwastewater,itis
usefultofirstprovideareviewofthewayinwhichmicroorganismsconsumeorganics.
Microorganismsuseorganicsubstrateintwoways.
(1) TheyoxidizeittoCO
2
andwatertoprovideenergyformaintainingexistingcellmass.
Thisisaccomplishedbytransferringelectronsfromtheorganicsubstratetoa
terminalelectronacceptor(oxygen,orinthecaseofanoxicconditions,nitrate).
Undersubstratelimitingconditions,whicharetypicalforactivatedsludgesystems,
microorganismsusearelativelyfixedpercentageoforganicsubstrate,expressedas
COD,forthecellmaintenanceprocess.
(2) Theyconvertorganicmaterialtonewcellmassusingtheenergygeneratedthrough
oxidation,asdescribedinitem(1)above.
CODmeasurestheamountofanoxidantthatreactswithasampleundercontrolled
conditions.Becauseeachmoleofoxygenacceptsfourelectronequivalents,theCOD
measurementofoxidantdemandisadirectmeasureoftheelectrondonatingpotentialofa
sample.Fromtheelectrondonatingpotential,itispossibletoquantifytheamountofCODand
oxygenconsumedandtheamountofsludgeproduced.
TheBODmeasurementmethodhasseverallimitations.Itonlyaccountsforthe
carbonaceousmaterialthatisusedforenergy,notorganicmaterialconvertedtonewcellmass.
MostBODmeasurementsarebasedonatestingdurationof5days(BOD
5
)whichonlyaccounts
fortheamountthatreactswithinafivedayperiodandnotalltheavailablecarbon.Depending
onhowrapidtheoxidationratesare,twodifferentwastewatersamplesmayhavethesame
ultimateBODbutdifferentBOD
5
concentrations.
Totalorganiccarbon(TOC)couldbeusedtorepresentcarbon;however,becausemodels
accountforreactionsbasedontheelectronstransferredandnotthemolesofcarbon,itwould
bedifficulttotrackthereactionsbasedonTOC.
MeasuringCODatvariouslocationsinthewastewaterplantallowsforamassbalance.
CODenteringthesystemmustequalthesumof(1)CODintheeffluent,(2)CODofthewasted
sludge,and(3)oxygenconsumedinutilizationoforganicmaterial.
Formoreinformation:SeeMelceretal.(2003),AppendixB;APHA,AWWA,andWEF(2005).
Limitationsinfundsandtime,however,oftenrenderextensivemeasurementcampaigns
impractical.Melceretal.(2003)recommendsaniterative,ortieredapproachwherebythemodelis
firstrunusinghistoricaldata.Additionaldataneedsaredeterminedbasedontheaccuracyofmass
balancesandothercalibrationchecks.SeeChapter10fordetailedguidanceonmodelcalibrationusing
thisrecommendediterativeapproach.

7.4.2 DataVerification
Thedesignershouldperformanumberofdatareviewandverificationstepsbeforemaking
calculationsorenteringdataintothemodel.Inthesimplestterms,designersshouldcriticallyevaluate
thedatatoanswerthequestions,dothedatamakesense?anddotheyfollowexpectedengineering
principles?Belowisarecommended4stepprocessforreviewingandverifyingdata.Chapter10
providesadditionalrecommendeddataverificationstepsfororganicsubstrate,nutrientfractions,and
kinetic/stoichiometricparameters,respectively.Additionalmassbalancesandcalibrationchecksare
recommendedinChapter10ofthisdesignmanual.
WhatiftheplantdoesnothaveCODdata?Thisisacommonproblem.ManyplantsmeasureBOD
insteadofCODbecausetheBODmethodhasbeenusedforalongtimeandisoftenthebasisfor
regulatorycompliance.IfCODmeasurementsarenotavailable,CODcanbeapproximatedby
establishingtheratioofCOD/BODorCOD/VSS.WhilesomemathematicalmodelsmaytakeBODas
theinput,itisstillnecessarytoadjusttheCODfractionsforgoodcorrelation.
AlthoughmeasuredvaluesofBOD,COD,andVSSintheplantinfluentvarygreatly,theratiosare
generallyconsistentforaspecificwastewater.COD/BODratiosaretypically1.9to2.2,withthehigher
ratiosforrelativelyfreshwastewater.COD/VSSshouldrangefrom1.42to1.48mgCODpermg
MLVSS.EstimatingtheratioofCOD/BODismorecommonthanCOD/VSS.
TodeterminetheCOD:BODratioforaspecificwastewater:
Collectseveralsamples(10to20arerecommended)ofinfluentwastewater.Thesamples
shouldberepresentativeoftotalinfluentflowandtakenatdifferenttimesofthedayatlow
andhighinfluentflowrate.
Splitthesamples,takingcaretohomogenizethemthoroughly.
AnalyzeeachsampleforCODandBOD.UsethesamemethodforBODthatisusedforthe
availableplantdata.(BOD
5
ismostcommon,althoughsomeplantswillhavecBOD
5
data.)
DeterminetheaverageCOD:BODratioforallsamples.
Repeatthetestwithprimaryeffluent
DesignerscanthenapplythisratiotohistoricalBODdatatodetermineCOD.
Step1:Reviewdataforanomalies.
Conductstatisticalanalysestodetermineaverage,median,minimum,andmaximumvalues.
Lookforobviousoutliersthatcouldbearesultofdataentryerror(e.g.,aparameterdifferent
thancomparablemeasurementsbyafactoror10couldbeanerrorindecimalplacement).
Plothistoricaldataovertimetoevaluatetrends.Extremechangesinreadingsorflatdatacould
indicatesensorproblems.
Step2:Reviewsamplinglocationsandcollectionprocedures.
Permanentinstrumentationshouldrepresenttheprocessandshouldbeinawellmixed
samplinglocation.
Checklocationsofflowmetersareseparateflowmetersinstalledforeachtrain?Ifnot,howis
splitestimated?
Checklocationofgrabsamplecollectionsometimesaconvenientplacetosamplefromabasin
isnotrepresentativeofthewaterqualityinthatbasin.
Step3:Reviewanalyticalprocedures.
Checkthatsamplesareanalyzedusingapprovedstandardmethods.
CheckthemethodfordeterminingBOD.Becausemodelingexperienceisbasedonrelationships
betweenCODandBOD,alldatashouldbefromthe5dayBODtest(alsoreferredtoasBOD
5
),
notultimateBOD.CheckifBODisintheformofcarbonaceousBOD(cBOD).Plantmanagers
aremoreoftenmonitoringandreportingcBODinsteadofBODtobeconsistentwithstate
permitlimits.ThestandardmethodforcBODrequirestheadditionofaninhibitortoprevent
nitrificationthatwouldotherwiseregisterasBOD.Thereisevidencethatsomeoftheorganic
reactionsarealsoinhibited,leadingtoartificiallylowcBODvalues(Albertson1995).Others
(Bairdetal.2002)maintainthatthereisnoinhibitionofBODbut,instead,therearemore
nitrifiersinrawwastewaterthanusuallyassumed,leadingtoanapparentinhibitionofBOD.To
check,determinetheCOD/BODratioifCODdataareavailable.Theratioshouldbebetween1.9
and2.2.COD/BODratioshigherthan2.2mayindicateinhibitionforcBODdataorcouldresult
fromexcessiveparticulatematterfromindustries.Somedesignershavecorrectedthisby
adjustingcBODdataupwardby10to15percentfordomesticwastewater.
Example1:ImproperSamplingofPrimaryEffluent.
Anautomatedflowproportionalcompositesamplingdevicewasdrawingsamplealiquotsfromnear
thebottomofaprimaryeffluentchannel.Theprimaryeffluentchannelwasnotwellmixedandthus,
thesamplingdevicewasdrawinganunrepresentativeamountofparticulatematter.Asecond
problemexistedwiththesamplingdeviceitself.Thevacuumusedtowithdrawandtransportthe
samplefromtheprimaryeffluentchanneltothesamplecontainercausedthevolatileportionofthe
organicmattertodissipateasitenteredthereceivingvessel(Melceretal.2003).
CheckthemethodforCODdetermination.Mercuricsulfate(HgSO
4
)mustbeaddedtocounter
theinfluenceofchlorides,andsilversulphateA(gSO
4
)isrequiredasacatalysttofacilitatefor
theoxidationofsomeorganicmattersuchasVFAs.Thesechemicalsarehazardousandmustbe
disposedoffollowingregulations.Theuseofmercurysaltsisnecessarywhenchlorideisa
factorinCOD,butcanbeomittedininstanceswherethecontributionofchloridetoCODis
negligible.WhenusinghistoricalCODvalues,checktoseewhetherthesechemicalswereused.
COD/BODratiosshouldbeasexpected(seeStep4).SeeStandardMethodsfortheExamination
ofWaterandWastewater(APHA,AWWA,andWEF2005)formoreinformationaboutmethods
5220AthroughD.
CheckthesizeofthefilterusedtodifferentiatebetweenTSSandDSS(typically1.2to1.5m
glassfiberfiltersshouldbeused).Thisbecomesimportantwhenevaluatingfractions.
Checkthatoperatorsusedappropriatesamplepreservationandstoragetechniquesandmet
maximumallowableholdingtimes.
Checkthequalityassuranceprocedures.Areduplicatesandblanksregularlysenttothe
laboratory?
Checkthatsensorsandothermeasurementequipmentareregularlycalibrated.Forexample,
- MostTSSmetersshouldbecalibratedatleastweekly.
- IfmembraneelectrodesareusedforDOmeasurement,theyshouldbereplacedatleast
quarterly.
SeeChapter13oninstrumentationandcontrolsforadditionalrecommendations.
Example2:SignificantObservedDifferencesinCODinSplitSamples
Latimeretal.(2007)reportedseveralcasesofquestionablewastewatercharacterizationdata.In
oneinstance,largedifferencesinCODconcentrationwereobservedbetweensplitsamplesanalyzed
onsiteandatanapprovedcommerciallaboratory.AlthoughbothusedEPAapprovedmethodsand
typicalQA/QCprocedures,thelaboratoryresultswereonaverageapproximately30percentless
thanplantvalues.Thisdiscrepancypersistedevenaftereffortstoensurepropersampling,
preservation,andhomogenizingofthesamplepriortosplitting.Theonlyexplanationprovidedby
thelaboratorywasthatthemethodgavedifferentresultsdependingonthewaythevialwasturned
intheinstrument.Thisexampleunderscorestheimportanceoffollowingthemanufacturers
instructionswithrespecttohomogenizationofsamplesandtothecorrectorientationofvialsinthe
spectrophotometer.Therearemanycasessimilartothisexample,andiftheCODinformationlooks
suspectwhenmodeling,considerthatthemethodusedtodetermineitmaybeatfault.
Step4:Comparemeasuredratiostotypicalvaluesfordomesticwastewater.
COD/BOD:TheCOD/BODratioforinfluentwastewaterthathasalowdetentiontimeinthe
collectionsystem(i.e.,freshwastewater)shouldbe2.2orhigher.Wastewaterthattravels
throughfairlyflatcollectionlinesand/orforcemainsferments,whichincreasestheBOD
5
but
nottheultimateBODandthusreducestheCOD/BODratiotoaround2.0orless.TheCOD/
BODratiowillbehigherwhentheVSS/BODratioishigher.
COD/VSSratio:Thisratioshouldbe1.42to1.48mgCODpermgMLVSS.
VSS/TSSratio:Thisratioshouldbeontheorderof0.75mgVSS/TSSformunicipalwastewater
and0.83mgVSS/TSSforprimaryeffluent.
COD/TKNratio:AlthoughTKNandCODconcentrationsvaryintheplantinfluent,theratio
shouldbefairlyconstant.Forrawdomesticwastewater,theratiovariesfromapproximately9.5
to12.
TheCOD/TPratio:Valuesshouldrangefrom35to60.
TKN/VSSratio:Thisratioshouldvarybetween0.08and0.1formixedliquorVSSbutmayvary
muchmoreforrawdomesticwastewater.
Sludgegeneration(measuredasmassVSSorTSSgenerated)permassCODorBODininfluent:
CheckagainstsimilarplantswithsimilarSRTs.Figure71,whichshowssludgeproductionwith
andwithoutprimarytreatmentfordifferenttemperaturesandSRTs,canbeusedasaguide.
TheTSSandBODconcentrationsshouldbewithin10percent.
Example3:ErrorinCalculationofTotalizedFlow
Atonetreatmentplant,comparisonofinstantaneousflowmeasurementstototalizedflowshowed
largedifferences.Aninvestigationrevealedthattheprogrammablelogiccontroller(PLC)calculating
thetotalflowcontainedanerror,resultinginanunderestimateoftotalplantinflowofapproximately
25percent(Thirdetal.2006).Inanotherinstance,theflowmeterwasmeteringonlyoneoftwo
parallelstreams.ThePLCwouldmultiplythisbyafactoroftwofortotalplantflow.However,for
thefirstseveralyears,onlyoneofthetwoflowtrainswasusedandtheflowwasreportedatdouble
theactualflow.
Figure71.Netsludgeproductionversussolidsretentiontimeandtemperature(a)withprimarytreatmentand(b)without
primarytreatment(lb/lb=kg/kg).
Source:WEFandASCE1998,Figure11.7,p.1120.ReprintedwithpermissionfromDesignofMunicipalWastewater
TreatmentPlantsMOP8,4thEdition,Copyright1998,WaterEnvironmentFederationandAmericanSocietyofCivil
Engineers,Alexandria,VA.www.wef.org
7.5 TargetEffluentConcentrationsforTotalNitrogenandTotalPhosphorus
Plantsshouldbasetheirtargeteffluentconcentrationsfortotalnitrogen(TN),andtotal
phosphorus(TP)onthefollowing:
NutrientlimitsinNationalPollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES)permitsincluding
numericlimitandaveragingperiodrequirements
Anoverallprocessdesignfactor
Inotherwords,thedesignvalueshouldbebelowthepermittedvaluetoprovideamarginofsafety.
IssuesrelatedtoNPDESpermitlimitsarediscussedinthissection.Applicationofanoverallprocess
designfactor(i.e.,safetyfactor)isaddressedinSection7.9
NPDESpermitsaresetona5yearcycle.Historically,NPDESpermitssometimesincludedan
effluentlimitforammonianitrogenbutnotTNorTP.Permitsthatincludedtotalnutrientlimitsoften
setmaximumallowablevaluesof10mg/LforTNand1.0mg/LforTP.Recognizingtheharmfuleffects
ofeutrophicationofthenationswaterwaysduetoexcessivenutrientloadings(seeChapter2,Section
2.4ofthismanualforacompletediscussion),regulatoryagencieshavestartedsettinglowernutrient
limitsinNPDESpermits.TNlimitationsof5.0or3.0mg/LandTPlimitsof0.5andeven0.1mg/Lorless
arebecomingmuchmorecommon.
Particularlyinwesternportionsofthecountry,nutrientrelatedwaterqualityproblemscan
occuronaseasonalbasis.Asaresult,waterqualitybasedeffluentlimitationsfornutrientsusually
applyonlyduringthecriticalperiod.Thisperiodroutinelyoccursfromlatespringthroughearlyfall
whenstreamflowsarelowandtemperaturesarewarm.
Theaveragingperiodforthepermitlimitsisanextremelyimportantfactorinselecting
technologies,establishingdesignparameters,andoperatingplantsfornutrientcontrol.Thefollowing
approachestolimitingeffluentnitrogenandphosphorushavebeenusedinNPDESpermits,eitheralone
orincombination:
Annualaverage
Quarterlyaverage
Maximummonth
Maximumweek
Maximumday
Seasonalaverage
Table74providesseveralexamplesofNPDESpermitlimitsfornutrientsaspresentedduringa
2008workshoponnutrientremoval.Otherexamplescanbefoundinstaterecordsandthroughoutthe
relatedliterature,andindividualNPDESpermitsandfactsheetscanbeaccessedthroughEnvirofacts.
VisittheEPAwebpagehttp://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/permitissuance/permitscanning.cfmformore
information.
Table74.ExamplePermitLimitsforNutrients
WWTP Ann. TNLimits TPLimits Citation

Name Location Avg. mg/L Lbs/ mg/L Lbs/
Flow day day
(MGD)
TruckeeMeadows
Water
Reno,NV 2.0daily
nitrate
maxfor 500 0.430dayavg 134
Gray2008
Reclamation
Facility
RiverOaks
Advanced
Wastewater
TreatmentPlant
Tampa,FL 10 6.00
4.50
3.75
3.00
dailymax
wklyavg
monthlyavg
annualavg
2.00
1.50
1.25
1.00
dailymax
wklyavg
monthlyavg
annualavg
Phillips2008
FiestaVillage
Advanced
Wastewater
TreatmentPlant
Fort
FL
Myers, 5 6.0
4.5
3.0
3.0
singlesample
wklyavg
monthlyavg
annualavg
1.0singlesample
0.75wklyavg
0.50monthlyavg
0.50annualavg
Meyer2008
OrangeCounty
EasternWater
Reclamation
Facility
Orlando,FL 17.3 6.0
5.0
3.0
wklyavg
monthlyavg
annualavg
2.4
2.0
1.0
weeklyavg
monthlyavg
annualavg
Madhanagopal
2008
Parkway
Wastewater
TreatmentPlant
Laurel,MD 5.56 7.0monthlyavg
and11.0wkly
avgbetween4/1
and10/15
1.5
1.0
weeklyavg
monthlyavg
Selock2008
ClarkCounty
Water
Las
NV
Vegas, 110 0.6mg/Las
ammonia
511as
ammo
0.2mg/L 176 Drury2008
Reclamation nia
District
RockCreek
Advanced
Wastewater
Washington
County,OR
30(dry
weather)
Noneprovided 0.10mg/L
monthlymedian
Spani2008
TreatmentFacility
BluePlains
Advanced
Wastewater
TreatmentFacility
Washington,
DC
370(dry
weather)
7.5annualavg
changingto4.2
annualavgin
future
0.35
0.18
monthlyavg
weeklyavg
Baily2008
Source:WEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101:WEF/WERF:DemonstratedProcessesforLimitofTechnology
NutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatisticalReliability.Chicago,IL.October,2008.

7.6 GoalsforReliability,Sustainability,andProcessFlexibility
Reliabilityisthecapabilityofatreatmentprocesstoperformitsintendedfunctionwithout
failureorinterruptionoftreatmentsuchasduringfloods,powerfailures,orintheeventofequipment
failure.Reliabilitygoalsofanutrientremovalprocessshoulddependonthepermitlimitsandaveraging
period.Themostcommonsafetyfactoristodesignformaximummonthloadings.Reliabilityismore
importantandmaynecessitatelargersafetyfactorsiftheaverageperiodisdailyorweekly.Monthly,
seasonaloryearlypermitlevelsprovidesomedegreeofflexibilityforunforeseeneventswithout
exceedingthepermitlevel.SeeChapter6,Section6.7foradditionaldiscussiononreliabilityof
technologiesandeffluentlimits.
Itiscommonforstatestorequirethattreatmentcomponentsbedesignedtotreattheaverage
dailydesignflowwiththelargestunitoutofservice.TenStateStandards(2004)requiresthatallplants
beprovidedwithanalternativesourceofelectricpowerorpumpingcapacitytoallowcontinuityof
operationsduringpowerfailures.Methodsofprovidingalternativepowerincludeconnectingtoatleast
twoindependentpowersourcesandusingbackuppowergenerators.Sparepartsshouldbekeptonsite
toensurecontinuousnutrientremovalcapabilities,andequipmentshouldbeaccessibleforrepairs.
Designersshouldstronglyconsiderincorporatingonlineinstrumentationandcontrolsinto
design.Onlineinstrumentationcanproviderapidfeedbackcomparedtograbsamplingandenable
operatorstorespondmorequicklytoenvironmentalchanges,therebymaintainingnutrientremovalto
desiredlevels.Automatedcontrolcansignificantlyreduceworkloadwhileatthesametimeimproving
controlofprocessparametersthusimprovingtreatmentplantperformance,oftenatreducedenergy
costs.Automatedcontrolishighlyrecommendedforplantstryingtoachieveloweffluentnutrient
levels(e.g.,TN<3mg/LorTP<0.1mg/L).SeeChapter13ofthismanualforguidanceononline
instrumentationandcontrols.
Sustainabilityimpliesasimultaneousfocusoneconomic,social,andenvironmentalperformance
(USEPA2008).Onegrowingareaoffocusinrecentyearsistheinterrelationshipamongwater,energy,
andgreenhousegasemissions.InitsrecentlypublisheddocumentEnsuringaSustainableFuture:An
EnergyManagementGuidebookforWastewaterandWaterUtilities,EPAnotesthatenergy
managementisattheheartofeffortstoensuresustainabilityforutilities(USEPA2008b).When
consideringupgradesandretrofitstoexistingWWTPsforthepurposesofremovingnutrients,designers
shouldworkwithownerstoidentifysustainabilitygoalssuchasminimizingenergyuse,resource
recovery,andreducinggreenhousegasemissions.
Flexibilityindesigncanhelpaddressuncertaintiesinfutureconditions.Forexample,thedesign
shouldincludetheflexibilitytoincreaseitstreatmentcapacityifownersandregulatorssuspectthat
nutrientlimitswilldecreaseinthefuturebasedonnewwatershedanalysesandthesettingofnumeric
waterqualitycriteria.Similarly,thedesignshouldaddresstheelementsofuncertaintyinpopulation
projectionsandassumptionsregardingtheindustrialandcommercialcomponentsofwastewater.The
changesininfluentflowasaresultofwaterconservationhavebeenstudied(AWWARF1999)butare
veryareaspecific.Onemethodtoaddressuncertaintyinthedesignincludesdividingprojectsinto
severalphasestoeasethefinancialburdenonwastewaterutilities.Thisphasedapproachalsoreduces
uncertaintybymeetingshortertermdesignobjectivesfirstratherthanconstructingfacilitiestomeet
projectedcriteriathroughtheendofa20yearplanningperiod.Turndowncapacityofblowershas
beenfoundtobecriticalinthedesignofenergyefficientaerationsystemsandoftencompensatesfor
protectivedesignassumptions.WEF(2009)recommendsaminimumturndownratioof5:1.Multiple
blowersofmorethanonesizealsomaybeinstalledsothatblowerscanbeturnedoffwhenpossible.
Automationofturnoffshasproventoimproveenergyefficiency.
Operationalflexibilityisoftenneededtoremovenutrientstolowlevelsinareaswithsignificant
coldweatherperiods.Suchflexibilitymayalsobeadvantageousforplantswithhighlyvariableinfluent
flowandnoflowequalization.Onewaytobuildoperationalflexibilityintodesignistoincludeswing
zones.Swingzonescanbelocatedbetweentheanaerobicandanoxiczones,theanaerobicandaerobic
zones,ortheanoxicandaerobiczonesdependinguponthesecondaryprocessesselected(USEPA2008).
Forexample,aswingzonebetweentheanoxicandaerobiczonewouldcontainbothmixersand
diffusers.IfmoreSRTwererequiredfornitrification(e.g.,duringwintermonths),thediffuserscouldbe
operated.Duringwarmermonths,thediffuserscouldbeturnedofftocreateanaerobicconditionsand
promotephosphorusremoval.

Safetyandsecurityareimportantconsiderationsforanyupgradeproject.Allnewstructures
shouldbeenclosedandshouldhavesignsdiscouragingentryofanyonebutauthorizedpersonnel.
Handrailsandguardrailsshouldbeinstalledaroundtanks,trenches,pits,andotherhazardous
structures.Warningsignsshouldbeappropriatelyplaced,andadequateventilationshouldbeprovided.
Designersshouldworkwithplantownersandotherstakeholderstodetermineifadditionalsecurity
featuressuchaslights,motiondetectors,andcamerasareneeded.
7.7 SludgeTreatmentOptions
Boththequantityandqualityofthesludgeproducedshouldbeconsideredwhenestablishing
designcriteriafornutrientremovalprocesses.Biologicalnitrogenandphosphorusremovalprocesses
donotgenerallyproduceadditionalsludgequantities.Infact,inthecaseofnitrogenremovaloperated
withouttheadditionofanexternalcarbonsource,thebiologicalnutrientremovalprocesseswilllower
sludgequantities.Theadditionofchemicaltreatmentforphosphorusremoval,however,always
producesadditionalsludgeduetothegenerationofmetalorcalciumandphosphorusprecipitates.
Theadditionofnutrientremovalchangesthesludgecomposition,whichinturncanchangethe
thickeninganddewateringproperties.Nitrogenand/orphosphorusremovalcanimprovethickening
characteristicsduetodecreasedamountsoffilamentousbacteriaintheactivatedsludge.Sludgefrom
biologicalphosphorusremovalprocesseswillcontainadditionalphosphorus,butwillotherwisebe
similartosludgeproducedbyconventionalactivatedsludgesystems.Sludgesettlinganddewatering
characteristicsaregenerallythesameorimproved.Potentialissuesincludephosphorusreleaseand
struviteprecipitationunderanaerobicprocessingconditions.SeeChapters4and5ofthismanualfor
additionaldiscussionsoftheeffectsofnitrogenandphosphorusremoval,respectively,onsludge
handling.
7.8 SiteConstraints
Siteconstraintscanbeadrivingfactorinselectinganutrientremovaltechnology.Particularly
forlargerWWTPsinurbanareas,spacecanbelimited.Attachedgrowthandhybridsystemssuchas
IFASandmovingbedbioreactors(MBBRs)canachievenutrientremovalinsmallerfootprintsandcan
Example1:SuccessfulUseofSwingZonestoRemovePhosphorusunderChangingConditions.
Jacksonetal.(2007)reportsuccessfuluseofswingzonestoprovidephosphorusremovalata5MGD
plantatTheColony,Texas.Basedonnewtotalnitrogenpermitlimits,theplantoperationteamhad
decidedtoretrofittheirexistingactivatedsludgeprocesswithanIntegratedFixedFilmActivated
Sludge(IFAS)systemandmodifytheirexistingcontactstabilizationprocessforplugflow.Afterthe
designwasfinalizedandconstructionwasabouttobegin,theteamlearnedofapendingrevisionof
theirphosphoruseffluentlimitto1mg/L.Thedesignwasmodifiedtoincludetwoanaerobicswing
zonescontainingbothcoarseairdiffusersandmixersystems.Theauthorsreportsuccessin
achievingbothnitrogenandphosphorusremovalbyoperatingthezoneanaerobicallyinallbutthe
coldestmonths.
oftenbeusedtoretrofitanexistingbasinwithoutincreasingthefootprintatall.Chapter6andChapter
8provideadditionaldiscussionoffootprintrequirementsfornutrientremovaltechnologies.
OdorcanbeaseriousissueforWWTPs,particularlythoseinurbanareas.Designersshould
alwaysconsiderhowaplantupgradeorretrofitfornutrientremovalwillimpactthereleaseofodorsat
theplant.Containment(e.g.,coveringoftreatmentunits)andtreatmentofcapturedgasshouldbe
consideredforeachprocessupgrade.Forexample,theadditionoffermentationtoproducesubstrate
forbiologicalphosphorusremovalcanproducesignificantodors.Forthisreason,sludgethickenersfor
fermentationshouldbecoveredandtheheadspacescrubbedtocontrolodors.Manyretrofitsfor
biologicalnutrientremoval,however,donotincreaseodors.Forexample,theadditionofanaerobic
zonesforbiologicalphosphorusremovaldoesnotincreaseodorsbecauseofthecontinuousadditionof
oxidizedactivatedsludgetothezoneandalsobecausevolatilecompoundssuchasH
2
Sandvolatilefatty
acids(VFAs)arenotbeingstrippedandtheVFAsareusedbythephosphateaccumulatingorganisms.
BecauseimprovementstoWWTPsdirectlyimpactthecommunity,thepublicshouldbebrought
intotheprocessasearlyaspossibletoeducatethemontheneedfortreatmentchangesandtoobtain
theirsupport.Designersandownersshouldconsiderthefollowingoptionsforpublicinvolvement(WEF
2005):
Scheduleapublicmeetingatthebeginningoftheplanningprocesstoidentifymajorissues.
Scheduleadditionalmeetingsthroughoutplanning,design,andconstruction.
Considerlowcostimprovementssuchastreeplantingandimprovedstormdrainagetogain
publicsupport.
Establishacitizensadvisorygroupforlargeprojects.
Developproceduresfordealingwithpubliccomplaints.
Communicatewiththepublicregularlythroughflyers,newsletters,andinterviewsonlocalnews
stations.Regularlypostprojectupdatesincludingpicturesontheutilitywebsite.
7.9 SelectinganOverallProcessDesignFactor
Engineersroutinelyapplysafetyfactorsduringdesign,particularlyforsizingofbasinsandother
capitalequipment,toaccountforuncertaintiesinpredictedconditionsandtechnologyperformance.
Fordesignofnutrientremovalsystems,relevantuncertaintiesare:
Variationsinpredictedinfluentflowratesandcontaminantloadings.
Uncertaintyinpredictedtreatmentperformance(oftendrivenbyuncertaintyinbiokinetic
parameters).
Variabilityinmechanicalequipment.
Asuncertaintyineachofthesefactorsincreases,sodoesthesafetyfactor.Note,however,thatin
additiontoinefficienciesinoperation,oversizedunitsalsocanresultinreducedperformanceof
biologicalnutrientremovalsystems,particularlythosethatincludeenhancedbiologicalphosphorus
removal.Forsuchsystem,thebestsafetyfactorismultipletrainsratherthanlargerreactors.Then
trainscanbetakenonorofflinetomaintainnearoptimumperformance.Additionaltimespentearlyin
thedesignprocesstocarefullyevaluatedataandpredictconditionsthroughoutthedesignperiodcan
allowfortheuseofasmallerfactorandsavemoneyinconstructioncosts.
Safetyfactorsarehighlydependentontheextentofdatacollection,calibration,andtypeof
processsimulationmodelingperformedfortheproject.Asconfidencewithmodelparametersincrease,
thesizeofthesafetyfactordecreases.Onemajoradvantageofdynamicmodelingisitsabilityto
simulateanumberofdifferentfutureconditionsandthus,enabletheuseoflowersafetyfactors.See
Chapter10foradditionaldiscussion.
7.10 References
Bailey,W.2008.ManagersPerspectiveonMultipleStepChemicalAddition(BluePlains)forLowP.
PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101,DemonstratedProcessesforLimitof
TechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatisticalReliability.WEF/WERFChicago,IL.
October,2008.
Bratby,J.,J.Jimenez,D.Parker.2008.DissolvedOrganicNitrogenIsItSignificant,andCanitbe
Removed?PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Drury,D.2008.ManagersPerspectiveonFollowingBioPwithTertiaryChemicalRemovalSteps(Clark
County).PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101,DemonstratedProcessesfor
LimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatisticalReliability.WEF/WERF.
Chicago,IL.October,2008.
Gray,R.2008.ManagersPerspectiveonSeparateStageFixedFilmNandDNProcessesforLOT
(TruckeeMeadowsWaterReclamationFacility).PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshop
No.101,DemonstratedProcessesforLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsand
StatisticalReliability.WEF/WERF.Chicago,IL.October,2008.
Jackson,D.R.,L.E.Ripley,T.Maurina,andS.Hubbell.2007.UptotheChallenge:IFASHelpsGrowing
TexasCityMeetDischargeLimits,ExpandCapacity.WaterEnvironment&Technology.19(11):5054.
Jeyanayagam,S.andI.Venner.2007.WastewaterProcessDesignwithEnergySavingsinMind.Florida
WaterResourcesJournal.January,PP.2833.
Konen,T.P.1995.WaterUseandEfficiencyUndertheU.S.EnergyPolicyAct.StevensInstituteof
Technology,BuildingTechnologyResearchLaboratory.Hoboken,NJ.
Lancaster,C.D.andJ.E.Madden.NotSoFast!TheImpactofRecalcitrantPhosphorusontheAbilityto
MeetLowPhosphorusLimits.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Leenheer,J.,A.Dotson,andP.Westerhoff.2006.DissolvedOrganicNitrogenFractionation.Annalsof
EnvironmentalScience,Vol1,4556.
Madhanagopal,T.2008.ManagersPerspectiveofaCombinedProcess(5StageBardenpho)Process
forLOWN(EasternWaterReclamationFacility)ModerateClimate.PresentedatWEFTECTechnical
EducationWorkshopNo.101,DemonstratedProcessesforLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:
AchievableLimitsandStatisticalReliability.WEF/WERF.Chicago,IL.October,2008.
Mayer,P.W.,W.B,DeOreo,E.M.Opitz,J.C.Kiefer,W.Y.Davis,andB.Dziegielewski.1999.Residential
EndUsesofWater.AWWAandAWWAResearchFoundation.
Melcer,H.,P.L.Dold,R.M.Jones,C.M.Bye,I.Takacs,H.D.Stensel,A.W.Wilson,P.Sun,andS.Bury.
2003.MethodsforWastewaterCharacterizationinActivatedSludgeModeling.WERFFinalReport.
Project99WWF3.
Meyer,J.2008.ManagersPerspectiveonFollowingSeparateStageNitrificationwithFixedFilm
SystemsforLowN(FiestaVillage).PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101,
DemonstratedProcessesforLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatistical
Reliability.WEF/WERF.Chicago,IL.October,2008.
Mulholland,M.R.,N.G.Love,D.A.Bronk,V.Pattarkine,A.Pramanik,andH.D.Stensel.2009.
EstablishingaResearchAgendaforAssessingtheBioavailabilityofWastewaterTreatmentPlant
DerivedEffluentOrganicNitrogeninTreatmentSystemsandReceivingWaters.February27.
Mulholland,M.R.,N.G.Love,V.M.Pattarkine,D.A.Bronk,andE.Canuel.2007.Bioavailabilityof
OrganicNitrogenfromTreatedWastewater.STACPublication07001.Availableonline:
www.chesapeake.org.
Pagilla,K.(2007)PresentationatWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundationandChesapeakeBay
ScienceandTechnologyAdvisoryCommitteeWorkshop,Baltimore,MD,September27/28,2007
PehlivanogluMantas,E.andD.L.Sedlak.2006.WastewaterDerivedDissolvedOrganicNitrogen:
AnalyticalMethods,Characterization,andEffectsAReview.CriticalReviewsinEnvironmental
ScienceandTechnology.36:261285.
Phillips,D.2008.ManagersPerspectiveonSeparateStageSuspendedGrowthNandDNProcessesfor
LOT(RiverOaks).PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101,Demonstrated
ProcessesforLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatisticalReliability.
WEF/WERF.Chicago,IL.October,2008.
Sattayatewa,C.andK.Pagilla.2008.NitrogenSpeciesMeasurementinLowTotalNitrogenEffluents.
PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Sedlak,D.2007.TheChemistryofOrganicNitrogeninWastewaterEffluent:WhatItIs,WhatItWas,
andWhatitShallBe.PresentationattheSTACWERFWorkshop:EstablishingaResearchAgendafor
ReceivingWaters.Baltimore,MD,September,28,2007.
Sedlak,D.L.andE.Pehlivanoglu.(2007)rDONfateandavailabilitytonitrogenlimitedalgae.
PresentationatWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundationandChesapeakeBayScienceand
TechnologyAdvisoryCommitteeWorkshop,Baltimore,MD,September27/28,2007
Selock,K.2008.ManagersPerspectiveofaCombinedProcess(5StageBardenpho)ProcessforLOWN
SevereClimate(ParkwayWWTP).PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101,
DemonstratedProcessesforLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatistical
Reliability.WEF/WERF.Chicago,IL.October,2008.
Spani,C.2008.ManagersPerspectiveonMultipleStepChemicalAddition(RockCreek)forLowP.
PresentedatWEFTECTechnicalEducationWorkshopNo.101,DemonstratedProcessesforLimitof
TechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsandStatisticalReliability.WEF/WERF.Chicago,IL.
October,2008.
STACWERF.2007.WorkshopConsiderationsandPresentations.EstablishingaResearchAgendafor
ReceivingWaters,Baltimore,MD,September,28,2007.
Takcs,I.2009.Modeling101,HowDoInfluentCharacteristicsAffectModelOutputs?Presentedat
Modeling101HowtoUseSimulatorsintheDesignandOperationofWastewaterTreatment
Facilities.WEFDistanceLearningWebcastSeries.ModelingExpertGroupoftheAmericas.February
25,2009.
TenStatesStandards.2004.RecommendedStandardsforWaterWorks,2007Edition:Policiesforthe
ReviewandApprovalofPlansandSpecificationsforPublicWaterSupplies.WaterSupplyCommittee
oftheGreatLakesUpperMississippiRiverBoardofStateandProvincialPublicHealthand
EnvironmentalManagers.Availableonline:http://10statesstandards.com/waterstandards.html
USEPA.2002.OnsiteWastewaterTreatmentSystemsManual.OfficeofWaterandOfficeofResearch
http://www.epa.gov/nrmrl/pubs/625r00008/html/625R00008.htm
USEPA.2008a.MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument.OfficeofWastewater
USEPA.2008b.EnsuringaSustainableFuture:AnEnergyManagementGuidebookforWastewaterand
WaterUtilities.January.Availableonline:
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/pdfs/guidebook_si_energymanagement.pdf
USEPA.2009.AccessingIndividualNPDESPermitsandFactSheetsthroughEnvirofacts.National
PollutantDischargeEliminationSystem(NPDES).Websiteupdated13February2009.Website
Accessed29April2009.Availableonline:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/npdes/permitissuance/permitscanning.cfm
VADEQ.2004.Chapter790.SewageCollectionandTreatmentRegulations.Commonwealthof
Virginia,StateWaterControlBoard.9VAC25790.Availableonline:
http://www.deq.state.va.us/export/sites/default/wastewater/pdf/DEQ_SCAT_Reg.pdf
WEF.2005.UpgradingandRetrofittingWaterandWastewaterTreatmentPlants.WaterEnvironment
FederationManualofPractice,No.28.Alexandria,VA:WEFPress.
WEF.2009.RunningAnEnergyEfficientWastewaterUtilityModificationsThatCanImproveYour
BottomLine.WEF Distance Learning Webcast Series. Moderator: J.C. Cantwell. Webcast presented June
24, 3009.
WERF.2008.DissolvedOrganicNitrogen(DON)inBiologicalNutrientRemovalWastewaterTreatment
Processes.H.D.Stensel,LeadEditor.WERFDissolvedOrganicNitrogenCompendium.Available
online:
http://www.werf.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Nutrients&CONTENTID=8726&TEMPLATE=/CM/Con
tentDisplay.cfm
Eleuterio,L.andJ.B.Neethling.2009.LowPhosphorusAnalyticalMeasurementStudy.Presentedat
NutrientRemoval2009.Washington,DC.WEF.
WisconsinDNR.2006.GuidanceforWastewaterTreatmentFacility,DesignFlowDeterminations.
Availableonline:http://dnr.wi.gov/org/water/wm/glwsp/facilities/designflow.htm.Websiteupdated
28August2006.WebsiteAccessed:29April2009.

8.SelectingCandidateTreatmentProcessesforPlantUpgrades
8.1 Introduction
Selectionofcandidatetreatmentprocessesforplantupgradesisbasedonmanyfactors
includingtargeteffluentlimits,existingtreatment,spaceavailable,andoperatorpreference.Selection
ismoreofanartthanascienceandisinfluencedbytheexperiencesandpreferencesoftheownerand
designengineers.GuidanceinChapters3through7ofthismanualprovidesthebasisfortechnology
selection.Thischaptersummarizesthekeyfactorsinselectingcandidatetreatmentprocessesfor
removingnitrogen,phosphorus,orbothfromwastewater.
8.2 TechnologySelectionFactors
Firstandforemost,thetechnologyselectedforthewastewatertreatmentplant(WWTP)needs
tomeetthetargeteffluentlimitsfornitrogenandphosphorus.SeeChapter7forguidelineson
determiningtargeteffluentlimits.Chapter6providesadiscussionofattainableeffluentlimitsforthe
variousnutrientremovaltechnologies.ItisnotedinChapter6andworthreiteratingherethatthese
guidelinesarenotuniversalandthatattainablenutrientremovalissitespecificanddependsona
numberoffactorsincludingwastewatercharacteristics,existingplantconfiguration,redundancyand
reliabilityofequipment,andoperation.Thissectionprovidesageneraldiscussionofsomeimportant
factorsaffectingtechnologyselection.
8.2.1SeasonalPermitLimits
Aseasonalpermitlimitcanhaveasignificanteffectonthedesigncriteriaandtechnology
selection.AsnotedinChapter7,itiscommoninaridregionsofthecountryforregulatoryagenciesto
requirenitrogenremovalonlyduringthewarmmonths,suchasfromMay1throughOctober31.Under
thisscenario,WWTPscanstopnitrificationeachfallandrestartitinthemonthofAprilwhen
temperaturesarewarmertobringtheplantintocompliancebythebeginningofMay.Another
commonapproachistobasepermitlimitsonannualaveragevalues.Thisapproachallowstheplantto
maximizenitrogenremovalduringwarmmonthsandpracticevariableremovalduringthecoldmonths
aslongasitcanmeettheannualaveragevalue.
Becausecompletenitrificationcanbeachievedinwarmermonthsusingrelativelyshortsolids
residencetimes(SRTs),thevolumesofbiologicalreactorsandsecondaryclarifierscanbesignificantly
reducediftheplanthasaseasonalorannualaveragepermit.Conventionalbiologicalnitrogenremoval
Chapter8covers:
8.1 Introduction
8.2 TechnologySelectionFactors
8.3 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofTechnologyTypes
8.4 OverviewofRecommendedApproach
8.5 RecommendedUseofAdvancedTools
8.6 PatentIssues
8.7 References
schemessuchastheModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE),Anaerobic/Anoxic/Oxic3StagePhoredox(A2/0),
andVirginiaInitiativePlant(VIP)processes,ratherthanadvancedremovalschemessuchasthe4or5
stageBardenpho,hybrid,orfixedfilmsystems,mayprovidesufficienttreatmenttomeettheseasonal
permitconditions.MaintaininglowerSRTsisnotwithoutoperationaldisadvantages,however,because
itincreasestheamountofwastebiomasssludgeproducedandthereforeincreasessludgeprocessing
anddisposalcosts.Onthepositiveside,reducingtheSRTreducestheamountofenergyrequiredfor
aeration.
Therearesomeadvantagestooperatingunderanannualaveragepermitratherthanaseasonal
permit.ItismoredifficulttoreestablishnitrificationinAprilafterithasbeencompletelystopped,
whichistypicalofseasonalpermits,thanwhenithasbeenpartiallymaintained,asistypicalofannual
averagepermits.Also,withannualaveragepermits,aspecificeffluentconcentrationdoesnothaveto
bemetinMay.
Itisimportanttonotethatbiologicalphosphorusremovalsystemsbecomemoreefficientas
temperaturedecreasesaslongasVFAsdonotbecomelimitingandtherecycleofelectronacceptors
(dissolvedoxygenandnitrates)totheanaerobiczoneisnotsignificant.ThisisbecauseGAOs,the
primarycompetitorswithPAOsforVFAs,dependuponglycolysis,whichismoretemperaturesensitive
thantheenergygeneratingsystemofthePAOs.Therefore,asthetemperaturedecreasesbelow20
o
C,
thePAOsobtainanincreasingfractionoftheVFAsintheanaerobiczone,andtheirpopulationincreases
relativetotheGAOs.Therefore,eventhoughPAObiochemicalreactionsslowdownwithtemperature,
asistypicalofallbiochemicalreactors,performanceoftenimprovesbecauseoftheincreaseinthePAO
populationrelativetotheGAOpopulation.
Permitsmayrequiretotalnitrogen(TN)removalduringsomepartsoftheyear,butlimitonly
theammoniatototalKjeldahlnitrogen(TKN)portionatothertimesoftheyear.Ifseasonal
denitrificationisattempted,theacclimationperiodrequiredforthebiomasswithsomeexternalcarbon
sourcesneedstobeaccountedforintheoperationalstartupofdenitrification.Providingsufficienttime
foracclimationisimportanttoassuringthatthesystemisoperatingforremovalwhenthelimitsare
applied.Insomecases,operatorsusingmethanolasthecarbonsourcefordenitrificationcontinueto
feedsmalldosesevenwhenthecarbonisnotrequiredjusttomaintainthemethanolmetabolizing
biomass.
8.2.2 Footprint
Thespaceavailableattheplantforupgradescanbethedrivingfactorforselectingamongst
varioustypesofnutrientremovaltechnologies.Technologiesrequiringlargefootprintsmaynotbe
feasibleinanurbanareawithlimitedspaceavailableforexpansion.
Conventionalnitrogenremovaltechnologiestypicallyhavelargefootprints.Ifspaceislimited,
therearemanyalternativesforreducingbasinrequirementsfornitrificationanddenitrificationas
outlinedinSection8.4.
Thefootprintfortheadditionalanaerobiczoneforbiologicalphosphorusremovalisrelatively
small,varyingfrom5to15percentofthetotalvolume.Spacemaybeneededforrecyclepipingbutthe
pipingfrequentlycanbeplacedinsidetheexistingreactor(whichenablestheuseoflowheadpropeller
pumps).Inmanyretrofits,theanaerobiczonecanbecreatedinanexistingactivatedsludgebasinusing
baffles.
Thefootprintforaddingchemicalfeedfacilitiestoprecipitatephosphorusistypicallysmall.A
newsolidsremovalprocess(tertiaryclarification,effluentfiltration)mayrequirealargerfootprint.High
rateclarification(HRC)canbeusedinsteadofconventionalclarificationtoreducethefootprintsize.
ExamplesofpatentedHRCsystemsareprovidedinChapter6.
8.2.3 HydraulicConsiderations
Certainprocessesrequireadditionalpressurehead,whichissuppliedbypumps.Forexample,
pumpingistypicallyrequiredforplantswithdenitrifyingfiltersbecausesufficienthydraulichead
followingtheaerationbasinsisnotusuallyavailable.Pumpingisalsousuallyrequiredforeffluent
filtration.Theadditionofoverflowbaffleswithdifferentelevationstoatreatmentsystemmayinduce
someheadlossesandrequireadditionalpumping.Underflowbafflesprovideanequalamountof
protectionagainstbackflowsifcorrectlydesigned,anddosowithoutheadloss.

Membranebioreactorsrequireadditionalpumpingtoforcewaterthroughthemembrane
material.Pressuredrivensystemsareusedifthemembraneisconfiguredaftertheaerobicandanoxic
basins.Vacuumdrivensystemsuseapumptopullwaterthroughthemembranewhenitissubmerged
inabiologicalreactor.
8.2.4 ChemicalNeeds
Theadditionofanycommercialchemicalrequiresdelivery,storage,andsafetyproceduresin
additiontomixinganddosingequipment.Threetypesofchemicalsmaybeaddedtowastewaterfor
nutrientremoval:metalsaltsorlimetoprecipitatephosphorus;anexternalcarbonsourceforBPRor
denitrification;andlime,bicarbonates,orcausticsodatomaintainalkalinity.
Metalsaltsorlimecanbeaddedtowastewatertoprecipitatephosphateandsubsequently
removeitusingasolidsseparationprocess.Manyplantsthatarerequiredtomeetloweffluenttotal
phosphorus(TP)limitsthatuseBPRareincorporatingchemicalphosphorusremovalasabackupsystem
toensurethatlimitscanbemetintheeventofabiologicalupset.Multiplefeedpointsarealso
becomingmorecommon.
Asnotedintheprevioussection,anexternalorganiccarbonsourcemaybeneededforBPRor
denitrification.Commonexternalsourcesincludemethanol,ethanol,andaceticacid,aswellassimple
sugars.
Thenitrificationprocessconsumesalkalinity.Althoughthedenitrificationprocesscanadd
alkalinitybacktothemixedliquorforsinglesludgetreatmentsystems,thereisstilltypicallyanetlossin
alkalinityof50percentormore.AlkalinitydepletioncanresultinpHdecreasesandinterferewith
biologicalprocesses.Aspreviouslynoted,plantscanaddalkalinitytomaintainadequatelevelsby
addinglime,bicarbonates,orcausticsodatotheinfluent.
8.2.5 AvailableSludgeTreatmentandOptions
AsnotedinChapter4ofthismanual,lesssludgeproductionandbettersettlingandthickening
sludgeisfoundforactivatedsludgesystemsusinganoxic/aerobictreatmentfornitrogenremovalversus
aerobictreatmentonly.Theimpactthiswillhaveontotalsludgeproductiondependsuponhowmuch
wastesludgeisproducedbyothertreatmentunitssuchasprimaryclarifiersandtreatmentwith
precipitatingchemicals.AsnotedinChapter5,sludgefromBPRprocesseswillhavehigherphosphorus
contents,andthereforeahighersettlingvelocity,butwillotherwisebesimilartosludgefrom
conventionalactivatedsludgeplants.
Additionalsludgeproductionisseenasoneofthemajordisadvantagesofchemicalphosphorus
removalcomparedwithbiologicalmethods.Thevolumeofadditionalsludgeproducedvaries
dependingontheinfluentphosphorusconcentration,chemicalapplicationpoint(s),chemicalused,and
targeteffluentlimit.Chemicallytreatedsludgehasahigherinorganiccontentcomparedtoprimaryand
activatedsludgeandwillincreasetherequiredsizeofaerobicandanaerobicdigesters,aswellas
dewateringequipment.Theuseofmetalsaltscanresultinincreasedinorganicsalts(salinity)inthe
sludgeandintheeffluent.Salinitycancreateproblemswhenbiosolidsarelandappliedorwhenthe
effluentisreturnedtoexistingwatersupplyreservoirs.Limetraditionallyproducesahighersludge
volumecomparedtometalsaltsbecauseofitsreactionwithnaturalalkalinity.
Designersshouldcarefullyconsidertheimpactsofsludgeprocessingonnutrientreleaseinto
recyclestreams.Anaerobicdigestioncanreleaseammoniaandphosphorusinlargequantities,resulting
insignificantrecycleloadstothebiologicalnutrientremoval(BNR)processes.Anaerobicdigestionof
BPRsludgesalsoreleasesmagnesiumalongwiththeammoniaandphosphorus,resultinginthe
formationofstruvite.Thisstruvitetypicallyremainsentrappedinthedigestedsolidsandreducesthe
loadsintheliquidstreamrecycledbacktothemainstreamprocesses.Althoughphosphorusremovalby
struviteformationisadesirablephenomenonfromtheperspectiveofrecycleload,struvitecrystalscan
plugcentrifugeports,aswellaspumpsandpipesusedtoconveythesludge,ifnotcontrolled.However,
becauseofthehigherconcentrationsofmagnesiumandphosphorusinanaerobicdigesterswhenBPR
sludgesaredigested,most,ifnotall,ofthestruviteformationoccurswithinthesludgeandremainswith
thesludgeratherthanstayinginsolutionandformingstruviteafterleavingthedigesters.
Innovativeworkisunderwaytorecovernutrientsfromsludge(includingstruvite)andconvert
themintocommercialfertilizersandotherproductsinwhichtheycanbereused.SeeChapter14for
discussionofnutrientrecoverytechnologies.
8.2.6 EnergyConsiderations
Treatmentplantupgradesfornutrientremovaloftenrequireadditionalenergytooperate.If
theydonotalreadyexist,additionofrecyclestreamsforBNRwillrequireadditionalpumpingenergy.
Filterslikelyrequireadditionalelectricityforpumpingtoprovidethepressureheadonthefilters.
Membraneshavethehighestpumpingcostbecausetheyrequirethemostpressuretopushthewater
throughthemembranematerial.Thesmallerthemembraneporesize,thehigherthepumpingcosts.
Anaerobiczones,fermenters,andchemicalfeedpumpsusuallyrequirearelativelysmallamountof
energy(USEPA2008a).Althoughsomeprocessesareinherentlylessenergyintensivethanothers(e.g.,
oxidationditchvsnitrifyingdiffusedairactivatedsludge),energyrequirementsgenerallyincreasewith
leveloftreatment.Theexceptioniswhenaprimaryanoxiczoneisaddedfordenitrificationwhen
nitrificationisalreadybeingpracticed.Thereductionofbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD)inthe
anoxiczonereducestheamountofenergyneededtotransferoxygenintheaerobiczone.IftheBNR
systemisanMLEoranA2/Oconfiguration,theanticipatedreductioninaerationenergyiscommonly
about20percent.Also,usinglowheadpropellerpumps,orequivalent,andnitraterecyclelinesthatare
internaltotheactivatedsludgebasinswillsignificantlyreducepumpingenergycomparedtorecycle
pumpstations.
Energyrequirementsfornutrientremovalcanbefurtherminimizedbyimplementingthe
following(Kangetal.2009):
Useofswingzones
Stepaerationinactivatedsludgebasins
Fermentersforinplantcarbongeneration
Automatedcontrolofaerationequipment
Sidestreamtreatment
Flowequalizationforrecycleflows
Energyrequiredfornutrientremovalcanalsobeoffsetbyenergyconservationmeasures
(ECMs).ECMsrangefromnocostoperationalimprovementssuchaspeakloadshavingand
optimizationofmixingandaeration,toplantupgradessuchaspumpreplacementsformoreefficient
variablefrequencydrives.Wastewaterutilitieshaveanopportunitytobeenergygeneratorsbyusing
biogasfromanaerobicdigestiontogenerateelectricityonsite.Manyenergyefficiencymeasureshavea
shortpaybackperiodforthewastewaterutilitytorealizepositivecostbenefits.
Implementationofenergyefficiencymeasuresbeginswithbenchmarkingcurrentperformance
andconductinganenergyaudittoidentifyareasofimprovement.EPAhasdevelopedguidelinesfor
energyefficiencybasedonthePlanDoCheckActmanagementsystemapproachtohelpoperators
identify,implement,measure,andimproveenergyefficiencyandrenewableopportunitiesattheir
utilities.Formoreinformationandguidance,refertothedocument,EnsuringaSustainableFuture:An
EnergyManagementGuidebookforWastewaterandWaterUtilities,availableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/waterinfrastructure/pdfs/guidebook_si_energymanagement.pdf.
8.2.7 StaffingandTrainingRequirements
Apotentialdisadvantagetosomeemergingtechnologiesistheamountoftrainingrequiredto
operateanonconventionalsystem.Eventhoughemergingtechnologies,overthelongterm,maybe
lesscomplexthanconventionalsystems,operatorsmayhaveapreferenceforamoreconventionaltype
systemthatfitsinwiththeexistingtechnologies.However,manyoperatorsliketolearnabout
innovativeprocessesandfrequentlylearntooperatetheminwaysthatovercomedesignlimitations.
BNRprocesseshavebeenoperatedverywellbymanyoperatorsafterarelativelyshorttrainingperiod.
Itisespeciallyimportantthattheoperatorsunderstandthemajoroperatingfactorsthataffectthe
performanceoftheBNRsystem.Automatedprocesscontrolcaneasetheburdenonoperatorsandis
recommendedforsystemstargetingveryloweffluentTNandTPlevels.
8.2.8 TechnologySelectionConsiderationsforSmallFlowSystems
Nutrientremovalmayberequiredforverysmallordecentralizedwastewatertreatment
applications.Uniquefeaturesofthesetreatmentapplicationswithregardtowastewater
characteristics,operationsandmaintenancecapabilities,andwaterreusepotentialaffecttheprocess
selectionanddesignapproaches.Incontrasttolargerflowsystems,thediurnalvariationsinthe
wastewaterflowratesandconcentrationsaremuchmoredramatic,withalargeincreaseinflowand
wastewaterstrengthafterdaybreakandwithminimalwastewaterflowsinthelateeveningandearly
morninghours.Thewastewaterstrengthisalsotypicallymuchgreaterthanthatfoundforcentralized
wastewatertreatmentfacilitiesmuchofthetime,whichgreatlyaffectstheprocessselection
alternativestomeetloweffluentnutrientconcentrations.
Smallflowanddecentralizedwastewatertreatmentsystemsgenerallyhavelessresourcesfor
operationalandmaintenancestaff,whichfavorsselectingprocessesthathavelessmechanical
complexityand/orexhibitahighdegreeofreliability,andprocessdesignswithhighersafetyfactors.
Manysmallflowanddecentralizedwastewatertreatmentfacilitiesarelocatednearapplicationsfor
waterreuse,suchthattheprocessselectionincludesbothnutrientremovalandrequiredwaterquality
forwaterreuse.Astheneedforhighertreatmentlevelshasevolvedforsmallsystems,manyofthe
processescommonlyusedinthepastmaybeoutdatedandnewapproachesarecontinuallybeing
developed.Foradditionalguidanceforsmallflowsystems,pleaseconsulttheEPAwebsiteat:
http://cfpub.epa.gov/owm/septic/septic.cfm?page_id=268.
8.3 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofTechnologyTypes
Toassistintechnologyselection,Table81providessomeverygeneraladvantagesand
disadvantagesofsomecommontechnologytypes.Adiscussionfollowsthetable.
Table81.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofTechnologyTypes
Technology
Type
Advantages Disadvantages
Attachedgrowth
comparedtosuspended
growth

Smallerfootprint
Canbiologicallynitrifyat
lowerSRTs
Moreresilienttoshockloads
Lessbiologicalsludge
production
Bettersettlingsludge

Highoxygentransferrequirements
Operationislessflexible(i.e.,
accumulationofnitrifyingbiomass
islimitedbecauseofcompetition
withheterotrophicmicroorganisms
forDOandcarbon)
Secondaryprocesssuchas
chemicalprecipitationisneeded
forphosphorusremoval
Chemicalphosphorus
removalcomparedto
biologicalphosphorus
removal

Notsusceptibletobiological
upsetsandis,thus,generally
consideredmorereliableand
controllable.
Canincreasesludgesettling
rates.

Increasedsludgevolume
Consumesalkalinity,whichcan
affectnitrification
Ifaddedtosecondarytreatment,
increasedMLSSconcentrationand
therefore,increasedclarifier
volume
Chemicalcosts
Mainstreamtreatment
comparedtosidestream
treatmentofrecycle
streams

Flowequalizationcanhelp
withwetweatherflowsand
canprovideoperational
flexibility
Mainstreamtreatmentis
straightforwardwithexisting
processes,whereas
sidestreamtreatmentmay
requireoperatingtraining
andvendorsupport

Equalization(EQ)basinsrequire
additionalspace,highcapitalcosts.
Sidestreamtreatmentrequiresan
additionalbutsmallerfootprint
thanEQbasins
Continuoussludgedewatering
requires24houroperationvs.
dailyoperation
Emergingtechnologies
comparedtoestablished
technologies
Canofferimproved
efficiencyandoperational
costsavings
Limitedexperienceunder
ofoperatingconditions
avariety
Attachedgrowthsystemscanbeusedtoconsiderableadvantagefornitrificationand
denitrificationbiologicalaeratedfilters(BAF)beinganexamplebuttheyaredifficult,thoughnot
impossible,touseforbiologicalphosphorusremoval.Consequently,whenBAFsareusedand
phosphorusremovalisalsorequired,thephosphorusisalmostalwaysremovedbychemical
precipitation.TheBAFshaveasmallfootprint,whichcanbeamajoradvantage,buttheytendtohave
higheroxygentransferenergycostswhenusedfornitrification,andorganiccarbonhastobeaddedfor
denitrification.Flexibilityfortreatmentofchangingflowsandloadsonlycomesfromhavingmultiple
units,someofwhichcanbetakenonandofflineattheappropriatetimes.
Theadditionoffixedfilmmediatoanactivatedsludgebasinhasseveraladvantages.The
attachedbiomassdoesnotflowforwardtothesecondaryclarifier,reducingthesolidsloadingtothe
clarifier.TheSRToftheattachedbiomassislong,sothattheaverageSRToftheattachedand
suspendedbiomassislongenoughtoaccomplishnitrificationunderconditionsthatwouldnotbe
conducivetonitrificationwithsuspendedbiomassalone.Thedisadvantagesarethecostsand
installationofthemediaandnecessaryappurtenancessuchasscreens,airknifes,recyclepumpsand
mixers,dependinguponthetypeofmediaselected.
ChemicalphosphorusremovalusingironoraluminumsaltscanbeusedinsteadofBPRorasa
supplementtoBPR.Theadvantagesofchemicalphosphorusremovalarethat(1)thechemicaladdition
canbeturnedonandoffwithoutanacclimationperiodorharmtothebiologicalprocesses,(2)removals
canbeobtainedevenwhentherearebiologicalupsets,(3)theprocessiseasytocontrolforconsistent
removaltolowlevels,and(4)theadditionofthechemicalsincreasesthesludgesettlingrateswhen
addeddirectlytothemixedliquor.Disadvantagesofchemicaladditionare(1)theincreaseinsludge
production;(2)thecostofthechemicalsandconsumptionofalkalinitybybothironandaluminum
chemicals,whichmayresultinaneedtoaddalkalinityforbothchemicalcoagulationandnitrification;
(3)andincreasesintheMLSSconcentrationsinthereactors.Itisimportanttonotethatadditionof
VFAstoabiologicalphosphorusremovalprocessmakesiteasiertocontrolsimilartochemicaladdition
forphosphorusremoval,withalesserincreaseinwastesludgeproduction.
Sidestreamscanbemanagedattheplantthroughmainstreamtreatmentorcanbetreated
separatelyusingaconventionaloradvancedsidestreamtreatmentprocess.Consistentlyloweffluent
TNdoesnotrequireremovalofnitrogenfromsidestreams;mainstreamtreatmentsuchasflow
equalizationorcontinuousdewateringoperationscanbejustaseffective(Barnard2006).Mainstream
treatmentcanbealowercostoptionbutoftenrequiresadditionalmonitoringandcontrolledoperation.
Also,operatorsaremorefamiliarwithmainstreamascomparedtoadvancedtreatmentoptions.
Advancedsidestreamtreatmentmethods,however,havebeenincreasinglyusedinrecentyears.They
typicallyhavesmalleroverallfootprints.SeeChapter6,Section6.6foradescriptionofseveraladvanced
sidestreamtreatmentprocesses.
8.4 OverviewofRecommendedApproach
Althoughselectionofthemostappropriatenutrientremovaltechnologydependsonmany
factors,designerscanbeginwithageneralizedapproachbasedonafewimportantexternalconditions,
namely:
TargeteffluentlimitsforTN
TargeteffluentlimitsforTP
AvailableSpace
Temperature
Asnotedthroughoutthisdesignmanual,simulatorsarethebesttoolforprocessselectionanddesign.
SeeChapter6fordetailedinformationontheavailabletechnologiesfornitrogenandphosphorus
removalatWWTPsandChapter10forguidanceonprocessselectionanddesignusingmodelsand
simulators.
1. TargeteffluentlimitsforTN
Forupto70percentremovalofTNfromthewastewaterandtypicallyproducingeffluent
concentrationsbetween5and8mg/L,dependingupontheinternalrecyclerate,thebasic
configurationofasingleanoxicandaerationzone(e.g.,theMLEprocess)withconventional
secondaryclarifiersisoftensufficient.Targeteffluentlevelsbetween5and8mg/Lyear
round,however,maybedifficulttoachievewiththistechnologyinareaswithverycold
climatesorwherewaterconservationhasledtoamoreconcentratedwastewater.
Typically,however,effluentconcentrationsinthatrangecanbeobtainediftheinternal
recycleratecanbeincreasedtohigherrates.ThisassumesthedesignpermitstheRASrate
tobeincreasedtoatleast100percentoftheinfluent,andpreferablyto150percent.
For70to90percentremovalofTNfromwastewaterandtypicallyproducingeffluent
concentrationsbetween3and5mg/L,asecondanoxiczonecanbeaddedaftertheaerobic
zonesuchasinthe4stageBardenphoprocessconfiguration,oraneffluentdenitrification
filtercanbeusedtoachievetherequiredremovalbydenitrifyingtheportionoftheflow
thatisnotrecycledtothefirstanoxiczone.Completedenitrificationbythe4stage
Bardenphoprocesstypicallyrequiresadditionofanexternalcarbonsourcetothesecond
anoxiczoneunlessaverylargesecondanoxiczoneisused.Removalcanbeimproved
throughoptimizationofinfluentloadingbyequalization,orbycontrollingrecyclestreams
andinfluentflowtopreventwashoutofnitrifiers.
For90percentormoreremovalofTNfromwastewaterandtypicallyproducingeffluent
concentrationsof3mg/Lorless,removalmaybecomelimitedbydissolvedorganic
nitrogen(DON)intheplanteffluent.Basedonastudyof188plants,effluentDON(or
EDON)typicallyrangesbetween0.5and1.5mg/L(Pagilla2007).Researchisongoinginto
thedesignandoperatingconditionsthatcanbeusedtominimizeEDON.Process
optimizationandautomatedcontrolsystemsbecomeveryimportantinachievingtheselow
TNlevels.Denitrificationfilterswithsupplementalcarbon(e.g.,methanol)additioncan
provideenhancedTNremovalconsistentlytoloweffluentlevels.
SeeChapter6,Section6.7,foradditionaldiscussionofattainableeffluentTN.
2. TargeteffluentlimitsforTP
For80to90percentremovalofTPfromwastewaterandtypicallyproducingeffluent
concentrationsof0.5to1.0mg/L,BPRshouldbesufficientaslongasthefollowing
conditionsaremet:
- Theratioofreadilybiodegradablecarbonaceousoxygendemand(rbCOD)toTP
(rbCOD:TP)issufficient.Typically,BPRwillworkforrbCOD:TPratiosof10to16or
greater;seeChapter5,Section5.2ofthisdesignmanualforadditionalinformation.
- Therecycleofdissolvedoxygenandnitratestotheanaerobiczonearecontrolled.
- Largeamountsofphosphorusarenotreleasedduringsludgehandlingandrecycledto
thebiologicalprocessinfluent.
Toconsistentlyachievelowlevelsunderallconditions,chemicaladditionshouldbe
consideredasabackup.
For90percentormoreremovalofTPfromwastewaterandtypicallyproducingeffluent
concentrationslessthan0.5mg/LTP,itiscommonforBPRplantswithprimarysettlingto
needsupplementalchemicaladditionunlesssludgefermentationorsupplementalorganic
carbonadditionispracticed.ThekeytoachievinglowTPlimitsisthesolidsseparation
process.Conventionalclarificationisnotsufficientinmanycases.Lowtargetlimitsmay
requireadvancedclarificationprocessesoreffluentfiltration.NotethateffluentTP
concentrationsof0.2mg/LorevenlesscanbeconsistentlyachievedwithBPRifadequate
amountsofVFAsarepresentintheanaerobiczone(throughfavorablerbCOD:TPratiosin
theinfluentorthroughVFAaddition)andrecyclestreamsarecarefullycontrolled.
SeeChapter6,Section6.7foradditionaldiscussionofattainableeffluentTP.
3. AvailableSpace.RetrofittingforBPRoraddingchemicalsforphosphorusremovalrequiresvery
littleinthewayofadditionalspaceatthetreatmentplant.Thefootprintfortheanaerobiczone
forBPRistypically5to15percentofthetotalanaerobic/aerobicvolume,andthiscanoftenbe
createdusingbafflesintheexistingbasin.Chemicaldosingequipmentisrelativelysmalland
canusuallybeconfiguredwithintheexistingplantlayout.Advancedsolids/liquidseparation
technologiessuchastertiaryclarificationorfiltrationcan,however,havelargefootprintsand
requireadditionalspace.Highrateballastedclarification(HRBC)shouldbeconsideredwhen
spaceisconstrained.
Althoughspacerequirementsforphosphorusremovalaretypicallylow,suspendedgrowth
aerationprocessesfornitrogenremovalrequirehighSRTsandthus,largebasinscomparedto
conventionalactivatedsludgeprocesses.Ifsufficientvolumeisavailableintheexisting
activatedsludgebasin,itcanbemodifiedtoconfigureseparateanoxicandaerobiczonesby
addingbaffles,mixersandaninternalrecycle.Theconfigurationoftheactivatedsludgebasin
determinesthecomplexityoftheinternalrecyclesystem.Sometimesallthatisneededisaport
inoneofthewallsandapropellerpumpinstalledintheporttopumptherecyclethroughthe
walltotheadjacentbasin.Ifsufficientvolumeisnotavailableintheexistingactivatedsludge
basins(whichisoftenthecase),additionalbasinsmaybeneeded.Designersshouldconsider
thefollowingapproachestominimizethefootprintforbiologicalnitrogenremovalwhenspace
isconstrained:
Increasethebiomassintheactivatedsludgebasinsusingacombinationsuspended
attachedgrowthsystemsuchasIntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS).Thiswill
reducethesizeofthebiologicalreactorsand,therefore,thefootprint.
Usemembranebioreactors(MBR)forliquidsolidsseparationinsteadofconventional
clarification.MBRsystemscanoperateatahighermixedliquorsuspendedsolids(MLSS)
concentration,therebyreducingbasinrequirementsforthebiologicalreactors.
UseanattachedgrowthreactorfornitrificationsuchasaBiologicalAeratedFilter(BAF).
Insteadofasecondanoxiczone,consideradenitrificationfilter.Denitrificationfiltershave
theaddedadvantageofachievingloweffluentTNlimitsbutusuallyrequireasupplemental
carbonsource.Theyalsorequireadditionalpumpingtoprovidethepressureheadtomove
waterthroughthefilter.
ConsiderbioaugmentationofnitrifierstoreducetheneededSRTintheactivatedsludge
basinandthusprovidemoretreatmentinasmallervolume.
Ifpeakflowsaretheissue,considerastepfeedsystemtohandlewetweatherevents
insteadofconstructingadditionalbasins.
4. Temperature.Biologicaltreatmentprocessesaresensitivetochangesintemperature.The
mostsensitiveprocessisnitrification,withtherateapproximatelydoublingforevery8to10
o
C
increaseintemperature(WEFandASCE,2006).Itisveryimportantthatdesignersconsiderthe
annualtemperaturerange,notjustthedesigntemperaturewhenselectingcandidate
technologies.Intemperateregionsofthecountry,fixedfilmsystemssuchasBAFandhybrid
systemssuchasIFAScompensatefortemperatureimpactsbymaintainingthenitrifiersinthe
systemforverylongSRTs.Aswingzonethatallowsoperatorstoswitchbetweenanoxicand
aerobiczonesalsocanhelpensureconsistentremovalundervaryingtemperatureconditions.
Lowtemperaturescanalsointerferewithfermentationofwastewaterinsewersandanaerobic
zonesandreducetheproductionofVFAsrequiredforBPR.Onsitesludgefermentationhas
successfullybeenusedincolderclimatestoaddressthisissue.Aspreviouslynoted,BPRprocess
performanceoftenimproveswithlowertemperaturesbecauseofmicrobialpopulationshifts
thatresultinlargerpopulationsofPAOsrelativetotheGAOs,assumingtherecycleofelectron
acceptorstotheanaerobiczoneiscontrolled.SeeSections4.5.3,5.4.4,and8.2.1ofthismanual
foradditionalinformationontheeffectsoftemperatureonBNR.
8.5 RecommendedUseofAdvancedTools
Thissectionintroducesthreeadvancedtoolsthatcanbeusedfordesigningupgradesfor
nutrientremoval:pilottesting,mathematicalmodeling,andbenchscaletesting.
Pilottestingofthepreferrednutrientremovalalternativeisverycommoninthewastewater
industry.Testingtypicallytakes6monthsto1yeardependingonseasonalvariabilityandcanbedone
duringtheplanningorpreliminarydesignphase.Althoughitcanbeexpensive,pilottestingallows
designerstosizeandconfigureunitprocessesbasedonactualwastewaterandbiomasscharacteristics
andcanreducesafetyfactorsandthus,savecapitalcostsconsiderablyinexcessofthecostofthestudy.

Mathematicalequationsrepresentingwastewatertreatmentprocessesandsimulation
programsusedtosolvethemhavebecomeincreasingpowerfulandcommoninrecentyears.Computer
modelinghasmanybenefitsovertraditionaldesignapproaches.Designerscanusemodelstoquickly
testmanydifferenttreatmentconfigurationsanddesignparametersinafractionofthetimeandcostof
performingtraditionaldesigncalculationsandlaboratoryorpilottests.Whilesettingupandcalibrating
modelscanbeacomplexprocess,itisultimatelyeasierandmorepowerfulthantraditionaldesign
methods,whendoneproperly.Modelinghasthereforebecomethepreferredmethodofdesignfor
nutrientremovalatWWTPs.Chapter10providesadditionaldiscussionofthebenefitsofmathematical
modelingalongwithdetailedguidanceonsettingupandrunningaprocesssimulationmodelfor
nutrientremoval.
Datafrombenchscaletestsarecommonlyusedtocalibrateprocesssimulationmodels.Oneof
themostimportanttestsfornitrificationisthedeterminationofmaximumspecificnitrifiergrowthrate.
Chapter10discussestheimportanceofthisparameterandsummarizesprovencharacterization
methods.Benchscaletestscanalsoprovideveryusefulinformationontherelativefractionsof
particulate,soluble,andreadilybiodegradableorganicmaterial(whichisveryimportantforbiological
phosphorusremoval)andcanbeusedtoestimaterDON.Determinationofnonbiodegradable
suspendedsolidsfractionsisalsoveryimportantforaccurateestimatesofdesignMLSSconcentrations.
Becausereactionsarecomplexanddifficulttogeneralize,jartestingforchemicalphosphorusremovalis
alsohighlyrecommended.Benchscaletestingisalsocommonandrecommendedforevaluating
alternativecarbonsources.
8.6 Patentissues
Apatentisessentiallyatypeofpropertyright.Itgivesthepatentholdertherighttolimitothers
frommaking,using,offeringforsale,orsellingtheinventionintheUnitedStatesorimportingthe
inventionintotheUnitedStates.Ingeneral,thetermofapatentis20yearsfromthedatethatthe
patentapplicationwassubmitted.TheU.S.PatentandTrademarkOffice(USPTO)isthegovernment
agencyresponsibleforreviewingapplicationsandissuingpatents.
Therearethreetypesofpatents(USPTO2009):
Utilitypatentsmaybegrantedtoanyonewhoinventsordiscoversanynewandusefulprocess,
machine,articleofmanufacture,orcompositionofmatter,oranynewandusefulimprovement
thereof.
Designpatentsmaybegrantedtoanyonewhoinventsanew,original,andornamentaldesign
foranarticleofmanufacture.
Plantpatentsmaybegrantedtoanyonewhoinventsordiscoversandreproducesanydistinct
andnewvarietyofplant.
Patentsforwastewatertreatmenttechnologiesareusuallyutilitypatents.
Ifapatentedprocessisselectedfornutrientremoval,licenseandroyaltyfeesmayapplyand
shouldbeincludedinthecostanalysis.Feesareusuallynegotiatedbetweenthepatentholderandthe
plantowner.Tosearchforpatents,usetheUSTPOdatabase,availableonlineathttp://patft.uspto.gov/
orvisitapatentandtrademarkdepositorylibrary.Referto
http://www.uspto.gov/go/ptdl/ptdlib_1.htmlforlibrarylocationsinyourstate.
Ingeneral,patentandlicensingfeesarenotrequiredforbiologicalphosphorusremoval
systems.SomeofthebiologicalphosphorusremovaltechnologieslistedinChapter6ofthismanual
mayhaveatonetimebeenpatented,butmanyhavebeeninuselongerthanthepatentperiod.
Proprietarysystemsforattachedgrowthnitrificationandsidestreamprocessesarepatented,butthe
patentfeesareincludedinthepricefromthemanufacturer.
8.7 References
ProceedingsoftheWaterEnvironmentFederation,WEFTEC2006.
Bilyk,K.,J.Rohrbacher,T.Bruton,P.Pitt,R.Latimer.2009.EvaluatingtheCostandProcess
PerformanceofCarbonAlternativestoMethanol.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.Washington,
DC.WEF.
deBarbadillo,C.,J.Barnard,S.Tarallo,andM.Steichen.2008.GotCarbon?Widespreadbiological
nutrientremovalisincreasingthedemandforsupplementalsources.WaterEnvironment&
deBarbadillo,C.,P.Miller,andS.Ledwell.2009.AComparisonofOperatingIssuesandDosing
RequirementsforAlternativeCarbonSourcesinDenitrificationFilters.PresentedatNutrientRemoval
2009.Washington,DC.WEF.
Copithorn,R.R.,G.D.Farren,D.SenandC.W.Randall.1993.FullScaleEvaluationofNitrificationand
DenitrificationonFixedFilmMedia(Ringlace)forDesignofaSingleSludgeNitrogenRemovalSystem,
ProceedingsLiquidTreatmentProcesses,66thAnnualConferenceWaterEnvironmentFederation,
(3):137148.Anaheim,California,October30,1993.
Cherchi,C.,A.OnnisHayden,andA.Z.Gu.2009.AbilityofSpecificEnrichedDenitrifyingCultureto
UtilizeOtherCarbonSources.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.Washington,DC.WEF.
Gellner,W.J.,L.Samel,D.Howard,Al.Stone,andP.Pitt.2008.WhenConventionalDesignBidBuild
ApproachisUnconventionalDesignandBiddingofIFASFullScalePilotatGreensboro,NorthCarolina.
InProceedingsoftheWaterEnvironmentFederation,WEFTEC2008.
Johnson,T.L.,J.McQuarrie,andA.Shaw.2004.IntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS):The
NewChoiceforNitrogenRemovalUpgradesintheUnitedStates.InProceedingsoftheWater
EnvironmentFederation,WEFTEC2004.
Kang,S.J.,K.P.Olmstead,K.M.Takacs,J.Collins,J.Wheeler,andP.Zharaddine.2009.Sustainabilityof
FullScaleNutrientRemovalTechnologies.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.Washington,DC.
WEF.
Maquarrie,J.,D.Waltrip,R.Rutherford,W.Thomas,C.Bott,R.Baumler,andD.Katehis.2009.Full
ScaleDesignChallengesfortheJamesRiverTreatmentPlantIFASImprovementProject:Usinga
DemonstrationScaleProjectoOptimizeFinalDesign.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.
Washington,DC.WEF.
Majed,N.,A.OnnisHayden,T.Welander,andA.Z.Gu.2009.DecouplingandOptimizationofBothP
andNRemovalinanAdvancedIFASEBRPMBRSystem.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.
Washington,DC.WEF.
OnnisHayden,A.,N.Majed,K.McMahon.,A.Gu.2008.PhosphorusRemovalandPAOsPopulationsat
aFullScaleIntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS)Plant.InProceedingsoftheWater
Phillips,H.M.andE.Kobylinksi.2007.SidestreamTreatmentvs.MainstreamTreatmentofNutrient
ReturnswhenAimingforLowEffluentNitrogenandPhosphorus.InProceedingsoftheWater
Randall,C.W.,andD.Sen.1995.FullScaleEvaluationofanIntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS)
ProcessforEnhancedNitrogenRemoval.Wat.Sci.Tech.(33)12:155162.ElsevierScienceLtd.,GB.
Sriwiriyarat,T.,andRandall,C.W.2005.EvaluationofIFASWastewaterTreatmentProcessesatHigh
MCRTandLowTemperatures.JournalofEnvironmentalEngineering.ASCE.131(11):15501556.
Thomas,W.A.,C.B.Bott,P.Regmi,G.Schafran,J.McQuarrie,B.Rutherford,R.Baumler,andD.Waltrip.
2009.EvaluationofNitrificationKineticsfora2.0MGDIFASProcessDemonstration.Presentedat
NutrientRemoval2009.Washington,DC.WEF.
USEPA.2008a.MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument.OfficeofWastewater
http://www.epa.gov/OWM/mtb/mnrtvolume1.pdf
USEPA.2008b.EmergingTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentandInPlantWetWeather
WEFPress.
WERF.2008.CarbonAugmentationforBiologicalNitrogenRemoval.JulianSandino,LeadEditor.
WERFDissolvedOrganicNitrogenCompendium.
U.S.PatentOffice.2009.UnitedStatesPatentandTrademarkOffice,MainWebpage.Website
Accessed8May2009.http://www.uspto.gov/main/patents.htm
9. DesignApproachforPhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAddition
9.1 Introduction
Manywastewatertreatmentplants(WWTPs)thatarerequiredtoremovephosphorusdosoby
addingchemicalstoprecipitatephosphateandthenremoveitusingsolidsseparationtechniques.
Chemicalsmaybeaddedtoprimary,secondary,ortertiaryprocesses,oratmultiplelocationsinthe
plant.Chemicalsusedforphosphorusprecipitationincludemetalsalts,suchasferricchlorideand
aluminumsulfate(alum),andlime.
Chapter3explainedtheprinciplesofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladdition.Thepurposeof
thischapteristoprovideguidanceonkeydesignandoperationalissues.Thischaptersdiscussionon
solidsseparationfocusesonadvancedwastewaterclarification,whileeffluentfiltrationisdiscussedin
depthinChapter11.
9.2 SelectingaChemicalPrecipitant
Chemicalsforprecipitationarebasedoneitheraluminum(III),ferric(III),ferrous(II),orcalcium
(II)compoundsthatreactwithsolublephosphorus.Themostcommonchemicalsusedarealuminum(III)
andferric(III)compounds;inparticular,thetwometalsaltsaluminumsulfate(alum)andferricchloride.
Alumandferricchloridehavesimilarpropertiesandperformance.Comparedwithlime,theycreateless
sludgeandtendtobemorepopularwithoperators.Polymerscanbeaddedwithmetalsaltstoimprove
settlingortheremovalofprecipitatedphosphateviafiltration.
9.2.1 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofMetalSalts
Table91listsmetalsaltsavailableforphosphorusremovalandprovidesasummaryofavailable
formsandstoragerequirements,advantages,anddisadvantages.Adiscussionoftheadvantagesand
disadvantagesoflimeisprovidedinsection9.2.2.Notethatphosphorusremovalbymetalsaltsisbased
onstoichiometrywhereasremovalbylimeisbasedonachievingatargetpHrange.
Chapter9covers:
9.1 Introduction
9.2 SelectingaChemicalPrecipitant
9.3 SelectingPoint(s)ofApplication
9.4 DeterminingChemicalDose
9.5 DesigningaChemicalFeedSystem
9.6 DesigningforRapidMixingandFlocculation
9.8 OperationalFactors
9.9 References
Table91.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofCommonAluminumandIronSalts
Type AvailableFormsandStorageIssues Advantages Disadvantages

Aluminum
Aluminum Liquidordryform Mostcommonformof Mayneedexcesstodepress
sulfate(alum) Stableatroomtemperaturesin aluminumsalt.Hasbeen thepHtoanoptimal
closedcontainersundernormal usedtoachieveloweffluent operatingenvironment
storageconditions phosphorusconcentrations Alumsludgemaybemore
Nearunlimitedshelflife difficulttothickenand
Corrosive,dustisirritant dewaterthanironsludge
Sodium Liquidordryform Doesnotconsumealkalinity DissolvedCO
2
orotheracidity
aluminate
1
Liquidhas23monthshelflife, Appropriateforlow isneededtoavoidpH
strongalkali,handleascaustic alkalinitywastewateror increaseaboveoptimum
Dryhas6monthshelflife,non wherepHisalreadylowand zone
corrosive,dustisirritant furtherdepressionshould Performanceconsidered
beavoided inferiortoalum
Polyaluminum Availableasliquid,hydrate DoesnotchangepHof Notcompatiblewithcarbon
Chloride(PACl) form.Availableindifferent wastewater steel,stainlesssteel,brassor
strengths Variousformulations aluminum
Corrosivemineralacid. (multiplealuminumatoms Unitcostmaybehigher
Requiresacidresistant bondedwithchloride)
materialslikePVC,Teflon, availabledependingon
rubber,andceramicmaterials manufacturer
Canhelplowerturbidity
Iron
2
Ferricchloride Availableasliquid Morecommonthanferrous Especiallycorrosiveand
Verycorrosive chlorideorferroussulfate requiresspecialpiping
Stainsconcreteandother Hasbeenusedtoachieve Inplantswithpoorsolids
materials loweffluentphosphorus capture,ferricchloridemight
concentrations impartaslightreddishcolor
toeffluent
CanbeanissueifUV
disinfectionisdownstream
3
Ferrouschloride Availableasliquid Canbeavailableasalow Ifindustrialbyproducts,may

Slightlylesscorrosivethan costindustrialbyproduct havelargeamountsof
ferricchloride impurities,suchasfreeacid
ormetals
Produceslowphosphorus
levelsonlyathighpH
Ferroussulfate Availabledry Canbeavailableasalow Ifindustrialbyproducts,may
Acidicwhendissolved costindustrialbyproduct havelargeamountsof
Oxidizesinmoistair impurities,suchasfreeacid
Cakesatstoragetempabove Produceslowphosphorus
20C levelsonlyathighpH
1. Granulartrihydrateisacommoncommercialform
2. FerricisalsoacommontradenameforFeCl
3
andalso40percentliquidFeCL
3
solution.
3. Potentialforproblemsdependsonchemicalapplicationpoint.Ofgreatconcernifitisaddedinchemicaltreatment
processpreceedingUVdisinfection.
Source:WEFandASCE(1998);USEPA(1987a);Gulbrandsen(2008);Tchobanoglousetal.(2003).

9.2.2 AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofLime
AsexplainedinChapter3,limefirstreactswithbicarbonatealkalinitytoformcalcium
carbonate.AsthepHincreases,excesscalciumionswillreactwiththephosphorustoprecipitate
hydroxylapatite(Ca
5
(OH)(PO
4
)
3
).
Theprimaryreasonsforinfrequentuseoflimeforphosphorusremovalare:
Thesubstantialincreaseinthemassofsludgetobehandledcomparedtothatfromuseof
metalsalts.
PhosphorusprecipitationtolowconcentrationsoccursathighpHlevels(1112),andpH
neutralizationisrequiredbeforeeffluentdischarge.
Theoperationandmaintenanceproblemsassociatedwiththehandling,storage,and
feedingoflime.
Limesludgecanreach0.5percentofthevolumeofwastewatertreated(Tchobanoglousetal.
2003).Toavoidthislargeproductionofsludge,plantscanconsideraddinglimeinatertiaryprocess.
Tertiarydesignscanbesinglestagewithonerapidmix,flocculation,sedimentation,andrecarbonation
basinoratwostageprocesswithasecondsedimentationbasin,whichallowsforbettercontroland
higherremoval.Additionoflimetoprimarytankshastheadvantage,however,ofremovingsubstantial
amountsoftotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)andbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD),reducingsecondary
treatmentrequirements.
Thekeyvariableinphosphorusremovalusinglimeisalkalinity.Ifthealkalinityistoolow,lime
additionwillcreateapoorlysettleablefloc(WEFandASCE1998).Ifthealkalinityismoderatetohigh(>
150milligramsperliter(mg/L)),theflocwillcontainagreaterfractionofdensecalciumcarbonate
precipitate,whichleadstoenhancedsettling.WEFandASCE(1998)reportexcellentphosphorus
removalwithhighalkalinitywaterswithlimetreatmenttoapHof9.5to10,buthigherpHvaluesare
commonlyused.Regardlessoftheapplicationpoint,pHadjustmentisneededfollowinglimetreatment
andisusuallyaccomplishedbyaddingcarbondioxideoraliquidacidsuchassulfuricacid,nitricacid,or
hypochlorite(Tchobanoglousetal.2003;USEPA1999).
Chemicalcostsforlimecanbereducedbyrecoveringlimeonsiteusinglimerecalcination.
Recalcinationisachievedbyheatingthesludgeto980
o
Ctoconvertcalciumcarbonatetolime.The
carbondioxidefromthisprocesscanbeusedasasourceforrecarbonationofthewaterforpH
adjustment.
Limerequiresspecialhandlingthatsetsitapartfrommetalsalts.Carbonatescalingcanformon
equipmentandpipes.Limeslaking,wherequicklime(CaO)isreactedwithwatertoformCa(OH)
2
,isthe
biggestoperationaldisadvantage.Section9.5.2.3providesadiscussionoflimeslaking.
Althoughlimehadlostfavorduetoissuesassociatedwithchemicalhandlingandsludge
production,ithasbeenregainingpopularitybecauseofitsabilitytoreducephosphorustoverylow
levelswhencombinedwitheffluentfiltration,aswellasitsbeneficialmicrobialcontrolpropertiesduring
sludgedigestion.WEFandASCE(1998)reportthatresidualphosphorusconcentrationsof0.1to0.2can
beachievedwithlimetreatmentandgranularmediafiltration.TheUpperOccoquanSewageAuthority
AdvancedWastewaterTreatmentPlant,FairfaxCounty,VA,hasroutinelyandconsistentlyachieved
effluentsolublephosphorusconcentrationsoflessthan0.05mg/Lusinghighlimetreatmentfollowed
bysandfiltrationsinceJulyof1978,aperiodofmorethanthirtyyears.Theeffluentrequirementforthe
facilityovertheentireperiodoftimehasalwaysbeen0.1mg/LTP.
9.2.3 Costs
AccordingtotheU.S.GeologicalSurvey(USGS)2007MineralsYearbook,thecostforquicklime
in2007was$76.70perton,andhydratedlimecost$92.90perton(Miller2008).Dryalumcancost
around$260perton,andatonofliquidferricchloridecancostaround$400(YubaCity2007;Cityof
EastMoline2007;CityofSantaCruz2006;SaginawCityCouncil2006).Limeandotherchemicalcosts
areexpectedtocontinuetoriseinthecomingyearswithincreasingglobaldemandforchemicals,rising
oilprices,andpotentialsupplyshortages,whichcanbeworsenedbycertainlocalconditionslike
weathereventsthatdisruptdistributionsystems(Plank2008).
9.3 SelectingPoint(s)ofApplication
Metalsaltscanbeaddedatoneormultiplelocationswithinatreatmentplanttoremove
phosphorus(seeFigure91forpossiblepointsofchemicaladditionforaconventionalWWTP).Pre
precipitationiswhenchemicalsareaddedtorawwaterpriortoprimaryclarificationtoprecipitate
phosphorusintheprimarysedimentationbasins.Coprecipitationinvolvesaddingchemicalsdirectly
tothebiomassinthebiologicalsystemtoformprecipitatesthatcanberemovedwithbiologicalsludge.
Postprecipitationiswhenchemicalsareaddedaftersecondarysedimentationandprecipitantsare
removedinatertiaryprocesssuchassedimentationorfiltration(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Chemicals
alsocanbeaddedtowasteorrecyclestreamstoreducetherecycleofphosphorusreleasedduring
sludgehandling.Forexample,attheAlexandriaSanitaryAuthorityAdvancedWastewaterTreatment
Plant,thealuminthereturnstreamwasreportedtoaidinphosphorusremovalthroughtheplant(EPA
Region102007).
Primary Secondary Tertiary

Solids
Processing
C
C
C
C
C
Figure91.Possibleapplicationpointsforchemicaladdition(C).
Source:AdaptedfromBottetal.(2007),withPermissionfromtheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation.
Table92summarizestheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofpossiblefeedpointsformetalsalts.
Theoptimalpointofchemicaladditionisspecificforagivenplantanddependsontheexisting
treatmentconfiguration,treatmentgoals,choiceofchemicals,andsolidshandlingissues.Oneofthe
mainadvantagesofmultiplepointadditionisasavingsintotalchemicalusage.Theamountofmetalsalt
perunitofphosphorusremovalincreasesasthefinalphosphorusconcentrationdecreases.Byusing
multipleadditionpoints,alargeportionofthephosphorusremovalcanbedoneatahigherphosphorus
concentrationandlowermetal/phosphorusremovalratio.
LimecannotbeaddeddirectlytobiologicaltreatmentprocessesbecauseitraisesthepHabove
10forphosphorusremovalandactivatedsludgeprocessespreferspHlevelsbelow8.5.Limecanbe
addedtoprimarysedimentationtanksandremovedwiththeprimarysludgeoritcanbeaddedasa
tertiarytreatmentprocessafterbiologicaltreatment.Whenaddedtoprimarytanks,itwillalsoresultin
theremovalofcolloidalmaterialthroughcoagulationandsettling,withaconcomitantremovalofTSS
upto80percentandCODupto60percent.Ineithercase,theneedforpHadjustmentfordownstream
processesshouldbeconsideredandistypicallyaccomplishedbyaddingCO
2
oraliquidacidsuchas
sulfuricacid,nitricacid,orhypochlorite(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
Itisimportanttonotethatdownstreambiologicaltreatmentmaybenegativelyaffectediftoo
muchphosphorusisremovedbychemicaladditioninprimarytreatment,asphosphorusisanessential
nutrientforgrowthofmicroorganisms.Foractivatedsludge,theminimumratioofphosphorustofive
daybiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD
5
)forarapidlygrowinglowsolidsretentiontime(SRT)systemis
typicallyabout1:100(WEFandASCE1998).Note,however,thattheamountofphosphorus(andall
othernutrients)requiredisafunctionofnetbiomassyieldanddecreasesastheoperatingSRT
increases.
Table92.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofMetalSaltApplicationPoints
ApplicationPoint Advantages Disadvantages

PrimaryClarifieronly
(preprecipitation)

RemovesadditionalBODand
solids
Useslowerstoichiometricdose
Ironadditioncanreducesulfide
odors
Reducesoxygentransfer
requirementsinthebiological
process,andreducestheamount
ofexcessbiomasssludge
produced.

ControlissueofleavingenoughPfor
biotreatmentbutlowenoughforeffluent
Doesnotremovepolyphosphateswhich
willbeconvertedtoorthophosphateinthe
bioprocess
Competingreactionsforhydroxidescan
decreasedoseefficiency
Removesalkalinitybeforenitrification
process,whichcanresultinlowpHlevels
thatinhibitnitrification
RemovesBODthatcanbeused
downstreamfordenitrification.Canresult
inlargeranoxictanksoranincreasedneed
foranexogenouscarbonsourcefor
nitrogenremoval.
SecondaryTreatment
only,e.g.,aeration
basinorbefore
secondaryclarifier(co
precipitation)

ForeffluentPlessthan1.0mg/L
goodfinalcontrolpointfor
chemicaldosing
Polyphosphatesconvertedso
mostofPisavailable
MayhelpimproveTSSremovalin
clarifiers
HelppreventfoulinginMBR

Removesalkalinitywithinthebiological
nitrificationprocesswhichcanlowerpH
andinhibitnitrification
MLSSincreaseswithproductionof
chemicalsludge,whichincreasesthesolids
loadingtothefinalclarifiers.Mayneed
largeractivatedsludgetanksorlarger
clarifiers.
systems
TertiaryTreatmentonly
(postprecipitation)

ForeffluentPlessthan0.5mg/L
goodfinalcontrolpointfor
chemicaldosing
Polyphosphatesalready
convertedsomostofPis
available
WillhelpimproveTSSremoval
Canrecycleprecipitantto
headworksforaddedPremoval

Filtrationincreasescapitalandoperating
costs
Filtrationincreasesoperationalcomplexity
andmaintenance
Filtersolidsbreakthroughcanleadto
spikesineffluentP
Premovaltolowlevelscaninhibitor
preventnitrogenremovalby
denitrificationfilters
Requiresseparatesludgehandling
Multiple CanachievelowereffluentTP Additionalcostsforchemicalfeedand

concentration
Optimizationofchemicaldoseto
lowerrequirements
Goodcontrolpointatfinaldosing
Providesflexibility

controlequipmentinmultiplelocations.
Additionaloperationalcomplexity
9.4 DeterminingtheChemicalDose
Chapter3,Section3.3.2providesadetaileddiscussionofthereactionsbetweenphosphorus
andchemicalprecipitantsandofdosingtheory.Forphosphorusremovalusingmetalsalts,themolar
ratioofthemetaltothesolublephosphorusconcentration(Me
dose
/P
ini
)isthebasisforthechemical
dose.AsnotedinChapter3,recentresearchbySmithetal.(2007)showedthatfortypicalinfluent
phosphateconcentrations.
Dosesabove1.5to2.0Me
dose
/P
ini
ratiosaresufficienttoremove80to98percentofsoluble
phosphorus.
Reachingverylowlimitsrequiressignificantlyhigherratiosontheorderof6to7Me
dose
/P
ini
.
Seetheexampleonthenextpageforanapproachtocalculatinganinitialferricchloridedoseusing
theseguidelines.
Forphosphorusremovalusinglime,thedoseisgenerallyindependentofthephosphorus
concentrationbecausethelimefirstreactswithalkalinitytoprecipitatehydroylapatite(seeChapter3
formoreinformation).Therecommendeddoseoflimeistypically1.4to1.6timesthetotalalkalinity
expressedasCaCO
3

Example91:DeterminingInitialFerricChlorideDoseforPhosphorusRemoval
Problem:AWWTPoperatorwantstouseferricchloride(FeCl
3
)toremovephosphateinthe
secondaryclarifier.Theplantsflowrateis1.0MGD,andthemeasuredphosphateconcentration
enteringthesecondaryclarifieris4mg/LasP.
AssumptionsandConstants:
Ferricchloridesolutionstrength=40percent
Densityofferricchloridesolution=1.4kg/L
MolecularweightofFe=55.85
MolecularweightofFeCL
3
=162.2
MolecularweightofP=30.97
Solution:
1.Determinetheweightofiron(Fe)availableperliterofliquidferricchloride.
a.TheweightofFeCl
3
/Lperliterofferricchloridesolutionis:
FeCl
3
/L=(0.40)(1.4kg/L)=0.56kg/L
b.TheweightofFeperliterofferricchloridesolutionis:
Fe/L=FeCl
3
/LxmolecularweightofFe/molecularweightofFeCl
3
=(0.56kg/L)x(55.85/162.2)=0.193kg/L
2.DeterminetheweightofFerequiredperunitweightofP.
a.Targetdosage =2.0moleFe(Fe
dose
)per1.0moleP(P
ini
)toremoveupto98percentof
phosphate
b.Ironrequired =2x(Fe
dose
/P
ini
)
=2x(55.85/30.97)=3.61kgFe/kgP
3.DeterminetheamountofferricchloridesolutionrequiredperkgP.
Ferricchloridedose =3.61kgFexLferricsoln=18.70Lferricsoln/kgP
1kgP0.193kgFe
4.Determinetheamountofferricchloridesolutionrequiredperday
a.Convert1.0MGDtoL/d =1x10
6
gal/dx3.785L/gal=3.785x10
6
L/d

b.Ferricchloridesolution/d =(3.785x10
6
L/d)x(4mgP/L)x(18.65Lferricsoln/kgP)
(1x10
6
mg/kg)
=283Lferricchloridesolution/dx1gal/3.785L
=74.8gal/d
Whiletheliteratureprovidesgoodgeneralguidelinesonchemicaldosesforphosphorus
removal,itdoesnotaccountforsitespecificfactorssuchastheinfluenceofcompetingreactionsand
theeffectsofpHandalkalinity.Thus,designersshouldconductjartestingtodeterminetheoptimum
doseandmixingconditionsforthespecificwastewatertobetreated.Jartestingisafast,lowcost
procedurethatiscommonlyusedinthewaterandwastewaterindustry.Itsimulatesrapidmixingand
flocculationonasmallscaletopredicttheperformanceoflargescaletreatmentoperations.Figure92
showsacommonjartestapparatus.Multipletestscanbeconductedatthesametimetocompare
alternativedoses,pHranges,ormixingspeeds.
Figure92.Schematicofcommonjartestingapparatus.
Source:PolandandPagano,1998,http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teach/wtprimer/jartest/jartest.html
Althoughjartestingiscommon,carefulplanningisstillrequired.Keystosuccessfuljartesting
aresummarizedinthetextboxbelow.

KeystoSuccessfulJarTesting
Determinevariablestobetested(i.e.,effectoftemperature,pH,
mixingintensity,etc.)
Varyonlyoneparameter(e.g.,alumdose)atatime.Allofthe
othervariablessuchasmixingrateandcontacttimeshouldremain
constantduringagiventest.
Becarefultomixsamplesthoroughlypriortotesting.
Selectreactionandflocculationtimestomirroroperational
conditionsattheplant.
Source:adaptedfromWERF2008
9.5 DesigningaChemicalFeedSystem
Theobjectiveofanyfeedsystemistoaddthechemicaltothewastewateratacontrolledrate.
Designersshouldalwaysconsiderthepropertiesofthechemicalbeingadded(aslistedintheMaterial
SafetyDataSheet)andstaterequirementswhendesigningthechemicalstorageandfeedsystem.
Safetyprecautionssuchascontainmentincaseofspillandpersonnelsafetyequipmentrequirements
areextremelyimportant.
Table93summarizesthetypesofchemicalfeederstypicallyusedatmunicipalWWTPs.Section
9.5.1providesguidancefordesignofliquidfeedsystems,followedbySection9.5.2withguidanceonthe
designofdryfeedsystems,includinglime.
Table93.TypesofChemicalFeeders
Category FeederType Use EquipmentLimitations

General Capacity
(m
3
/h)
1
Feedrate
2
range
DryFeeder: Oscillatingplate Anymaterial,granules,or 0.0013.1 40to1
Volumetric powder
Oscillatingthroat Anymaterial,anyparticlesize 0.0029.0 40to1
(universal)
Rotatingdisc MostmaterialsincludingNaF, Usediskunloader 0.0010.09 20to1
granules,orpowder forarching
Rotatingcylinder Anymaterial,granules,or 0.7180 10to1or
(star) powder 0.6527.0 100to1
Screw Dry,freeflowingmaterial, 0.0051.7 20to1
powder,orgranular
Ribbon Dry,freeflowingmaterial, 0.0020.015 10to1
powder,granular,orlumps
Belt Dry,freeflowingmaterialup 0.009270 10to1
to1.5insize,powder,or
granular
DryFeeder: Continuousbelt Dry,freeflowinggranular Usehopperor 0.0020.18 100to1
Gravimetric andscale material,orfloodable agitatorto
material maintain
Lossinweight Mostmaterials,powder, constantdensity 0.0027.2 100to1
granular,orlumps
Solution Decanter(lowering Mostsolutionsorlight 0.00090.9 100to1
Feeder: pipe) slurries
Nonpositive Orifice Mostsolutions Noslurries 0.0150.045 10to1
Displacement
Rotameter Clearsolutions Noslurries 0.00050.015 10to1
(calibratedvalue) 0.00020.018
Lossinweight(tank Mostsolutions Noslurries 0.00020.018 30to1
w/controlvalve)
SolutionFeed: Rotatingdipper Mostsolutionsorslurries 0.0092.7 100to1
Positive
displacement
Proportional
Pump
Diaphragm Mostsolutions,Specialunit
3
for5%slurries
0.00040.014 100to1
Piston Mostsolutions,lightslurries 0.000115.3 20to1
1. Volumetricfeedcapacitiesaregivenbecausechemicalspecificgravitiesmustbeknowntospecifymassfeedcapacity.
2. Rangesapplytopurchasedequipment.Overallfeedrangescanbeextendedmore.
3. Usespecialheadsandvalvesforslurries.
Source:WEFandASCE2009,Table16.13
9.5.1 Liquidfeedsystems
Liquidorsolutionfeedsystemsaretypicallyusedinthefollowingcases(WEFandASCE1998):
Ifchemicalsareappliedatlowrates.
Ifchemicalsarelessstable.
Whenthedustofthedryformofthechemicalishazardousordifficulttohandle.
Whenonlyliquidchemicalsareavailable.
9.5.1.1 Storage
Alumistypicallystoredwithoutdilutionattheshippingconcentrationreceivedattheplant.
Storagetankslocatedoutsideshouldbeclosedandvented,withprovisionsforheatingtomaintain
temperaturesabove4C(25F)topreventcrystallization.Liquidalumstoragevesselsareconstructed
oftype316stainlesssteel,fiberglassreinforcedplastic(FRP),steellinedwithrubber,orpolyvinyl
chloride(PVC).Liquidalumcanbestoredindefinitely.
Ferriccompoundsareacidicandrequirespecialstorageandhandlingprocedures.Fiberglass
reinforcedplasticorpolyethylenetankscanbeusedtostoreliquidferricsolutions(WEFandASCE
2006).
Storagetanksshouldbesizedtoaccommodatea10dayto2weeksupplyandshouldbe
capableofhandling11/2timesthemaximumquantityshipped.Somestateregulationsrequirethat
storagetimesberelatedtopotentialdeliverydelaysorspecificperiodsataveragechemicalfeedrates.
9.5.1.2 FeedMethods
Severalalternativesareavailableforfeedingliquidchemicalsorchemicalsolutions.Descriptions
ofcommonfeedsystemsareprovidedbelow.Selectionofthefeedmethodissitespecificanddepends
onfactorssuchasfeedpressure,fluidproperties,typeofcontrol,andtreatmentgoals.
Manufacturersrecommendationsshouldbefollowedregardingselectionofpumpmaterialsfor
thespecificchemicalofinterest.Becauseironandaluminumsaltsolutionsareacidicandcorrosive,
WEFandASCE(2006,p.297and303)recommendthatpumpheadsbepolyvinylchloride(PVC)andthat
piping,fittings,andvalvesbePVCorchlorinatedPVC(CPVC).Pipeselectionforpolymerserviceshould
bemadeafterthetypeofpolymerhasbeendetermined(plasticpipeortype316stainlesssteelis
normallyused).Pipesthatareabovegroundintemperateregionsmayneedtobeheattraced.
Itisimportanttonotethatitisgenerallynotnecessarytodiluteliquidalumorferricchloride
priortofeedingintotheprocess.AdditionofcarrierwatercouldraisethepHandresultinformationof
metalhydroxideswhichcanprecipitateandcauseplatinginchemicalfeedlines.Ifdilutionisneeded,
carrierwatershouldbeaddedasclosetotheinjectionpointaspossible(WEFandASCE2006).For
polymers,dilutionofthestocksolutionisoftenpracticedtoallowbetterdispersionofthepolymerin
thewastewater.
RotaryDipperFeedersorRotameters
Rotarydipperfeedersarereliablefeedersthatarecommonlyusedforgravityflowapplications.
Feedratescanbevariedbasedonasignalfromamainstreamflowmeter(flowproportionalcontrol).
Rotametersinconjunctionwithcontrolvalvesmayalsobeusedforsmallapplicationswherefrequent
variationinchemicalfeedrateisnotrequired.Rotametersshouldnotbeusedwithferricchlorideor
otherironsolutionsbecausethesightglasswillbecomestainedandopaque.
NonpositiveDisplacementPump
Anonpositivedisplacementpump,orakineticpump,deliverswaterinasteadystream.Energy
addedtothefluidincreasestheflowvelocityinsidethepumprelativetothevelocityatdischarge.
Examplesofkineticpumpsincludesolidshandlingcentrifugalpumps,recessedimpellerpump,
screw/combinationcentrifugalpumps,andgrinderpumps(WEFandASCE1998).
Acentrifugaltransferpumpisanexampleofanonpositivedisplacementpump.Thesepumps
shouldbedirectlyconnectedbutnotclosecoupledtopreventleakageintothemotor
PositiveDisplacementPump
Whenthedischargevolumesofapumpareseparatedbyaperiodofnodischarge,itisreferred
toasapositivedisplacementpump.Apositivedisplacementpumppullswaterintothepumpchamber
withavacuumcreatedbythewithdrawalofapiston,whichdisplacesasetvolumeofwaterfromthe
chamberandforcesitthroughthedischargevalveandpipe(WEF2008).Examplesofpositive
displacementpumptypesaretheplungerpump,thereciprocatingpiston,peristalticpump,pneumatic
ejector,rotarylobepump,airoperateddiaphragmpump,andprogressingcavitypump(WEFandASCE
1998).Meteringpumpsareeitherofthediaphragmorplungertype.Diaphragmpumpsprotectedwith
internalorexternalreliefvalvesarepreferred.Abackpressurevalveisrecommendedtoprovide
positivecheckvalveoperation.
ProportionalPumps
Aproportionalpumpisatypeofpositivedisplacementpumpcommonlyusedforchemicalfeed.
Itisatypeofdiaphragmpumpthathasaflowratethatcanbepreciselyadjustedviachangingthe
lengthofthestrokeorthestrokespeed.Themechanismofadiaphragmpumpisthatthediaphragmis
apartmadeofflexiblerubbertypematerialfastenedwithinaverticalcylinder.Thediaphragmisraised,
producingsuction,andwhenitisdropped,itforcesliquidoutofadischargevalve(WEF2008).Ithas
beenreportedthatthistypeofpumpisverysusceptibletocloggingandthatafiltershouldbeinstalled
topreventanysedimentfromreachingthepump.
9.5.2 DryFeedSystems
9.5.2.1Storage
Bulkdryalumcanbetransferredwithscrewconveyors,bucketelevators,orpneumatic
conveyors.Bagsanddrumsofalumshouldbestoredindrylocations.Dayhoppersreceivingalumfrom
bagsordrumsshouldhaveaminimumstoragecapacityofeighthoursatthemaximumexpectedfeed
rate.Hopperbottomsshouldhaveaminimumwallslopeof60degreestopreventarching.Atypical
bulkstoragetankfordrychemicalsisshowninFigure93.
Figure93.Typicaldrychemicalfeedsystem.
Source:USEPA(1987b),citedinTchobanoglousetal.(2003)
9.5.2.2 FeedMethods

Thefollowingstrategyforfeedingappliestodrychemicals:
Waterisblendedwiththechemicalinamechanicallyagitateddissolvingtankorsolution
tank.
Forbulkchemicals,awatermeterinconjunctionwithavariableratefeederachievesa
continuousstreamofthesolutionattheproperstrength.
Forbagsorcontainers,thepropersolutionismadeupmanuallyonabatchbasis.
Dependingonthetypeofchemical,variousfeedingprotocolsarenecessary:
Alum,sodiumaluminateordryferroussulfate
- Recommendedminimumsolutionstrengthis6percentor0.06kg/literofwater(0.5
lb/gal).
- Detentiontimeinthedissolvershouldbe5minutesatthemaximumfeedrate.
Ferricsulfate
- Solutionsaremadeupatawatertochemicalweightratioof2:1to8:1,withatypical
ratiobeing4:1or0.25kgFe
2
S0
4
/Literofwater(2.1lb/gal).
- Solutionsunder1percentstrengtharesubjecttohydrolysisanddepositionofferric
hydroxide.
Thedegreeofautomationindrychemicaldissolutionsystemswilldependonthesizeofthe
plantanddailychemicalusage.Forplantstreatinglessthan1milliongallonperday(MGD),manual
preparationofthechemicalsolutiononabatchbasismaybesufficient.Thisistypicallyaccomplishedin
adaytankinwhichdry,baggedchemicalismechanicallymixedwithwatertoreachthedesired
concentration.Forlargerfacilities,thechemicalsolutionispreparedautomaticallyusingacontroller
thatadjustsfeedrateofdrychemicalinproportiontopotablewaterflowrate(asshowninFigure93in
Section9.5.2.1)(Daniels1973).
Volumetricfeedersaretheleastexpensiveoptionandcanbeusedwherecostisaconcern,
chemicaldeliveryratesarelow,andgreataccuracyisnotrequired.Volumetricfeedersgenerally
employascrewfeedmechanism.
Lossinweightgravimetricfeedersprovideahighdegreeofaccuracy(upto99percentaccurate)
andarerecommendedwhereclosecontrolofchemicaldosagescanresultinsubstantialsavingsin
chemicalcosts.Beltgravimetricfeedersareintermediateincostbetweenvolumetricandlossinweight
gravimetricfeeders,andcanprovideaccurateandreliableservice.
Ingeneral,closedconstructionispreferableforchemicalfeeders,becausethisexposesa
minimumofoperatingcomponentstothecorrosivevaporsfromthedissolvingorsolutiontank.
Gravimetricfeedersofferthefollowingadvantagesovervolumetricfeeders:
Calibrationusuallynotrequired
Greateraccuracyanddependability
Incorporationoftotalizertoallowmaintenanceofaccuraterecordsandinventories
Automaticproportioning
Lowmaintenance;simpleoperation
9.5.2.3 LimeSlaking
Limeisavailableeitheraspowderedhydratedlimeoraspebblequicklime.Powderedhydrated
limetendstobemoreconvenientbecauseithasalreadygonethroughtheslakingprocess.Slakingisa
messyprocessthatrequiresspecialconsiderationsbecauseoftheinherentnatureoflime:
Thereactionoflimeandwatergeneratesalargeamountofheat.
Causticpropertiescreateahazardtooperatorsandequipment.
Chemicalhandlingcreateslimedust.
Limehasatendencytoprecipitateoutduringslaking.
Limecancakewhenexposedtomoistureandcarbondioxideinair.
Limecanformahardscaleonequipment.
Duetotheaddedcostofslaking,hydratedlimecostsabout30percentmorethanquicklimeand
canproduceextradustduringhandling.However,thesystemcanavoidtheburdenofslaking,and
hydratedlimetendstohaveamorestablestoragelife.Forplantsthatuseatleast2to3tonsoflime
perday,bulkquicklimemaybethemostaffordableoption.Thebestqualityofquicklimehasahigh
percentageofpurity(greaterthan62percentquicklime)andquickslakingability.Forplantswhere
limeuseisnotrequireddaily,hydratedlimemaybebetterintermsofconvenienceandstorage(WEF
andASCE1998).
9.6 DesigningforRapidMixandFlocculation
Rapidmixisabriefprocesswherethechemicaldoseisvigorouslyblendedwithwastewater.
Chemicalsshouldbedisperseduniformlytoensureformationofprecipitates.Recentresearchhas
confirmedthatrapidmixingatthepointofchemicaldosageiscriticalforefficientphosphorusremoval
usingironsalts(Smithetal.2007).
Therapidmixingprocessisfollowedbyflocculation(slowmixing)toallowagglomerationof
solidstoformlargerflocswithimprovedsettlingcharacteristics.Itisimportanttominimizeagitationof
thewaterduringflocculationtopreventflocdestruction.Existingplantcomponentssuchasaerated
gritchambers,aerateddistributionchannels,orfeedwellsofclarifiersarecommonlyusedfor
flocculation,oftenaftersomemodification.
Thissectionprovidesinformationonmixerconfigurationsavailableforrapidmixand
flocculationandguidanceonsettingdesignparameters.
9.6.1 TypesofMixers
Mixersaredesignedtoachievethegoalsofthetypeofmixingintended.Rapidmixingisa
shorter,fasterprocessmeanttomaximizecontactofcoagulantsandpolymerwiththewastewater,
whileflocculationrequireslongerhydraulicretentiontimes(HRTs)andmorecarefulagitationto
increaseflocsizeandsettling.Typicalmixerdesignsforbothrapidmixandflocculationaredescribedin
Table94.

Table94.CommonlyUsedEquipmentforRapidMixing
Typeof Mixing GeneralDescription DesignOptions

Mixing Equipment
RapidMix Staticinlinemixer Uniqueinthattheyhavenomoving
partsandprovidemixingbyusingvanes
orplatestocausesuddenchangesin
flowdirection.Mostcommontypeofin
linemixer.
Mixingtimevarieswithlengthof
mixer.Degreeofmixingrelatedto
pressuredropthroughthemixer.
Bettermixingresultsinlargerpressure
drops.
Inlinemixer Similartostatic
rotatingmixing
process.
inlinebutcontain
elementtoenhance
Powercanbeprovidedbyanexternal
sourceorbytheturbulencecreatedby
theconfigurationofthemixerand
rotatingelement.
Highspeed
inductionmixer
Animpellerisrotatedatasufficient
speedtocauseavacuumbehindthe
impeller.Thisvacuumpressureisthen
usedtodrawchemicalstotheimpeller.
Highspeedscanresultin
instantaneousdispersionofchemicals.
Pressurized
jets
water Chemicalisaddedthroughahigh
pressurewaterjet.Thevelocityofthe
jetmustbehighenoughtomixwaterin
allpartsofthepipeline.
Asmalldiameterreactortubecan
increasemixingeffectiveness;power
providedbysolutionfeedpump.
Rotatingimpeller
(Turbineor
propeller)

Constructedwithverticalshaftdrivenby
electricalmotor.Impellersmountedon
theshaftprovidemixing.Flowcanbe
horizontalorvertical.Turbinesare,in
general,highervelocity,andgreater
turbulenceleadstoimprovedmixing.
Highspeedmixerswithsmallimpellers
arebetterforrapidmix,whileslow
speedmixerswithlargerimpellersare
usedforflocculation.
Twobasicimpellertypesare(1)radial
flowimpellerswithflatorcurved
bladesmountedparalleltotheaxisof
theshaft,and(2)axialflowimpellers
atanangle<90withthedriveshaft.
Axialflowimpellerscanbevariable
pitchconstantangleorconstantpitch
variableangle.
Smallmixersrevolveat1750rpm,
largemixersrevolveat400to800
rpm;morethanonepropellermaybe
mountedonthesameshaft.
Flocculation Static Wastewater
flow
issubjectedtoreversalsin Mayincludeflowchannelslaidout
horizontallytocauseenergyproducing
friction;channelspacingmaybe
designedtodecreaseenergyovertime
tokeeplargeflocsfrombreakingapart
Paddle Consistsofaseriesofpaddlesspaced
apartandmountedtoashaft;slow
movingpaddlespromotegentle
flocculation.Lesscommonlyusedthan
othermethodsbecauseofmaintenance
issues.
Paddlesmountedonhorizontalor
verticalshaft;agitationspeed
importanttopromoteflocformation
andmaintainingflocsizefor
settleability.
Turbineand
Propeller
3to4bladesmountedtoaverticalshaft. Bladesmayberectangularorhydrofoil
shaped;specificdesignmeantto
reduceflocshearing;considersize
relatedtopowerandpumping;tip
speedandsuperficialvelocity.
Ballasted Usescontinuouslyrecycledmediaanda
varietyofadditivestoimprovesettling
propertiesofsuspendedsolidsthrough
improvedflocbridges.
Examplesofproprietarydesigns
includeActiflo,DensaDeg,CoMag,
andLamellaplateclarification
system.
Source:Tchobanoglousetal.(2003);USEPA(2003)

Often,movementofwastewaterthroughtheplantissufficientforflocculation,althoughcare
shouldbetakennottodisruptflocformationthroughpumpingoraeration.Anotherapproachistouse
aflocculatingclarifier,inwhichanexpandedcenterwellprovidesthedesireddetentiontimeforslow
mixing.Thecontentsoftheflocculationwellcanbeagitatedbymechanicalmixersordiffusedair,
althoughthehydraulicregimeinthecenterwellmaybesuchthatmechanicalorairmixingdoesnot
provideadditionalbenefit.Althoughnotcommon,mechanicalflocculationusingamixerorairagitation
canbeusedtoimproveperformanceofclarifiers.Proprietarytechnologiesusingballastedflocculation
combinerapidmix,flocculation,andsedimentationinoneunit.Theycansignificantlyreducefootprint
requirementsandcanbeveryeffectiveatphosphorusremoval.Chapter6,section6.3.1providesa
descriptionofseveralproprietarytechnologies.
9.6.2 DesignFactors
Themostimportantparametersfordesigningrapidmixandflocculationsystemsarethe
velocitygradient(G),thehydraulicdetentiontime(t),andthevesselgeometry.Forstaticmixers,the
degreeofmixingisrelatedtotheheadlossthroughthemixer.Foranykindofrotatingimpellersystem
(forrapidmixorflocculation),theimportantdesignparametersaretherotationalspeed(n)andthe
ratiooftheimpellerdiametertotheequivalenttankdiameter(D/T
e
).Forpaddleflocculators,the
powerisrelatedtothedragforceonthepaddles.Eachofthesedesignfactorsisdiscussedbelow.A
summaryofkeyparametersisprovidedinSection9.6.3.Foradditionalguidanceandexample
calculations,seeChapter5ofTchobanoglousetal.(2003)andWEFandASCE(1998).
9.6.2.1 VelocityGradient
Thevelocitygradientisameasureoftheshearintensityimpartedtoafluid.Itcanbeestimated
usingthefollowingequation(Tchobanoglousetal.2003):

G=[P/V]
1/2
Eq.91
Where:
G =Velocitygradient,second
1
P =Powerrequirement,W(kgm
2
s
3
)
=Absolutefluidviscosity,kgm
1
second
1
V =Basinvolume,m
3
Forrapidmix,Smithetal.(2007)recommendsGvaluesgreaterthan300seconds
1
,although
velocitygradientsofupto1,000seconds
1
havebeenrecommended(BarthandStensel1981).Velocity
gradientsforflocculationprocessesgenerallyare3060seconds
1
,dependingonthechemicalsadded
andpointofaddition(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Lowervelocitygradientsmayyieldflocparticleswith
toomuchtrappedwater,whereashighervelocitygradientsmaycauseexcessiveflocshearandfloc
deterioration.
Insomecases,chemicalsareaddeddirectlytotheactivatedsludgeprocesswithnoadditional
mixingotherthanthatalreadydesignedforaerationandmixingofsolidsandmixedliquorinthebasin.
Althoughthispracticecanbeeffective,itrepresentslessthanidealconditionsforflocculation,as
velocitygradientsinaerationbasinsusuallyresultinflocshear.Inonestudy,airflowratesinthe
downstreamendoftheaerationbasinwerereducedtoachieveavelocitygradientof60seconds
1
,
whichwasfoundtobeoptimumforflocculationusingferricchloride(Singhal1980).Additionofanionic
polymerpriortoclarificationassistsintheagglomerationofshearedfloc.
9.6.2.2 PowerRequirements
Ifatargetvelocitygradienthasbeenselected,designerscanderivethetheoreticalpower
requirementusingequation91,solvingforPasfollows:
P=G
2
V Eq.92
Forrotatingimpellersystems,thepowerisrelatedtotherevolutionspersecondanddiameter
oftheimpellerbythefollowingequation:
P=N
p
n
3
D
5

Eq.93
Where:
P =Powerinput,W
N
p
=Powernumberfortheimpeller,unitless
=Massdensityofthefluid,kg/m
3
n =Impellerrevolutionspersecond,s
1
D =Diameteroftheimpeller,m
Pumpingcapacityofthemixercanbeestimatedusingsimilarinputs:
Q=N nD
3
i Q
Eq.94
Where:
Q
i
=pumpdischarge,m
3
/sec
N
Q
=flownumberoftheimpeller,unitless
Powernumbersandflownumbersfordifferenttypesofimpellersalongwithqualitativeinformationon
pumpingcapacityareprovidedinTable95.Designersshouldconsultmanufacturersforpowerandflow
numbersforaspecificpieceofmixingequipment.
Table95.ValuesofN
P
andN
Q
forVariousTypesofImpellers
TypeofImpeller N
P
N
Q
PumpingCapacity
Verticalflatbladeturbine(VBT) 3.5 4 0.84 0.086 Low
Diskturbine Low
Pitchedbladeturbine(45
o
PBT) 1.6 0.084 0.086
Pitchedbladeturbine(32
o
PBT) 1.1 0.084 0.086 Moderate
Lowshearhydrofoil(LS,3blade) 0.30 0.50 High
Lowshearhydrofoil(LS,4blade) 0.60 0.55 High
Propeller High
Source:Tchobanoglousetal.(2003),Table512

Equation93appliesiftheflowisturbulent(i.e.,theReynoldsnumber,N
R
,isgreaterthan
10,000),whichisgenerallythecaseforrapidmixdesigns.Whenmechanicalpaddlemixersareusedfor
flocculation,powerisrelatedtothedragforceonthepaddlesasfollows(Tchobanoglousetal.2003):

P=(C
D
A
2
p
)/2 Eq.95
Where:
P =Powerrequirement,W
C
D
=Coefficientofdragofpaddlemovingperpendiculartofluid,unitless
A =Crosssectionalareaofthepaddles,m
2
=Massdensityofthefluid,kg/m
3
P
=Relativevelocityofthepaddleswithrespecttothefluid,m/s,usuallyassumedtobe0.6to
0.75timesthepaddletipspeed.

Thisequationcanberearrangedtodeterminetherequiredpaddleareafortherequiredpower,as
derivedusingequation92.
Forstaticmixers,thekeyparameterfordesignisnotpowerrequiredsincetherearenomoving
parts,butheadlossthroughthemixer.Theheadlosscanbeestimatedasfollows:
h=K
SM
2
Eq.96
Where:
h =Headlossacrossthestaticmixer,m
K
SM
=Overallcoefficientforthestaticmixer,sec
2
/m,asprovidedbythemanufacturer
=Approachvelocity,m/sec
9.6.2.3 HydraulicRetentionTime
Thehydraulicretention(ordetention)timeistheamountoftimeaunitoftheprocessflow
stayswithinatankforagivenflowrate.Itiscalculatedasfollows:
t=V/Q Eq.97
Where:
t =Hydraulicretentiontime,seconds
V =Reactorvolume,ft
3
orm
3
Q =Flowrate,ft
3
/secorm
3
/sec
Dependingonthemixingdeviceandchemicalcoagulantchosen,achemicaladditionprocess
willrequiredifferentratesofrapidmixingtoensureadequatehydraulicretentiontime,butstilllimit
contactinthemixer.Forexample,staticinlinemixers,inlinemixers,andhighspeedinductionmixers
areusedforalum,ferricchloride,andcationicpolymerwheninstantaneousmixingisrequired.A
hydraulicretentiontimeofonly1secondorlessisrequiredforthesetypesofmixersbecausethe
chemicalprecipitantstendtohaveafastreactionrate.However,applicationsusinglimemayrequire
between10and30secondsofhydraulicretentiontimesincelimereactsmoreslowlywithwastewater
(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).TenStateStandards(2007)recommendadetentiontimeofatleast30
secondsforbasinsequippedwithmechanicalmixingdevices.
Theprocessoftheflocculationofsmallparticlesofsolidphosphorusisnotcompletely
understood.TheseparticlesareaffectedbypHandthesurfacechemistryofthemetaltophosphorus
complexes(WERF2008).Smithetal.(2008)reportedthatflocagingmaycontributetoadecreaseinthe
phosphorusremovalefficiencyofwastewater.Spentflocscanberecycledtopromoteflocculationin
thewastewaterstream,butbasedonthisresearch,theeffectofflocageondecreasingflocsurfacearea
andtherelatedabilitytobindwithphosphorusshouldbeconsidered.Despitethesomewhatlesser
understoodfactsaboutflocculation,itiscommonlyknownthatpolymercanimproveflocculation.The
polymerworksbycapturingsmallcolloidalparticlesandhelpingthemtojoinviathelongchainpolymer
moleculestoformlargerparticlesthatwillsettleoutmorereadily.
9.6.2.4 VesselGeometry
Vesselsforrapidmixingshouldbedesignedtoavoidtheformationofvortexes.Ifthevesselis
small,theimpellersshouldbemountedoffcenteroratanangle.Forlargervessels,designers
commonlyavoidvortexingbyinstallingfourormoreverticalbaffles(alsocalledstatorbaffles)extending
approximately1/10
th
to1/12
th
ofthediameteroutfromthewall(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Vortexing
canalsobeminimizedbychoosingaflatbladedimpellerinsteadofafanorpropellerimpellerand
introducingchemicalsatthebladelevel.
Theratiooftheimpellerdiametertotheeffectivetankdiameter(D/T
e
)isanimportant
parameterfordesignanddependsonwhethertheflowmoveshorizontallyorverticallythroughthe
mixingvessel.Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)recommendD/T
e
valuesof0.25to0.4forhorizontalflow
vesselsand0.40to0.60forverticalflowvessels.NotethatT
e
forrectangularbasinscanbeestimatedas
follows:
T
e
=1.13(LXW)
1/2
Eq.98
Where:
T
e
=Effectivediameterforarectangulartank,m
L =Basinlength,m
W =Basinwidth,m
9.6.3 SummaryofTypicalDesignParameters
Table96summarizestypicaldesignparametersforrapidmix.Thesevaluesshouldbeusedas
generalguidelines;finaldesignvaluesforvelocitygradientandhydraulicretentiontimeshouldbe
establishedduringjarorpilottestingandbasedonmanufacturersrecommendations.Design
parametersforballastedsystemsareprovidedintheEPAWastewaterTechnologyFactSheet,Ballasted
Flocculation(USEPA2003),availableonlineat
http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/ballasted_flocculation.pdf.
Table96.TypicalDesignParametersforTurbineandPropellerMixers
Parameter Symbol Unit Value
Horizontalflowmixing
Velocitygradient G 1/s 5002500
Rotationalspeed N rpm 40125
Ratioimpellerdiameterto
equivalenttankdiameter
D/T
e
unitless 0.250.40
Verticalflowmixing
Velocitygradient G 1/s 5002500
Rotationalspeed N rpm 2545
Ratioimpellerdiameterto
equivalenttankdiameter
D/T
e
unitless 0.400.60
Source:Tchobanoglousetal.(2003),Table511
Althoughchemicaladditionremainsareliablemethodforphosphorusremoval,therehavebeen
fewdramaticchangesinboththetypesofchemicalsavailableandtheirapplications.However,tofill
theneedforlowerandlowereffluentphosphorusrequirements,thefieldofsolidsseparationhas
expandedtoprovidemoreeffectiveoptionsforremovinginsolublephosphorus.
Theoptionsforsolidsseparationdependonamultiplebarrierapproachstandaloneprocesses
maybeusedforsolidsseparation,butdependingontreatmentgoals,twoormoresystemstogether
maybeabletoachievelowerandmorereliablephosphorusconcentrations.Ingeneral,thesolids
separationprocessrangesfromtheconventionaltotheadvancedasfollows(WERF2008):
Conventionalsedimentationusesclarifiersforsettlingoffloc,and,muchofthetime,follows
thatwiththesecondarybarrierofafiltrationprocesstoremoveadditionalsolids.
Highrateflocculationandsedimentationincludesamoreadvancedclarifiertoprocesslarger
volumesofwastewatermorequickly(e.g.ballastedflocculation/sedimentation,lamellatube
settlers).Commonlyfollowedbyfiltration.
Thedirectfiltrationmethodusesasinglebarrierapproachwithnosedimentation.
Twostagefiltrationusesmultiplefilters.
Microfiltrationorultrafiltrationtheoreticallyremovesallinsolublephosphorussincethefilter
sizeisunderthe0.45musuallyconsideredtobethelimitofinsolubility;inpractice,
membranedefectscanlessenfiltereffectiveness.
Ballastedseparationandmagneticpolishing,suchasthepatentedCoMagprocessdiscussed
laterinthissection.
9.7.1 PrimaryandSecondaryClarification

Solidsseparationprocessescanbeappliedatvariouslocationsintheprocesstrain,typically
directlyfollowingchemicaladdition.Whenchemicalsareaddedpriortoprimaryorsecondary
clarification,clarifierdesignbecomesakeyfactorinremovaloftheprecipitatedphosphorus.Clarifiers
usedinchemicalprecipitationsystemsdifferlittlefromthoseemployedinconventionalbiological
treatment,althoughuseofflocculationzonesisrecommendedtoallowflocculationtooccurafter
additionofcoagulants.Provisionofdistinctflocculationzonesisrecommendedforeitherprimaryor
secondaryclarifiers,dependingonthepointofchemicaladdition.Distinctflocculationzonesare
particularlyimportantforprimaryclarifiers,becausetheremaybelittleopportunityforflocculationto
occurinexistingprocesses.Forsecondarychemicaladdition,flocculationcanoccurinaerationbasinsor
channelsprecedingclarification,buttheuseofflocculationzonesinsecondaryclarifiersisa
recommendedpracticeasitallowsflexibilityinthepointofchemicaladditionandprovidesazonein
whichdirectcontrolcanbeexercisedovervelocitygradientstoachieveoptimumflocculation.
TheWEFManualofPracticeFD8,ClarifierDesign(WEF2005)providesdetaileddesignguidance
forachievingsolidsremovalsinclarifiersincludingrecommendeddesignstandards,softwaremodeling,
detailsonprocessesandequipment,andperformancemonitoringandcontrol.Bottetal.(2007)report
thatsolidsremovalthroughconventionalclarifierscanreliablyremoveTPtoeffluentlevelsbetween0.5
and1.0mg/L,andlowereffluentlevelscanfrequentlybeobtained.
9.7.2 TertiaryProcesses
Tertiaryprocesses(postsecondarytreatment)useclarification,someformoffiltration
technology,orbothandcanbeusedtoconsistentlyremovephosphorustoverylow(<0.1mg/L)
concentrations.Tertiaryclarifierscanbeconventional,oneortwosludgelime(secondsludgeincludes
recarbonationandsettling),solidscontact,highrate,andballastedhighrate.Theyaresizedonthe
samebasisasprimaryandsecondaryunits.Highrateandballastedhighrateclarificationistypically
combinedwithflocculationandrapidmixinginproprietarysystems.Theseproprietarysystemshave
beendescribedpreviouslyinSection9.6.Chapter6summarizestertiaryfiltrationtechnologieswith
designguidelinespresentedinChapter11ofthismanual.
9.8 OperationalFactors
9.8.1 DoseControl
Thesuccessofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladditiondependsonproperinstrumentation
andcontrol.Dosagecontroltypicallytakestheformofmanualoperation(forsmallsystems),
adjustmentsbasedonautomaticflowmeasurements,orthemoreadvancedonlineanalyzerswith
automateddosagecontrol.Flowpaceddosing(feedforwardcontrol)iscommon.Moreadvanced
controlsystemsmayuseonlinephosphateanalyzersoroxidationreductionpotential(ORP)forcontrol.
SeeChapter13ofthisdesignmanualforadditionalinformationoncontrolstrategies.
9.8.2 MakeupWater
Chemicalpropertiesofanywaterusedformakingsolutionsshouldbeconsideredtapwater
highindissolvedsolidscouldcausesludgetoformwhenmixedwithcoagulants(WEFandASCE1998)
andcouldleadtocloggingofchemicalfeedlines.
9.8.3 SludgeProductionandHandling

Chemicalprecipitationmethodsalwaysproduceadditionalsolidsduetogenerationofmetalor
calciumphosphateprecipitatesandadditionalsuspendedsolids.Limetraditionallyproducesahigher
sludgevolumecomparedtometalsaltsbecauseofitsreactionwithnaturalalkalinity.Anadvantageof
limesludgeisthatsomestabilizationcanoccurduetothehighpHlevelsrequired.Onedisadvantageis
thatlimecancausescalinginmechanicalthickeninganddewateringsystems.Althoughittendsto
producelesssludgethandoferricsalts,alumsludgecanbemoredifficulttoconcentrateanddewater
comparedtotheferricsludge.
StoichiometricequationsforestimatingsludgeproductionareprovidedinSection3.5ofthis
designmanual,butagoodruleofthumbisabout10gofchemicalsludgepergPremovedbychemical
treatment.Examplecalculationsareprovidedinthetextboxonthenextpage.
Example92:DeterminingIncreaseinSludgeProductionfromAdditionofFerricChloride
inExample91
Problem:AWWTPoperatorwantstouseferricchloride(FeCl
3
)toremovephosphateinthe
secondaryclarifier.Theplantsflowrateis1.0MGD,andthemeasuredphosphateconcentration
enteringthesecondaryclarifieris4mg/LasP.FromExample91andconfirmedthroughjartesting,
74.8gallonsofferricchloridesolutionwillbeaddedperdaytoremoveupto98percentofthe
phosphate.Theoperatorwantstoestimatethemassofadditionalsolidsthatwillneedtobe
removedfromthesecondaryclarifierasaresultoftheferricchlorideaddition.
Constants:
Ferricchloridesolutionstrength=40percent
Densityofferricchloridesolution=1.4kg/L
MolecularweightofFe=55.85;MolecularweightofFeCL
3
=162.2;MolecularweightofP=30.97
MolecularweightofO=16;MolecularweightofH=1
Solution:
1. Assumethatthephosphorusremovedwillbecontainedinthefollowingprecipitatewithironas
Fe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
andtheremainderoftheironaddedwillbeasFe(OH)
3
.SeeChapter3,Section
3.5foradditionaldiscussion.
2. Calculatethemillimolesperliter(mM/L)ofironaddedperdaythatprecipitatesasmM/Lof
Fe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
andasmM/LofFe(OH)
3.
precipitate.
a. PremovedasmM/L=(0.98)(4mgP/L)/(30.97mgP/mMP)=0.127mMPremoved/L.
b. Theamountofironaddedwas2.0mMFe/mMPinfeed.FeaddedasmM/L=(2.0mM
Fe/mMP)(4mgP/L/(30.97mgP/mMP)=0.258mMFe/L
c. PrecipitateasmMFe/LinFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
=1.6mMFe/mMPremoved=(1.6)0.127mMP
removed/L=0.203mMFe/L
d. PrecipitateasFeinFe(OH)
3
=mM/LofFeaddedminusmM/LofFeinFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
.=
0.258mMFeadded/L0.203mMFe/L=0.055mMFeinFe(OH)
3
/L
3. CalculatesludgeproductionassumofFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
andFe(OH)
3
.
a. MWofFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
=1.6(55.85)+2+30.97+(4)(16)+3.8(16)+3.8(1)=250.9;MWof
Fe(OH)
3
=55.85+(3)(16)+(3)(1)=106.85
b. SludgeasFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
=0.203mMFe/L(1.0mMFe
1.6
(H
2
PO
4
)(OH)
3.8
/1.6mMFe)(250.9
mg/mM)=31.83mg/L
c. SludgeasFe(OH)
3
=0.056mMFe/L(1.0mMFe(OH)
3
/mMFe)(106.85)=5.98mg/L
d. TotalsludgeproductionfromFeCl
3
addition=31.83+5.98=37.8mg/L=(37.8mg/L)(8.34
lb/MGmg/L)(1.0MGD)=315.4lb/d(143.1Kg/d)
Theinorganicsludgeproductionof315.4lb/d(143.1kg/day)isinadditiontowhatwouldbe
removedwithouttheadditionofferricchloride.Thisisaninitialdesignestimateandmayvary
dependingonwastewaterconditionsandthepointofaddition.
9.8.4 pHAdjustment
DependingonthewastewatercompositionandpH,pHadjustmentmaybenecessarytoachieve
efficientphosphorusremovalwithchemicaladdition.OtherusesforpHadjustmentincludethe
neutralizationofthewastewaterfloweitherfollowingchemicaladditionandpriortobiological
treatment,orpriortoeffluentdischarge.TheimportantcomponentsofapHadjustmentprocess
includethewastewaterflowrate,hydraulicretentiontime,andtheprecisionofthechemicalmetering
system.Laboratorytitrationexperimentsaregenerallynecessarytodeterminethecorrectdoseofacid
orbase(WEFandASCE1998).TargetpHvaluesforoptimumresultsvarywiththechemicalbeingused,
andtypicalvaluesaregivenintheliterature.However,jartestsshouldbeusedtodetermineand
confirmthespecificoptimumvalueforthechemicalandwastewaterbeingreacted.
RaisingthepHofanacidicwastewaterstreamisgenerallyaccomplishedthroughtheuseof
lime,suchashighcalciumlime,quicklime,hydratedorslakedlime,ordolomiticlime.Calciumand
magnesiumoxidesorhydroxidesmayalsobeusedinamixture.Limeproductstendtobeinsolubleand
requirelongerretentiontimesthanotherchemicalscalciumandmagnesiumoxidesinparticular
requirelongHRTs,butarefavoredduetotheirrelativelowcost.Aswithotherapplicationsoflime,lime
usedforpHadjustmentcreatesasignificantamountofsludge.Causticsodaandsodaasharemuch
moresoluble,createlesssludge,andreactmuchmorequicklywithacidinwastewater.Thehighercost
ofcausticsodaandsodaashcomparedtolimecompoundsshouldbefactoredintoanydecisionmaking
process.Drysodaashcanbefedbyacontinuousfeederusingvolumetric,gravimetric,orlossinweight
gravimetricmechanicalfeeders,whileasolutionfeedcanbepumped(WEFandASCE1998).
LoweringahighpHtoamoreneutrallevelforeffluentdischargemaytakeplaceviaanacidfeed
systemthataddssmallquantitiesofsulfuricacidorhydrochloricacidtothewastewater.Forlarger
systems,theacidsolutionmaybeappliedatthepointofdischarge.Nitricacidisreadilyavailablebut
generallynotpreferredduetotheadditionofnitrogenspecies(WEFandASCE1998).
9.8.5 EffectonBiosolidsApplication
Theuseofmetalsaltscanleadtolargeincreasesininorganicsolidsinthesludge,whichcan
resultinincreasedinorganicsalts(salinity)insludgeandintheeffluent.Salinitycancreateproblems
whenbiosolidsarelandappliedorwhentheeffluentisreturnedtoexistingwatersupplyreservoirs.
BiologicalphosphorusremovalwasdevelopedinSouthAfricaduetothehighrateofindirectrecycling
ofwastewatereffluent,whichledtoexcessivetotaldissolvedsolids(TDS)duringdryperiods.Hightotal
saltscanreducegerminationrateforcropsandnegativelyaffectthesoilstructure.
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OperationalVariablesinChemicalPhosphorusRemoval.WaterEnvironmentResearch.80(5):407
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ImplicationsforChemicalPhosphorusRemoval.2008.WaterEnvironmentResearch.80(5):428438.
Alexandria,VA:WEF.
USFilterKruger,2000.DesigninformationontheActifloprocessforwastewater.
USEPA.1975.ProcessDesignManualforSuspendedSolidsRemoval.EPA625/175003a,NTISNo.PB
259147,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,CenterforEnvironmentalResearchInformation,
Cincinnati,OH,1975.
USEPA.1976.ProcessDesignManualforPhosphorusRemoval.GreatLakesNationalProgramOffice.
GLNPOLibrary.EPA625/176001a.April1976.
USEPA.1987a.DesignManual:PhosphorusRemoval.CenterforEnvironmentalResearchInformation.
Cincinnati,OH.EPA/625/187/001.
USEPA1987b.RetrofittingPOTWsforPhosphorusRemovalintheChesapeakeBayDrainageBasin.
Cincinnati,OH.EPA/625/687/017
USEPA.1999.EnhancedCoagulationandEnhancedPrecipitativeSofteningGuidanceManual.Officeof
Water.EPA815R99012.
USEPA.2000.WastewaterTechnologyFactSheet:ChemicalPrecipitation.OfficeofWater.EPA832F
00018.
USEPA.2003.WastewaterTechnologyFactSheet:BallastedFlocculation.OfficeofWaste
Management.MunicipalTechnologyBranch.EPA832F03010.
USEPA.2008.EmergingTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentandInPlantWetWeather
Management.EPA832R06006.Availableonline:
http://www.epa.gov/OWOWM.html/mtb/emerging_technologies.pdf
WEF.1983.NutrientControl.WEFManualofPracticeNo.FD7.WaterEnvironmentFederation.
Washington,DC.
WEF.2005.ClarifierDesign,2
nd
Edition.WEFManualofPracticeNo.FD8,WaterEnvironment
Federation,Washington,DC.
WEF.2008.OperationsGlossary.[Accessed1October2008].Availableonline:
http://www.wef.org/ConferencesTraining/SkillsBuilder/Operations_Glossary.htm
WEFPress.
WERF.2008.NutrientCompendium.Chapter1,TertiaryPhosphorusRemoval.Availableonline:
http://www.werfnutrientchallenge.org/chapter1.asp?area=ch1
Wilkes,W.1973.PhosphorusRemovalbyChemicalAdditionUsingPrimaryTreatment.In:Phosphorus
RemovalDesignSeminar,ConferenceProceedingsNo.1,Toronto,Canada,May2829.
YubaCity.2007.AgendaforStaffReportonChemicals(FB0707).CityofYubaCity,CA.Available
online:http://www.yubacity.net/documents/Agendas/2007/041707Council/041707AgendaItem9.pdf

10. DesignApproachforBiologicalNutrientRemoval
10.1 Introduction
Bythisstageoftheprocess,designengineersshouldhavecompletedthefollowingsteps:
Reviewedthemechanismsforbiologicalnutrientremovalatwastewatertreatmentplants
(WWTPs)(seeChapters4and5).
Characterizedthewastewaterandestablisheddesignobjectives(seeChapter7).
Reviewedflowsheetsandotherinformationonavailabletreatmentmethodsforbiological
nutrientremoval(seeChapter6).
Selectedcandidateprocessesfortheplantupgrade(seeChapter8).
Thedesignerisnowreadytoselectanddesignthefinalupgradeoption(orstartprocessselectionfor
Greenfieldplants)andtheoperatingconditionsunderwhichtheplantcanachievedesiredobjectivesfor
nutrientreduction.
AlthoughprocessdesignforWWTPupgradesforbiologicalnutrientremovalcanstillbedone
usingtraditionalengineeringmethods(i.e.,handcalculationsorspreadsheetsusingtheoretical
equations),processsimulators
1
havebecomeincreasinglypowerful,easytouse,andwidelyacceptedin
1
Forthepurposesofthisdesignmanual,mathematicalmodelsormoresimplymodelsaresetsofequationsthatdescribea
physicalsystem.Examplesincludetheactivatedsludgemodels(ASM),biofilmmodels,andcomputationalfluiddynamic(CFD)
modelsforsecondaryclarifiers.Processsimulatorsorsimulatorsarecomputerprogramsthatallowtheusertospecifyall
theprocessesofaWWTP,selectmodelsforeach,andsolvethemodelstopredictplantperformance.ExamplesareBioWin
andGPSX(SeeTable101forafulllist)
Chapter10covers:
10.1 Introduction
10.2 PreliminaryDesignApproach
10.3 OverviewofRecommendedApproachforPlantModeling
10.4 EstablishingObjectivesandRequirements
10.5 SelectingaProcessSimulator
10.6 DataCollection
10.7 CharacterizationofOrganicMaterial
10.8 CharacterizationofNutrientFractions
10.9 KineticandStoichiometricParameters
10.10 Calibration
10.11 Validation
10.12 SimulationofDesignAlternativesforNutrientRemoval
10.13 AdditionalProceduresforDesign
10.14 DesignChecksforNitrogenandPhosphorusRemoval
10.15 References
recentyears.Simulators,whichsolvemathematicalmodelsandtypicallyprovideresultsinauser
friendlyformat,allowdesignerstostudykineticaswellastimebasedsolutionswhiledeterminingthe
totalmassbalancesofmanyconstituents.WEFandASCE(2010)notethatThecomplexityofbiological
activityandreactorbehaviorandthenumberofvariablesimportanttonutrientremovalrequiretheuse
ofcomputermodelsfordetailedsolutions.
Simulatorshavemanyadditionaladvantagesovertraditionaldesign.Designerscanuse
simulatorstoquicklytestmanydifferenttreatmentconfigurationsanddesignparametersinafraction
ofthetimeandcostitwouldtaketoperformtraditionaldesigncalculationsandlaboratoryorpilot
tests.Theadditionalcostofdevelopment(e.g.,costofsettingupthesimulator,specialsamplingto
defineinputs)isusuallysmallcomparedtothemonetarybenefitsofmoreaccuratepredictionsand
thus,lowersafetyfactorsindesign.Forthesereasons,simulationhasbecomethepreferredmethodof
processdesignforbiologicalnutrientremovalatWWTPs.
Althoughmodelsarethepreferredmethodfordesignofbiologicalnutrientremoval,theremay
beinstanceswherepreliminaryhandorspreadsheetcalculationscanbeusefulaloneorasacheckon
modeledoutput.MostengineeringfirmshaveusedthemathematicalequationsfoundinChapters4
and5ofthismanualinaspreadsheettoestimatethebasinssizes.Suchspreadsheetscanbedeveloped
toestimatethefollowing:
Sizeoftheanaerobiczone.
SolidsResidenceTime(SRT)requirementsfornitrificationatminimumexpectedmixedliquor
temperature.
Minimumrequirementsfordenitrificationzones.
Mixedliquorrecyclerates.
Oxygenrequirementsfornitrificationandcarbonremoval.
Productionofsurplus,i.e.wasteactivatedsludge(WAS).
Clarifiersizerequirements.
Returnactivatedsludge(RAS)pumpingranges.
Effectofapproximatepeakingfactors.
BenefitsofUsingModelsforProcessDesign
Thetraditionalapproachfordesigningbiologicalnutrientremovalsystems(e.g.,fornitrification)was
todeterminesolidsresidencetime(SRT)basedonkineticequations,thentoapplyasafetyfactor
basedonengineeringjudgment.Thenewmethodcurrentlybeingusedbydesignengineersisto
determinesitespecificnitrificationkineticsbasedoninfluentqualityandperformdynamicmodeling
ofthesystemtocapturevariability.Lowersafetyfactorscanbeusedindesignwithmoreconfidence
thattheplantcanachievethedesiredtreatmentobjectivesunderavarietyofoperatingconditions.
Section10.2providesamethodologyforapreliminarydesignapproachusingequationsand
graphs.Theremainderofthischapter(Sections10.3through10.14)presentstherecommended
modelingapproach,providingpracticalguidanceonhowtousecommerciallyavailableprocess
simulatorstodesignnutrientremovalprocesses.ThisChaptercontainsguidanceonselectinga
simulator,establishingmodelobjectivesandrequirements,collectingandverifyingdata,calibratingand
validatingthemodel,andsimulatingalternatives.Examplesareprovidedthroughout.
Thischapterassumessomefamiliaritywith
processsimulators;readersusingmodelsforthefirst
timeshouldcarefullyreviewtechnical
documentationandworkwithvendor
representativestogetthesimulatorupandrunning
properly.Readersarealsoencouragedtoreview
industrystandardsandtechnicaldocumentsfor
additionalrecommendationsonmodelingprotocols,
wastewatercharacterizationmethods,anddetailed
calibrationprocedures.Aparticularlygood
referenceisthe2003WaterEnvironmentResearch
Foundation(WERF)report,MethodsforWastewater
CharacterizationinActivatedSludgeModeling(Melceretal.2003).Inaddition,modelersshouldcheck
forthependingpublicationoftheInternationalWaterAssociation(IWA)ScientificTechnicalReport,
GoodModelingPractice(GMP)GuidelinesforUseofActivatedSludgeModels(IWA2009).Historical
backgroundandinformationonunderlyingmathematicalmodelsisprovidedinAppendixCofthis
manual.
10.2 PreliminaryDesignApproach
Forpreliminarydesign,asimplestepbystepapproach(providedbelow)canbeusedto
estimatebasinsizeforbiologicalnutrientremoval(nitrogenandphosphorus).Notethatthis
methodologyisnotmeanttobeprescriptivestepsmaybedoneinadifferentorderandrulesof
thumbshouldbecarefullyevaluatedbythedesignerandtreatmentplantoperators.Thekeyisthatany
methodologybebasedonthefundamentalscienceofbiologicalnutrientremovalaspresentedin
Chapters4and5ofthismanual.Inadditiontoguidanceinthissection,thereaderisalsoencouragedto
reviewstepsandexamplecalculationsprovidedintheUSEPANitrogenControlManual(1993)andnewly
updatedManualofPracticeNo.8bytheWaterEnvironmentFederation(WEF)andtheAmerican
SocietyofCivilEngineers(ASCE),DesignofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlants(WEFandASCE
2010).
Step1:Characterizetheinfluentflow.
SeeChapter7,Section7.4fordetailedguidance.Keyfactorsfordesignareasfollows:
ThelowestmixedliquortemperaturefordeterminationofrequiredSRT.Usuallybasedonthe
coldesttemperaturesustainedforatwoweekperiod,buttheperiodcouldbeshorterifvery
lowSRTsarebeingconsidered.
Accuratecharacterizationofinfluentflowand
plantoperationiscriticaltomodelingnutrient
removalprocesses.Mistakesin
characterizationcanhavesevereimpactson
design.Thus,agoodportionofthischapteris
devotedtoproviding:
Guidanceongatheringinputdata
Discussionofhowthedataarerelated
Informationonwhythesedataare
importantinthedesignofnutrientremoval
processes
Theexpectedchemicaloxygendemand(COD)toTotalKjeldahlNitrogen(TKN)orbiochemical
oxygendemand(BOD
2
)toTKNratio,andtheCODtoTotalPhosphorus(TP)ratio.Thedesired
ratioisthatofthesettledsewageifprimarysedimentationisincludedinthetreatmenttrain.
Forcompletedenitrification,aCOD/TKNratioofmorethan8andaBOD/TKNratioofmorethan
4areneeded.Forbiologicalphosphorusremoval,aCOD/TPratioofgreaterthan40and
BOD/TKNratioofmorethan20areneededwhentargetingeffluentTPconcentrationslessthan
1.0mg/L.Amoreaccurateratioforenhancedbiologicalphosphorusremoval(EBPR)isthe
readilybiodegradableCOD(rbCOD)toTPratioofthesettledsewage(shouldbe>15,see
Chapter5fordiscussion).NotethatifrbCODispresentinatrulyanaerobicreactor(no
dissolvedoxygen(DO),nonitrateornitrite),someEBPRwillalwaysoccur.Theamountofsoluble
phosphorusintheplanteffluentwilldependupontherbCOD/TPratioavailabletothe
phosphorusstoring(polyP)bacteriaintheanaerobiczone.TheconcentrationofthepolyP
bacteriaintheactivatedsludgeshiftsastherbCOD/TPratioshifts.
Step2:DeterminetherequiredSRTfornitrification.
UsegraphsorequationsprovidedinChapter4todeterminetheminimumSRTfornear
completenitrification.Multiplybyasafetyfactorthisistypicallygreaterthan2orrepresentedbythe
peakTKNdividedbythemedianTKNintheprocessinfluent.Bothoftheseapproximationswillprovide
alargesafetyfactorthatcanbereducedusingdynamicsimulationwithacalibratedcomputermodel.
Designersshouldcarefullyconsidertheeffluentrequirementsincludingtherequiredaveragingperiod
whenselectingasafetyfactorforpreliminarydesign.Forexample,iftheeffluentlimitis3.0mg/L,a
singlevalueof5.0mg/Lwillbeverydifficulttoaverageoutiftheaveragingperiodisonemonthbecause
thereislittlepossibilityofproducinganeffluentconcentrationoflessthan3.0mg/Lformost
wastewaters.However,iftheaveragingperiodisseasonalorannual,suchanexcursionisofsignificantly
lessconcernandasmallersafetyfactorshouldbeused.
Step3:DeterminerequiredSRTfordenitrificationandphosphorusremoval(ifrequired).
UsegraphsorequationsprovidedinChapter4todeterminethedenitrificationratesatthe
lowestdesigntemperatureandusethatvaluetodeterminetheSRTrequiredfortheanoxiczones.Add
theSRTrequirementsfordenitrificationtothatrequiredfornitrification.Ifbiologicalphosphorus
removalisrequired,addananaerobicvolumeof1.5to2hours.Recognize,however,thatcomplete
characterizationoftheprocessinfluentwastewateranddynamicsimulationmightshowthatan
anaerobicnominalHRTperiodaslowas0.5hourswouldbesufficientforhighrbCOD/TPratiosentering
theplant,(forexample,iftheplantisfedbyforcemainsand/orthewastewaterisfullyfermentedwhen
itreachestheplantasislikelytohappenforhightemperatures).Theanaerobicvolumecanbe
significantlyreducedbyaddingvolatilefattyacidsfromprefermentationorbychemicaladditionfor
polishing.
Step4:DetermineOverallSludgeInventory.
ApreliminaryestimateofthesludgeinventoryfortheBNRactivatedsludgesystemtobe
designedcanbederivedfromFigure71,whichisthesameasFigure14.20fromtheWEFASCEManual
ofPractice8(2010).ForthetotalSRTandtemperatureasidentifiedinSteps1through3,estimatethe
2
ForthepurposesofthisdesignmanualBODrepresentsthe5dayBODmeasurementmethod(sometimes
referredtoasBOD
5
)unlessotherwisenoted.
netsludgeproductionasafunctionofinfluentBOD(i.e.,assumethat100percentoftheBODwillbe
removedduringthetreatmentprocess).SeeChapter14ofMOP8(WEFandASCE2010)forguidance
onperformingdetailedcalculationsanddeterminingtheoverallsludgeinventory.Estimatethesludge
wastagerateasafunctionofthenetsludgeproductionandinfluentflowrate,i.e.calculatethemassof
BODthatwillberemovedperday.Thisrequiresassuminganominalhydraulicretentiontimeforthe
totalbiologicalreactorvolume.ForconventionalBNRactivatedsludge,thiswouldbe6to10hours
dependinguponthedesigntemperatureandtheMLVSSconcentrationdesired.Usingthefactor
selectedfromFigure71,calculatethemassofVSSthatwillbeproducedperdayfromthemassofBOD
thatwillberemovedperday.DividethisnumberbytheselectedSRTtodeterminearough
approximationofthewasteactivatedsludgethatwillbeproducedperday.
Step5:EstimateMLSSandDetermineOverallBasinVolume.
DecideonaMLSSvalue,usuallyrangingfrom2,200to3,500mg/Lifgravitysedimentation
clarifiersarebeingused.TheMLSSconcentrationisbasedonthesecondaryclarifierdesign,ifgravity
sedimentation,oronareasonableconcentrationformembraneseparation,e.g.8,000to10,000mg/L.
IfIntegratedFixedFilmActivatedSludge(IFAS)isused,designersneedtodeterminethebiomassthat
willbeattachedtothemediaforthedesignoperatingconditions.Thatisbestdoneusingacomputer
model.FinalselectionofMLSSmaybedonebytrialanderrorandshouldconsidersolidssettlingand
thickeningproperties(WEFandASCE2010).
MultiplytheSRT(days)fromSteps1through3bythesludgewastagerate(mass/day)and
dividebytheMLSSconcentration(massperunitofarea)toestimatetherequiredminimumreactor
volume.
Step6:DetermineInternalRecycleandRASPumpRates
Allowformixedliquorinternalrecyclepumpsthatcanreturn2to4timestheinfluentflowfor
nitraterecyclefromtheendofthefirstaerobiczonetotheinfluentendoftheanoxiczone.Also,ifthe
UniversityofCapetown(UCT)ortheVirginiaInitiativeProject(VIP)configurationsarebeingused,
recycleMLSSatarateofapproximately1timestheinfluentflowfromtheendoftheanoxiczonetothe
influentoftheanaerobiczoneforEBPR.Theinternalrecycletotheanaerobiczoneisnotneededifthe
RASisreturnedtotheanaerobicreactorinfluent.Notethatthemostefficientinternalnitraterecycle
ratedependsontheCOD/TKNratioenteringtheanoxiczone.Abovethisrate,thereisinsufficientBOD
toreducethequantityofnitratesenteringthezoneandadditionalrecycleisdetrimentalratherthan
usefulbecauseinternalrecycletypicallyrecyclesDOaswellasnitrates.Thereisrarelyjustificationfor
recycleratesgreaterthan4timestheinfluentflowbecauseoftheincreaseinpumpingcostsforthe
sameamountofadditionalnitratethatwillbereduced,evenifsufficientbiodegradableCODisavailable.
TheRASrateshouldgenerallybe0.5to1.2timestheinfluentflowrate.Theoperatorshouldbe
providedwithsubstantialRASrateflexibilitysothatadjustmentscanbemadeforvariationsinsludge
settlingratesandforchangesintheMLSSconcentrationinthebiologicalreactors.
Designersalsoshouldallowflexibilityforwhentheplantisunderloadedduringtheearlyyears
ofoperationorwhentheorganicloadingisconsiderablylessthanthedesignloading.Becauseunder
loadedBNRprocessesdonotperformaseffectivelyasfullyloadedBNRprocesses,theuseofmultiple
trainsisthebestwaytoprovideflexibilityduringtheunderloadedyears.Alsonotethatnitrification
processesrequireminimumamountsofalkalinitytofunctionoptimally.Theactualamountsofalkalinity
inthewastewatershouldbedeterminedandcomparedtothenetquantitythatwillbeconsumedby
nitrificationandphosphorusprecipitatingchemicalsaftercorrectionforalkalinitythatwillbeproduced
duringdenitrification.
10.3OverviewofRecommendedApproachforPlantModeling
Severalgroupshavepublishedrecommendedprotocolsandguidelinesforactivatedsludge
modeling(Petersenetal.2002;Hulsbeeketal.2002;Melceretal.2003;Shawetal.2007).Recognizing
theneedforaconsistentprotocol,IWAestablishedataskgroupongoodmodelingpracticetoprepare
guidelinesfortheuseofactivatedsludgemodels.Thetaskgrouphopestofinalizetheguidancein2010
(Rieger2009).
Todate,thetaskgrouphasdevelopedaUnifiedProtocolformodelingwiththefollowingfive
keysteps:
1. Projectdescription,includingidentificationofobjectivesandmodelrequirements
2. Datacollectionandreconciliation
3. Modelsetup
4. Calibrationandvalidation
5. Simulationandresultsinterpretation
Figure101showstheUnifiedProtocolaspublishedbyIWA.Modelersshouldgenerallyfollowthis
protocolwhendesigningretrofitstoanexistingtreatmentplanttoenhancenutrientremoval.

Agreement on the objecti ves and
budget?
Requirements (dat a, model accuracy, )
Probl em statement
Objectives
Process flow diagram (process unit s, boundaries)
Data collection
(physi cal, operational, influent, effl uent)
Data and process evaluation
Calibration / validation adequate ?
Selection of the paramet ers and stop criteria
Plant model buil ding
(input specification, sub-model selection)
Calibration
Simul ation and result interpretation
Functional evaluation
Report
Objectives achieved?
Model adequate?
Data and process validat ed?
Validation
Data sufficient and validated?
Calibration successful?
yes
no
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
no
no
no
no
no
no
no
Additional data
collection
(direct
parameter
measurements,
sampling
campaign,
missing data)
Sensible outputs?
yes
Validation successful?
yes
no
P
R
O
J
E
C
T

D
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F
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I
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N

D
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A
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R
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M
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S
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U
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Results sufficient?
no
Figure101.
Source:IWA,
Unifiedprotocolforactivatedsludgemodeling.
2009.UsedwithpermissionfromtheIWA(http://www.modeleau.org/GMP_TG/UP.htm),fromanupcomingreport
(http://www.iwapublishing.com/template.cfm?name=isbn9781843391746&type=forthcoming)

10.4 EstablishingObjectivesandRequirements
Asearlyaspossibleinthemodelingprocess,designersandplantoperatorsshouldagreeonthe
following:
Modelingobjectives
Boundaries,answeringquestionssuchasUnderwhatenvironmentalandoperatingconditions
willthemodelbeused?andWhattypesofsimulationswillbeperformed?
Preconditions
Performancecriteria(e.g.,goalsformodelingaccuracy)
Responsibilities
Requireddata
Timeandbudgetconstraints
Threetopicsintendeduseofmodeling,goalsforaccuracy,andtypesofsimulationsareparticularly
importantinthedesignofnutrientremovalsystemsandarediscussedinsubsequentsubsections.
10.4.1 IntendedUseofModeling
Thisdesignmanualassumesthatmodelingwillbeusedforthedesignofretrofitstoexisting
plantstoenhancenitrogenand/orphosphorusremoval,butcanbeusedforgreenfielddesignsaswell
Thesamesimulatorsdevelopedfordesignpurposes,however,canhavemanyotherfunctions.
Simulatorscanbeusedtoassessunitprocesscapacitiesunderdifferentoperatingconditionstoidentify
whichprocessesarecriticalbottlenecks.Theycanbeveryusefulasaprocessoptimizationtoolthrough
themanipulationofvariouscontrollableparameters.Thesamesimulatorusedfordesigncanbeused
tooptimizeperformanceoncetheretrofitsareinplace.Designersshouldalsodetermineifthe
simulatorwillbeusedforoperatortrainingforexample,tosimulatewhatif?scenariosthatcould
havesignificantimpactsonplantperformance.
10.4.2 GoalsforModelingAccuracy
Becausethesimulatorisasimplifiedrepresentationanddoesnotaccountforeverybiological
processandchemicalreactionthatoccursintherealworld,aperfectcalibrationtoobserved
performanceisnotpracticallyachievableandisnotarecommendedstandardofmodeling.An
acceptablelevelofagreementisgenerallyforobservedandpredictedvaluestobewithin10to15
percentforaninitialdesignwhencalculatedonamonthlyaveragebasisandbelow10percentforafinal
design.Withonlineinstrumentationthatcantrackthediurnalvariations,itmaybepossibleto
approach5percentaccuracyonadailyaveragebasisformodelcalibrationofmostoftheparameters
suchassludgeproduction,MLSS,effluentammoniaandsolubleCOD.Someeffluentparameterssuchas
nitratesaredependentonthedegreeofsimultaneousnitrificationanddenitrification,whichismore
difficulttomodel.Agreementwillbelessfortransientconditionsfurtherawayfromsteadystatesuchas
stormeventsorspikesinnutrientloading.Thegoalformodelingaccuracyshouldtakeintoaccountthe
designcriteriafornutrientlimits.Asmallermarginoferrorispreferableforverylowtargeteffluent
levelsforTNand/orTP.
Designersshouldcoordinatecloselywiththeplantownertoestablishtargetaccuracypriorto
developingthemodel.Notethatthemodeloutputisonlyasaccurateastheinputandthemethod

usedtomakethemeasurementforinputsandoutputs.Thebettertheinputinformation,thelowerthe
safetyfactorthatisneeded.
10.4.3 Dynamicvs.SteadyStateSimulation
Modelscanberuninsteadystateordynamicsimulationmode.Steadystatesimulationspredict
treatmentplantperformancewhenthereisnovariationintheloadorflowtotheplant.Diurnal
patternsforinfluentflowvolumeandloadings(i.e.,CODandTKN)maybeusedinsteadystatemodels,
butthemodelswillaveragetheflowandloadandproducesteadystateoutputs.Dynamicmodelsrely
onthesamemathematicalrelationshipsassteadystatemodels,buttheycanalsosimulatehourly
variationsinmeasuredinfluentflowandoperatingparameters(e.g.,recycleflows)overanumberof
days,months,orseasons.
Industryexpertsconsiderdynamicmodelingtobesuperiortosteadystatemodeling(Hulsbeek
etal.2002;Merloetal.2008;Alexetal.2007).Dynamicsimulationsmorecloselyapproximateactual
plantoperationsandallowfortheuseofsmallersafetyfactorsfordesign.Theyareextremelyusefulfor
wetweathermodeling,determiningdailymaximumlimits,andsizingaerationequipmentforpeak
demand(Johnson2009).Designobjectives,however,shouldbebalancedwithsignificantlylargerdata
requirements(e.g.,hourlymeasurementsofinfluentflowandnutrientloadingsforseveraldays)and
hence,thehighercostsassociatedwithbuildingadynamiccomparedtoasteadystatemodel.Asnoted
previously,however,thecostofmoresamplingandanalysisisafractionofthesavingspossiblethrough
amoreaccuratedesignandlowersafetyfactors.
Dynamicmodelingbecomesparticularlyimportantandisrecommendedwhentargetingvery
lownutrientlimitssuchas3.0mg/Lfortotalnitrogen(TN)and/or0.1mg/Lfortotalphosphorus(TP).
Reasonsforthisarediscussedbelow.
Becausenitrifyingbacteriadonothaveadsorptivecapacity,therateatwhichtheycanreduce
ammoniaisdirectlyrelatedtothemassofnitrifiersinthemixedliquor,whichisinturndeterminedby
theaverageinfluentammonialoadandtheSRTintheaeratedbasin.Influentammoniaconcentrations
vary,withpeaksoccurringduringthedayandmuchlowerconcentrationsoccurringovernight.Infact,
peakammonialoadduringthemorningcanbeashighas2.8timestheaverage(Barnard1975).Influent
ammoniaconcentrationscanbegreatlyincreasedbyconcentratedammoniainreturnstreamsfrom
sludgedewateringoperations.Inmanyplants,dewateringofdigestedsludgeoccursduringtheday,
andthesupernatantfromthedewateringoperationisreturnedtotheheadoftheplantinthe
afternoon.Thecombinationofpeakammonialoadsfromtheinfluentwastewaterandadditional
ammoniafromreturnstreamscanresultinpeaksthatcannotbefullyoxidizedbytheavailablenitrifiers
resultinginpeaksofammoniaintheeffluent.ThesizeofthepeakswillalsoberelatedtotheSRTandis
notnecessarilyanindicationofimminentplantfailure,i.e.nitrifierwashout.Steadystatemodeling
wouldnotcapturethisscenario.Whentherearesubstantialdailyammoniapeaks,thesteadystate
modelmayshowthatnitrificationispossiblewhilethediurnalmodelmayindicateinadequate
performanceofthenitrifiersbecauseofammoniabreakthroughs.Forexample,whentheaverage
influentnitrogenis30mg/Landthereisanincreaseto60mg/LwithoutanincreaseintheSRTduring
thetransitionfrom30to60mg/L,someammoniawillbleedthroughuntilthemassofnitrifiershas
doubled.Insimulationoractualpractice,thiswouldtakeasignificantnumberofdays.Itisunlikelythat
thehighloadwillpersistlongenoughfortheincreaseinnitrifierstotakeplaceunlesstherehasbeena
permanentadditiontotheammoniaload.Therefore,significantvariationsintheeffluentammonia
concentrationcouldbeobservedbutthereislittleornodangeroflosingnitrification.Notealsothat

sincethenitrifierpopulationisalowfractionofthetotalMLSS,thetotalMLSSwillincreaseonlyslightly
(2to3percent)ifapermanentincreaseinammonialoadinghasoccurred.
Similartothereducedtreatmentcapacityofnitrificationsystemscausedbyammoniainrecycle
fromsludgedewateringunits,reducedphosphorusremovalcanbecausedbynitratesintherecycle
stream.Thisisbecausesomeheterotrophicaerobicorganisms,includingsomephosphorusstoring
organisms,canusenitrateasanelectronacceptorandwillcompetewiththephosphateaccumulating
organisms(PAOs)forvolatilefattyacids(VFAs).SeeChapter5foradditionalinformationonthe
biologicalphosphorusremovalprocessandinhibitoryeffectsofnitrateintherecyclestream.
Themainsimulatormodelsincorporateaonedimensional(1D)mathematicalmodelfor
secondaryclarifiersbasedonthemixedliquorsettlingcharacteristicsasrepresentedbytheVesilind
equations(Vesilind1968;Zhouetal.1982).These1Dmodelscanpredictthebehavioroftransientloads
throughthesecondaryclarifiersduringdynamicmodeling,whichisextremelyimportantwhenremoving
nutrientstolowlevels.The1Dmodels,however,arelimitedbecausetheyassumeideallayered
clarificationandthickening.Twoorthreedimensional(2Dor3D)computationalfluiddynamic(CFD)
modelscanmoreaccuratelyrepresentthedynamicbehaviorofspecificclarifierconfigurations(Merloet
al.2007).CFDmodelscouldbecoupledwiththeoverallsimulatormodels;however,theyrequireavery
largecomputermemorytorun,whichslowsdowntheiterationsrequiredtosolvethemultiple
interrelatedbiologicalequations.Mostdesignersusethe1Dmodelsforsolvingthebiologicalreactions
andtheeffectoftransientloads,thenstudythefinalclarifiersusingCFDmodeling.

Ifdesignerswouldliketoseetheeffectofdynamicmodelingbutonlydailyaverageandsome
peakflowvaluesareavailable,theycanusetypicalpatternsforflowandconcentrationderivedfrom
similarplants(itshouldbenotedontheoutputsthattheseareestimates).Designerscanuseaseparate
inputofcleanwatertosimulateastormeventoffixeddurationthenmixthisinputwithregularplant
influent.Thestormcouldbesimulatedatvarioustimesduringa24hourperiodtoassessitspotential
impact.Recycleflowscanalsobesimulatedasbeingstoredandfedatvarioustimeswithina24hour
periodundervariousstressconditions,suchaslowtemperatureorlowVFAsintheplantinfluent.For
example,thecentratefromdigestedsludgecouldbemodeledforreturnover8hours,24hours,ortobe
dischargedduringthenightwhentheincomingammonialoadislow.Someplantsmayrunoutof
alkalinityrequiredfornitrificationatlowflowsandsomeprogramscansimulatethis.
10.5 SelectingaProcessSimulator
Processsimulatorsallowuserstolinkunittreatmentprocessessuchasbioreactorsandclarifiers
togetheraccordingtotheconfigurationofaparticularplant.Eachunitprocessincorporatesa
mathematicalmodeltorepresentbiological,physical,and/orchemicalinteractionswithinthatunit.The
processsimulatorusesthisinformationtomimictheperformanceofaplantunderspecificoperating
andinfluentloadingconditions.Eachindividualbiologicalreactorinthemodelsisassumedtobe
completelymixed.
Table101liststhecommonlyusedcommerciallyavailablesimulators(thisisnotanexhaustive
listasthesimulatormarketiscontinuallychanging).EachsimulatorisCODbased,allowsdynamicand
steadystatesimulations,hasgraphicalinterfaceandgraphicaloutput,andcomputestruemass
balances.Eachsimulatorcanalsoperformwholeplantmodeling,whichincludesnotonlyprimary
treatmentprocesses,butalsosolidstreatmentandrecyclestreams.Commerciallyavailablesimulators
vary,however,accordingtotheirgraphicinterface,themathematicalmodelsincludedforspecific
treatmentprocesses,thedegreeofcustomizationavailable,thedegreeofknowledgerequired,and
cost.
Table101.CommonlyUsedProcessSimulators
Simulator Distributor Description Use Website

toU.S.
Biowin Evirosim Usesaproprietarycombinedmodelthat AlongwithGPSX, http://www.envirosim
AssociatesLtd. isbasedontheASMmodelsbut dominantinNorth .com
(Flamborough, integratesthemwithmodelsforfixed America
Ontario) film,digestion,settling,chemical
addition,andfiltration(supermodel
approach).Itiscustomizableand
compatiblewithExcel,andhasaunique
pHcalculatorthatcandeterminepH
changescausedbywastewaterreactions
andmodelprecipitationofstruviteand
otherminerals.
GPSX Hydromantis Usesaproprietarymodelbasedonthe AlongwithBioWin, http://www.hydroma
Inc.(Hamilton, ASMmodels.Includesmodelsforfixed dominantinNorth ntis.com
Ontario) film,digestion,settling,chemical America
addition,andfiltration.Itiscustomizable
andcompatiblewithExcelandMatlab.It
isabletoperformautomaticsensitivity
analysesandhasanextensiveprocess
modellibrary.
SIMBA ifake.V BasedontheASMmodels,alsohas MainlyGermany http://simba.ifak
(Germany) modelsforsettlinganddigestion.Itis andHolland md.de/simba/index.p
customizableandusesMatlabasabasis. hp?option=com_cont
Welldesignedtolookatcontrol ent&task=view&id=34
elements,itcanlinkwithcollection &Itemid=104&lang=e
systemandstreammodels. n
STOAT WRcplc AllowsuseofmodifiedversionofASM Predominantly http://www.wrcplc.co
(Swindon, modelsthatarebasedonBODinsteadof UnitedKingdom .uk/default.aspx?item
England) COD.Itiscustomizableandcanperform =1052
automaticsensitivityanalyses.UKspecific
data.
WEST DHIWater Opensystem,i.e.,canuseany Belgiumand http://www.dhigroup.
(Hrsholm, mathematicalmodeltopredictplant Europe com/Solutions/Solutio
Denmark) performance. nSoftware/WEST.aspx
AQUIFAS Aquaregen
Mountain
Aninternetavailableprogrambasedon
theASMmodelsthatutilizesExcel.It
Developedinthe
USA,butcurrently
http://www.aquifas
.com
View, CA
USA
includesmodelsfortheincorporationof
alltypesoffixedfilmmediaintoactivated
sludgebioreactors.AlsoMBRandwhole
usedinseveral
countriesaround
theworld.
plantsimulation.
Source:Melceretal.2003;Shaw2009.SenandRandall2008a,b,&c.WeblinkscurrentasofMarch23,2010.
Twosimulators,BioWinandGPSX,dominatethemarketinNorthAmerica.Botharerelatively
easytouseandproduceoutputdatainsimplegraphicalformat(Shawetal.2007).In1995,theDutch
FoundationofAppliedWaterResearch(STOWA)recommendedtheuseofSIMBA,whichpromptedits
adoptionbymorethan100plantsintheNetherlands(Hulsbeeketal.2002).STOAT,ontheotherhand,

istheonlysimulatorthatincludesbiochemicaloxygendemand(BOD)basedmodels.Westispopular
withsomeintheacademiccommunitybecauseofitsabilitytoaccommodateanymodelandbecauseit
runsinatransparentenvironment.
Newsimulatorsarecontinuallybeingdeveloped,sometomeetspecificneedsofcertainusers.
Forexample,AQUASIMandASIMareproducedbyEAWAGandhavefoundhighusageamong
academics(formoreinformationonthesemodels,seehttp://www.asim.eawag.ch/).SenandRandall
(2008a,2008b,and2008c)developedaninternetavailablespreadsheetmodelcalledAquifas
primarilyformodelingattachedgrowthprocessesincludingmembranebioreactors(MBR),integrated
fixedfilmactivatedsludge(IFAS)systems,andmovingbedbioreactors(MBBR),butitcanbeusedfor
wholeplantsimulationsofalltypesofactivatedsludgesystems,includingheadworks,anaerobic
digestersandsludgeprocessing,andisadaptableforfixedfilmprocessessuchastricklingfiltersand
RBCs.Usershavetheoptionofselectingempiricalmodelsorbiofilmdiffusionmodelsforpredicting
performanceandcanrunbothsteadystateanddynamicsimulations.Aquifasisavailablefreeofcharge
athttp://www.aquifas.com/.
Whilenosetofmathematicalequationscanperfectlyreplicateasystem,designersshouldbe
carefultoselectasimulatorthatcontainsallsignificanttreatmentprocessesoccurringintheplantand
candidateprocessesunderconsiderationforupgrades.Thechoiceofsimulatorswillalsodependon
userpreferenceandskilllevel.Whilesomesimulatorsallowagreatdealofflexibilitytoadjustand
changemodels,theyalsorequiregreaterskillandunderstandingoftheprocess.Thegraphicalinterface,
userfriendliness,andcompatibilitywithexistingsoftwarewillalsobeimportantfactors.Some
programshaveahighinitialcostbutwillmostlikelyoffertrainingandahigherdegreeofcustomer
support,whileotherscostlessbutdonotprovideasmuchsupport.Thetextboxonthenextpage
providesalistofquestionsthatshouldbeconsideredbydesignerspriortoselectingaprocess
simulator.
10.6 DataCollection
Figure102,adaptedfromWilsonandDold(1998),showstheinputsneededtosetupaprocess
simulatorforanexistingWWTP.Inputdatathatcanbeobtainedfromplantrecordsorbydirect
measurementinclude:
Processconfigurationdatasuchasplantlayout,reactorsizing,andrecyclestreams
Processoperatingconditionssuchasflowsthrougheachprocessandflowratesofrecycle
streams
Processinputs,namelywastewatercharacteristicsandinfluentloadingdata
Rieger(2009)estimatesthat50to60percentoftheentiremodelingeffortgoesintodatacollectionand
reconciliation.
Subsections10.6.1and10.6.2discussprocessconfigurationandoperatingconditions,
respectively.GuidanceforwastewatercharacterizationandinfluentloadingdataisprovidedinChapter
7.Forguidanceonestimatingfractionsoforganicsubstrateandnutrientloadingparameters,see
Sections10.7and10.8,respectively.Estimatingkineticandstoichiometricparametersforprocess
modelsarediscussedinSection10.9.
WhatquestionsshouldIaskbeforeselectingaprocesssimulator?
Howwillyouusethesimulator?Whatdoyouwantthesimulatortodonowandinthefuture?
- DecideonFEATURES.
Whowillrunthesimulationsandkeepthemodelsuptodate?
- Determineexpertiseneededtorunandmaintainthesimulator.
QuestionsforVendors:
- Whatprocessesandfunctionswillitmodel?
- HowdoesitinterfacewithothersoftwaresuchasExcel?
- Istherealeaseoption?Thistypeofagreementcanbeverycosteffective.
- Whatisthecostandavailabilityoftraining?
- Whattypeofsupport(fromcompanyand/orusergroups)isoffered?
- Howextensivearethedocumentationandhelpfunctions?
Source:Shaw2009.
Figure102.Essentialrequirementsforwastewatertreatmentprocesssimulation.
Source:WilsonandDold1998.ReprintedwithpermissionfromProceedingsofWEFTEC.1998,the71stAnnualWater
EnvironmentFederationTechnicalExhibitionandConference,Orlando,Florida,October37,1998.Copyright1998,Water
EnvironmentFederation,Alexandria,Virginia,www.wef.org.
Theaccuracyofanysimulatorishighlydependentonthequalityofthedatausedtobuildit.
Designersshouldcriticallyevaluatedatatoensurethattheyarelogical(i.e.,dataarenotoutsidethe
normalrangeforWWTPs)andmeasuredparametersareasexpectedforeachsamplinglocationgiven
theupstreamtreatmentprocesses.Chapter7,Section7.4.2recommendsdatachecksthatshouldbe
completedpriortoenteringinformationintothemodel.Massbalancestofurthervalidateinfluent
loadingandplantoperatingdataarediscussedinSection10.10(modelcalibration).
10.6.1 ProcessConfiguration
SimulatorsrequireuserstoconfigureunitprocessesastheyoccurattheWWTPandenter
informationonthesizeofeachcomponent,pointsofinputandoutput,andrecyclestreamssuchasthe
RASandMLSSrecycle.Mostsimulatorsallowuserstobuildaplantbyselectingiconsforunit
processesandenteringbasicdataforeach(e.g.,volume,length,width,anddepthforaerationbasins
andclarifiers).TheendresultisavisualrepresentationoftheexistingWWTPtobeupgradedor
retrofittedortheconceptfortheGreenfieldplant.SeeFigure103foranexampleofasimulator
configurationforaThreestagePhoredoxProcess(A2O)plantwithprimarysedimentationtanks,a
fermenterforVFAgeneration,wasteactivatedsludgethickening,digestion,anddewatering.Designers
shouldalwaysconsiderwholeplantmodelingfornutrientremovalprocesses,meaningthatsludge
productionandrecyclestreamsareconfiguredinthesimulatorratherthanjustthemajortreatment
processes.
Influent
Storm Flow
Mixer Anaerobic Anoxic Aerobic Aerobic PST Clarifie
Fermenter
Digester
Biosolids
Figure103.Examplesimulatorconfigurationforabiologicalnutrientremovalplant(courtesyofEnviroSimAssociates,LTD).

Allthemajorprocessesincludingsecondaryclarifiers,bioreactors,andanyfiltersshouldbe
included.Ifanobjectiveofmodelingistoevaluateaerationsystemperformance,diffuserdimensions
anddensitiesshouldalsobeincluded(Melceretal.2003).Itisnotusuallynecessarytoincludesludge
treatmentprocess(e.g.,digestion),althoughanyreturnstreamsfromtheseprocessesshouldbe
specified.Ifpossible,paralleltreatmentprocessesshouldbemodeledasindividualunits(Shawetal.
2007).
Informationonphysicalconfigurationcanbeobtainedfromplantmanagersoroperatorsorcan
beobtainedfromasbuiltconstructionrecords.Duringinitialmodelsetup,designersshouldcompare
designcapacitiesforeachunittothemodeledoutputsduringmaximumoperatingcapacity(Thirdetal.
2006).SeeSection10.9foradditionalinformationonmodelrunsandcalibration.
Thesetupofsuspendedgrowthbioreactorsisveryimportantforaccuratemodelingofcarbon
removalandnitrification.Thesimulatorsusecontinuousstirredtankreactors(CSTRs)torepresentthe
suspendedgrowthactivatedsludgesystems,meaningthatadropofwaterisinstantaneouslymixed
withtherestofthewaterassoonasitentersthatreactor.Inrealplants,theflowthroughbioreactorsis
somewherebetweenplugflowandcompletelymixeddependingondesignandoperationalfactorssuch
asshapeofthereactor,flowrate,baffling,andmixingpatternofaerationequipment.Toaccountfor
nonidealmixingconditions,individualbioreactorsshouldberepresentedbyatleasttwoCSTRsin
seriesforsquaretanksandmorethantwoforrectangulartanksinthemodel.
Ifthedesignofthereactorfavorsplugflowconditions(e.g.,longnarrowtankswithnodividing
wallbetweencells),designerscanusethefollowingformulatoestimatethenumberofCSTRsinseries
forthemodel:

N=7.4*L*Q(1+RR) Eq.101
W*H
Where:
N =equivalentnumberoftanksinseries(shouldneverbegreaterthan12)
L =aerationtanklength(m)
Q =wastewaterflow(m
3
/sec)
RR =RASrecycleratio(dimensionless)
W =aerationtankwidth(m)
H =waterdepth(m)
ThisformulawasdevelopedbytheWaterResearchCentreintheUnitedKingdom.Foradditional
information,seeMelceretal.(2003).
Anothermorerigorousapproachtocharacterizingflowthroughabioreactoristoperforma
tracertest.Aslugofinerttracer(e.g.,lithiumorfluorescentdye)isaddedtotheheadofthetankand
monitoredtodevelopawashoutcurve.SeethepublicationGuidanceManualforSewageTreatment
PlantLiquidTrainProcessAudits(EnvironmentCanada1995)forthedetailedmethodology.
Themainreasonformatchingthenumberofindividualcompletelymixedtankswiththeshape
oftheexistingorproposedtankistosimulatethedifferentoperatingconditionsindifferentzones.E.g.
ifthelengthtowidthratiofortheaerationsectionis3,theoxygendemandinthefirstsectionwillbe

higherwhilethedissolvedoxygenlevelinthissectionmustatleast2mg/Ltominimizebulkingsludge
developmentandtoenhancebothnitrificationandbiologicalphosphorusuptake.Incontrast,bythe
timethemixedliquorreachesthethirdsection,theammoniamaybedepletedresultinginadropin
oxygendemandwhichmayleadtooveraeration.Airflowstothedifferentzonesshouldmatchthe
demandtosaveenergyandensurethatthebiologicalfunctionsworkoptimally.Inaddition,theremay
beamixedliquorrecyclefromtheaerationbasintotheanoxiczonewhichwouldchangetheflow
patternsintheaerationbasin
10.6.2 OperatingConditions

Thefollowingoperatingparametersareimportantmodelinputsandareavailableatmost
WWTPs:
Flowroutingintoandoutofmajorunittreatmentprocesses
RASandmixedliquorrecyclerates
Primaryandsecondarywastageflows(withschedulesincasesofintermittentwasting)
Flowrateandscheduleforreturnstreamsthatcontainhighsolids,nitrogen,orphosphorus
Controlschemesformechanicalequipmentsuchasaeratorsandpumps(basedonSCADA
systemrecordsorinterviewswithplantoperators)
Designersshouldreviewseveralyearsofdatatodetermineoperatingconditionsunderdryweather,
normaloperationratherthantakinganaverageofseveralmonthsofdata.Operatingparameters
shouldalsobeestablishedforextremeconditionssuchaspeakwetweatherevents.
Plantsmaybemissingoperatinginformation,suchastheproportionofflowgoingtomultiple
treatmenttrains.Designersshouldinterviewoperatorstoapproximatemissingoperationaldataoruse
portableequipment(e.g.,flowmeters)todirectlymeasureandrecordmissingparameters.Sitevisits
tothetreatmentplanttointerviewoperators,conductawalkthroughoftheplant,andobserve
treatmentprocessesarehighlyrecommended(Hulsbeeketal.2002).
Acommonsuspectoperatingparameteriswastageflowduetothedifficultyinmeasuring
sludgedensitiesoverthefullperiodofwastage(Melceretal.2003).SeeSection10.10forguidanceon
checkingwastageflowratesduringcalibration.
10.7 CharacterizationofOrganicMaterial
Whenusingmodelsfordesign,organiccompoundsneedtobedifferentiatedintoanumberof
separatecomponentsbasedontheircharacteristics,namelywhetherthematerialissoluble
3
and/or
biodegradable.Therelativefractionsoforganicmaterialinwastewaterareveryimportantbecausethey
determinetheamountofsubstrateavailabletomicroorganismsforbiologicalnutrientremoval
processesandaffecttheamountofDOrequiredandthevolumeofsludgeproduced.Mostmodels
3
Melceretal.(2003)reportsalackofclarityinuseofthetermsoluble.Mosttechnicalreferencesdefinesoluble
asmaterialpassingthrougha0.45micron(m)membranefilter.Totaldissolvedsolids(TDS),however,are
routinelymeasuredusingglassfiberfilterswithnominalporesizesof1.2to1.5m.Thedifferenceisinthe
colloidalmaterial,withmostcolloidalCODpassingthroughaglassfiberfilterbutretainedona0.45mfilter.Itis
thereforeveryimportanttonotethefiltertypeusedwhenexamininghistoricaldataanddocumentthefiltertype
usedforallexperiments.

includedefaultvaluesfororganicfractions;however,sitespecificcharacterizationisstrongly
recommendedforthedesignofnutrientremovalsystems.
CharacterizationoforganicmaterialisalmostalwaysintermsofCODratherthanBOD
4
.Evenif
thesimulatorsallowuserstoenterBODvalues,theyareconvertedtoCODformassbalancesor
simulations,usingtheCODfractionsinthemodel.Foradditionalrationale,seethetextboxinChapter
7,Section7.4.1.WhenCODdataarenotavailable,CODcanbeestimatedbasedonitsrelationshipto
measuredBODandVSSvalues(seeSection10.7.1forguidelines).ItisalsocommonwhenonlyBOD
valuesareavailabletorunaseriesofBODandCODdeterminationsonthesamesamplestofinda
reasonablecorrelationcurvewhichcanbeusedtodeterminetheCODforeveryBODvalue.
Figure104providesaschematicrepresentationoftheCODcomponentsinwastewater.
Commonlyusedsymbolsforeachcomponentalongwithadescriptionandoverviewofmeasurement
methodsareprovidedinTable102.ThenamingconventionforthesymbolsisSforsoluble,Xfor
particulate,Iforunbiodegradableorinert.CODcomponentsaretypicallyreportedinmilligramsper
liter(mg/L),butcanalsoberepresentedasfractionsofthetotalasindicatedbytheletterFwiththe
symbolasasubscript(e.g.,F
SI
=thefractionoftotalCODthatissolubleandunbiodegradable).
AsshowninFigure104,totalCODintheplantinfluentisthesumofthesolublebiodegradable
portion,includingbothvolatilefattyacids(VFAs)andnonVFAcompounds;thesolubleunbiodegradable
(orinert)material;slowlybiodegradablematerial,whichcanbeeithercolloidalorparticulate;and
particulateunbiodegradablematerial.Asaformula,thisrelationshipisexpressedas:
COD
TINF
=S
A
+S
F
+S
I
+S
COL
+X
S
+X
I
Eq.102
Where:
COD
TINF
=TotalinfluentCODconcentration
S
A
=Volatilefattyacids
S
F
=ComplexbiodegradablesolubleCOD
S
I
=SolubleunbiodegradableCOD
S
COL
=SlowlybiodegradablecolloidalCOD
X
S
=SlowlybiodegradableparticulateCOD
X
I
=ParticulateunbiodegradableCOD
4
TheSTOATsimulatorcontainsmodifiedmathematicalexpressionsthatallowtheusertocharacterizewastewater
usingBODinsteadofCOD.STOATistheonlyoneofthecommonlyusedprocesssimulatorsshowninTable101
withthisfeature.
Soluble VFA (S
A
)
Soluble Non-VFA
(S
S
)
Soluble
Unbiodegradable (S
I
)
Slowly
Biodegradable
Colloidal (S
COL
)
Slowly
Biodegradable
Particulate (X
S
)
Particulate
Unbiodegradable
(X
I
)
Soluble VFA (S
A
)
Soluble Non-VFA
(S
S
)
Soluble
Unbiodegradable (S
I
)
Slowly
Biodegradable
Colloidal (S
COL
)
Slowly
Biodegradable
Particulate (X
S
)
Particulate
Unbiodegradable
(X
I
)
Readily
Biodegradable
(S
S
or rbCOD)
Slowly
Biodegradable
(SBCOD)
Flocculated
and Filtered
COD
Filtered
COD
COD
Total
COD
Figure104.CODcomponentsformunicipalwastewater
Note:CODfractionsarenottoscaleandvaryfromplanttoplant.
Source:DerivedfromMelcer,H.,P.L.Dold,R.M.Jones,C.M.Bye,I.Takacs,H.D.Stensel,A.W.Wilson,P.Sun,andS.Bury.
2003.Figure45,withPermissionfromtheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation.
Table102.CODandParticulateFractionsinMunicipalWastewater
Fraction Symbol
1
Description HowItCanBe Concentrationin
Measured Municipal
Wastewater
2
(mg/L)
TotalInfluentCOD COD
T,INF
Quantifiesstrengthof
organicmaterialinthe
influent
Directlymeasuredor
estimatedbasedon
relationshiptoBOD
250700
Readily
Biodegradable
COD
S
S
(or
rbCOD)
Canbeeasilyabsorbedby
organismsandusedfor
energyandsynthesisof
cellmass.IsthesumofS
A
andS
F
Directly measuredby
respirometry,butother
methodsareavailable
usingsimplifying
assumptions
25
125
Volatile
Acids
Fatty S
A
(or
VFAs)
AfractionofS
S
Directlymeasuredusing
ionorgaschromatography
Complex
Biodegradable
SolubleCOD
S
F
The
not
fraction
VFA
ofS
S
thatis S
S
S
A

Soluble
Unbiodegradable
COD
S
I
PortionofsolubleCOD
unaffectedbybiological
reactionsattheplant.
Leavesthesecondary
clarifieratsame
Approximatedasthe
soluble(filtered)CODofa
wellnitrifiedplanteffluent
20
50
concentrationasinfluent
Slowly
Biodegradable
COD
SBCOD Portionofbiodegradable
CODthatrequires
extracellularenzymatic
breakdownpriorto
adsorptionandutilization.
IsthesumofS
COL
andX
S
Typically
COD
T,INF
determined as
S
I
S
S
X
I
200
400
Slowly
Biodegradable
colloidalCOD
S
COL
PortionofSBCODthatis
colloidalandtypicallynot
settleable
Thedifferencebetween
thefilteredCODandthe
ffCODoftheeffluent
Slowly
Biodegradable
ParticulateCOD
X
S
PotionofSBCODthatis
particulateandsettleable
SBCOD S
COL

Particulate
Unbiodegradable
COD
X
I
PortionofparticulateCOD
unaffectedbybiological
reactionsattheplant.
Accumulatesinsludge
Determinedfromthe
modelorestimatedbased
oninfluentCOD,BOD,and
TSS
35
110
mass.
Notes:
1.Theliteraturecontainsmorethanonesymbolforsomecomponents.Thesymbolsshownaregenerallyconsistentwith
Melceretal.(2003).Othercommonlyusedsymbolsareincludedinparentheses.Notethatthesymbolshownrepresents
concentration,expressedasmilligramsperliter(mg/L).FractionsoftotalCODarerepresentedbytheletterFandasubscript
(e.g.F
SI
isthefractionoftheinfluentCODthatisunbiodegradableandsoluble).
2.DerivedfromMelceretal.(2003),Table42andexperiencewithsystems.Concentrationmayvaryduetovariablepercapita
waterconsumption.

ThesignificanceoftheCODfractionsonwastewatertreatmentisdescribedbelow.
ReadilybiodegradableCOD(S
S
orrbCOD)isanextremelyimportantmodelingvariablefor
biologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR)systemsasitdeterminestheamountofsubstrateavailable
forPAOstouseintheanaerobiczone.ItincludesVFAsandsoluble,readilybiodegradableCOD
thatarenotVFAsbutcandegradetoVFAsintheanaerobiczone.
SlowlybiodegradableCOD(SBCOD)ismadeupofparticulateandcolloidalmaterialthat
requiresextracellularbreakdownpriortoadsorptionbymicroorganisms.Thedifference
betweentheparticulatefraction(X
S
)andthecolloidalfraction(X
COL
)isimportantwhen
modelingperformanceofprimaryclarifiersbecauseaportionoftheparticulatefractionwill
settleandberemovedwiththewastesludgewhileallthecolloidalmatterwillpassthroughto
theaerobicprocess.
SolubleunbiodegradableCOD(S
I
)issignificantinthatitpassesthroughtheplantandendsup
intheplanteffluent.Itisimportanttodistinguishthisportionfromthesolublebiodegradable
fractionintheplantinfluent.S
I
istypicallyasmallfractionofthetotal.
ParticulateunbiodegradableCOD(X
I
)willaccumulateinthewastesludge.Fromamass
balanceperspective,themassofX
I
inthesystemisequaltothemasscomingintothesystem
perdaymultipliedbytheSRT.X
I
accountsforincreasingVSSinthesludgewithincreasingSRT.
Inadditiontotheorganicmatterfractionsdescribedabove,activebiomasswillbecapturedby
totalCODmeasurementmethodsandisreflectedinparticulateCODfractions(X
I
andX
S
).Orhonand
Cokgor(1997)estimatethatactivebiomassmakesupbetween7and25percentoftotalCODin
municipalwastewater.ActivebiomassCODisnottypicallymeasuredortakenintoaccountformodeling
andwillnotsignificantlyimpactmodelpredictionsofplantperformanceexceptinsomehighrate(low
hydraulicresidencetime(HRT))systems.SeeMelceretal.(2003)fordeterminingactivebiomassCODif
youbelievethatitmightbeasignificantfractioninyoursystem.
TheaggregationsontherightsideoftheschematicinFigure104relatemeasurementmethods
totherepresentativefractions.ThefilteredCODismeasuredafterthesamplehasbeenfilteredthrough
a0.45mfilterandrepresentsbothveryfinecolloidalandsolublematerial.Thecolloidalmaterialcan
beremovedbyflocculatingthesamplebeforefilteringit.Theresult,calledtheflocculatedandfiltered
CODorffCOD,representsonlythereadilybiodegradableandtrulysolubleunbiodegradableCOD.
ImportantrelationshipsbetweenorganicandparticulatematerialarediscussedinSection
10.7.1.Section10.7.2presentsvariousmethodsfordeterminingCODfractionsforagivenwastewater.
RecommendeddatachecksforCODfractionsareprovidedinSection10.7.3.
10.7.1 RelationshipofOrganicMaterialandSuspendedSolidsinWastewater
Figure105showstherelationshipsbetweenBOD,COD,TSS,andVSSalongwithkeyfractionsof
each.UnderstandingtheserelationshipscanhelpdesignersestimateCODfractionswhendataarenot
availableorcheckresultsagainstotherparameterswhenCODfractiondataareavailable.
BOD
S
o
l
u
b
l
e
P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
S
I
VFA
S
S
Colloidal
P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
X
I
SBCOD
B
i
o
d
e
g
r
a
d
a
b
l
e

P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
U
n
b
i
o
d
e
g
r
a
d
a
b
l
e
P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
ISS
VSS
COD
TSS
Soluble
non-
VFA
BOD
S
o
l
u
b
l
e
P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
S
I
VFA
S
S
Colloidal
P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
X
I
SBCOD
B
i
o
d
e
g
r
a
d
a
b
l
e

P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
U
n
b
i
o
d
e
g
r
a
d
a
b
l
e
P
a
r
t
i
c
u
l
a
t
e
ISS
VSS
COD
TSS
Soluble
non-
VFA
Figure105.RelationshipbetweenBOD,COD,TSS,andVSS.
Note:BOD=biochemicaloxygendemand;COD=chemicaloxygendemand;TSS=totalsuspendedsolids;VSS=volatile
suspendedsolids;X
I
=particulateunbiodegradableCOD;S
I
=solubleunbiodegradableCOD;VFA=volatilefattyacids;ISS=
Inorganicsuspendedsolids
BODcanbeeithersolubleorparticulate.ThesolubleBODisrepresentedinCODasthetotalof
thereadilybiodegradableportion(Ss)andthecolloidalportionofSBCOD.Theparticulateslowly
biodegradableCODcorrespondstotheparticulatefractionofBOD.Theparticulateandsoluble
unbiodegradablefractionsofCODarenotcapturedbytheBOD
5
method.TheCOD/BODratioformost
municipalwastewateris1.9to2.2mgCODpermgBOD(seethetextboxinthissectionforguidanceon
estimatingCODbydeterminingtheCOD/BODratio).
Totalsuspendedsolids(TSS)representtheparticulateportionofCODplustheinorganic
suspendedsolids.TSSistypicallydeterminedbyweighingthesolidsretainedona1.2mglassfiber
filter.Thesamplecanthenbeignitedandweighedagain.Theweightretainedistheinertsuspended
solids(ISS),andthedifferencebetweenTSSandISSisthevolatilesuspendedsolids(VSS).TheISSisan
importantparameterinmodeling.Thesesolidspassthroughtheplantunreactedandareremovedin
thewastesludge,withasmallportionleavingintheeffluent.ISScanhaveasignificanteffectonthe
mixedliquorsuspendedsolids.Inplantswithnophosphorusremovalorchemicaladdition,aplant
balanceonISSisagoodcheckonthesolidsfractionsastheISSintotheplantshouldequaltheISSout.
Whenphosphorusisremovedfromtheliquidphasebyeitherbiologicalorchemicalmeans,itleavesthe
plantthroughthesolidsandregistersasISS.

TheparticulatefractionofCODcanbecorrelatedtohistoricaldataonVSSofthemixedliquor
(MLVSS).Thisratioistypicallybetween1.42and1.48mgCODpermgMLVSS;however,theratiocanbe
higherforsolidsotherthanbiomass.SomemodelsuseaconstantCOD/VSSratiotodetermineVSS
throughouttheplant,whileothersmayallowdifferentvaluesfordifferentsolidsfractionssuchas
biomass,X
I
,andX
S
.
WhatiftheplantdoesnothaveCODdata?Thisisacommonproblem.ManyplantsmeasureBOD
5
insteadofCODbecausetheBODmethodhasbeeninuseforalongtimeanditisoftenthebasisfor
regulatorycompliance.IfCODmeasurementsarenotavailable,CODcanbeapproximatedby
establishingtheratioofCOD/BODorCOD/VSS.WhilesomeprogramsmaytakeBODastheinput,itis
stillnecessarytoadjusttheCODfractionsforgoodcorrelation.
AlthoughmeasuredvaluesofBOD,COD,andVSSintheplantinfluentvarygreatly,theratiosare
generallyconsistentforaspecificwastewater.COD/BODratiosaretypically1.9to2.2,withthehigher
ratiosforrelativelyfreshwastewater.COD/VSSshouldrangefrom1.42to1.48mgCODpermg
MLVSS.EstimatingtheratioofCOD/BODismorecommonthanCOD/VSS.
TodeterminetheCOD:BODratioforaspecificwastewater:
Collectseveralsamples(10to20arerecommended)ofinfluentwastewater.Thesamples
shouldberepresentativeoftotalinfluentflowandtakenatdifferenttimesofthedayatlow
andhighinfluentflowrate.
Splitthesamples,takingcaretohomogenizethemthoroughly.
AnalyzeeachsampleforCODandBOD.UsethesamemethodforBODthatisusedforthe
availableplantdata.(BOD
5
ismostcommon,althoughsomeplantswillhavecBOD
5
data.For
mostmunicipalwastewatersthereisverylittledifferenceinBOD
5
andcBOD
5
ifsettledprimary
sludgeisusedastheseedbecauseveryfewnitrifierswillbepresentandtheygrowtooslowly
tosignificantlyaffecttheresultsafterjustfivedays.If,ontheotherhand,effluentfroma
nitrifyingplantisusedastheseed,theresultswillbesubstantiallyinfluencedbynitrification
andtheanswerwillmisrepresentthebiodegradableorganicmatterinthewastewater.)
DeterminetheaverageCOD:BODratioforallsamples.
Repeatthetestwithprimaryeffluent
DesignerscanthenapplythisratiotohistoricalBODdatatodetermineCOD.

10.7.2 MethodsforDeterminingCODFractions
IndustryliteratureprovidesmanydifferentapproachesforsitespecificcharacterizationofCOD
fractions.Thissectionpresentsthefollowingthreepossibleapproaches,movingfromtheeasiesttothe
mostcomplex:
1. ConductamassbalanceoftheCOD/VSSratioandBODaroundtheprimaryclarifierusingmodel
defaultvaluesforCODfractions.Thismethodrequiresminimalsamplingandcanbeagoodfirst
screeningstepbasedonexistingdata.
2. Conductspecialsamplingoftheplantinfluentandeffluenttoestimateeachfraction.Several
measurementmethodsandapproachesforapproximatingfractionsareavailable.Atminimum,
thismethodrequiresadatasetforfilteredCODandflocculatedandfilteredCOD(ffCOD)forthe
plantinfluentandeffluent.Advancedmeasurementtechniquessuchasrespirometryare
recommendedinsomecases.
3. Benchscalesequencingbatchreactor(SBR)tests(alsocalledtheLowF/MSBRtest).This
approachrequiresa6weekstartupperiodand2weeksofintensivemonitoring(Reiger2009).
Itisthemostexpensive(approximately$50,000)butcanprovideexcellentcharacterizationof
CODfractions,TKNfractions,andnitrifiergrowthrate.
METHOD1:MassBalancearoundthePrimaryClarifier
BecausealargeportionoftheVSSwillberemovedintheprimarysludgeandthesolubleCOD
passesintotheeffluent,amassbalancearoundtheprimaryclarifiercanprovidesignificantinformation
onCODfractions.TheCODremovedintheprimaryclarifiersshouldcorrelatewiththeremovalofBOD
andVSSsincethelatteralsoregistersasCOD.
Themassbalancerequiresthefollowinginformation:
CODandBODdatafortheclarifierinfluentandeffluent.
TSSandVSSdatafortheclarifierinfluentandeffluent.IfeitherTSSorVSSdataarenot
available,theycanbeapproximatedbyassumingaVSS/TSSratioof0.75forclarifierinfluentand
0.83forclarifiereffluent.
Flowrateintoandoutoftheclarifier.
Wastagerate.
Percentsolidsremoval.
EnterthesedataintothemodelandusedefaultvaluesforCODfractions.Runamassbalancearound
theprimaryclarifier.Ifthemassbalancecloses(i.e.,theeffluentBODcalculatedinthemodel
approximatetheactualBODeffluent)andthepredictedeffluentCODandTSSvaluesmatchtheactual
values,thedefaultvaluesforCODfractionsaregoodapproximations.Ifthemassbalancedoesnot

closeorthepredictedandactualvaluesdonotmatch,thenthedefaultvaluesfortheCODfractions
needtobeadjusted.SeeMethods2and3.
METHOD2:SpecialSamplingofPlantInfluentandEffluent
ThissectionpresentsrecommendedmethodsforestimatingeachCODfraction.Inmanycases,
morethanonemethodisavailable.
ReadilyBiodegradableCOD(Ss)
ThesimplestwaytodetermineS
S
istomeasureflocculatedandfilteredCOD(ffCOD)ofthe
influentandeffluentofaplantproducingloweffluentammoniaandBOD,andassumethefollowing:
AllofthereadilybiodegradableCOD(S
I
)isconsumedintheplantandnegligibleintheplant
effluent.
ThereisnogenerationofsolubleunbiodegradableCOD(S
I
)intheplant(i.e.,itisthesame
concentrationintheinfluentandeffluent).
S
S
isthendeterminedasthedifferencebetweentheinfluentandtheeffluentffCOD.
TheassumptionthateffluentS
S
iszerogenerallyholdswhenthesludgeageis3daysorolder.
TheassumptionregardingthegenerationofS
I
canbecheckedbymeasuringboththeinfluentand
effluent.Ifeitherassumptionisnotvalidorifresultsarenotasexpected,S
S
canbedeterminedusing
respirometrictechniques.SeveraltechniquesareavailableandcanbefoundinMelceretal.(2003).
TodistinguishbetweentheVFAportionofS
S
,measureVFAintheplantinfluentdirectlyusing
ionorgaschromatography.
SolubleUnbiodegradableCOD(S
I
)
S
I
canbedeterminedbasedonthefollowingassumptions:
ThereisnogenerationofS
I
withinthesystem.Whileitispossiblethatsomemicrobial
processesmayaddS
I
,thisisgenerallyasmallportionofthetotal.
ThesolublebiodegradableCODintheplanteffluentisnegligiblecomparedtothe
unbiodegradableportion.Thisisparticularlytrueiftheeffluentammoniaislessthan0.2mg/L.
TheeffluentsolublebiodegradableCODisassumedtobezero.
Theeffluenthasverylittlecolloidalmatterbecauseitisabsorbedonmixedliquorsolids(thisis
generallythecaseformunicipalwastewatersbutmaynotholdtrueforindustrialwastes).
Therefore,effluentcolloidalCODisassumedtobezero.Ifcolloidalmatterispresent,itcanbe
flocculatedandfilteredout.
ItfollowsthatS
I
canbeapproximatedbymeasuringthesolubleCOD(i.e.,theportionpassingthrougha
0.45mfilter)intheplanteffluent.
SlowlyBiodegradableCOD(SBCOD)
SBCODincludesbothparticulateandcolloidalCODandcangenerallybefoundbysubtracting
theotherportionsoftheCODfromthetotalusingthefollowingequation:
SBCOD=COD
T,INF
S
I
S
S
X
I
Eq.103
TodistinguishbetweenthecolloidalandparticulatefractionsofSBCOD,designerscancompare
thefilteredCODresultstoffCODresultsforinfluentsamples.Thedifferenceistheslowlybiodegradable
colloidalCOD(X
S
)
ParticulateUnbiodegradableCOD(X
I
)
SeveralmethodsareavailableforestimatingX
I
.Melceretal.(2003)reportsthatitismosteasily
estimatedbyaniterativeapproachwhereX
I
isadjustedinthesimulatoruntilthepredictedMLVSS
matchestheobservedvalues.ChangingX
I
willalsochangetheoxygenuptakerate(OUR),soOURshould
becheckedtomakesureitdoesnotexceedthelimitsoftheaerationsystem.
TheX
I
fractioncanalsobeestimatedusinghistoricalplantdataforCOD,BOD,andVSSby
assumingavaluefortheCOD/VSSratiooftheinfluentsolids.SeeMelceretal.(2003),Section6.8for
thecalculationprocedure.
METHOD3:BenchScaleTests
LaboratorybenchscaleanalysiscanprovideaccurateestimatesofCODfractionsaswellasother
usefulinformationsuchasTKNandTPfractionsandnitrifierspecificgrowthrates.Theseanalyses,
however,arelaborintensiveandtimeconsuming(approximately8weeks).Melceretal.(2003)
recommendsthattheybeconsideredifplantdataarenotavailableorifresultsareunusual.
Therecommendedapproachistousealaboratoryscalefillanddrawsequencingbatchreactor
(SBR)system.Thedesignershouldselectasludgeageforthesystemthatallowsgoodsolidliquid
separation(theexamplefromMelceretal.usedasludgeageof15days).Atstartup,theSBRisseeded
withmicroorganismsfromtheactivatedsludgesystem.Wastewaterisaddedtothesystemwhereitis
treatedthroughthestandardfillreactsettlewastedrawSBRcycle.TheSBRshouldbeoperatedover
atleast2to3sludgeagestoachievesteadystate.Intensivemonitoringcanthenbeusedto
characterizeCODandTKNfractionsandnitrificationkinetics.SeeAppendixDofMelceretal.(2003)for
thefullmethoddescription.
10.7.3 DataChecks
ThefollowingshouldbetrueforCODfractionsformostmunicipalwastewaters:
X
I
shouldbe20to40percentofVSS.
ThecostofanSBRbenchscaletestisestimatedtobearound $50,000 (Takacs2009).

TheS
S
(orrbCOD)fractionishigherwhenconditionsinthecollectionsystemarefavorablefor
fermentation(i.e.,warmclimate,flatsewers,manyforcemainsseeChapter5for
background).
WhenTSSintheplantinfluentishigherthannormal,theparticulateunbiodegradableCOD
fractionmaybehigherthannormal.
10.8 CharacterizationofNutrientFractions
10.8.1 Nitrogen
TotalnitrogeninmunicipalwastewateristypicallycharacterizedbyTKN.Insomecases,
althoughrarely,nitrateornitritenitrogen(NO
X
)maybepresent,suchaswhenrecyclestreamsreturn
appreciableamountsofNO
X
totheheadoftheplantorthesewershaveverysteepslopesresultingin
rapidsheetflowwithinthesewers.NO
X
shouldthenbeincludedasaninfluentcharacteristicseparate
fromTKN.
Figure106showstheTKNfractionsthatareusedinmodeling.Table103providesa
description,themeasurementmethod,andarangeofexpectedconcentrationsforkeynitrogen
fractions.Ammonia(bothfreeandsaline)makesup60to75percentofTKN,withtheremaining
portionasorganicallyboundbiodegradableandunbiodegradablematerial.Theammonia/TKNratiois
ofparticularimportanceindeterminingtheeffectsofnitrificationonpH.Whilenitrificationof
ammoniatonitrateconsumesalkalinity,hydrolysisoforganicallyboundTKNaddsalkalinity.Ifthe
latterisnotconsidered,themodelcouldpredictanunrealisticallylowpH.
Solubleunbiodegradable(inert)nitrogen,sometimesreferredtoasrecalcitrantdissolved
organicnitrogen(rDON),hasbecomeincreasinglyimportantforplantstryingtoachieveloweffluentTN
concentrations,asitpassesthroughtheplantandintotheeffluent.ThehighertherDON,thelowerthe
concentrationsofammoniaandNOxmustbetoachieveacertaineffluentTNconcentration.
WWTPswillusuallyhavehistoricdataforinfluentandeffluentTKNorammonia.Historicaldata
mayonlycontainammonia,whichmaybereportedastotalnitrogen,andadditionaltestsmaybe
neededtodeterminetheammonia/TKNratio.Plantsmayalsohaveammoniaornitrateconcentrations
dependingonpermitrequirementsandmonitoringpractices.
Recommendationsforestimatingtheremainingnitrogenfractionsareprovidedbelow.
Figure106.TKNcomponentsformunicipalwastewater.
Note:TKNfractionsarenottoscaleandvaryfromplanttoplant.

Ammonia (S
NH
)
Soluble
Unbiodegradable
TKN (N
OB
)
Soluble
Biodegradable
TKN (S
NB
)
Particulate
Unbiodegradable
TKN (X
NI
)
Particulate
Biodegradable
TKN (X
NB
)
Soluble
Particulate
Total TKN
Table103.TKNFractionsinMunicipalWastewater
Fraction Symbol
1
Description Measurement Typical
Method(s) Concentrationin
Municipal
Wastewater
2
(mg/L)
TotalKjeldahl
Nitrogen
TKN
INF
The
the
total
plant
nitrogenloadon Directlymeasuredusing
colorimetricortitration
techniques
2570depending
percapitawater
consumption
on
Ammonia
saline)
(freeand S
NH
Thetotalammonia Directlymeasured 2030
Soluble
UnbiodegradableTKN
N
UB
(rDON)
Solubleunbiodegradable
dissolvedorganicnitrogen
thatpassesthroughthe
plantuntouched
Difficulttodetermine,
defaultvaluesoften
used
0.5 1.5.Highervalues
whenspecificindustrial
wastesareadded
Soluble
TKN
Biodegradable S
NB
Theportionof
biodegradable
issoluble
nitrogenthat
Totalsolublefraction
determinedbyfiltering
sample,measuringTKN,
andsubtracting
ammonia.The
S
NB
+X
NB
=010
biodegradableportionis
determinedusing
assumptions
Particulate
UnbiodegradableTKN
X
NI
Theportionofparticulate
boundnitrogenthatisnot
biodegradable
Totalparticulatefraction
sampleandsubtracting
thesolubleTKN.The
28
unbiodegradable
fractionisdetermined
usingassumptions.
Particulate
BiodegradableTKN
X
NB
boundnitrogenthatis
biodegradable
sampleandsubtracting
thesolubleTKN.The
S
NB
+X
NB
=010
biodegradablefractionis
determinedusing
assumptions.
Notes:
1
Theliteraturecontainsmorethanonesymbolforsomecomponents.Thesymbolsshownaregenerallyconsistentwith
torepresenttheinfluentCODfraction(e.g.F
SI
2
DerivedfromMelceretal.(2003),Table42.

Ammonia(S
NH
)
WhencharacterizingTKN,themostimportantfractionistheammoniafraction,S
NH
.Itisthe
largestfractionandthecomponentofTKNthatisoxidizedtonitritethennitrateduringnitrification.
Ammoniaismeasureddirectlyusingstandardlaboratorymethodsorwithonlineanalyzers.
SolubleNitrogenFractions
Solubleunbiodegradablenitrogen(S
NI
)isalsooftenreferredtoasrDON.rDONisimportant
becauseitpassesthroughtheplantunreactedandcanlimittheamountofnitrogenremovalthatis
possible.Solublebiodegradablenitrogen(S
NB
)isorganicallyboundnitrogenthathasnotyetbeen
convertedtoammonia.
Thetotalsolublenitrogencanbedeterminedbysubtractingtheammoniaconcentrationfrom
theTKNconcentrationofafilteredsample.Unfortunately,thereisnorapidmethodforexperimentally
differentiatingbetweenS
NB
andrDON.ThemoststraightforwardwaytodeterminerDONistoruna
pilotorbenchscaletestatalongSRT(>12days).Designersshouldcheckthatallotherrequirements
fornitrificationsuchasDOandpHaremetandthendeterminetheconcentrationofammoniaandTKN
intheeffluent.Theammoniashouldbebelow0.1mg/L,andthebiodegradableorganicnitrogenwould
alsobeverylow.TheremainderofTKNisthenrDON.
SitespecificdeterminationofrDONbecomesveryimportantforplantstargetingloweffluent
concentrationsforTN(e.g.,3.0mg/L).Inothercases,defaultmodelvaluesoftensufficeasthefractions
aregenerallyasmallpercentageofthetotal(<3percent).
ParticulateNitrogenFractions
Particulatenitrogencanbebiodegradable(X
NB
)orunbiodegradable(X
NI
).Aswiththesoluble
TKNfraction,itisnotpossibletodirectlymeasurethebiodegradableandunbiodegradablefractions.
Theparticulateunbiodegradableportion,however,canbederivedbasedonitsrelationshipto
particulateunbiodegradableCOD(X
I
)inthemixedliquorsolids.TheratioofTKNtoCODinthemixed
liquorsolidsisknowntobeapproximately0.07mgN/mgCOD.Therefore,X
NI
canbecalculatedas:

X
NI
=0.07X
I
Eq.104
Asacheck,resultsshouldbecomparedtototalinfluentTKN.Melceretal.(2003)reportthatX
NI
is
approximately10percentofinfluentTKNformunicipalwastewater.
10.8.2 Phosphorus
Knowingthephosphorusfractionationisimportantforplantsthatprovidebiological
phosphorusremoval.TheP/VSSratioisimportantinsizingtheanaerobiczoneandwillalsobeafactor
indesigningthedenitrificationprocess.Figure107showsthefractionsoftotalphosphorus.Table10
4providesadescription,themeasurementmethod,andarangeofexpectedconcentrationsforkey
phosphorusfractions.AllfractionsareexpressedasphosphorusinmgP/L.
Orthophosphate
(S
PO4
)
Soluble
Unbiodegradable
Phosphorus (S
PI
)
Soluble
Biodegradable
Phosphorus(S
PB
)
Particulate
Unbiodegradable
Phosphorus (X
PI
)
Particulate
Biodegradable
Phosphorus (X
PB
)
Soluble
Particulate
Total P
Figure107.Phosphoruscomponentsinmunicipalwastewater.
Note:TPfractionsarenottoscaleandvaryfromplanttoplant.
Table104.TotalPhosphorusFractionsinMunicipalWastewater
Fraction Symbol
1
Description Measurement Typical
Method(s) Concentrationin
Municipal
Wastewater
2
(mg/L)
TotalPhosphorus TP Thetotalphosphorus
ontheplant
load Measuredasortho
phosphorusfollowing
chemicalconversion
415
Orthophosphate S
PO4
Thetotalorthophosphate Directlymeasured 212
Soluble
Unbiodegradable
Phosphorus
S
PI
Solubleunbiodegradable
phosphorus
measuredforfiltered
sample,estimatefor
unbiodegradableportion
SolubleBiodegradable
Phosphorus
S
PB
Theportionof
biodegradable
thatissoluble
phosphorus
measuredforfiltered
sample,estimatefor
biodegradableportion
WithX
PB
010
Particulate
Unbiodegradable
Phosphorus
X
PI
boundphosphorusthatis
notbiodegradable
measuredbysubtracting
solublefromtotal,
estimatefor
14
Particulate
Biodegradable
Phosphorus
X
PB
boundphosphorusthatis
biodegradable
measuredbysubtracting
solublefromtotal,
estimatefor
WithS
PB
010
Notes:
1.Theliteraturecontainsmorethanonesymbolforsomecomponents.Thesymbolsshownaregenerallyconsistentwith
torepresenttheinfluentCODfraction(e.g.F
SI
2.DerivedfromMelceretal.(2003),Table42.
Orthophosphate
Orthophosphateisdeterminedbydirectmeasurement.Alongwithsolublebiodegradable
phosphorus,itrepresentsthephosphorusthatwillbetakenupbyPAOsintheaerobiczone.Complex
solublephosphorusandsomeparticulatephosphorusarehydrolyzedtomostlyorthophosphateinthe
firststageoftreatment.OrthophosphatetypicallymakesupalargeportionofTPinmunicipal
wastewater(50toashighas80percent).Afterprimarysedimentation,nearlyalloftheremaining
phosphorusisrapidlyconvertedtoorthophosphorusinthefirstbioreactor.Almostalloftheeffluent
solublephosphorusisorthophosphate.

SolubleFractions
Solublefractionsofphosphorusrepresenttheorganicphosphorusthatisnotparticulatebound.
Thebiodegradableportion(S
PB,
)representsorganicallyboundphosphorusthatistakenupintothe
biomassforgrowth.Theunbiodegradableportion(S
PI
)isfinelycolloidalorsolubleorganiccompounds,
someofwhichareassociatedwiththesolubleunbiodegradableCOD.Thetotalsolubleportioncanbe
determinedbyfilteringasampleandmeasuringtotalphosphorusinthefiltrate.S
PI
andS
PB
arenot
easilydifferentiated.GenerallyadefaultvaluecanbeusedforthefractionofTPthatisS
PI.
S
PB
isthen
determinedbysubtractingS
PI.
ParticulateFractions
Theparticulatefractionsareorganicallyboundphosphoruswithinparticles.Thebiodegradable
portion(X
PB
)isassociatedwiththebiodegradableparticulateCOD.Theunbiodegradableportion(X
PI
)is
associatedwithunbiodegradableCOD.Thetotalparticulatefractionisdeterminedbysubtractingthe
totalsolublefractionasdeterminedabovefromthetotalphosphorus.X
PI
canbedeterminedasitisa
givenfractionoftheunbiodegradableCOD.Typicallyavalueof0.02to0.03isused.X
PB
canthenbe
determinedbysubtractingX
PI
fromthetotalparticulatephosphorus.
10.9 KineticandStoichiometricParameters

Mathematicalmodelsrequireestimatesofkineticandstoichiometricparameterssuchasyield
andgrowthratestopredictperformanceofwastewatertreatmentprocesses.Modeldefaultvaluesfor
theseparametersarebasedonthousandsofobservationsandshouldgenerallybeacceptableformost
plants.Theexceptionisnitrificationrates.
Themaximumspecificnitrifiergrowthrate,
AUT
,andtheendogenousnitrifierdecayrate,b
AUT
,
areextremelyimportantinthedesignofactivatedsludgenitrificationsystems.Thisisbecausethenet
growthrate(
AUT
b
AUT
)
determinesminimumSRTneededforcompletenitrificationtooccurduring
steadystateconditions.Inequationformat,
SRT =1/(
AUT
b
AUT
) Eq.105
Where:
SRT =Solidsresidencetime(days)
AUT,
=Specificnitrifiergrowthrate(d
1
)
b
AUT
=Endogenousnitrifierdecayrate(d
1
)
(Source:adaptedfromWEFandASCE2006,equation3.8)
Theliteraturereportslittlevariationinendogenousnitrifierdecayrate,b
AUT
,fromplantto
plant.Previously,b
AUT
wasconsideredtobelowcomparedto
AUT
and,forthisreason,itwasexcluded
frommuchofthepreviousliteratureonnitrificationrates.RecentresultssummarizedbyMelceretal.
(2003)showthatexperimentalmethodsunderestimatedb
AUT
andthatitismoresignificantthan
previouslyreported(b
AUT
waspreviouslythoughttobebetween0and0.05d
1
;however,newdata
showedthatitcouldbeashighas0.2d
1
at20
o
C).Underestimatesofb
AUT
haveresultedin
underestimatesof
AUT
byafactorof2insomecases(Melceretal.2003).Althoughnotanissuefor

completelynitrifyingsystems,anunderestimatein
AUT
couldleadtoconservativepredictionsof
performanceforlowSRTsystems.SeeChapter4foradditionaldiscussionofnitrificationkinetics.
Melceretal.includesnewmethodsforsitespecificdeterminationofb
AUT
.Intheabsenceof
morespecificdata,theauthorsprovidethefollowingasareasonableestimateofb
AUT
:
b
AUT=
0.17*1.029
(T20)
d
1
Eq.106
Where:
T =Temperaturein
o
C
d =Days
Althoughb
AUT
isbelievedtobefairlyconsistentfromplanttoplant,researchershaveobserved
significantvariationin
AUT
,withmeasuredvaluesat20
o
C(
AU20
)of0.2to1.0perday.Factorsaffecting
therateofnitrificationincludeindustrialinput,dissolvedoxygenconcentration,temperature,alkalinity,
pH,andhydraulicswithinthereactor.Recentstudiesreport
AU20
rangesfrom0.7to1.0ifnoinhibition
isexperienced(Melceretal.2003).SeeChapter4foranindepthdiscussionofthenitrificationprocess.
Becauseofitsimportanceindesigningnitrificationsystems,
AUT
shouldbebasedonsite
specificcharacterizationoftheinfluentwastewater.Melceretal.(2003)presentsthreerapidmethods
formeasuring
AUT
:Low
F/MSBR,HighF/M,andthewashoutmethod.Eachmethodhasitsdistinct
advantagesanddisadvantages.Themethodshaveproducedthesameresultswhenconductedin
parallel;therefore,thechoiceofthemethoddependsonthepreferencesofthedesigner.Itis
importanttonotethateachofthesethreemethodsdeterminesthenetgrowthrate(
AUT
b
AUT
),not
AUT
explicitly.b
AUT
mustthereforebeestimatedseparatelyorassumed.
Insomecases,itmaybepossibletousethemodeltoestimate
AUT
byadjustingituntilmodel
predictionsmatchobservedeffluentquality(e.g.,ammoniaconcentration)fromthenitrification
process.Thisiterativeapproachrequiresextensivedatacollectionandisonlymeaningfulwhenthere
arediurnalammoniainfluentandeffluentdata.InfullynitrifyingplantsoperatingathighSRTs,the
effluentammoniawillalwaysbelow,andthismethodwouldnotapply.
10.10 Calibration
CalibrationistheprocessofadjustingsimulationparameterstomatchperformanceofaWWTP.
Calibrationhasthreemainobjectives,assummarizedbelow.
1) Tominimizetheerrorbetweenpredictedandmeasuredperformance:Theacceptablelevelof
agreementshouldmatchobjectives(seeSection10.4.2).Typicalgoalsarenomorethan10to
15percentdifferenceforinitialdesignand5percentforfinaldesign,althoughlargerdeviations
duringdynamicsimulationsarecommonlyaccepted.Errorcanbedeterminedeitherbyvisual
analysisofobservedandpredicteddataorstatisticalanalysis.Aperfectmatchisnotachievable
andshouldnotbeagoalofcalibration.
2) Todefinetheaccuracyofthemodel:Basedonthefinalagreementbetweenmeasuredand
predictedvalues,theexpectedaccuracyofthemodelcanbedefinedforindividualunit
processesandconstituents(e.g.,COD,N).
3) Toestablishthecircumstancesunderwhichthemodelcanbeusedtosimulatethetreatment
plant,alsoreferredtoasthemodeldesignspace:Amodelshouldnotbeusedforconditions
forwhichithasnotbeencalibratedtoactualplantperformance(e.g.,extremeflowconditions
suchasastormevent).
Thecalibrationprocessdependsontheextentandqualityofavailabledataandthecomplexity
oftheexistingtreatmentprocesses.Theintendeduseandgoalsofmodelingdefinethelevelof
calibration(i.e.,theacceptableerrorandwhetherornotthemodelneedstobecalibratedtodynamic
operatingconditions).Goodcalibrationrequiresdetailedunderstandingofthefundamentaltreatment
processesattheplantandoftheprinciplesofthemodel.Overridingprinciplesofcalibrationare
providedinthetextboxonthenextpage.
Inanidealsituation,historicaldataforinfluentloadingandplantoperationsareaccurateand
meetcalibrationneeds.However,thisisrarelythecase.Asnotedearlierinthischapter,atiered
approachisrecommendedwherebydesignersfirstattempttocalibratethemodelwithexistingdata
thencollectadditionaldatabasedoncalibrationresults.Datacheckingandadditionaldatagathering
occurthroughoutthecalibrationprocedure.Thisiterativeapproachisoftentimeconsumingandwill
requireseveralroundsofdatachecking,operatorinterviews,andinsomecasesadditionalsampling.
Severalreferences(e.g.,Petersenetal.2002;Hulsbeeketal.2002)reportthatthetimerequiredfor
calibrationisoftenlongerthanexpected.

Calibrationshouldfollowastepwise,iterativeprocedurestartingwithsludgeproductionand
proceedingtocomposition,aeration,nitrification,denitrification,andbiologicalphosphorusremoval.
Massbalancesareanintegralpartofcalibrationandareincorporatedthroughouttheprocedure.
Designersshouldfirstcalibratethemodelforsteadystateconditions(e.g.,averageconcentrationsin
influent,effluent,andwastestreamsduringnormaldryweatherconditions),thencalibrateitfor
dynamicconditions.Fordynamicsimulations,itisimportanttoinitializethemodelproperlytoestablish
operatingconditionsconsistentwithobserveddatatobeusedforcalibration.
Anoverallrecommendedapproachtocalibration,includingmassbalancechecks,isprovided
below. Therecommendedapproachhas6steps,assumingthatthereaderhasalreadygonethrough
thedatachecksinChapter7.Theapproachisbasedonareviewofseveralpublicationsonthetopic
(Thirdetal.2007;Gernaeyetal.2002;Melceretal.2003;Hulsbeeketal.2002;andPetersenetal.
2002).The6stepcalibrationapproachisnottheonlyvalidonealternativeapproachescanworkjust
aswellaslongasdesignersadheretotheoverridingprinciplesofcalibrationasstatedinthetextboxon
thefollowingpage.ReadersshouldalsoconsulttheGMPUnifiedProtocolwhenitbecomesavailable
fromIWA.TechnicalpaperssuchasMcConnelletal.(2008)andLatimeretal.(2008)provideadditional
examplescalibrationexperiencesandmaybeusefulreferencesforthereader.

Step1.CheckProcessConfigurationandPlantHydraulics
Comparedesigncapacitiesofeachunitprocesstomodeledoutputswithmaximumoperating
capacities(Thirdetal.2007).
PerformtotalflowbalancefortheWWTP.Mostsimulatorswillautomaticallyperformaflow
balancearoundtheplant.Insimpleterms,influentflowshouldequaleffluentflowpluswaste
streamflows.
Performflowbalancesforeachunitprocessconsideringwastageandrecycleflows.
Step2.CalibrateSludgeProductionandCharacteristics
Ifnotdonealready,performmassbalanceforCODandTSS/VSSaroundtheprimaryclarifier
(seeSection10.7.2,Method1).
PrinciplesofCalibration
Useaprocessengineeringapproach.Adjustparametersonebyonebasedontheexperience
ofthedesignerandanindepthunderstandingoffundamentalwastewatertreatment
processes.
Ifthemodeledtreatmentplantperformancedeviatessubstantiallyfromobservedvalues,it
mayresultfromerrorsinthehydraulicmodel(e.g.,flowsplits,recycleflowrate,wastagerate
notproperlyconfigured).Theproblemcouldalsobemajoroperationalsetpointssuchas
minimumDOconcentrationandaerationrate.Operationaldatahavealargeinfluenceon
modeloutputscomparedtowastewatercharacterizationandkinetic/stoichiometric
parameters(Gernaeyetal.2003).Anotherproblemmaybechangesintheinfluent
characteristicsthatarenotmodeledsuchaschlorineadditioninthecollectionsystemforodor
control.
Adjustkineticandstoichiometricparametersonlyasalastresort.Thedefaultkineticand
stoichiometricvaluesinmodelsrepresentaveragesofthousandsofmeasuredvaluesfrom
hundredsofplants.Withfewexceptions(seebelow),theyshouldnotdeviatesubstantially
fromplanttoplant.Ifpredictedresultsdonotagreewithmeasuredvalues,designersshould
alwaysfirstaskthequestions,Istheresomethinghappeningattheplantthatcouldcausethis
result?andWhatarethepossiblereasonsthattheplantisnotperforminginthemodelas
predicted?Theexceptionisthemaximumspecificnitrifiergrowthrate(
AUT
),whichcouldbe
verylowifthereisnitrifyinginhibitorsinthewastestreamorhigheriffewerthanaverage
inhibitorsarepresent.
Justifyanddocumentchangestokineticandstoichiometricparametersandestimated
constituentfractions.

Performmassbalanceoftheinertfractionsthroughtheplant.Becauseitisnotchangedduring
biologicalreactions,themassofinertsolidsinandoutoftheplantshouldbalance.Takeinto
accountthatphosphorusandmagnesiumremovedeitherbychemicalsorbiologywillregister
asinertmaterial.Also,themetalsusedforprecipitationwouldaddtothisfraction.Iftheinert
massofthesolidsinthewasteproductsoftheexistingplantdoesnotbalance,checkthe
following:
- Wastagerate(thisisaverycommonproblem)
- RASflowrate
Thepredictedmassbalancefortotalsolidsinthesimulatormodelshouldcorrelatewiththatin
thefullscaleplant,takingintoaccounttheissueofinertsolidsasdiscussedabove.
Amassbalancefornitrogenisnotpossiblebecauseofthedenitrifiednitrogenthatisreleased
totheatmosphere.
Performmassbalanceforphosphorus,whichcannotbedestroyedandhasnogaseousphase,
bymeasuringinfluent,effluent,andwastedsludgeconcentrations.Resultscanbeusedto
checkthemassofsludgewasted.
Step3. CalibratetheAerationProcess
ACODbalancecanbeusedtochecktheoxygenuptakeattheWWTP.Forthefollowing
equation,solveforOUR:

COD
T,INF
=COD
e
+OUR+(N
d
*2.86)+Q
S
*G
s,org
*1.42)(4.56*N
n
) Eq.107
Where:
COD
T,INF
=CODloadintheinfluent(kgO
2
/d)
COD
e
=CODloadintheeffluent(kgO
2
/d)
OUR =Oxygenuptakerate(kgO
2
/d)
N
d
=Totaldenitrifiednitrogenload(kg/d)
2.86 =Oxygenreductionequivalent(1kgNO
3
Nisequivalentto2.68kgO
2
)
Q
S
=Dailyvolumeofexcesssludge(m
3
/d)
G
s,org
=ConcentrationofVSSintheexcesssludge(kgVSS/m
3
)
1.42 =ConversionfactionfromVSStoCODequivalents(kgCOD/kgVSS)
4.56 =Conversionfactorforcalculationofoxygenuptakeduringnitrification
N
n
=Totalnitrifiednitrogenload(kg/d)
(Hulsbeeketal.2002,equation3)
DesignerscanusetheestimatedOURtochecktheaerationefficiencyoftheplant(kgO
2
/kWh)
ortodetecterrorsinthesetupofaerators.

Step4. CalibratetheNitrificationProcess
CompareobservedeffluentNH
3
Nconcentrationstosimulationresults.Ifresultsdonotmatch,
checkthefollowing:
- Predictedvs.observedDOconcentrationinaerationbasin
- Basinhydraulicsforshortcircuiting
- Alkalinitydepletion
- Methodfordeterminingmaximumnitrifierspecificgrowthrateanddecayrate(seesection
10.9)
Rechecksludgeproduction(Step2).
Step5. CalibratetheDenitrificationProcess
MakesurethatthemodelfunctionforcarryingDOfromonebasintothenextison.Thiswill
modelthetransferofoxygenintherecycledmixedliquor.
CompareobservedeffluentNO
3
Nconcentrationstosimulationresults.Ifresultsdonotmatch,
checkthefollowing:

- Denitrificationinreturnsludge
- Reaerationofdenitrificationprocess(e.g.,frompumpsoroverflowweirs)

Ifthisdoesnotsolvetheproblem,considermodifyingtheanoxicreductionfactororpossibly
theheterotrophicdecayfactor(Hulsbeeketal.2002).
Rechecksludgeproduction(Step2).
Step6. CalibratetheBiologicalPhosphorusRemovalProcess
CompareobservedeffluentTPconcentrationstosimulationresults.Ifresultsdonotmatch,
checkforthefollowing:
- DOandnitrateintheanaerobiczone
- rbCODintheanaerobiczone
- Additionofoxidizingagentsuchaschlorinetotheinfluentthatwillresultininhibitionof
fermentationintheanaerobiczone
10.11Validation
Whereascalibrationensuresthemodelfitstheoriginaldataset,validationseekstoensurethat
themodelisvalidoverawiderrangeofconditions.Validationincludesrunningthemodelwithasecond
setofdata,differentthantheoriginalcalibrationdata.Italsoincludescheckingthemodelresultsto
ensuretheymakesensewiththephysicalsystem.Thenewsetofdatadoesnotneedtobeasextensive
astheoriginalcalibrationdata.Anadditionalsetoftypicallymeasuredwastewaterinfluent
characteristicsandflowsalongwitheffluentdatashouldbesufficient.Thedatashouldbeunder

differentconditionsthanthecalibrationdata,butshouldstillremainwithintheconditionsunderwhich
themodelisvalid.
Thenewdatashouldbeenteredintothemodelandthemodelrun.Ifthemodelpredictsthe
effluentdatawithinanacceptableerror,themodelcanbeconsideredvalidated.Ifnot,themodel
calibrationproceduremayneedtoberepeated.Thefollowingarecommonchecksthatshouldbe
conductedwiththenewdatasettovalidatethemodel.
Checkmassbalances.Usingthenewsetofdata,checkthemassbalancesforflowand
solidsagain.Ifanerrorisfound,thesludgewastagerateandsludgecompositionarefactors
thatshouldbeexamined.
Checknutrientbalances.Checkthebalancesforphosphorusandnitrogenagainwiththe
newdata.Modelparameterstocheckincludethenitrifiergrowthrate,thenitrogen
contentofinertparticles,andtheammoniaandoxygenhalfsaturationconstantsfor
heterotrophsandautotrophs.
Checkalkalinitybalance.Thedifferencebetweentheinfluentalkalinityandtheeffluent
alkalinityshouldequalthenetconsumptionofalkalinityfromthebiologicalreactions.
Checksolidsproductionandnetsolidsyield.Ifthesevaluesareoff,theycouldindicate
errorsinthesludgewastagerateorsolidscontent.
Checknitrificationanddenitrificationrates.Reasonablevaluesofrateconstantscanbe
foundinJeppsson(1996)andHulsbeeketal.(2002).
Checkresidencetimes(SRTandHRT).Theresidencetimesinthereactorsshouldbe
checkedusingthevalidateddata.Ifthetimesarenotreasonableanddonotcorrelatewith
actualplantdata,themodelshouldberecalibrated.
10.12 SimulationofDesignAlternativesforNutrientRemoval
Oncethedesignerhascalibratedandvalidatedthemodel,thenextstepistosetupandrun
designscenariosforbiologicalnutrientremovalthatanswerthequestionslaidoutinthemodeling
objectives.Insimpleterms,theinfluentflowandwastewatercharacteristicsaremodifiedtomatch
designconditions,andtheconfigurationoftheexistingplantismodifiedtoincorporatecandidate
treatmentprocessesasidentifiedinChapter8ofthisdesignmanual.Designersshouldthenconduct
thefollowingsimulationstodetermineifthecandidatetreatmentprocessesmeetthedesignobjectives
(Rieger2009):
Steadystatesimulations,checkingfor:
Overallmassbalancing
Longtermperformancebyevaluatingeffluentquality
Dynamicsimulationsasfollows:
Simulatediurnalpeakstodetermineequipmentlimits
Determinesetpointsforcontrollerdesign

Simulateseasonalchangestoestablishlongtermoperationalstrategies
Simulatestormeventstodetermineoptimalhandling

Itisinthisstepthatdesignersrealizethebenefitsoftheeffortrequiredtosetupandcalibratea
detailedsimulatoroftheexistingWWTP.Alargenumberofoperatingadjustmentsandtreatment
alternativescanberapidlysimulatedtodeterminetheireffectiveness.Dynamicmodelingisan
extremelypowerfultoolindeterminingthemostefficientoperationsforbiologicalnutrientremoval.
Forthemostpromisingbiologicalnutrientremovaltechnologiesevaluated,designersshould
summarizeinformationonlongtermperformanceduringavarietyofoperatingconditions,ifpossible,
andoperatingrequirements(e.g.,energyrequirements,chemicaladdition,etc.).

10.13 AdditionalProceduresforDesign
Thissectionprovidesrecommendationsfordesign,equipmentspecification,andoperationofthe
followingnutrientremovaltechnologies:
SequencingBatchReactors
DenitrificationFilters
PrimarySludgeFermenters
10.13.1 SequencingBatchReactors(SBRs)
SBRsarefillanddrawsystemsthatcombineequalization,biologicaltreatment,andsecondary
clarificationinonetankusingatimecontrolsequence.AsnotedinChapter6,theycanbedesignedand
operatedfornitrogenandphosphorusremovalbycyclingthroughaerobic,anoxic,andanaerobic
conditions(USEPA1999).Recommendationsforthedesignandoperationfornutrientremovalare
presentedbelow.
DesignsshouldhaveaminimumoftwoSBRbasinstoallowformaintenance,handlingofhigh
flows,andseasonalvariations.Designsshouldalsoconsiderinfluentequalizationbasinswith
capacitytoholdpeakflowsduringonetreatmentcycle.
Fornitrogenremoval,aninitialanoxicphase(mixingonly,noaeration)shouldbefollowedbyan
aerobicphase,mimickingtheModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)process.Multipleanoxicphases
withinasingleSBRcyclecanimproveperformance(i.e.,asecondanoxicphaseaftertheaerobic
phasecanbeusedtomimica4stageBardenphoprocess).
Alkalinitymayneedtobeaddedtokeepitintherangeof40to70mg/LasCaCO
3
.Methanolor
anotherexternalorganiccarbonsourcemayneedtobeaddedfordenitrificationtomaintaina
relativelyhighrateofdenitrification,althoughthisisnotcommon.
SBRscanbedesignedforbiologicalphosphorusremoval(BPR)byusingalargebatchreactor
withareseedinganaerobiczone(WEFandASCE2006).IfthebiodegradableCODtoTKNplusTP
ratioissufficientlylarge,BPRcanbeaccomplishedbymaintainingnonaeratedconditionsafter
allofthenitrateshavebeendenitrified,i.e.afterthesystemhasbecometrulyanaerobic.Itis
necessaryforVFAstobeavailableduringtheanaerobicperiodforBPRtooccur.Theeffluent

solublephosphorusconcentrationwillbedeterminedbytheVFAtoTPratioduringthatperiod
oftime,assumingthatconditionsaresuitableforphosphorusuptakeduringthesubsequent
aeratedperiod.ManySBRsystemssuccessfullyremovephosphorusbyaddingametalsalt
eitherupstreamoftheSBR,duringthereactphase,orfollowingtheSBRifeffluentfiltrationisin
place(Young,2008).
Typicaldesignparametersareasfollows(WEFandASCE2006,Table5.2):
- SRT(includinganaerobicandanoxiczones):20to40days,althoughSRTsconsiderablyless
than20dayscanbeused.TheprimarypurposeoflongSRTsistominimizetheproduction
ofWAS
- MLSS:3to4g/L
- HRT(intermsofaverageflow):
Anaerobicperiod:1.5to3hrs
Anoxicperiod:1to3hrs
Aerobicperiod:2to4hrs
Settlingperiod:0.5to1hr
Decantperiod:0.2to1hr
NotethatananaerobicperiodcannotbeobtainedinanSBRwherenitrificationisobtaineduntil
allofthenitrateshavebeenreducedtonitrogengas.InfluentBODisusedfornitirifcation
resultinginreductionofrbCODneededforBPR.
SomesimulatorpackageshavemodelsforsimulatingavarietyofSBRprocesses.Theinputof
wastewaterdataandplantspecificcharacteristicssuchasnitrificationratescanbeintroducedasfor
modelingtheflowthroughprocess.BecauseanSBRisneveratsteadystate,diurnalmodelingshouldbe
used.Thesimulatormayneedtoberunforalongperiodtoensurestabilization.
10.13.2 DenitrificationFilters
Traditionaldesignofdenitrifyingfiltersisdonebyfirstcalculatingarequiredsurfaceareabased
onanassumedloadingrate.Loadingratesof1.5to2gpm/ft
2
andmediadepthsof6to9feetare
commonlyused.Fordownflowfilters,thebackwashisdesignedtominimizetheamountofair
introduced.Theinfluentweirisalsodesignedtoavoidintroductionofair.Upflowfiltershavethe
advantageofnotrequiringbackwash.Themethanolfeedsystemshouldbedesignedtoadjustthefeed
ofmethanolbasedontheCODintheinfluent.EPAhaspreparedafactsheetondenitrificationfilters
thatincludesthefollowinginformation(USEPA2007):
Filterdesigncharacteristics,including:
- Influentweirs
- Media
- Underdrainsystem
- Nitrogenreleasecycle
- Backwashingandfiltercontrols
- Methanolfeedcontrolsystem

Acomparisonofdenitrificationfiltermanufacturersandequipment
Costfactors
Thefactsheetcanbeaccessedathttp://www.epa.gov/OWM//mtb/mtbfact.htm.
10.13.3 PrimarySludgeFermenters
Section5.3.2ofthisdesignmanualdescribesthewidevarietyofapproachesthatcanbeusedto
achievefermentationofprimarysludgeforBPR.Thefollowingshouldbeconsideredasgeneral
guidelinesfordesignandequipmentspecificationregardlessofconfiguration(WEFandASCE2006;
Chanono2006;Chen2004):
Sludgecollectordesignsshouldbehighertorquethanconventionaldesignsduetoincreased
solidsloading.
ThemaximumSRTshoulddependonthetemperaturetoavoidmethanogenesis.Itmayrange
from2to8days.
Airspargersmaybeusedtoreducemethanogenesis.
Atemperaturebetween16and25degreesCelsiushasbeenfoundoptimalbutmanyfermenters
workatlowertemperatures.Coveringandinsulationincoldclimateshasmerit.
Thesludgeconcentrationintothethickenerwilldependontheflowrateoftheprimarysludge.
Acontinuousflowofaround2to4percentoftheinfluentisrecommendedtoallowliquidfor
VFAelutriation.Inastaticfermenterthesludgecouldbethickenedto6percentsolidsprovided
thesludgepumpscanhandlethedensesludge.ThedenserthesludgethemoreVFAwillbe
elutriated.
Becauseofthepotentialtoproducecarbondioxideandhydrogensulfide,corrosionresistant
materialsshouldbeused.
Primaryandfermentedsludgepumpsshouldgenerallybeofthepositivedisplacementtype.
Recessedimpellercentrifugalpumpscanbeusedforlowersolidscontentstreamssuchas
fermentate.
Sludgegrindersorscreensshouldbeinstalledonsludgerecyclelinestopreventcloggingofthe
pumps.
Forcompletemixtanks,slowspeedmixersthatimpart8to10W/m
3
energyintotheliquidare
recommended.
Scumremovalshouldbeprovidedonmixingtanksandthickeners.
Thickenersshouldbecoveredandtheheadspacescrubbedtocontrolodor.

Measuringoxidationreductionpotentialandkeepingitabove600mVbyintermittently
bubblingairthroughmayhelppreventmethanogenesisincompletelymixedfermenters.
Addingsomenitrifiedeffluenttothestaticfermenterfeedwillservethesamepurpose
Installationofhydrogensulfidesensorsandalarmsisagoodideatoensureworkersafetyand
preventmethanogenesissincebothtendtobegeneratedatthesameoxidationreduction
potential.
SludgedensitymetersandpHmeterscanaidinprocesscontrol.ApHlevelofaround5isan
indicationofgoodacidfermentation.
10.14 DesignChecksforBiologicalNitrogenandPhosphorusRemoval
Tables105and106providekeydesignchecksforbiologicalnitrogenandphosphorusremoval
systems,respectively.Thesetablessynthesizeinformationpresentedthroughoutthisdesignmanual
andcanbeusedatvariousstepsinthedesignprocesstoensurethatkeyfactorsareconsidered.

Table105.DesignChecksforBiologicalNitrogenRemoval
Question Yes No
1. Isthenitrificationprocessdesignedforcoldweatherconditions?
Therateofnitrificationissignificantlyimpactedbytemperature.Itwilldecrease
byapproximatelyhalfforevery8to10
o
Cdecreaseinoperatingtemperature.
2. Doesthenitrificationsystemdesignconsidertheimpactofdiurnalloadingsof
ammonia?
Influentammoniaconcentrationsvary,withpeaksoccurringduringthedayand
muchlowerconcentrationsoccurringovernight.Peakloadsduringthedayare
typically1.5to2.0timestheaveragewithsomeobservationsashighas2.8
timestheaverage.
3. Doesthenitrificationsystemdesignaccountforrecycles,includingrealistic
predictedconstituentloadings,flowrate,andschedule?
Returnstreamsfromsludgedewateringoperationscanaddsignificantammonia
totheheadoftheplant.Inmanyplants,supernatantfromsludgedewateringis
dischargedduringtheday,whichcoincideswithpeakammonialoadingstothe
plant.
4. Howdoesthedesignofthenitrificationsystemtakeintoaccountwetweather
flows?
Wetweatherflowscansignificantlyincreasehydraulicloadingtothetreatment
plant,changethenatureoftheinfluentwastewater,andpotentiallywashout
thenitrificationsystem.Strategiesformanagingwetweatherflowsrangefrom
collectionsystemimprovementstoinplantdesignssuchasequalizationbasins.
5. IstheoperatingDOfornitrificationatleast2.0mg/L?
Ingeneral,theDOattheinfluentendoftheaerationbasinshouldbeatleast2.0
mg/L.ForlongerSRTsystems,itcantaperto0.5mg/Lattheendofthebasin.
Therearemanybenefitstodesigningflexibleaerationsystemsthatallow
operatorstoreducetheDOattheendofthebasinaftertheammoniahasbeen
oxidizedandlessoxygentransferisrequired.IntegratedFixedfilmActivated
Sludge(IFAS)systemsmayrequirehigherDOconcentrationsinthemixedliquor
tomaintaintheoxygenneededforattachedbiomassifmaximumnitrification
ratesaredesired.However,ifsimultaneousdenitrificationisdesiredinanIFAS
system,lowerDOconcentrationscanbothstimulatedenitrificationandreduce
theoxygenrequirementintheaeratedbioreactorbecauseofCODstabilized
usingNO
x
astheelectronacceptor.Thiscanbeaneffectivemethodofnitrogen
removalandcanremoveasmuchas30%oftheinfluentnitrogen.Inlong
nominalhydraulicretentiontimesystemssuchasoxidationditchesorextended
aerationsystems,DOconcentrationsbetween0.25and0.50mg/Lcanproduce
excellentsimultaneousnitrification/denitrificationinthesamebioreactor
becausetherateofoxygentransferdoesnotcontroltherateofnitrificationin
suchaprocess,stoichiometrydoes(i.e.thebalancebetweenelectrondonors
(BOD)andelectronacceptors(DO,NO
x
)inthebioreactor).

Table105.DesignChecksforBiologicalNitrogenRemoval(Continued)
Question Yes No
6.DoesthedesignconsiderimpactsofnitrificationonalkalinityandpH?
Thenitrificationprocessconsumesalkalinity.Iftheinfluentalkalinityislow,
nitrificationmayreducethemixedliquorpH,whichcanhaveanimpacton
performancebecausepHvaluesbelow7.0significantlyinhibitnitrificationand
pHvaluesbelow6.5stronglyinhibitnitrificationandmayresultInnitrifier
washout.Denitrification,however,partiallyreplenishesalkalinity(50percentof
thealkalinitydestroyedbycompletenitrificationof1mg/LofNH
4
Nisrestored
bydenitrificationof1mg/LNO
3
N).Additionoflime,sodiumhydroxide,orsoda
ashcanbeusedtoaddalkalinityiflowalkalinityisdeterminedtobeaproblem.
7. Isthedesignofthenitrificationsystembasedonsitespecificdeterminationof
thenitrificationrate?
Thenitrificationrateisextremelyimportantbecauseitdeterminestheminimum
SRTneededforcompletenitrificationtooccurduringsteadystateconditions.
Thenitrificationratevariessignificantlyfromplanttoplantandcanbelowif
inhibitorssuchasheavymetalsareinpresent.Melceretal.(2003)presents
threerapidmethodsformeasuringmaximumspecificnitrifiergrowthrate,
AUT
.
8. Doesthedesignminimizetheamountofoxygeninthedenitrificationsystem?
DesignandoperationmethodsthatminimizeDOquantitiesenteringtheanoxic
zonescanreducetheamountofexogenouscarbonneededandprovideamore
stableoperation.
9. Ifanexternalcarbonsourceisaddedfordenitrification,doesthedesign
includeananalysisofpossibleincreasedsludgevolume?
Ifanexternalcarbonsourceisaddedtoimprovedenitrification,theremaybea
smallincreaseinwastesludgeproduction.Themagnitudeoftheincrease
dependsontheamountandtypeoforganiccarbonadded.Nitrification
processesusuallydecreasetheamountofsludgeproduced,however,sonet
productionforthedesignofanewcombinednitrification/denitrificationsystem
maybeequaltoorlessthansludgeproductionbythesamesizeconventional
activatedsludgeplant.
10. Ifthedesigncallsformethanoltobeaddedfordenitrification,areproper
safetyandhandlingproceduresconsidered?
Methanoliscorrosiveandcombustibleandrequiresspecialhandlingtomeet
OccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)andotherrequirements.
11.Ifbiologicalorchemicalphosphorusremovalisalsobeingpracticed,doesthe
designconsiderthepossibleimpactsofphosphorusdepletiononnitrification
anddenitrification?
Phosphorusisanecessarynutrientformicrobialgrowth.IfTPisreducedtoolow
beforenitrificationordenitrification,thegrowthofthemicroorganismscouldbe
inhibited,therebyrequiringtheadditionofsupplementalphosphorus.Thisis
mostlikelytooccurwhentertiarydenitrificationfiltersareused,butinhibitionof
nitrificationalsohasbeenobservedinplantspracticingchemicalphosphorus
removalintheprimaryclarifiers.ItisalsoimportanttonotethatbothBPRand
denitrificationrequireBODtodrivethereactions.IfBPRisconsumingsomeof
theBOD,therewillbelessfordenitrification.

Table106.DesignChecksforBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
Question Yes No
1. IstherbCOD:TPratiooftheinfluentconsistently15:1orhigher?
Ifnot,considerastrategytoincreaserbCODsuchasfermentingprimarysludgeor
addingacommercialproduct(e.g.,aceticacid).
2. Areodorcontrolstrategiesusedinthecollectionsystem(e.g.,chlorination,
additionofnitratesalts)?
Ifyes,thecollectionsystemmanagersshouldusestrategiesthatdonotprevent
fermentationofrbCODtoVFA(e.g.,ferricironadditionforodorcontrolor
modifyingthepHtobetween9and10).
3. InsituationswhereBPRisoperatedwithoutnitrification,isthedesignSRTfor
theentireBPRsystematleast3to4daysintemperateregions?
TheminimumSRTtopreventwashoutofBPRisafunctionofthemixedliquor
temperature,andBPRcanbeaccomplishedatSRTslessthan4daysifthe
temperatureishigh.BecauseBPRisdrivenprimarilybymicrobialpopulation
dynamicsresultingfromtheavailableVFAtoavailableTPratiointheanaerobic
zone,SRTvaluesabovetheminimumvalueupto25daysormorehavelittleeffect
uponthephosphorusremovalaccomplishedbytheprocess.Populationdynamics
alsoresultinbettersteadystateperformanceofBPRatlowtemperatures
becausetheprimarycompetitorsofthePAOs,theglycogenaccumulating
organisms(GAOs),aremorestronglyinhibitedbytemperaturethanPAOs.
4. DoesthedesignSRTforfermentersconsideroperatingtemperature?
VFAformationinthesewersistemperaturedependent.Checkthewinter
production.HigherSRTs(>4days)maybeneededincolderclimatestoaccount
forslowerfermentationofrbCODtoVFA.
5. Doesthedesigntakeintoaccountwetweatherflows?
Aswithallbiologicalwastewatertreatmentprocesses,BPRworksbestunder
steadystateconditions.Equalizationbasinscanbeveryeffectiveatmanaging
stormflowsaswellasnutrientrichrecyclestreams.Designsshouldalsoconsider
flexibilityinaerationbasinstotakebasinsorcompartmentsonandofflinein
responsetoseasonallychangingflows.
6. Doesthedesignallowforflexibilityofoperations?
Mostplantsinitiallyoperatewellbelowthedesignload.Thedesignshouldallow
fortheflexibleoperationofvariousanaerobic,anoxic,andaerobiczonestomatch
changesinoperatingconditions(e.g.,turndownonblowers,recyclepumps,or
lessmixingenergyintheaerationbasin).Agoodapproachtousewhenflowsand
loadsarelowismultipletreatmenttrains,ofwhichoneormorecanbetakenout
ofservice.


Table106.DesignChecksforBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval(Continued)
Question Yes No
7. DoesthedesignHRToftheanaerobiczoneconsidersecondaryrelease?
IftheHRToftheanaerobicbasinistoolong,secondaryreleaseofphosphoruscan
occurafterdepletionofVFA.TheanaerobicHRTisrecommendedtobe5to15
percentofthetotalHRToftheBPRsystem.HRTsonthelowersidemaybeusedin
warmclimatesandonthehighersideincolderclimates.Note,however,thatthe
developmentofanaerobicconditionsinthelatterpartoftheanoxiczonetypically
doesnotcausesecondaryrelease,butaddstotheVFAuptakeaccomplishedinthe
anaerobiczone,resultingingreaterphosphorusremovalbythetotalsystem.Also
notethatanoversizedaerobiczonewillresultinexcessiveglycogendepletionin
thePAOs,resultinginlessVFAstorageintheanaerobiczoneandlessoverall
phosphorusremoval.
8. DoesthedesigntakeintoaccountDOornitratesinrecyclestreamstothe
anaerobiczone?
Thedesignshouldminimizeintroductionofdissolvedoxygenornitratestothe
anaerobiczonefromrecyclestreams.AnyDOorNOxintheanaerobiczonewill
reduceVFAstoragebythePAOs,and,thus,thetotalphosphorusremoval
obtained.
9. Aremeasuresinplacetopreventbackmixing?
Iftheanaerobiczoneisfollowedimmediatelybyananoxicoraerobiczone,the
configurationshouldpreventmixedliquorfromseepingbackintotheanaerobic
zone.Aeratedzoneshaveahigherwatersurfacethatunaeratedzones.Usean
overflowbafflebetweenzonesoranunderflowbafflewithopeningssmallenough
tomaintainaforwardvelocityofatleast1footpersecond.Modelingcanalsobe
usedtoensurethattheconfiguration,mixingrate,andoverallhydraulicsaresuch
thatnobackmixingoccurs.
10. WillchemicaladditionornitrificationcausethepHoftheanaerobiczoneto
regularlyfallbelow6.9?
Ifyes,consideraddingalkalinitytoincreasepHtomorethan7.0.However,note
thatBPRcanbeaccomplishedatpHvaluesintheanaerobiczoneaslowas6.3,
butatsignificantlyslowerratesthanatpHvaluesabout7.Iftheanaerobiczone
pHislessthan6.0,BPRwillbecompletelyinhibited.AcommonpHprofilefora
BPRprocessis6.8to7.0intheanaerobiczone,but7.8to8.2intheaerobiczone,
particularlyifthesystemincludesananoxiczonebetweenthem.
11. Doesthedesigntakeintoaccountphosphatesinreturnstreamsfromsludge
dewatering?
InBPRplants,anaerobicdigestionofsludgecanreleasephosphorusintotheliquid
stream,whichisnormallyreturnedtotheplantaftersludgedewatering.Muchof
thereleasedphosphoruscan,however,precipitatewithinthedigesterasstruvite,
calciumphosphateprecipitates,orvivianite.Dissolvedairflotation(DAF)or
mechanicalthickeningcanbeusedinsteadofgravitythickeningtoreduce
phosphorusreleaseduringWASprocessing.


Table106.DesignChecksforBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval(Continued)
Question Yes No
12. Ifphosphorusremovalisaccompaniedbynitrificationinasinglesludgesystem,
doesthedesignfactorconsidernitrateintheRASanditsimpactonBPR?
Nitratecanactasanelectronacceptorforsomeheterotrophs,allowingthemto
useVFAintheanaerobiczoneintheabsenceofoxygen.Itwillalsoprevent
fermentationoftherbCODtoVFA.Themodelwillgenerallyaccountforthis.
13 Doesthedesigntakeintoaccountpossiblestruviteformation?
WhenBPRispracticed,struvitemayprecipitateinanaerobicsludgehandling
processes.Dependingonwheretheyform,struvitecrystalscanplugcentrifuge
portsandthepipesandpumpsusedtoconveysludge.Somemodelspredict
struviteformation,butnottheimpactsofit.Notethatmodelsdonotcaptureall
phosphorusprecipitationoradsorptionmechanisminthedigesterandthusmay
underpredictstruviteprecipitationandoverpredictphosphateintherecycle
stream.
10.15 References
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11.DesignApproachforEffluentFiltration
11.1 Introduction
Effluent(ortertiary)filtrationisaprocesstophysicallyseparatesolidsfromwastewaterduring
tertiarytreatment,eitherwithorwithouttertiaryclarification.Tertiaryfiltrationisusedforeffluent
polishingandcanbeveryeffectiveinremovingparticulateandcolloidalphosphorusfromwastewater.
Whencombinedwithchemicaltreatment,tertiaryfiltrationcanachieveverylowtotalphosphorus(TP)
levelsinplanteffluents.Tertiaryfiltrationalsoreducestotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)toverylowlevels,
whichinturncanresultinmoreefficientdisinfectionandallowforthepossibleuseofalternative
disinfectantstochlorinesuchasultravioletlight(UV)(EPARegion102007).Turbidityisoftenusedas
themeasureoftertiaryfilterperformanceinsteadofTSSbecauseturbiditycanbemonitored
continuouslyusingonlineinstruments.
Filtrationtechnologiesforwastewatertreatmentarecontinuingtoevolve.Historically,granular
mediafiltrationwasthemostcommontypeusedatwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTPs),particularly
forlargesystems.Itprovidesphysicalstrainingofsolidsaswatermovesthroughfilterbedscontaining
sandandothermedia(e.g.,anthracite).Downflowsystemsarethemostcommontype,butcontinuous
backwashingupflowsystems(e.g.,Dynasand)arebecomingmorepopular.Granularfilterscomeina
varietyofconfigurationsbasedondepth,media,drivingforce(e.g.,gravityorappliedpressurethrough
pumping),andmethodofflowcontrol.
Advancedfiltrationtechnologieshavebeendevelopedtoprovideenhancedperformanceand,in
somecases,reducedfootprintrequirements.Someareadaptationsofconventionalgranularmedia
filtration.Forexample,thepulsedbedfilterintermittentlypulsesairthroughashallowsandbedto
bringcleansandtothetopandburytrappedsolids,therebymakinguseofthefulldepthofasinglefilter
media.Thetravelingbridgefilterisashallow,lowpressureheadfilterwithanoverheadtravelingbridge
assemblyforcollectingbackwashwater.Membranefiltershavesmallerporesizesandcanremove
solidstoverylowlevels,buttheyrequirehigherpressurestooperate.Specialtymediafiltershavebeen
designedspecificallytoremoveadditionalphosphorus.SeeChapter6,Section6.5forasummaryof
availableeffluentfiltrationtechnologies.
Severalpublicationsprovidedetaileddesignguidanceforeffluentfiltration(e.g.,WEFandASCE
2010;WEF2006;Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Thepurposeofthischapteristoprovidekeydesign
factorsthataffecttheperformanceofeffluentfiltrationforthepurposesofremovingTPtoloweffluent
Chapter11covers:
11.1 Introduction
11.2 SelectionofFiltrationTechnology
11.3 GranularMediaFilters
11.4 ClothMediaFilters
11.5 LowPressureMembranes
11.6 EmergingFiltrationTechnologiesforPhosphorus
Removal
11.7 References
levels.Manystatesalsohavedesigncriteriaforfiltrationprocesses;designersshouldcarefullyreview
staterequirementsandguidelines.Becauseoftheinherentvariabilityininfluentsolidstobefiltered,
designersshouldstronglyconsiderpilottestingtoestablishthedesignparametersforfullscaleeffluent
filtration(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
Anewtoolforthedesignoftertiaryfiltersiscomputationalfluiddynamic(CFD)modeling.CFD
modelingcanbeusedtopredictfilterperformancepriortodesign.Itcanbeusedtocomplement
laboratoryorbenchscaletests.WaterOnline(2009)reportsthatCFDmodelingwasusedtopredict
performanceofadeepbedgranularmediafiltrationtechnologyforanupgradetotheBluePlainsWWTP
inWashington,D.C.
11.2 SelectionofFiltrationTechnology
Selectionofafiltrationprocessdependsonmanyfactorsincludingeffluentgoals,available
space,operationalconsiderations,reliability,andcosts.Chapter8ofthisdesignmanualprovides
generalguidelinesforselectingcandidatetreatmentprocessesforplantupgrades.Somekey
considerationsforselectingaspecifictertiaryfiltrationtechnologyarehighlightedbelow.
- DesiredEffluentTP.Whenoperatedproperly,mostconventionalgranularmediafilterscan
achieveconsistenteffluentlevelsoflessthan0.1milligramsperliter(mg/L)TP(aslongas
solublephosphorushasbeenremovedtolessthanthatconcentration)andlessthan5mg/L
TSS
1
.Combinationtechnologies,membranes,andsomeemergingtechnologiescanachieve
additionalTPremoval.TechnologiesthatcanpotentiallyachieveextremelyloweffluentTP
levelsoflessthan0.05to0.01mg/Lincludethefollowing(Bottetal.2007;Barnardetal.
2008;EPARegion102007):
- Twostagefiltration.
- Enhancedclarificationandtertiaryfiltration.Enhancedclarificationmayincludehigh
rateballastedsedimentationorsludgeblanketclarification.
- Membranefiltration(microfiltrationorultrafiltration).
- Specialtyfilters(e.g.,anironoxidecoatedsandfilter).
Asnotedelsewhereinthisdesignmanual,removingphosphorusthroughchemical/physical
processesrequiresachemicaladditionsteptoconvertsolublereactivephosphorustoa
particulateorcolloidalform.Thisconversionistypicallyaccomplishedbyaddingametalsalt
suchasalumorferricchlorideandrequirespropermixing.SeeChapters3and9ofthis
designmanualfordetailsaboutthetheoryofphosphorusremovalbychemicaladditionand
thedesignofchemicalfeedandmixingsystems.
- ModeofOperation.Operationalconsiderationsareimportantwhenevaluatingfilter
technologies.Sometechnologies, suchasthecontinuousupflowbackwashingfiltersand
1
Althoughtheseeffluentconcentrationshavebeenobservedinthefield,technologyperformancedependsona
numberoffactorsandlowlimitsaremaynotbeconsistentlyachievableinallcases.SeeChapter6forfull
discussionoftechnologyperformance.
thetravelingbridgefilter, donotneedtobetakenoutofserviceforbackwashing.Shallow
bedsystemssuchaspulsedbedandtravelingbridgefiltersrequirealowerflowrateand
generatelessbackwashwatercomparedtoconventionalgranularmediasystems.The
travelingbridgefilterproducesarelativelyconstantamountofbackwashwhenthefilteris
inoperation,whichmayeliminatetheneedforstorageofthebackwashwaterbeforeitis
introducedtotheheadofthetreatmentplant.
- SizeConstraints.Thesurfacearearequiredforfiltrationdependsonthehydraulicloading
rate.Cloth,disk,andmembranefiltersoperateathigherloadingratesandthus,have
smallerfootprintsthantraditionalgranularmediafilters.Pulsedbedandtravelingbridge
filtershavelargefootprintsbuthaverelativelyshallowfilterbedsandthus,mayrequireless
pumpingforregularoperation.
- FlexibilityinOperations.Thetotalfilterareashouldbeprovidedintwoormoreunits,
allowingforcontinuedoperationifonefilterneedstobetakenofflineforbackwashingor
maintenance.
- Costs.CostscanbeoneofthemostimportantfactorsinselectingaWWTPupgradeoption.
Costestimatesforcomparingfiltrationtechnologiesshouldbelifecyclecostsandshould
includeallcapitalcostsforconstruction,aswellasoperationsandmaintenancecosts.For
tertiarysystems,itisimportanttoweightheadditionalcapitalandoperatingcostsfor
advancedsystemswithmoreoperatortrainingandtimerequiredforlessadvanced,
manuallyoperatedandadjustedsystems.Costestimatesvarywidelyfromfacilitytofacility;
refertotheUSEPAMunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument(2008b)
foranevaluationofcostfactorsthatshouldbeconsideredfortertiaryfiltrationsystems.
11.3 GranularMediaFilters
Granularmediafiltersremovesolidmaterialfromwastewaterbypassingthewaterthrougha
filterbedcontainingmediasuchassandoranthracite.Suspendedsolidsareremovedprimarilythrough
physicalstrainingparticleslargerthantheporespacesareremovedmechanically,whilesolidssmaller
thantheporespacescanberemovedthroughchancecontact.Assolidsaccumulatewithinthefilter
media,flowwilldecreaseandheadlosswillincrease.Filtersareperiodicallytakenoutofserviceand
backwashed,typicallyonthebasisofeffluentqualityormeasuredheadloss,toremovetheaccumulated
solidsfromthemedia.
Thefiltermediumcanbeasingletype(typicallysand),dualmedia(commonlysandand
anthracite),ormultimedia(e.g.,sand,anthracite,andgarnetorilmenite).Thedepthofthefilteris
classifiedasconventional(typically2feet)ordeepbed(typically4to6feet).Thefiltermedium
commonlyrestsonalayerofgravel,whichthenrestsonafilterunderdrainsystem,althoughadirect
mediaretentiondraincanbeusedwhichdoesnotrequiregravel.Thedeeperthebed,thelongerthe
filtercantypicallyoperatewithoutbackwashing,butahigherdegreeofpumpingisrequired.
Downflowfiltersareequippedwithaninletchanneltodispersethewaterevenlyoverthefilter.
Theyhaveabackwashsystemwithcontrolvalvestostoptheinfluentflow,apumptoforcewaterup
throughthebedtoexpandthemedia,andcollectiontroughsabovethetopofthemediatocollectthe
backwashwater.Cleanwaterforbackwashingisusuallypumpedfromafilteredwaterclearwellor
providedbygravityfromanelevatedtank(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Asurfacewashmaybeused
priortobackwashingtobreakupthesolidsthataccumulateonthetopofthefilter.
Aseffluentfiltrationhasbecomemorecommonforwastewatertreatment,designersand
manufacturershavemodifiedtheconventionaldownflowtechnologiesindifferentwaystoimprove
performance.Travelingbridgefiltersandupflowcontinuousbackwashingfiltersdonotneedtobetaken
offlineforcleaning.Pulsedbedfiltersmakeefficientuseoftheentiredepthofasinglemedium.As
notedintheprevioussection,designersmaywanttoconsideroneofthesemodificationsforimproved
operationsandperformancedependingonplantconditionsandtreatmentgoals.
Thefollowingarekeydesignfactorsforremovingparticulatephosphorusfromwastewaterand
arediscussedinthissection:
- Influentwaterquality
- Mediaspecifications
- Filterloadingrate
- Headloss
- Backwashing
- Flowcontrol
Additionalinformationandguidelinesfordesignareprovidedinstandardindustryreferences
suchasWaterEnvironmentFederation(WEF)andAmericanSocietyofCivilEngineers(ASCE)Manualof
PracticeNo.8andTchobanoglousetal.(2003).
11.3.1 InfluentWaterQuality
Themostimportantinfluentcharacteristicsfordesigningatertiaryfiltersystemare(1)theTSS
concentration,(2)theparticlesizeanddistribution,and(3)theflocstrength.TheTSSofsecondary
effluenttypicallyrangesfrom6to30mg/L,withcorrespondingturbidityvaluesof3to15nephelometric
turbidityunits(NTU).Thedistributionofparticlestendstobebimodal,meaningthattherearetwo
distinctpeaks.Oneistypicallybetween0.8and1.2micrometers(m),andthesecondisbetween5and
100m(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).Therearealsoafewlargerparticlesthatdonotreadilysettlein
secondaryclarifiers.Pilottestingisrecommendedtoaddresstheinherentvariabilityininfluentwater
quality.
Ifachemicalcoagulantsuchasalumorferricchlorideisaddeddirectlypriortothefilterfor
phosphateremoval,thechemicalshouldbewellmixedtoensureformationofthesolidprecipitate.
Organicpolymerscanbeaddedtoincreaseparticlesizeandimprovefiltrationperformance.Jartesting
shouldbeusedtodeterminecoagulantand/orpolymerdose.Pipesorconduitsaheadoffiltersshould
bedesignedtominimizeshearingofflocparticles(TenStateStandards2004).
11.3.2 MediaSpecifications
Inamonomediafilter,largermediawillsettletothebottomandsmallermediawillsettleatthe
topduringbackwashing.Thissettlingpatternresultsinalargeproportionofsolidsbeingremovedinthe
firstfewinchesofthebed,leavingtherestofthebedunusedandresultinginhighheadlossandshort
filterruns.Dualandmultimediafiltersaremorecommonlydesignedtoutilizetheentirefilterbedby
layeringthemediawithlarger,lightermediaonthetop(e.g.,anthracite)andsmaller,heaviermedia
(e.g.,sandandgarnet)onthebottom.Duringthebackwash,mediawillstratifyastheysettle,retaining
thedesiredgradation.
Importantcharacteristicsofgranularfiltermediaaredensity,sphericity,size,uniformity
coefficient,anddepthofmedia.Table111liststhemostcommonfiltermediaalongwithinformation
ondensityandsphericity.Table112providessometypicalvaluesfordepth,particlesize,and
uniformitycoefficientfordifferentfiltertypes.
Table111.CommonFilterMediaandCharacteristics
Media Density(Typical), Sphericity

Sand 2.65 0.400.60
Anthracite 1.6 0.750.85
Garnet 4.2 0.600.80
Ilmenite 4.5 N/A
Source:Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)
Table112.FilterMediaDepthsandParticleSizes
Media Depth(in) EffectiveParticle

(mm)
Size Uniformity
Coefficient
ConventionalSingleMedia(SandorAnthracite)
Sand 1830 0.0150.03 1.21.6
Anthracite 2436 0.030.08 1.31.8
DeepBedSingleMedia(SandorAnthracite)
Sand 3672 0.080.12 1.21.6
Anthracite 3684 0.080.16 1.31.8
DualMedia
Sand 715 0.0150.03 1.21.6
Anthracite 1536 0.030.08 1.31.6
Multimedia
Garnet 26 0.0080.024 1.51.8
Sand 920 0.0150.03 1.31.8
Anthracite 924 0.040.08 1.41.8
Source:Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)
Thedepthofthefilterbedwilldependonthemediasizeandthedesiredoperation.Deeper
bedscangolongerbetweenbackwashes;however,theywillincurlargerheadlossandrequiremore
vigorousbackwashing.Theeffectiveparticlesizeisdefinedasthe10percentsizebymassandmaybe
designatedasd
10.
Theuniformitycoefficientisameasureoftheuniformityofthesizeofthemedia.Itis
definedastheratioofthe60
th
percentilediametertothe10
th
percentilediameter.Whileperfectly
uniformmediaisnotnecessary,toolargeauniformitycoefficientcanleadtosmallerparticlesfillingin
theporespacesbetweenlargerparticles,whichcancausefiltercloggingtohappenearlier.The
uniformitycoefficientshouldbe1.7orless(WEFandASCE1998;TenStateStandards2004).Typically
theeffectivesizeanduniformitycoefficientvaluesareusedtospecifygranularmedia.
11.3.3 FilterLoadingRate
Thefilterloadingrate,alsocalledthefiltrationrate,istheflowperunitareaappliedtoafilter,
typicallyexpressedingallonspersquarefootperminute(gal/ft
2
min)orliterspersquaremeterper
minute(L/m
2
min).Thedesignratedependsprimarilyontheflocstrengthandsizeoffiltermediaand
typicallyvariesbetween2and8gal/ft
2
min(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
Thenumberandareaofthefiltersshouldbesuchthatthedesignfilterloadingrateisnot
exceededwhenonefilteristakenofflineforbackwashing.Itmaybedesirabletohaveflowequalization
beforethefilterstoavoidlargepeaksinloadingrates.
11.3.4 Headloss
Theoperationalheadlossthroughthefilterscanbeespeciallyimportantforretrofitswherea
limitedamountofpressureheadtothefiltersisavailablebeforeadditionalpumpingisrequired.Two
importantdesignparametersarecleanfilterheadlossandterminalheadloss(i.e.,maximumheadloss
beforethefilterisbackwashed).
Severalequationsexistforheadlossinacleanfilter.Oneequationpopularinthewaterindustry
istheKozenyequation(AWWA1999):
h=Lku/pg*(1c)
2
/c
3
S
v
2
V Eq.111
Where:
h =Headlossinft
L =Depthofthefilterbedinft
k =Kozenyconstantwhichisapproximately5formostfiltermedia
u =Viscosityofwaterinlb*s/ft
2
p =Densityofwaterinlb/ft
3
g =Accelerationduetogravity(32ft/s
2
)
c =Porosityofthemedia
S
v
=Specificsurface,theratioofvolumetosurfaceareaforaparticle
V
=Filtrationvelocityinft/s,whichisthefilterloadingratedividedbythetotalfilterarea
Fordualandmultimediafilters,theequationiscalculatedforeachmedialayerandsummedtogetthe
total.Thesizefractionsaredeterminedbyasieveanalysisofthemedia.Porosityandthespecific
surfacedependonthecharacteristicsofthemedia.Thespecificsurfacecanalsobedenotedas6/md
wheremisthesphericityanddiameter.Themediasuppliershouldbeabletosupplyvaluesofsphericity,
porosity,andsieveanalysisresultsforthemediatobeused.
Theterminalheadlossofagranularmediafilteristhecleanbedheadlossplustheincreasein
headlossfromremovalofparticulatematerialfromthewater.Thedesignvaluedependsonthesolids
storagecapacityandsolidscaptureefficiencyofthefilterandisusuallybasedonpriorexperienceor
pilotstudies(AWWA1999).
11.3.5 BackwashRequirements
Thepurposeofthebackwashistoremovetrappedsolidsfromthefilter.Inaconventionalfilter,
backwashisaccomplishedbyclosingthefiltereffluentvalve,stoppingflowintothefilter,andpumping
cleanwaterbackthroughthemediafromtheunderdrainstothesurface.Thebackwashvelocityis
increaseduntilthebedisfluidizedandexpanded.Thevelocityofthewaterandtheabrasionfrom
particlecollisionscausesparticlestoseparatefromthefiltermedia.Thelighterentrappedparticlesare
carriedupwardbythefluidvelocityandcollectedinthebackwashtrough.Thefiltermediasettlesback
intothebedoncethebackwashisstopped.Backwashwateristypicallyreturnedtotheprimaryclarifiers
(WEFandASCE2010).
Thefollowingequationcanbeusedtoestimatetheexpandedbeddepth(Tchobanoglousetal.
2003):
L
e
/L=(1o)/(1(v/v
s
)
0.22
)
Eq.112
Where:
L =Unexpandedbeddepthinmeters(m)
L
e
=Expandedbeddepthinm
o =Porosity
v =Backwashvelocityinm/s
v
s
=Particlesettlingvelocityinm/s
Theparticlesettlingvelocity,V
s
,isgivenby:
v
s
=g(sg
p
1)d
2
p
/18v Eq.113

Where:
g =Accelerationduetogravity,9.8m/s
2
sg
p
=Specificgravityofthemedia
d
p
=Diameterofthemediainm
v = Kinematicviscosityinm
2
/s
L
e
/Lisimportantindeterminingtherequiredfreeboardandthedistancefromthetopofthe
unexpandedfilterbedtothebottomofthebackwashtrough.Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)recommends
thatthebackwashtroughsbeset2to6inchesabovetheexpandedfilterbedandhaveaminimum
freeboardof24inchesattheupperendofthetrough.
Becauseofthenatureofwastewater,additionalabrasionmaybenecessarytoachieveproper
filtercleaning.Thisisespeciallytruewithanthracitemedia,which(becauseofitsnature)canadsorb
organiccomponentssuchasoilsandgreases.Additionalscourcanbeobtainedbyaddingairtothe
backwashand/orbyasurfacescour.Careshouldbetakentominimizelossofanthracitemediaduring
thedesignoftheairscoursystem.Itisimportanttonotethatdeepbedfilterscannotbefullyfluidized
andwillrequireairscouringtoachievepropercleaning.
Filterscanbebackwashedeitheratsetintervalsorbasedonagivenheadlossoreffluent
turbidity.Theycanalsobeoperatedwithacombinationofthetwo,backwashingthefilteronsettime
intervalswithanalarmsettoautomaticallybackwashthefilterifturbidityorheadlosslevelsgettoo
high.
Onewaytoextendthetimebetweenbackwashesispulsedbedfilters.Pulsedbedfiltersare
proprietaryshallowbedfilters.Theyusetheentirebedofthefiltertocaptureandstoresolids.Pulsed
bedfiltershaveairtrappedintheunderdrainsystem.Apulseofairisperiodicallyreleasedandallowed
toflowupwardthroughthemediabed.Theairdisruptsthefilterbedandallowsthesolidstopenetrate
furtherintothebed,breakingupthematofsolidsthatwouldotherwiseformonthesurfaceofthefilter
andenablinglongerfilterruns.
AutomaticBackwashDesigns
Figure111showsaschematicofanupflowcontinuousbackwashingfilter.Thewateris
introducedatthebottomofthemediaandallowedtoflowupwardthroughthemedia.Itiscollectedat
thetopofthefilterandsenttotheeffluent.Mediaareallowedtoflowdownwardthroughthefilterand
arecollectedatthebottom.Anairliftpipeatthebottomofthefiltercollectsspentmediaand
transportsittothetopofthefilterusingcompressedair.Asthespentmediaandwateraretransported
upwardbythecompressedair,capturedparticlesarescouredfromthemedia.Themediaanddirty
wateraredischargedintoawashingchamberatthetopofthefilter.Thespentsandisallowedtosettle
andisthenreturnedbacktothetopofthefilter.Thecapturedparticlesandwatercarryingthemare
dischargedthrougharejectcompartmentasbackwashwater.Acommontradenameforthiskindof
filterisDynasand.
Continuousbackwashfiltershaveseveraladvantages,includingcapabilitytohandlehigherTSS
concentrationswithoutbinding,lowmaintenanceduetonomovingmechanicalparts,lowheadloss,and
noequalizationrequiredforbackwashwater.Disadvantagesaretheforeignobjectscanplugtheairlift
pipeandmostunitsareproprietary.
AFeed
BFeedassembly
CDistribution
DSandbed
EFiltrate
FAirliftpump
GAirliftdischarge
HRejectcompartment
IWashersection
JFiltrateweir
KRejectweir
LRejectline
Figure111.ExampleofUpflowContinuousBackflowFilter(DynaSandFilter)
Source:CourtesyofParksonCorporation
11.3.6 FlowControl
Thereareseveralwaystocontroltheflowratethroughaconventionaldownflowgranular
mediafilter.Themostcommonmethodsareconstantratefiltrationwithafixedhead,constantrate
filtrationwithavariablehead,andvariabledecliningratefiltration.Inconstantratefiltrationwitha
fixedhead,thefiltrationrateiskeptconstant.Pumps,weirs,oreffluentcontrolvalvesareusedto
maintainaconstantflowandconstantwaterlevelinthefiltersassolidsaccumulateandtheheadloss
increases.Inconstantratefiltrationwithvariablehead,pumpsandweirsareusedtokeeptheflow
throughthefilterconstant,butthewaterlevelabovethefiltersisallowedtochange.Thefilteris
backwashedwhenthelevelreachesapresetlevel.Invariabledecliningratefiltration,theflowis
allowedtodecreaseastheheadlossinthefilterbuildsup.Thefilterisbackwashedwhentheminimum
designflowisreached.
Itisalsopossibletohavepressurefilterswherethefilteriscontainedinapressurevessel,anda
highpressureisappliedtodrivetheliquidthroughthefilter.Thesefilterscanachievehigherfiltration
ratesthanconventionalfiltersandrequirelessspace.Theyaregenerallyusedatsmallertreatment
plantsbutdorequiremoremaintenanceandcare.
11.4 ClothMediaFilters
Clothmediafiltersremovesolidsbypassingwaterthroughaclothdisk.Theclothpanelsare
installedverticallyinsideatankwithwatermovinghorizontallythroughthepanels.Clothfiltersare
generallydesignedinoneoftwoconfigurations,althoughnearlyallofthemareproprietaryandwill
involveslightdifferences.Inoneconfiguration,twoormoreclothdisksareinstalledverticallyinsidea
tank.Watertobefilteredisintroducedbetweenthedisksandflowsoutwardthroughthecloth.The
disksslowlyrotatewithapproximately60to70percentofthesurfaceareasubmergedatanygiven
time.Theunsubmergedportionissprayedwithbackwashwatertoremoveaccumulatedsolids.The
dislodgedsolidsarecollectedinabackwashtroughandrecycledtotheheadoftheplant.Thebackwash
canbeappliedcontinuouslyanddoesnotrequiretakingtheunitoffline.
Anotherconfigurationalsoconsistsofaseriesofverticaldiskscoveredwithclothsubmergedin
atank.Inthiscase,flowisfromonesideofthetankthroughtheclothandintoacollectiontubeor
header.Thedisksdonotrotateandarefullysubmerged.Whenthepressuredropreachesapre
determinedlevel,theunitistakenofflineandbackwashed.Becauseofthenatureoftheclothmaterial,
cleaningwithajetsprayisoccasionallyneeded.Figure112showsanexampleofthisconfiguration.
Figure112.CutawayviewofAquaDiskclothmediafilter.
Source:http://www.aquaaerobic.com/default.asp,reprintedwithPermissionfromAquaAerobicSystems,Inc.
Clothfiltershaveporesizesontheorderof10to30m.Theycanoperateatahigherhydraulic
loadingratethangranularmediafiltersandrequirealowerbackwashratesincethemediadonotneed
tobefluidized.Theyhavebeentraditionallyinstalledinsmallplants(5to10MGD)buthaverecently
beenusedatlargerinstallations(USEPA2008b).
Lin(2007)reportedresultsfromtwopilottestsofAquaDiskclothmediafilterswithrespectto
phosphorusremoval.Designflowswereapproximately2and6MGD,respectively,andhydraulicloading
ratestothefilterrangedfrom3to6.7gpm/ft
2
.Priortofiltration,atwostagesystemprovidedrapidmix
offerricsulfateandpolymerfollowedbyflocculation.Pilottestingresultsshowedthatbothferric
sulfateandpolymeradditionwerekeytoTPremovaltoconcentrationsoflessthan0.3mg/L.
Anewfiltrationtechnology,theUltrascreenMicrofilterwasrecentlytestedattheSouthern
WaterReclamationFacilityinPalmBeach,FL.Theunitisaclothdiskfilterbutuniqueinthatthedisks
aremountedatlessthan90degrees,resultingintangentialfiltration.Daltonetal.(2008)observedthat
itcanoperateathigherhydraulicloadingrates(upto12gpm/ft
2
)comparedtotraditionaldiskfilters.
TheauthorsdidnotevaluateeffluentTPlevelsbutobservedveryloweffluentturbidityof2NTU.
11.5 LowPressureMembranes
2
Membranefiltrationremovesparticlesbyforcingwaterthroughaporousmembrane.
Membranescanbeclassifiedbythepressuresusedtooperatethem,theporesize,orthemechanismby
whichseparationisachieved.Microfiltration(MF)andultrafiltration(UF)areconsideredlowpressure
membraneswithoperatingpressuresuptoabout90poundspersquareinch(psi).Theyhaverelatively
welldefinedporesandgenerallyoperatebasedonsizeexclusion,withparticleslargerthantheaverage
poresizebeingrejectedandthosesmallerpassingthroughthemembrane.MFandUFsystemsusedfor
wastewatertreatmenthaveporesizesthattypicallyrangefrom0.04to0.2microns.Nanofiltration(NF)
andreverseosmosis(RO)arehighpressuremembranes,operatingatpressuresupto1,200psi,andare
typicallyusedforwaterreuseapplications.Table113showsthecharacteristicsofdifferentmembrane
types.
Table113.MembraneCharacteristics
MembraneType PoreSize(microns) OperatingPressure(psi)

LowPressure Microfiltration(MF) 0.110 130
Ultrafiltration(UF) 0.010.1 380
HighPressure Nanofiltration(NF) 0.0010.01 70220
ReverseOsmosis(RO) <0.001 8001200
Source:WEF(2006)
Inrecentyears,lowpressuremembraneshavebeenconsideredfortertiaryfiltration.Low
pressuremembranescanconsistentlyachievesignificantreductionsinTPaslongasithasbeen
2
Notethatthissectiondiscussesmembranetechnologiesforeffluentfiltration.SeeChapter6foradiscussionof
membranebioreactors(MBR).
convertedtoparticulateandcolloidalform.Significantphosphorusremovaltolessthan0.01mg/Lhas
alsobeenreportedforpilotanddemonstrationstudies(Bottetal.2007;seeSection11.5.6formore
information).WEF(2006)reportsthatbasedonresultsofa2003surveyoffullscalesystems,thelargest
useoflowpressuremembranesistopretreatpriortohighpressuremembranesystemssuchas
reverseosmosis(RO)forthepurposesofreuse.
Thissectionhighlightskeydesignparametersforlowpressuremembranesystemsforthe
purposesoftertiaryfiltration.DesignersshouldrefertotheWEFpublication,MembraneSystemsfor
WastewaterTreatment(2006)foradditionalinformation.
11.5.1 MembraneMaterial
Membranesusedinwastewaterprocessesaregenerallymadeofcelluloseorotherorganic
polymers.Althoughinorganicmembranematerialsexist,theyaregenerallyexpensiveandhavenot
foundwideuseinmunicipalwastewaterprocesses.Elementstoconsiderinselectingamembrane
materialincludethermalstability,chemicalstability,cost,andchlorineresistance.
Thermalstabilitycanbeimportantinareasexperiencinghightemperatures.Somemembrane
materialscandegradeathightemperatures;forexample,celluloseacetatemembranescannotbeused
attemperatureshigherthan86
o
F.Differenttypesofmembranematerialscanbedegradedbydifferent
typesofchemicalssuchasaromatichydrocarbons,acids,andchlorine.Table114showstheadvantages
anddisadvantagesofvariousmembranematerials.
Table114.AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofMembraneMaterials
Material Advantages Disadvantages

CelluloseAcetate Inexpensive
Easytofabricate
Temperaturelimitedtobelow
pHlimitedtobetween3and6
Poormechanicalstability
Biodegradable
Limitedchlorineresistance
86F
Polyamide Thermally
Stablefor
stableto122
pH3to11
F Chlorinesensitive
Polypropylene Moderatethermalstability Lesschemicalresistantthan
polytetrafluoroethylene
Elongatedpores
Chlorinesensitive
Polysulfone Thermallystableto167F
pHrangeof1to13
Goodchlorineresistance
Poorresistancetoaromatic
hydrocarbons,ketones,ethers,and
esters
Resistanttoaliphatichydrocarbons,
fullyhalogenatedhydrocarbons,
alcohols,andacids
Lowpressurelimits(25100psi)
Polytetraflouroethylene Veryhydrophobic
Excellentorganicresistance
Excellentstabilitywithacids,bases,and
solvents
Poresizes
Expensive
belowMFunavailable
Stableoverallprobabletemperatures
PolyvinylideneFluoride Autoclavable
Goodsolventresistance
Lesschemicallyresistantthan
polytetrafluoroethylene
PoresizesbelowUFunavailable
11.5.2 MembraneConfiguration
Membranesareavailableinanumberofconfigurations.Individualmembranescanbe
constructedinflatsheets,hollowfibers,tubes,andspiralwoundconfigurations.
Flatsheetmembranesaresecuredwithinsupportingplatesandplacedinahousingparallelto
manyotherflatsheets.Waterisfilteredasitpassesthroughthechannelsbetweentheplates.
Hollowfibermembranesconsistofsmalldiameterhollowfiberbunchedtogetherinbundles
consistingofhundredsoreventhousandsoffibers.Watertobefilteredisintroducedintotheinsideof
thefiberandflowstotheoutside.Hollowfibermembranesarepopularbecausethesmalldiameter
allowsforalargenumberofmembranestobegroupedtogetherwithamuchgreatersurfaceareaper
volumeratiothanothermembraneconfigurations.Theyalsorequirelowerpressuretodrivethe
filtration.Thisconfigurationcanleadtolowerlifecyclecosts.
Tubularmembranesaresimilartohollowfibermembranesexceptthatthesizeofthehollow
tubeisaboutanorderofmagnitudegreater.Hollowfibersaretypicallyontheorderofafew
millimetersindiameter,whiletubularmembranesareontheorderofcentimeters.Thelargersizeof
tubularmembranesmakesthemeasiertocleanandbetterforwaterswithhighersolidscontent.
Spiralwoundmembranesconsistofaflexiblepermeatespacerplacedbetweentwomembrane
sheets,whicharethenwrappedinaspiralconfigurationaroundaperforatedpipe.Themembraneis
sealedonallsidesexceptthesideexposedtotheperforatedpipe.Permeateisintroducedalongthe
spacerparalleltothepipeandflowsthroughthemembranesintotheperforatedpipe.
Membranescaneitherbehousedinapressurevesselorsubmergeddirectlyinanopenchannel
orchamber.Flatsheetmembranesandhollowfibermembranescanbeusedinopenchannelsor
pressurevessels.Spiralwoundandtubularmembranesareusedinpressurevessels.
Flowthroughamembranecanbeoftwotypes:crossflowanddirectfeedflow.Incrossflow
mode,waterflowstangentialtothemembrane.Waterthatdoesnotpassthroughthemembraneis
collectedattheendoftheunitandrecirculatedwithadditionalfeedwater.Directfeedflowrequiresall
thewatertopassthroughthemembraneonthefirstpass.
11.5.3 ProcessConsiderations
Processconsiderationsfordesigningmembranesystemsincludepretreatment,backwashing,
cleaning,andintegritytesting.
Solids,filamentousorfibrousmaterial,metals,microbialgrowth,andsomeorganicscancause
foulingofmembranes.Foulingcanleadtoincreasedcleaningfrequencyandshortermembranelife
leadingtolowerflowratesandhighercosts.Variouspretreatmentfacilitiescanbeinstalledtoreduce
foulingandincreasemembranelife.Strainingshouldbedonetoremovefilamentousmaterialpriorto
themembranes.Typicallystrainerswithanopeningof2mmorlessareused.Granularmediaand
cartridgefiltersarealsousedtoremovelargerparticulatespriortothemembranes.ForNFandRO
systemswheresolidsremovalismoreimportant,lowpressuremembranessuchasMForUFareoften
installedasapretreatmentstep.
Membranesarebackwashedtoremovesolidsthathaveaccumulatedonthefeedsideofthe
membrane.Backwashingisaccomplishedbytakingthemembraneoutofserviceandreversingtheflow.
Backwashesaremorefrequentwithmembraneapplicationsthanconventionalfiltration,withtypical
periodsbetweenbackwashesontheorderof15minutestoanhour.Backwashistypicallyinitiated
basedonchangesintransmembranepressure(TMP).Aswithconventionalfiltration,sufficient
membraneunitsshouldbeinplacesothatnooneunitisoverloadedifonemembraneisofflinefor
backwashingorcleaning.Backwashwaterisusuallyreturnedtotheheadofthetreatmentplant.WEF
(2006)reportsthatthetotalbackwashvolumeisbetween2and10percentofaveragedailyflow.
Althoughbackwashingcanbeveryeffectiveinremovingmostcontaminants,itcannotremove
allcontaminantsorcompoundsembeddedinthemembraneitself.Forthisreason,mostlowpressure
membranetechnologiescomeequippedwithchemicalcleaningcapabilities,orcleaninplace(CIP)
systems.Proceduresforcleaningmayincludeaprolongedbackwashwithchemicaladditionor
immersioninachemicalbath.Cleaningchemicalsincludeacids,bases,andsurfactants.Designersshould
consultthemanufacturertoensureuseofchemicalssuitableforthemembranematerial.CIPchemicals
willrequireastoragetank,mixingsystem,andachemicalfeedpump.UFandMFmembranesare
typicallycleanedonceeverythreetofourmonths.
Integritytestingofmembranesisnotgenerallyrequiredforwastewatersystems;however,itis
recommendedtoensurethatnoneofthemembranesaredamaged.Integritytestingcanbeindirector
direct.Indirectmethodsmeasurewaterqualityparameterssuchasturbidityorparticlecountsto
determineifthemembraneisnotfunctioningproperly.Theyarenotassensitiveasdirectmethodsbut
donotrequiretakingthemembraneoffline.Directmethodsgenerallyarebasedonfillingthepermeate
sideofthemembranewithair.Ifthemembraneiswet,increasedpressurewillberequiredtopush
waterthroughthemembraneduetothesurfacetensionwithinthepores.Thepressuredecaytest,
diffusiveairflowtest,bubblepointtest,andsonictestingaredifferentmethodsthatcandetectleaksin
amembrane.Thefrequencyoftestingisabalancebetweentheinconvenienceoftakingaunitoffline
fortestingandtheneedforensuringeffluentquality.
11.5.4 PressureDrop
Pressuredropacrossthemembraneisimportantfordeterminingtherequiredenergynecessary
forthefiltrationprocess.Formembranesinacrossflowconfiguration,thetransmembranepressure
(TMP)canbecalculatedusingthefollowingequation:
P
tm
=(P
f
+P
c
)/2P
p
Eq.114
Where:
P
tm
=Transmembranepressureinbars
P
f
=Pressureofthefeedstreaminbars
P
c
=Pressureoftheconcentratestreaminbars
P
p
=Pressureofthepermeatestreaminbars
Formembranesinadirectfeedconfiguration,theequationis:
P
tm
=P
f
P
p
Eq.115
Thetransmembranepressureincombinationwiththerequiredfluxacrossthemembranewill
determinetherequiredmembranearea.
11.5.5 FluxDetermination
Fluxistheflowperunitareaacrossamembrane,typicallyreportedinliters/meters
2
hour
(L/m
2.
hr)orgpd/ft
2
.Themembranefiltrationsystemcanbeoperatedinoneofthreeways:(1)the
pressurecanbekeptconstantandthefluxallowedtovary,(2)thefluxcanbekeptconstantandthe
pressureallowedtovary,or(3)bothpressureandfluxcanbeallowedtovary.Nearlyallmunicipal
membranesystemsoperateaccordingtothefirst,onaconstantfluxbasis.Onestudy,however,
indicatedthatallowingbothpressureandfluxtovarymaybethemosteffectivemodeofoperation
(Bourgeousetal.1999).
Thefluxisrelatedtoflowandareabytheequation:
Q
p
=F
w
A Eq.116
Where:
Q
p
=Permeateflowrateinm
3
/s
F
w
=Transmembranefluxrateinm/s
A =Membraneareainm
2
Thefluxcanberelatedtothepressuredropbytheequation:
F
w
=A
p
(P
T
P
O
) Eq.117
WhereA
P
isthemembranepermeabilitycoefficientinL/m
2
*h/kPa,P
T
isthetransmembranepressurein
kPaorpsi,andP
O
istheosmoticpressureofthefeedsolutioninkPaorpsi.
K
w
willvarydependingonthetemperature,membranecharacteristics,andinfluentwater
characteristics.Ingeneralduringdesign,anoperatingpressurewillbechosenandthefluxdetermined
forthedesiredflowrate.Theareaofmembranerequiredcanthenbecalculated.Theprocesscanbe
iteratedifthegivenareaisnotfeasible.Typicaloperatingpressuresandfluxescanbeobtainedfromthe
manufacturerforagivenmembrane.Immersedmembranestypicallyoperatebetween16and24
gpd/ft
2
.Pressurizedinsideandoutside,theycanoperateathighfluxvaluesofbetween30and35
gpd/ft
2
(WEF2006).
11.5.6 PerformanceData
Table115summarizesresultsfromrecentpilotstudiestoevaluatetheremovalofphosphorus
usinglowpressuremembranesastertiaryfilters.
Table115.PhosphorusRemovalReportedFromMembranePilotStudies
Location TypeofStudy MembraneTested Configuration Operating EffluentTP Comments

andTestPeriod Flux
2
) (gpd/ft
(mg/L)
Spokane, Demonstration Submergedhollow
2
Two30m 2034 0.3to1.7, Removalwas
WA pilot,AugtoDec fiberUFwith modulesand (Avg=0.7) highly
2007 nominalporesize tank dependenton
of0.05byKoch alumaddition
priortofilter
Coeur Pilot,MaytoOct Immersedhollow Notreported Notreported 0.024to Excursions
DAlene,ID 2006 fiberUFwith 0.067 causedby
nominalporesize problemswith
of0.04.ZeeWeed alumfeedor
500systemby inadequatepH
Zenon control
Sources:Stahyamoorthyetal.(2008);Benischetal.(2008)
11.6 EmergingFiltrationTechnologiesforPhosphorusRemoval
11.6.1 TwoStageFiltration
Twofiltersinseriescanprovideenhancedsolidsremovalandprocesscontrol.EPARegion10
(2007)reportedexcellentphosphorusremovalfortheBreckenridge,theSnakeRiver,andtheAlexandria
WWTPsusingatwostagetreatmentprocesswithchemicaladditionandtertiarysettlingpriorto
filtration.Aproprietarytwostagefilter,theDynasandD2filtrationsystembyParkson,hasbeentested
atseveralfacilitiesandisreportedtoachieveextremelyloweffluentTPlevelswhencombinedwith
chemicaladdition(EPARegion102007;Bottetal.2007).Benishetal.(2008)reportedoperational
problems,however,duringpilottestingthatresultedineffluentTPlevelsaveraging0.084mg/L
comparedtothetargeteffluentlimitof0.050mg/L.
TheDynasandD2filterconsistsoftwocontinuouslycleaningupflowgranularmediafiltersin
series(seeFigure113foratypicalconfiguration).Thefirstisadeepbedfiltercontaininglargesand
grains.Itemploysaproprietaryprocesscalledcontinuouscontactfiltration(CCF)wherecoagulation,
flocculation,andsolidsremovaloccurwithinthefilterbed.Thesecondfilterisapolishingfilterandhas
smallersandgrainsandashallowerbed.Thewaterisintroducedintothebottomofthesandbed
throughanumberofradialarms.Particulatesareremovedasthewaterflowsupwardthroughthebed.
Sandmediaiscontinuouslydrawnintotheairliftpipeatthebottomofthefilterwhereitisscouredand
returnedtothetopthroughacentralassembly.Therejectratereportedbythemanufactureris0.5
percentoffeedflow,althoughhigherrateshavebeenreported(EPARegion102007).
Figure113.ParksonDynasandD2advancedfiltersystem.
Source:USEPA2008b,Figure218.
11.6.2 IronOxideCoatedMedia
TheBluePRO
TM
processisacontinuousupflowbackwashingfilterdesignedspecificallyto
removephosphorustoextremelyloweffluentlevelsthroughadsorptionofprecipitatedphosphorus.
ThefilterwasoriginallydevelopedattheUniversityofIdahoandhasbeentestedatWWTPsinIdaho
andFlorida.Skidmountedsystemscantreatbetween5and100gpm,andconcreteslabunitscantreat
upto1MGD.USEPA(2008a)reportsthatthisparticularsystemisnotsuitableforplantstreatingmore
than10MGDduetothesheernumberofunitsthatwouldberequired.
Thefiltermedia(sand)iscoatedwithahydrousferricoxidecoating,whichenhances
phosphorusremovalthroughadsorption.Aferricsaltisaddedpriortothefiltertoaidincoagulationand
toreplacetheferriccoating,whichisabradedfromthesandduringoperation.Waterflowsupthrough
thefilterwhilethesandtravelsdown.Anairlifttubeatthebottomofthefiltercarriesthesandupward.
Turbulencefromthecompressedairdislodgesaccumulatedironandphosphorusalongwithanysolids.
Theiron,phosphorus,andparticlesarewasted,whilethecleansandisdepositedonthetopofthebed.
TheBluePROfilterrunscontinuouslyanddoesnotneedtobetakenofflineforbackwashing.Ithasan
addedadvantageofrecyclingmaterialinsteadofaccumulatingphosphorusinsludgewhereitis
susceptibletosecondaryreleaseduringprocessing.
SeeFigure114foratypicaltwostageconfiguration.Resultsfrompilotstudiesaresummarized
inTable116.
Figure114.BluePROprocess.
Source:USEPA2008b,Figure220.
Table116.PilotTestResultsfortheBlueWaterBluePRO
System
Location Flow Duration InfluentTP EffluentTP OperationalFactors

(MGD) ofStudy (mg/L) (mg/L)
HaydenWastewater 0.25 3months 6mg/L Avgof0.011 Fedose=5mg/L
ResearchFacility, (Dec05Feb
HaydenID 06)
CoeurDAlene,ID 0.0130.034 Fedose=38mg/L
(Avgof0.021)
EasternFlorida(test 0.0144(10 2months 4mg/L Allresults< OptimizedFedosewaskeyto
resultsreportedby gpm) (NovDec 0.010 performance
manufacturer) 07)
Sources:Newcombeetal.(2008);Benischetal.(2007);BlueWaterTechnologies(2008)
11.7 References
AWWA.1999.WaterQuality&Treatment:AHandbookofCommunityWaterSupplies,5thEdition.
Letterman,R.D.,TechnicalEd.McGrawHill,Inc.
Barnard,J.L.,H.Phillips,B.Sabherwal,C.deBarbadillo.2008.DrivingMembraneBioReactorstoLimitof
Technology.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Benisch,M.,D.Clark,Neethling,J.B.,H.S.Fredrickson,A.Gu.2007.CanTertiaryPhosphorusRemoval
ReliablyProduce10ug/L?:PilotResultsfromCoeurDAlene,ID.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2007.
WEF.
BlueWaterTechnologies.2008.BlueProPilotProjectReport:PhosphorusRemovalfromWastewater
LocatedataMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlantinFlorida.BlueWaterTechnologies,Inc.Hayden,
Idaho.
Borgeous,K.,G.Tchobanoglous,andJ.Darby.1999.PerformanceEvaluationoftheKochUltrafiltration
MembraneSystemforWastewaterReclamation.CenterforEnvironmentalandWaterResources
Engineering.ReportNo.992,DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,Universityof
CaliforniaDavis,CA.
LowCanWeGoandWhatisStoppingUsfromGoingLower?Alexandria,VA:WERF.
Caliskaner,O.andG.Tchobanoglous.2005.ModelingDepthFiltrationofActivatedSludgeEffluentUsing
aCompressibleMediumFilter.WaterEnvironmentResearch.77(7):3080.
Caliskaner,O.andG.Tchobanoglous.2008.DevelopmentandSolutionofDepthFiltrationEquation.
Chalmers,R.B.,M.Patel,B.Dunnivin,andD.Cutler.2008.OrangeCountyWaterDistrictsGroundwater
ReplenishmentSystemisNowProducingWater.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Dalton,D.,D.E.Loy,M.G.Schill.2008.Demonstrationof"DynamicTangentialFiltration"atPalmBeach
CountytoProduceHighQualityReuseWater.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
EPARegion10.EPA910R07002.Availableonline:
http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/water.nsf/Water+Quality+Standards/AWT
Phosphorus/$FILE/AWT+Report.pdf
Hendron,L.,M.Laquidara,S.Sathyamoorthy,G.Shrope,GaleOlrich,andJ.Barr.2008.WaterReuseas
PartoftheCityofSpokane'sIntegratedApproachtoReducePhosphorusDischarge.Presentedat
WEFTEC2008.
Lin,H.,D.J.Binder,andL.W.Johnson.2008.EffectofParticleRemovalbyOptiFiberPA13NylonPile
MediaonParticleSizeDistributionandCorrelationbetweenTurbidityandTotalSuspendedSolids.
Mller,G.2006.Absolute(1000fold)PhosphorusRemoval:Performance,mechanismsandengineering
analysisofironbasedreactivefiltrationandcoupledCEPTattheHayden,IdahoWWTP.Universityof
Idaho.
Newcombe,R.L.,R.A.Rule,B.K.Hart,andG.Mller.2008a.PhosphorusRemovalfromMunicipal
WastewaterbyHydrousFerricOxideReactiveFiltrationandCoupledChemicallyEnhancedSecondary
Treatment:PartIPerformance.WaterEnvironmentResearch.80(3):238247.
Newcombe,R.L.,D.G.Strawn,T.M.Grant,S.E.Childers,andG.Mller.2008b.PhosphorusRemovalfrom
MunicipalWastewaterbyHydrousFerricOxideReactiveFiltrationandCoupledChemicallyEnhanced
SecondaryTreatment:PartIIMechanism.WaterEnvironmentResearch.80(3):238247.
Olivier,M.andD.Dalton.2002.FilterFresh:ClothMediaFiltersImproveaFloridaFacilitysWater
ReclamationEfforts.WaterEnvironment&Technology.14(11).Alexandria,VA:WEF.
Sathyamoorthy,S.,M.Laquidara,N.Anand,Z.Nikolic,S.Dukes,andA.vonGottberg.2008.Operationof
SubmergedHollowFiberUltrafiltrationMembraneforTreatmentofSecondaryEffluent.Presentedat
WEFTEC2008.
Scott,S.A.andE.A.Lawrence.2007.PilotStudyApplicationofTertiaryClarificationandFiltrationto
MeetProposedUltraLowPhosphorusDischargeLimitsontheSpokaneRiver.PresentedatNutrient
Removal2007.WEF.
TenStatesStandards.2007.RecommendedStandardsforWaterWorks,2007Edition:Policiesforthe
USEPA.2008b.MunicipalNutrientRemovalTechnologiesReferenceDocument.,Volume1Technical
WaterOnline.2009.ITTLeopoldCompletesTertiaryFiltrationProjectforWastewaterTreatmentPlant
inWashington,D.C.Websiteaccessed9April2009.Availableonline:
http://www.wateronline.com/article.mvc/ITTLeopoldCompletesWastewaterProjectInN0001
Reston,Va.
WEF.2006.MembraneSystemsforWastewaterTreatment.Alexandria,VA:WEFPress.
WERF.2008.WERFNutrientChallenge,Chapter1:TertiaryPhosphorusRemoval.Accessed11March
2009.Availableonline:http://www.werfnutrientchallenge.org/chapter1.asp?area=ch1
12.OperationandOptimizationtoEnhanceBiologicalNutrientRemoval
12.1 Introduction
Dependingontheexistingplantconfigurationandoperatingconditions,itmaybepossiblefor
plantstomeetnewperformancegoalsbyoptimizingexistingtreatmentprocesses,particularlyif
biologicalnutrientremovalisalreadybeingpracticed.Itisoftenmorecosteffectivetooptimize
operationsthantoaddanewtreatmentprocessortoconstructnewreactorvolumes.
Processsimulationmodelscanbeextremelyusefulinoptimizingtheoperationofanexisting
wastewatertreatmentplant(WWTP).Operatorscanadjustparametersandpredicttheirimpact
withouthavingtodoextensivetestingattheplant.Modelscanalsohelptoidentifybottlenecksatthe
plant.
Thischapterprovidesgeneralguidelinesforevaluatinganexistingplantandchangingplant
operationtoimproveperformance.Whilethischapterincludesmanyexamplesofplantoperational
improvements,eachplantisunique,andalternativeapproachesmayworkbetterforagivensituation.
OperatorsanddesignersshouldalwaysapplythefundamentalprocessinformationprovidedinChapters
3through5ofthismanualtoaddressoperationalissuesandimproveperformance.
12.2 AnalysisofExistingOperations
Processoptimizationbeginswithananalysisoftheperformanceofeachtreatmentprocessat
theexistingplant.Thepurposeofthisanalysisistoanswerquestionssuchas:
Whatarethefactorsthatarelimitingnutrientremoval?
Wherearethehydraulicbottlenecks?
Doparalleltreatmentunitsachievedifferentperformancelevelsfornutrientremoval?Ifso,
why?
Whatiscausingvariabilityineffluentqualitywithrespecttonutrients?
Whatarethecausesofintermittentincreasesinnutrientconcentrationsintheplant
effluent?
Chapter12covers:
12.1 Introduction
12.2 AnalysisofExistingOperations
12.3 IncorporatingSCADAandotherInstrumentation
12.4 CommonOperationalChanges
12.5 References
Thissectiondescribesdataanalysisandmodelingtechniquesthatcanbeusedtoanswerthese
questionsandultimatelyimproveperformanceoftheexistingWWTP.
12.2.1 DataAnalysis
Thefollowing4stepprocedureisonepossibleapproachtocollectingandanalyzingplantdata
forthepurposesofprocessoptimization.AlternativeapproachescanbefoundinChapter15of
Tchobanoglousetal.(2003)andChapter12ofWEFandASCE(2006).Notethatalldataanalysesshould
bedoneinclosecoordinationwithplantoperationsstaff.Plantpersonnelmayhaveuniqueinsightinto
theinfluenceofoperationalchangesonmeasuredparameters,andviceversa,thatcouldbeextremely
valuableforprocessoptimization.
Notethatallinfluent,primaryeffluent,secondaryeffluent,andplanteffluentsamplesshouldbe
24hourcompositesamples.Grabsampleswillnotusuallyprovidethenecessaryaccuracy,andresults
canbeverymisleading.
Step1:CompileExistingData
Obtainasmuchdataaspossiblefortheinfluent,primaryeffluent,secondaryeffluent,andplant
effluent.SeeTable121foralistofrecommendedparametersfordataanalysis.
Step2:CollectAdditionalData
Ifthedataarenotsufficienttoevaluateplantoperationsorifdesignerssuspectthatsomedata
maynotbeaccurate,considercollectingandanalyzingadditionalsamplestocharacterizeplant
performance.Atleastsomeformofspecialsamplingisusuallyneededforprocessoptimization.A
successfulsamplingcampaignrequirescarefulplanningandexecutionusingpropertechniquesfor
samplecollection,handling,andlaboratoryanalysis.SeeChapter7,Section7.4,forrecommendations
regardingmeasurementcampaigns.Belowareadditionalconsiderationsforsamplingforthepurposes
ofprocessoptimization.
Ifoperatorssuspectinconsistentperformanceamongparalleltreatmenttrains,eachshould
besampledseparately.Alternatively,intensesamplingcanbedoneformanylocations
alongonetreatmenttrain.Includeflowmeasurementsforeachoftheparalleltrains.
Considerperformingaflowbalancefortheentiretreatmentsystemasacheck(include
comparisonofinfluentandeffluentflows).
Considerintervalsampling,particularlyifplantpersonnelsuspectthatshorttermvariations
ininfluentqualityand/orintermittentdischargeofrecyclestreamshaveasignificantimpact
onthenutrientloadingtotheplant.Samplerscanbeprogrammedtosegregatesamplesfor
specifictimeperiods(WEFandASCE2006).Adurationof2to3daysistypicallysufficient
forintervalsampling.
Considerinstallingonlinemonitoringequipment.Iftheyareintegratedintotheprocess
controlsystem,onlinemonitorscanprovidetheaddedbenefitofenablingrealtime
operationalchanges.SeeSection12.3foradditionaldiscussionofautomatedprocess
control.
Table121.RecommendedParametersforDataEvaluation
Parameter
1
Location(s) Rationale
Flow Influent,
recycles
effluent,flowsplits, Essentialfordevelopingmassbalances,whichare
completeunderstandingofthetreatmentsystem.
essentialfora
TotalBOD/COD
Soluble
1
BOD/COD
Influent,
effluent,
effluents
primaryeffluent,
anaerobic&anoxiczone
Canbeusedtoevaluatesubstrateavailabilityforbiological
processes.HigheffluentBODcouldindicateactivatedsludge
performanceproblem.
TSS,VSS Primaryeffluent,secondary
effluent,finaleffluent
Importantifphosphorusisremovedchemically.UsedtocalculateISS,
determineclarificationefficiency,anddetermineanaccuratesolids
residencetime(SRT)forthebacteria.
DO Aerobic,anaerobic,andanoxic
zones(multiplelocations
recommended)
MinimumDOof2.0isusuallyneededtominimizeoxygenlimitation
ofnitrificationrates,whichisimportantforlowSRT/HRTsystems.
DOshouldnotbepresentinanoxicoranaerobiczones.
pH Influent,mixedliquors,effluent Shouldbeabove6.5andbelow9.0forbiologicalnitrogenremoval.
LowpHorwideswingsinpHcouldmeansignificantindustrial
component.CouldaffectBPRandnitrification.
Alkalinity Influent,primaryeffluent,mixed
liquorsupernatants,effluent
Ifeffluentisbelow50,thereisprobablenitrificationinhibition,and
processissusceptibletolargepHdropsasaresultofnitrificationor
chemicaladditionforphosphorusremoval.
Temperature Influent,
reactors,
mixedliquors
effluent
of Lowtemperaturescansignificantlyreducenitrificationrate.Forthe
typicalrangebetween10and25
o
C,theratewilldropbyhalffor
o
C every8to10 reductioninmixedliquortemperature.Reactor
temperaturesarelikelytobesignificantlydifferentfrominfluent
temperaturebecauseofaeration.
NH
3
N
orTKN Influent,primaryeffluent,
mixedliquors,secondary
effluent,effluent
reactor Canbeusedtoevaluate
nitrificationkinetics.
loadtoandperformanceofbiological
Nitrate Influent,reactormixedliquors,
secondaryeffluent,effluent
Acheckonnitrification,
denitrification.
andcanbeusedwithTKNtocalculate
TotalPhosphorus Influent,primary&secondary
WAS,planteffluent
Usedtocalculate
processes.
phosphorusremovalefficiencybytreatment
Phosphate Reactormixedliquors,primary
secondaryeffluents,effluent
& Usedtodetermine
secondaryclarifier,
releaseanduptakeinreactors,release
andphosphorusremovalefficiency.
in
ORP Anaerobic
liquors
&anoxicreactormixed Measuresthebalancebetweenoxidizedandreducedcompounds
presentinsolution.Willdetectpresenceofsignificant
concentrationsofoxidizedcompounds.Canbeusedforautomatic
detectionofexcesselectronacceptors(DO,nitrate,andnitrite)in
reactors.
VFAorrbCOD Influent,primaryeffluent Canbeused
phosphorus
toevaluate
removal.
substrateavailabilityforenhancedbiological
MLSS&MLVSS
testandWAStest
MLSS&MLVSS:wellmixed
locationinaerationbasin
WAS:wellmixedand
representativesamplefromthe
WASpipe(mayneedcomposite
sample)
MLSSandWAStestsprovidesuspendedsolidsconcentrationsand
canbeusedtodeterminepercentphosphorusinsludge.This
information,inconjunctionwithaerationbasinvolumeandWAS
flow,canbeusedtocalculateSRT.MaintainingSRTiscriticalfor
nitrificationand,sometimes,forenhancedbiologicalphosphorus
removal.
1.
BOD=biochemicaloxygendemand TotalBOD/COD=unfilteredBOD/COD
(5dayunlessotherwisenoted) SolubleBOD/COD=BOD/CODoffiltratefrom0.45mporesizefilter
COD=chemicaloxygendemand VSS=volatilesuspendedsolids
TSS=totalsuspendedsolids ORP=oxidationreductionpotential
DO=dissolvedoxygen NH
3
N=ammoniaNitrogen
TKN=totalKjeldahlNitrogen rbCOD=readilybiodegradableCOD
VFA=volatilefattyacids WAS=wasteactivatedsludge
MLSS=mixedliquorsuspendedsolids
MLVSS=mixedliquorvolatilesuspendedsolids:Inorganicsuspendedsolids(ISS)=MLSSMLVSS
Source:WEFandASCE(2006)
Step3:ReviewandSummarizeData
Reviewdataforanomaliesandpossiblesamplingerrors.Thisstepisalsocalleddatacleaningor
dataverification.SeeSection7.4.2ofthisdesignmanualforrecommendeddatachecks.Massbalance
diagramsareparticularlyhelpful,andshouldbedevelopedforallloadinginformationandforinert
fractions(ISS)throughtheplant.Additionalsamplesmayneedtobetakenasaresultofthesesteps.
Theevaluationofplantperformanceisfacilitatedbypresentingdataincarefullyannotated
tables,graphs,andfigures.Belowarepossibleapproachestoorganizingplantdataforanalysis:
Summarizekeyparametersintabularform.
Considerannotatingaprocessflowdiagramwithflowweightedaverageddata(Franketal.
2008).
Plotsamplingresultsforkeyparametersovertimetoassesstemporaltrendsandat
differentlocationstoassessspatialtrends.
Considerusinghistogramstodepicttheproportionofmeasuredvaluesthatfallindistinct
categories.
Considerplottingmultipleparametersmeasuredataspecificlocationtogetheronthesame
plottoevaluatepossiblerelationships.
3dimensionalgraphswithmeasureddata(e.g.,ammonia),samplinglocation,andtimeare
aninformativewaytodisplaybothspatialandtemporaltrends.SeeFigure121foran
exampleusingspecialsamplingdatafromtheWashingtonSuburbanSanitaryCommission
(Franketal.2008).
Figure121.Spatialandtemporalprofilesofammonia.
Source:Franketal.(2008),Figure6.ReprintedwithpermissionfromProceedingsofWEFTEC.2008,the81
st
AnnualWater
EnvironmentFederationTechnicalExhibitionandConference,Chicago,Illinois,October1822.Copyright2008Water
EnvironmentFederation,Alexandra,VA.,www.wef.org.
Step4:EvaluateRelationshipsbetweenKeyParameters
Statisticalanalysescanprovideveryusefulinformation.Considerlinearregressionanalysisto
evaluatetherelationshipbetweenwaterqualityandoperationalparameters.
12.2.2 UseofProcessSimulationModels
Processsimulationmodels,particularlyiftheyhavebeencalibratedtodynamicoperating
conditions,canbeextremelyusefultoolsforprocessoptimization.Designerscanusemodelsto
simulatemanydifferentoperatingscenariosandanalyzeresultstodetermineifnutrientremoval
efficienciescanbeimproved.Forexample,designerscansimulatechangesinaerationratestogauge
theeffectsonnitrification,orsimulateincreasedwastageratefromthesecondaryclarifiertodetermine
theeffectonSRT.Dynamicmodelingcanalsobeusedtochecktheplantsabilitytotreatpeakloads.
Forexample,dynamicmodelingoftheBeenyupplantinWesternAustraliashowedthatthenitrification
processwaslimitedbythecapacityofthediffuserstomeetthepeakairdemand(Thirdetal.2006).In
additiontodynamicsimulations,steadystatemodelingcanbeusefulindeterminingmajorprocess
bottlenecksbycomparingsimulatedoperatingconditionswithoriginalprocessdesigncapacities.
Steadystatemodelingcanalsobeusedtocompareperformanceunderdifferentoperatingscenarios.
Theusefulnessofsimulationmodelsforprocessoptimizationreliesheavilyonpropermodel
developmentandcalibration.SeeChapter10ofthisdesignmanualforguidanceonmodeldevelopment
andcalibration.
12.3 IncorporatingSCADAandotherInstrumentation
Comparedtograbsampling,onlinemonitoringcangiverealtimeinformationonprocesses
occurringwithinthetreatmentplantandisnotsusceptibletoimpropersampling,holdingtimes,or
inconsistenciesinlaboratoryanalysis.Chapter13describesthetypesofinstrumentsandcontrol
systemsfornutrientremoval.
Onthemostbasiclevel,onlinesensorscanprovideinformationtooperatorsandassistthemin
makingoperationaldecisions.Moreadvancedonlinemonitoringapplicationsfeedthemeasureddata
intoacontroller.Thecontrollercanbeprogrammedtoautomaticallyadjustacontrolparameter(e.g.,
diffusersetting)dependingonthemeasuredvalue.Thissetupisreferredtoasacontrolloopfor
automatedprocesscontrol.
Historically,thelackofreliablesensorshasbeenthebiggestbarriertoimplementingautomated
processcontrol.Recentimprovementsinbasicandadvancedonlinesensorshavemadethemmore
reliableandmorecommonlyused(Jeppssonetal.2002).Automatedcontrolhasmanyadvantages
includingreducingstaffworkload,allowingformoreprecisecontrolofprocessparameters,and
providingautomaticdataloggingandarchiving(Tchobanoglousetal.2003).
Inthepast,proprietarydistributedcontrolsystemswererecommendedforWWTPs(WEFand
ASCE2006).Moreandmorefacilities,however,areimplementingcomprehensivesupervisorycontrol
anddataacquisition(SCADA)systems.SCADAsystemsencompassprocesscontrol;dataacquisition;
supervisorycontrol;distributedalarming;historicalcollection,display,andanalysis;information
systems;andsecurity.SeeChapter13,Section13.8foradditionaldiscussionofSCADAfunctionality.
12.4 CommonOperationalChanges
12.4.1 AdjustSRT
NitrificationishighlydependentonsufficientSRTintheaerobicbasin.Denitrificationcanbe
limitedbytheanoxicSRT.BiologicalphosphorusremovalcanalsowashoutatlowtemperaturelowSRT
combinations.HigherSRTsareneededforcoldertemperaturesandviceversa.
CapitalimprovementstoincreaseSRTincludeconstructingadditionalbasinvolume;installinga
fixedfilmmediainthebasin,suchasintegratedfixedfilmmedia(IFAS);orusingmembranebioreactors
(MBRR).Operationalimprovementscansometimesbeimplementedatamuchlowercost.Operating
changesthatcanbeusedtoincreaseSRTinclude:
IncreasetheMLSS/MLVSSconcentrationintheaerationbasin.However,thisislimitedby
thesolidsseparationprocess.
Incorporateswingzonestoutilizethemaximumavailableaerationvolumeorthemaximum
anoxicvolumeduringpeakloadings.ThisincreasestheaerobicoranoxicSRT.

12.4.2 AdjustAerationRates
TaperedaerationwithlowerDOlevelsattheendoftheaerationbasincanpromote
simultaneousnitrificationdenitrification(SNdN).SNdNcanalsobeincreasedbycyclingtheaironand
off.ItcanbeoptimizedbyautomatingtheDOlevelfortheformercase,ortheonoffcyclingtimesfor
thelattercase,viaautomaticmonitoringofammoniumandnitrateusingprobesandfeedbacktoa
controlsystem.TaperedaerationalsooptimizestheutilizationofDOandtheneedtotransferDO,
resultinginthereductionofenergyrequirements.Ifanoxicreactionsareincreased,theamountofWAS
producedalsoisreduced.
12.4.3 AddBafflestoCreateHighFoodtoMicroorganism(F/M)Conditions
Theperformanceofexistingcontinuousflow,activatedsludgeBNRsystemscangenerallybe
improvedbyusingplugflowratherthancompletemixconfigurations,andtheplugflowunitscanbe
improvedbyusingbafflestodividetheanaerobic,anoxic,andaerobiczonesintotwoormoresections
each.Theuseofmultiplesections(2or3)inanaerobiczonesisparticularlybeneficialbecauseit
increasesthesubstrateconcentrationssurroundingtheactivatedsludgemicroorganismsinthefirst
section.Thisincreasestheratesofreactionwithinthesection,whichreducesthetotalvolumeneeded
forthezone.Additionally,thefirstsectionprotectstheremainingsection(s)frominfluentnitratesand
DO,whichhelpsensurethedevelopmentofanaerobicconditionswithinthezoneandprovidesasafety
factoragainstnitrateandDOexcursions.Similarstatementscanbemaderegardingtheanoxiczone
wherethepurposeofbafflingistoprovideprotectionfromtherecirculationofunusuallyhighDO
concentrations,thusensuringthatanoxicconditionsareobtainedwithinthezoneinadditionto
obtaininghigherratesofreactioninthefirstsection.
Thereislessjustificationfortheuseofbafflesintheaerobiczonebecause(1)thephosphorus
removalratesofreactionarefastrelativetothenitrificationrates,(2)highDOconcentrationsincrease
bothreactions,and(3)therearenootherelectronacceptorsthatinterferewiththedesiredreactions.
Notethatsolublesubstrateisusuallyneareffluentconcentrationswhentheflowenterstheaerobic
zoneifafullBNRsystem(i.e.withanaerobic,anoxic,andaerobiczones)isused.Bafflingforasmall
aerobiceffluentsectioncouldbeusedtoreducetheDOconcentrationsrecycledtotheanoxiczoneand
enteringthesecondaryclarifiers,thelatterofwhichwouldreducetheDOrecycledtotheanaerobic
zoneinthereturnactivatedsludge(RAS).However,adequatereductionofDOintheaerationbasin
effluentcangenerallybeaccomplishedbysimplyreducingtheamountofairdeliveredtothelast5
percentoftheaerationbasin.
Bafflesshouldalwaysbedesignedtopreventbackmixing.Becausethewatersurfaceelevation
inaeratedzonesarehigherthanthoseinnonaeratedzones,backmixingofDOandnitratescancause
floatingscum.Underflowbaffleswithtopsthatextendabovethewatersurfacesareexcellent
protectionagainstbackmixing.Aminimumforwardflowof1footpersecondisrecommendedthrough
theunderflowopeningstopreventbackmixingduringlowflowperiods.
12.4.4 ChangeAerationSettingsinPlugFlowBasins
Therearemanyinstanceswhereenterprisingoperatorsatconventionalplantswithplugflow
aerationbasinshaveachieved80percentormorephosphorusremovalwithlessthan1mg/Ltotal
phosphorus(TP)intheplanteffluentbyturningoffairormixers.Switchingoffaerationattheinletside
ofthebasinsystemwillcreateaninitialanaerobiczone.Aslongasthereisenoughreadily
biodegradablechemicaloxygendemand(rbCOD)intheplantinfluent,PhosphateAccumulating
Organisms(PAOs)willgrowandremovephosphorus.Itisimportanttoensurethattheprocessesstill
havesufficientSRT,particularlyfornitrificationintheaeratedportionsofthebasin.
ThePineyWater,CO,plantisa5stageBardenphoplantwithnoprimarysedimentationandfew
VFAsintheinfluent,whichresultedinlittlephosphorusremoval.Byswitchingoffamixerinoneofthe
anaerobiczones,sludgesettledtothebottomandfermented,whichsuppliedtheVFAsforreducingthe
orthophosphatetolessthan0.2mg/L.AsimilaroperationattheHenderson,NV,plantina
JohannesburgProcess(JHB)hadthesameeffect.
Someplugflowaerationplantssucceededinreducingphosphorustobelow1mg/Lbyturning
offaerationatthefeedendoftheplant,suchastheBlueLakesandSenecaplantsoperatedbythe
MetropolitanCouncilEnvironmentalServiceinMinnesotaandtheSt.Cloud,MN,plant.
12.4.5 MinimizeImpactofRecycleStreams
DischargeofsupernatantfromsludgehandlingoperationscanhaveasignificantimpactonBNR
processes,particularlyformediumandsmallWWTPsthatdischargerecycledflowsintermittently.For
example,aWWTPtreatingapproximately4MGDcorrelatedincreasedeffluentTPconcentrationswith
dischargefromsludgehandlingfacilities.Plantoperationsstafftrackedtheproblemtophosphorus
releaseinsludgeholdingtanks.Improvedaerationwithintheholdingtankspreventedphosphorus
release,reducedintermittentphosphorusloading,andsubsequentlyallowedtheplanttoachievemore
consistenteffluentTPlevels(Smithetal.2008).
Asecondpotentialproblemisincreasedammonialoadinreturnstreamsfromsludge
dewateringoperations.Insomeplants,dewateringisoperatedduringthedayandsupernatantfrom
digestedsludgeisreturnedtotheheadoftheplantintheafternoon.Thiscoincideswithadiurnal
ammoniapeakinresidentialsystemsandcanoverwhelmnitrificationprocesses.WEFandASCE(2006)
reportthatasmalltankcansignificantlyreducevariationofinfluentammonialoadbystoringrecycle
flowfromthedewateringfacility.Thetankcanbefilledduringpeakhoursandemptiedduringoffpeak
hoursusingasimpletimer.
12.4.6 ReconfigureFlowthroughExistingUnits
SomeplantsmayfindopportunitiestoreconfigureflowthroughexistingbasinstoenhanceBNR.
Forexample,plantoperatorsintheCityofXenia,OH,reconfiguredtheirexistingBNRsystemtoinclude
aswingzonethatcouldbeadjustedtorespondtoshorttermvariationsinhydraulicandorganicloading
conditions(Smithetal.2008).Thismodificationallowedtheplanttoachieveenhancedbiological
phosphorusremovaltoeffluentTPlevelsof0.5mg/L(annualaverage).
TheWestHickmanCreekTreatmentPlantinLexington,KY,reportedsuccessfulconversionof
existingprimaryclarifierstoanaerobiczonesforbiologicalphosphorusremoval(WaterandWastewater
Asia2006).Toconverttheprimaryclarifiers,theplantoperationsstaffinstalledfinescreensatthe
influentandconvertedtheanaerobicdigesterstoaerobicsludgeholdingtanks.Theyusedrespirometry
techniquestoassesstheavailabilityofVFAs,evaluatedthehydraulicsoftheexistingprimaryclarifiers,
anddeterminedthatitwassufficientforbiologicalphosphorusremoval.Theplantexperienced
additionalbenefitsofimprovedsettlingandclarificationandreduceduseofcoagulantdoseforchemical
polishing.
12.4.7 IncreaseVFAsforBiologicalPhosphorusRemoval
Theamountofreadilybiodegradableorganicmaterialdeterminestheamountofbiological
phosphorusremovalthatcanbeachievedatagivenplant.AsstatedinChapter5,theminimum
rbCOD/TPratioforcompletebiologicalphosphorusremovalis10to16(Barnard2006).Ifthisminimum
isnotbeingmet,considerthefollowingapproaches:
Checkodorcontrolpractices.Odorcontrolinthecollectionsystemcanreduceanaerobic
conditions,whichcanreducetheformationofVFAsinthesystem.Considerodorcontrol
practicesthatdonotadverselyaffectVFAproductionsuchasironadditionandpHcontrol
between9and10.SeeChapter5,Section5.3.1formoreinformation.
Considerfermentingtheprimarysludgebyincreasingthedepthofthesludgeblanketinthe
existingbasin.
Althoughnotastrictlyoperationalimprovement,additionoffermentershasbeenvery
successfulforprovidingsubstrateforbiologicalphosphorusremoval,particularlyincoldclimates.For
example,acompletemixtankcanbeinstalledaheadoftheprimaryclarifierforfermentationofthe
VFAs.SeeSection5.3.2ofthismanualforadiscussionoftheprinciplesofprimaryorRASsludge
fermentation.SeeChapter10foradditionaldesignguidance.
12.5 References
WEFTEC2006.
Frank,K.,G.Davies,N.Shirodkar,andA.Sauvageau.2008.FullScalePerformanceTestingand
OptimizationofanOldSchoolProcesswithLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemovalCapabilities.In
WEFTEC2008.
Jeppsson,U.,J.Alex,M.N.Pons,H.Spanjers,andP.A.Vanrolleghem.2002.StatusandFutureTrendsof
ICAinWastewaterTreatmentAEuropeanPerspective.WaterScienceTechnology.45(45):485
494.
Lopez,C.,R.Wachter,C.Meyer,B.Narayanan,andC.Baer.2008.OptimizationofBiologicalNutrient
RemovalSystemsinResponsetoIncreasedLoadings.InWEFTEC2008.
Quast,D.,P.LaMontagne,andR.Knuteson.2008.PuttingtheOperatorinCharge;ImprovingHuman
MachineInterfaceLeadstoSignificantCentrifugeOperationSavings.InWEFTEC2008.
Smith,R.C.,J.Tincu,andS.Jeyanayagam.2008.MaximizingEBPR:GoingfromaBlackBoxtoaGlass
BoxApproach.InWEFTEC2008.

Swift,J.,D.Bradshaw,L.Pierce,W.Robinson,P.Williamson,P.Jue,J.Damitio,D.Welce,andJ.
Dufresne.2008.FullScaleEvaluationofOnLineUltravioletNitrateandNitriteMonitoringSystems.
InWEFTEC2008.
Third,K.A.,A.R.Shaw,andL.Ng.2006.ApplicationoftheGoodModellingPracticeUnifiedProtocoltoa
PlantWideProcessModelforBeenyupWWTPDesignUpgrade.London,UK:IWAPublishing.
Wahlberg,E.J.,B.Browne,N.Fulcher,BijuGeorge,D.Linn,L.Scanlan,D.Siler,W.Anderson,M.Daniels,
St.Rogowski,andS.Walker.2008.ProcessOptimizationSavesMoneyandUnlocksCapacity.In
WEFTEC2008.
Water&WastewaterAsia.2006.BiologicalNutrientRemoval:OnlineSludgeLevelMonitoringSupports
EfficientNutrientRemoval.Water&WastewaterAsia.January/February2006.Availableonline:
http://www.waterwastewaterasia.com/WWA_archive/JanFeb06/hach.pdf
WEFPress.

13.InstrumentationandControls
13.1 Introduction
Nutrientremovalatwastewatertreatmentplants(WWTPs)requiresknowledgeandcareful
controlofmanykeyvariables.Variablessuchasdissolvedoxygen(DO)concentration,nutrient
concentrations,solidscontent,andflowratesareimportanttomonitorthroughouttheprocess.
ControlofvariablessuchasDO,solidsresidencetime(SRT),hydraulicretentiontime(HRT),andreturn
flowscanbekeytoachievinglownutrientconcentrationsintheeffluent.Usinginstrumentationto
monitortheseandothervariablesandautomaticallycontrolcertainoperatingparameterscanleadto
processoptimizationandmorestableperformance.Useofadvancedinstrumentationandautomatic
controlisstronglyrecommendedforplantstargetingveryloweffluenttotalnitrogen(TN)levelsand/or
totalphosphorus(TP)levels.
Thischapterwillbeginwithadiscussionoffactorstoconsiderwhenselectinginstrumentation
andcontrolstrategies.Itthenprovidesabriefdescriptionofthetypesofonlineinstrumentation
available(basicandinstrumentationdevelopedspecificallyforcontrollingnutrientremovalprocesses).
Followingisageneraldiscussionofthevarioustypesoflogicusedincontrolprocessesandthetypesof
equipmentused.
Thefollowingtechnicalreferencesprovideadditionalinformationoninstrumentationfor
nutrientremovalprocesses:
Chapter7,ProcessInstrumentationintheWaterEnvironmentFederation(WEF)Manualof
Practice(MOP)11,OperationofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlants,6thEdition(WEF
2007).
Chapter13,InstrumentationandAutomatedProcessControlintheWEFMOP29,Biological
NutrientRemoval(BNR)OperationinWastewaterTreatmentPlants(WEFandASCE2006).
SensingandControlSystems:AReviewofMunicipalandIndustrialExperiences.(Hilletal.
2002).
Chapter13covers:
13.1 Introduction
13.2 FactorsinSelectingInstrumentation
13.3 BasicOnlineInstrumentation
13.4 OnlineInstrumentationforNutrientControl
13.5 TypesofControl
13.6 ControlEquipmentSCADA
13.7 References
DesignofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlantsWEFMOP8andASCEManualsandReports
onEngineeringPracticeNo.76,5thEd.(WEFandASCE2010)
TheInstrumentationTestAssociation(ITA)offeringtestreports,studies,andworkshop
proceedingsregardingonlineinstrumentationandautomationforwaterandwastewater
treatmentapplications.Informationisavailableonlineathttp://www.instrument.org.
TheInternationalWaterAssociation(IWA)TaskGrouponBenchmarkingofControlStrategies
forWWTPs.Informationavailableonlineathttp://www.benchmarkwwtp.org/
Itisimportanttonotethattechnologyoftenchangesfasterthanbooksandlargestudies.Designers
shouldcheckwithprofessionalassociationssuchastheirlocalWEFchapter,otherutilities,and
manufacturersforthelatestinformation.Onsitetestingofvariousbrandsofthedifferenttypesof
instrumentsunderconsiderationcanprovideexcellentdataforanalysisofthespecificwastewater
basedonthemostcurrentinstrumentmodels.
13.2 FactorsinSelectingInstrumentation
Severalfactorsshouldbeconsideredwhenselectinginstrumentationfornutrientremoval
processes.
Onlineanalyzerscomparedtoofflinesampling.Grabsamplesmaybeadequatefor
parametersthatchangeslowlyanddontrequiretightcontrol.However,muchcanbegainedin
processcontrolbyonlineequipmentthatcanprovideoperatorswithrealtimemeasurements,
particularlyforplantstryingtoachieveverylowTNand/orTPeffluentlimits.
Accuracyandreliability.Accuracyrepresentshowcloseameasuredvalueistothetruevalue,
whereasreliability(orrepeatability)isthemeasureofagreementamonganumberof
measurementswiththesameinputvaluesandoperatingconditions.Forthepurposesof
control,reliabilityandreproducibilityaremoreimportantthanaccuracy.WEFandASCE(2006)
notethatitisbettertouseareliable,lowmaintenancemeterthanaveryaccuratemeterthat
requiressignificantmaintenance.TheexceptionispHaccuratepHreadingswithin+/0.1unit
aredesirable.
Operationsandmaintenancerequirements.Akeyfactorinselectinginstrumentationisthe
amountofoperatorattentionrequiredtocalibrate,clean,andmaintaintheequipment.Ifstaff
isnotavailabletoperformtheseduties,moredurableandmaintenancefreeinstrumentsshould
bechosen.Automatedcleaningandcalibrationareavailableforsomeinstruments.The
additionalcapitalcostsrequiredforthesefeaturesareoftensmallcomparedtothereduced
operatorrequirementsandrisksoffailure.
Samplecollectionandpretreatment.Properdesignandmaintenanceofthesamplepump,
piping,andpretreatment(e.g.,asrequiredforanalysisofnutrients)arekeytoobtainingreliable
readings.WEFandASCE(2006)notethatthesecomponentsoftencostmorethanthe
instrumentsthemselvesandrecommendthatdesignerscheckthemanufacturersplant
installationlisttolearnmoreaboutsuccessfulsamplecollectionandpretreatmentsystems.
Notethatsomemanufacturersavoidsamplepumpsandpipingbyofferingprobeswhichcanbe
installeddirectlyinthewater.
Itisimportanttouseinstrumentsspecificallydesignedforwastewaterinthepast,attemptswere
madetoadaptequipmentfromthedrinkingwaterindustrytowastewater.Theseattemptswerelargely
unsuccessfulduetothehighsolidsandmicrobiologicalpopulationsinwastewater.
13.3 BasicOnlineInstrumentation
Onlineinstrumentationhasbeenusedformanyyearsinwastewaterapplications.Manyplants
haveonlinemonitorsforDOandtotalsuspendedsolids(TSS)forbasicprocesscontrol.Somebiological
nutrientremoval(BNR)plantsalsouseonlinepHandoxidationreductionpotential(ORP)meters.For
themostpart,theavailableinstrumentscantakerealtimemeasurementsandprovidehighreliability.
Table131summarizestheinstrumentsusedforbasicmeasurementsandlistsadvantagesand
disadvantagesofeachtype.
Table131.SummaryofBasicOnLineInstrumentation
Analyte Typeof
Measurement
Advantages Disadvantages
Flow Mechanical Accurate Weardown
PressureDrop Lowcost Highlydependentoninstallation,
pressuredrop
Magnetic Nomovingparts,nowear Highcost,inaccurateatlowflow
ReflectiveSonic Nopressuredrop,
low
low
cost
maintenance, Limitedsizeofconduit,cant
aggregatelinedpipe,inaccurate
flow
use
atlow
ParshallFlume Simple,wideflowrange Pressuredrop,requires
response
cleaning,slow
TSS Light
(back
scattering
scattered)
Bettersensitivity,wider
range
measuring Needseffectivecleaningsystem
LightAdsorption Lesssensitive,smallerrange,
inaccurateatlowranges
Abletohandlefoulingbetter
cleaningsystem
without
Ultrasonic Insensitivetocolor Fouling,backgroundreadingrequired
Microwave Insensitivetointerference Highcost,onlyworksforhighTSS
Sludgeblanket
monitor
Ultrasonic Lowmaintenance
TSSorTurbidity SeeTSS
DO Membrane
electrode
Lowcost High aintenance m
Galvanicelectrode Durable,reliable Interferencefromhydrogensulfide,
needsfrequentcalibration
Opticalprobe Durable,lowmaintenance,reliable Higherinitialcost
pH Electrode Fouling
ORP Electrode Indicatestrueoxidizingenvironment
(anaerobic,anoxic,oraerobic)
Indirectmeasurement
13.3
Flowrateisanextremelyimportantparameterforcontrolatwastewaterplants.Varioustypes
offlowmetersareavailable.Mechanicalflowmetersdependonanimpellerturningasthefluidpasses
.1 Flow
throughthemeterorbymovingknownvolumesoffluidthroughaseriesofgears.Otherflowmeters
measurethepressuredropasthefluidpassesthroughaflowconstriction.Magneticmetersmeasure
thevoltagegeneratedbyamagneticfieldacrosstheflow.Reflectivesonicandtransmissivesonic
meterscanalsobeused.MeasuringthelevelinaParshallflumeisamethodusedforopenchannels.
Mechanicalmeterscanbeveryaccuratebutneedtobereplacedmorefrequentlyduetothe
abrasivenatureofwastewater.Magneticmeterswilllastlongerastheyhavenomovingpartsandare
unaffectedbythenatureofthewastewater.Theyareexpensive,however,comparedtomechanical
metersandcanperformpoorlyatlowflow.
Differentialpressuremetershavearangeofaccuracydependingonhowtheywereinstalled.
Improperinstallationcanresultinveryinaccuratereadings.Theyalsohavealimitedrange,withthe
maximumandminimumflowsneedingtobewithinafactoroffourofeachother.Differentialpressure
metersalsocauseaheadlossintheflow.
Reflectivesonicinstrumentsinstalledinopenchannelshavegoodaccuracy,lowmaintenance,
anddonotcauseapressuredrop.Theyarelimitedinthesizeoftheconduit.Reflectivesonic
instrumentsinstalledoutsideaclosedpipearelessaccuratethanthoseinstalledinthepipebutstilldo
notcausepressuredropandarealowcostandlowmaintenanceoption.Theycanalsohaveproblems
measuringflowincleanfluids.
Manytypesofflumesareavailableformeasuringflowinopenchannels;howeverParshall
flumesarebyfarthemostcommon(WEFandASCE2009).Parshallflumesareveryeasytouseand
comeinprefabricateddesigns;theydo,however,createheadlossandhaveaslowerresponsetime
comparedtoothertypesofflowmeasurementdevices.
13.3.2 TotalSuspendedSolids(TSS)
TSSmetersarebasedonopticalscatteringoflightoronthedifferenceinthevelocityof
ultrasonicwaves.MicrowaveinstrumentscanbeusedforveryhighTSSconcentrations(>10,000mg/L).
Lightisemittedfromalightsourceandthenmeasuredbyareceptoratagivenpoint.Thetwoprinciple
typesuseeitherforwardscatteredlightorbackscatteredlight.Somesensorswilltrytoimprove
reliabilitybyaddingmultiplebeamsandsensors.Thesemultichannelinstrumentsmayalsohelpprovide
colorindependentanalysis,asitcanbemoredifficulttogetareliablereadinginaveryconcentrated
darksludge.
1
Ultrasonicmetersrequirethemeasurementofabackgroundvelocityinamicrobialfree
sample.

TSSmeterscanbecomefouledinwastewater.Automaticcleaningsystemsareimportantfor
maintainingsensorreliability.Typesofcleaningsystemsincludewaterorairpurging,wipers,or
ultrasonicsystems.Althoughsomesensorsmaybeabletomaintainreliablefunctionalitywithonly
occasionalmanualcleaning,itisagoodideatohaveautomaticsystemsinstalledtoensureregularand
effectivecleaning.
1
Note,however,thatmostlightscatterandlightabsorptionmethodsutilizenearinfraredlightsourcesat860
nanometers,whichremovescolorissuessincethelightsourceisnotawhitelightsource.
13.3.3 SludgeBlanketDepth
Sludgeblanketdepthisanimportantparameterforoptimizingsettlingwithinclarifiers.
Controllingthesludgeblanketdepthcanbeusedtopreventexcessivedenitrificationintheblanketand
thesecondaryreleaseofphosphorus.
Newsludgeblanketmonitorsusesonictechniquestodeterminethepositionofthesludge
blanket.Theseinstrumentsworkbysendinganultrasonicpulsefromtheinstrumentdowntothe
sludgeblanketandanalyzingthetimeforthepulsetotravelbacktotheinstrument.Unitstypicallyare
equippedwithacleaningmechanismtopreventbuildup.Otherunitsdetecttheheightofthesludge
blanketbymultipledepthreadingstodeterminethepointoflargestchangeinTSSorturbidity.
13.3.4 DissolvedOxygen(DO)
DOisakeycontrolparameterinachievingnutrientremoval.Itcanbeagoodindicatorof
biologicalactivity,especiallynitrification.HavingpoorcontrolofDOcanleadtoinadequatenitrification
andphosphorusremoval,disinfectionproblems,andhighenergycosts.Itisestimatedthattightcontrol
ofDOcansaveawastewaterplantbetween10and30percentofoperatingcosts(WEFandASCE2006).
DOcanbemeasuredbymembraneelectrodes,galvanicelectrodes,andopticalDOprobes.
Membraneelectrodesallowdiffusionofoxygenacrossamembraneandmeasuretheoxygengasatan
electrodeintheinnerchamber.GalvanicelectrodessuchastheproprietaryZulligtechnology,usea
galvaniccurrenttomeasuretheoxygen.Opticalmethodsmeasurechangesinlightemittedbya
luminescentchemicalandrelatetherateofchangetotheDOinsolution.
Membraneelectrodesarereliableandeasytousebutmustbecalibratedfrequently(typically
onceperweekorpermonthdependingonthemanufacturer).Theycanalsoexperienceinterference
fromchlorine,iron,andhydrogensulfide.Galvanicelectrodesaremoreexpensivebuttendtobemore
durableandreliablethanmembraneelectrodes.OpticalDOprobes,thelatesttechnologyinDO
measurement,donotconsumeoxygenorelectrolytesandareveryreliable.
13.3.5 pH
pHisanimportantvariableinanybiologicaltreatmentprocess.Onlinemonitoringcanhelp
operatorsrespondtochangesinpHduetowastewatercompositionorchemicaladditions.Itisalsoan
importantparameterfornitrification.Thenitrificationprocessproducesacidand,ifthereisinsufficient
alkalinitypresentinthewastewater,willdecreasethepHtoapointthatwillinhibittheorganisms
responsiblefornitrification.OnlinemonitoringofpHcanprompttheoperatortoaddalkalinitywhen
necessary.Also,therateofnitrificationvarieswiththepH,andmaintaininganoptimalpH(78)
sometimescanbeusedtomaintainnearcompletenitrificationatlowtemperatures.
AllpHmetersarebasedonpotentialmeasurementusinganelectrode.Themeterconsistsof
twoprimaryparts,ameasurementelectrodeandareferenceelectrode.Theycanbeconfiguredasan
electrodepairoracombinationelectrodeinonesingleglassbodyassembly,withthelatterbeingmore
common(WEFandASCE2006).Althoughinterferencefromotherionsinsolutionisnotlikely,sodium
ionscanhaveanaffect(WEF2007).Likemostelectrodes,pHmeterscanfoulandwillneedtobe
calibratedandreplacedmorefrequentlythaninwaterapplications.
13.3.6 OxidationReductionPotential(ORP)
ORPprobesareelectrodesthatmeasuretheoxidizingandreducingactivityinasolution,i.e.
whichdominatesandbyhowmuch.Theycanbeusedtodetectchangesintheoxidationstateofthe
processwaterandtodetermineifaerobic,anaerobic,andanoxiczonesarebeingcorrectlymaintained.
Thereadoutofthesensorisinmillivolts(mV),withpositivereadingsindicatinganoxidativestateand
negativereadingsindicatingareductivestate(WEFandASCE2006)whenthestandardhydrogen
electrode(SHE)isusedasthereference.However,thestandardcalomelelectrodeiscommonlyusedas
thereferenceelectrodeforfieldmeasurementsandithasa+241mVreadingwhentheSHEiszero.The
calomelelectrodeismorerobustthantheSHE,andgivesrelativelystablereadings.Operatorsneedto
ensurethattheadjustmentismadetotheSHEwhenthecalomelelectrodeisused.
TheORPofinfluentwastewatertypicallyrangesfrom50mVto400mV(WEF2007)becauseit
istypicallyreducedwhenitreachesthewastewatertreatmentplant.BecauseORPisanonspecific
measurement,absolutevaluesbasedonindustrystandardsarenottypicallyusedforcontrol.Instead,
operatorscanevaluateORPforsuddenchangesorgradualchangesovertimecomparedtoother
operatingparameters.
Aspreviouslynoted,ORPmetersaresimilartopHmetersinthattheyconsistofameasuring
electrodeandareferenceelectrode.Thereferenceelectrodeistypicallythesamecalomelelectrode
usedinpHinstruments(WEFandASCE2006).Dependingonthemanufacturer,ORPmetersneedtobe
cleanedoftenorequippedwithautomatedcleaning(typicallyusingairorwaterjets).
13.4 OnlineInstrumentationforNutrientControl
Althoughitismoreexpensiveandrequiresmoreattentionthanbasicinstrumentation,online
instrumentationspecificallyfornutrientcontrolcanbeveryimportantinoptimizingnitrogenand
phosphorusremovalprocesses.Itcanalsoleadtoassociatedenergy(andcost)savingsviatheuseof
automatedcontrolsystems.Thenextseveralsectionsdiscusstechniquesandinstrumentationavailable
foronlinemonitoringfornutrientcontrol
13.4.1 NitrogenCompounds
Onlinemonitoringofammoniaafterthenitrificationbasin,intheeffluent,andinreturnstreams
fromanaerobicdigestionmaybeveryusefulforprocesscontrolandoptimization.Measurementof
nitrateandnitriteareimportantindetermining1)theloadrecycledtotheanaerobicreactorofBPR
processes,2)theloadtothedenitrificationprocess,3)theloadinthedenitrificationprocesseffluent
and4)thecontrolofexternalcarbonadditionfordenitrification.
Ingeneral,manufacturersofonlineinstrumentsforthevariousnitrogenspeciesuseoneof
threemethods(Palmeretal.2007):
Colorimetricapproach.Colorimetricmeterstypicallywithdrawasamplefromthewastewater
andgiveperiodicreadingsandrequirethesampletobepretreatedthroughafilter.
Ionsensitiveelectrodes(ISEs).Thesearemounteddirectlyinthewaterandcangiverealtime
readings.ThismethodissimilartoStandardMethods4500NH
3
D(APHAetal.2005)
UVabsorbanceormultiplewavelengthUVabsorbancespectrophotometers.Thismethodis
basedonStandardMethodsnitrogenpersulfatedigestionmethod4500NBandnitrate,
ultravioletspectrophotometricmethod4500NO
3
B(APHAetal.2005).
Instrumentsbasedoncolorimetrytypicallyhaveanaccuracyof3to5percent.ISEsaremuchfasterand
aresimilarlyreliablewithin2to5percent.ISEsrequiremoremaintenancethancolorimetricmethods
becausetheelectrodeisplaceddirectlyinthewastewaterstream.Electrodescanalsoexperience
interferenceandhavealimitedpHrangeinwhichtheywillfunction.
ThemostcommonmeasurementtechniquefornitrateandnitriteisUVabsorbance.Online
instrumentsdirectUVlightthroughthesampleandmeasuretheamountoflightthatisabsorbedata
specificwavelength.Becausesuspendedsolidsinterferewiththemeasurementmethod,filtrationor
solidscompensationisneeded.Thechemicaloxygendemand(COD)ofthewatercanalsointerferewith
spectrometerreadings.Toaccountfortheseinterferences,manufacturershaveincorporatedmulti
wavelengthmeasuresorrecommendmembranefiltration(e.g.,ultrafiltration)priortosampleanalysis.
ISEandcolorimetrictechniquescanalsobeusedtomeasurenitrateandnitrite;however,theUV
absorbancemethodismostcommon(WEFandASCE2006).
Palmeretal.(2007)presentstestdataoncommerciallyavailableinsituUVabsorptionanalyzers
fornitrate.Theauthorsevaluatedaccuracyinmeasurementsbycomparingthemtolabvalues.They
alsocollectedinformationoncapitalcosts,installationrequirements,calibrationrequirements,and
annualmaintenancecosts.SomekeyresultsofthestudyaresummarizedinTable132.
Table132.ComparisonofOnLineNitrateAnalyzers
1
Manufacturer Model MeanDeviationfrom Correlationto NumberofField

LaboratoryConformance Laboratory TestMaintenance
Test ConformanceTest andCalibration
(R
2
) Events
Endress+Hauser StamoSens 0.08 0.92 None
CNM750/CNS70
HACH EvitaInsitu5100 2.88 0.02 3
2
(Danfoss)
HACH NITRATAXplussc 0.68 0.97 1
s::can 82NNitrolysersensor 0.26 0.91 3
Messtechnik /8580Constat
GmbH analyzer
Wedgewood STIPscan 0.55 0.61 3
Analytical/E+H
1. Notethatresultsbasedontestdatafromonefacility
2. HachEvitaInsitu5100sensorisnolongeronthemarket(discontinuedin2007)
Source:Palmeretal.2007
13.4.2 PhosphateandTotalPhosphorus
Monitoringphosphate(PO
4
)andtotalphosphorus(TP)isimportantinestablishingthe
phosphorusloadontheplant,tocontrolthephosphorusremovalprocesses,andforcompliancewith
permits.Measurementsmaybetakenintheinfluent,effluent,anaerobiczone,anoxiczone,aerobic
zone,andreturnstreamsfromdigestionprocesses.MostonlineinstrumentsmeasurePO
4
.Notethata
readingof3milligramsperliter(mg/L)asPO
4
isroughlyequivalentto1mg/Lofphosphorus.Operators
shouldconsiderreportingresultsasPratherthanasPO
4
,i.easPO
4
P.toavoidconfusion(WEFandASCE
2006).
Phosphatemonitorstypicallyusecolorimetrictechniques,especiallyformeasurementatlow
(0.1mg/Lorless)concentrations.ThetwomostcommonlyusedtechniquesaretheMolybdenumblue
techniqueandthemolybdovanadatetechnique,alsocalledtheyellowmethod.Themolybdenum
bluetechniquegenerallyhasarangeof0.01to5mg/LPO
4
P,whiletheyellowmethodhasarangeof
0.1to50mg/LPO
4
P.Bothmonitorstypicallyhaveaccuracyandrepeatabilityofapproximately2
percentofreading.Theyellowmethodismorecommonduetotherelativesimplicityoftheinstrument
andreagents,butthebluemethodisrequiredforconfirmingveryloworthophosphateconcentrations
intheplanteffluent(WEFandASCE2006).
Totalphosphorusinstrumentstypicallyconvertpolyphosphateandorganicphosphorusto
phosphateandthenmeasurephosphateusingoneoftheabovementionedmethods.Becausethe
conversionstepsrequirehightemperaturesandpressures,onlinetotalphosphorusmonitorsarevery
expensiveandtypicallyonlyusedforeffluentmonitoring,ifatall.Manyplantsmeasure
orthophosphateintheeffluentasasurrogateparameter.Accurateestimatesoftotalphosphoruscan
beobtainedbycombiningitwiththeeffluentTSSmeasurements.
Neupaneetal.(2009)reportsveryrecentfindingsinastudyoforthophosphateandnitrogen
speciesanalyzersaspartofapilotstudyofaMovingBedBioreactor(MBBR)attheBluePlainsAdvanced
WWTPinWashington,DC.TheChemScananalyzer(UV6101)wasusedtomeasureorthophosphateat
sevenlocationsandcomparedtolaboratoryanalysisofgrabsamplesforatotalof6months.The
ChemScanusesUVabsorbanceforallparametersandreportsadetectionlimitof0.05mg/Lfor
orthophosphate.Neupaneetal.(2009)notedthattomaintaininstrumentaccuracy,frequentcross
checkswiththelabandrecalibrationwererequired.Weeklycheckingandreplenishingofreagentswas
alsoneeded.However,authorsreportthattheChemScanOPreadingswereveryaccurateat
concentrationsbetween0.5and1.0mg/L.TheChemScancouldnotreadorthophosphateaccuratelyat
thelowerendofitscalibrationrange.
13.4.3 NADH(activebiomass)
AnewtechnologydevelopedintheNetherlandsusesfluorescencetomeasurechangesin
intracellularnicotinamideadeninedinucleotide(NADH)ofmicroorganisms,whichcanprovide
informationonthestatusofbiologicalwastewatertreatmentprocessessuchasnitrificationand
denitrification.TheNADHsensorrequiresminimalmaintenanceandcanproviderealtimeinformation
forprocesscontrol(WeerapperumaanddeSilva2004).NADHandDOmonitoringcanbeusedto
achievesimultaneousnitrificationanddenitrificationinthesamebasin.
13.4.4 Respirometry
Respirometryinvolvesmeasurementoftheoxygenuptakerate(OUR)byabiologicaltreatment
culture.Inbenchscalerespirometryexperiments,asampleofmixedliquor,possiblyamendedwithan
organicsubstrateorammonia,isplacedinasealedvessel.Therateofoxygenconsumptionwithinthe
vesselismonitoredovertime.Alkalinityoftenneedstobeaddedtonitrifyingculturestomaintaina
neutralpH.
Onlinerespirometerscanbesetupinseveralmodesforprocesscontrol.Theyallrequirea
biomasssourcerepresentingthebiomassinthereactorreceivinginfluentwastewater.Thiscanbe
biomassfromtheprocessitself,thereturnactivatedsludgeline,orfromanofflinepilotreactor(Love
2002).Thebiomass,substrateifadded,liquidphase,andoxygenarecontainedinaflowthrough
systemorwellmixedbatchreactor.Itisimportantthatsufficientoxygenbepresentintheliquidorgas
phasetopreventoxygenlimitingconditions(Love2000).Oxygenismeasuredduringtheexperimentsto
determineoxygenuptakeratesundernormaloperatingconditions.
Onlinerespirometryhasseveralapplicationsforactivatedsludgeandnitrificationtreatment
processes.ItcanbeusedinsteadofonlineDOmeasurementstodetermineandcontrolaeration
requirementsandreduceelectricityneeds.OnestudyinChicagoshowedthatthiscontrolistechnically
feasibleusingafeedforwardcontrolstrategy(Tataetal.2000).Itcanalsobeusefulasanupsetearly
warningdeviceforthenitrificationprocess.AsexplainedinChapter4ofthismanual,nitrifyingbacteria
arevulnerabletoinhibitionfromanumberofdifferentcompounds.AspartofaWERFstudyofupset
earlywarningdevices,Love(2000)reviewedanddocumentedseveralcommercialdevicesthatmonitor
forinhibitionofnitrificationactivitiesbasedonammoniaconsumptionorratioofammoniatoBOD.
13.5 TypesofControl
Regardlessofthecommunitytheyserveandtreatmentconfiguration,allplantsexperience
changesinexternalconditions,suchasflowrateandconstituentloading,andinternalconditions,such
asgrowthofcertaintypesoforganisms.Controlsystemsforwastewatertreatmentattempttorespond
tothesechangesbymaintainingcontrolparameters(e.g.,DO)attargetvaluesbychangingmanipulated
parameters(e.g.,aerationrate).
Inthepastandstillthecaseformany(especiallysmaller)utilities,plantswereoperated
manuallywithoperatorscollectingsamplesfromvariouslocationsattheplant,bringingthembackto
thelaboratoryforanalysis(whichcouldtakeseveralhours),evaluatingtheresults,andchanging
operatingparameterstomaintaindesiredcontrolparameters.Automatedsystemsessentiallyperform
thesesametasksusingonlineanalyzers,computers,actuators,andcommunicationssystems.
Automatedcontrolcansignificantlyreduceworkloadwhileatthesametimeimprovecontrolofprocess
parametersandthus,improvetreatmentplantperformance,oftenatreducedoperatingcosts.
Thereareseveraldifferenttypesofcontrolsystems.Selectionofthemostappropriateone
dependsonmanyfactorsincludingthespecificcontrolandmanipulatedparameters.Themaintypesof
controlfeedforward,feedback,cascade,andadvancedarediscussedbelow.
13.5.1 Feedforward
Feedforwardcontroladjustsaparameterbasedonameasuredchangeinanothervariable.The
parameterisadjustedinproportiontothemeasuredvariable.Thevalueoftheadjustedparametercan
berepresentedby:
Q
a
=K*Q
m
Eq.131
WhereQ
a
istheadjustedparameter,Kisaconstant,andQ
m
isthemeasuredparameter.Feedforward
controliscommonlyusedwhenaparametercanbesetbasedonflowrate.Examplesincludechemical
additionprocessesandreturnactivatedsludgeflowrates.
13.5.2 Feedback
Feedbackcontrolisbasedonadjustingaparametertocorrectanundesirablesituation.The
adjustedparameterischangedinresponsetothemeasuredparameterdepartingfromadesiredvalue
orsetpoint.Dissolvedoxygencontrolinaeratedzonesisoftenfeedbacktype.
ThereareseveraltypesoffeedbackcontrolincludingOn/Off,proportional,integral,
proportionalintegral,proportionalderivative,andproportionalintegralderivative.Thecontroltypes
varyinhowtheadjustedparameterischangedinresponsetothedepartureofthemeasuredparameter
fromthesetpoint.
On/Off Control
On/Offcontrolisthesimplesttypeoffeedbackcontrol.Init,apieceofmachineryisturnedon
whenthemeasuredvariablefallsoutsideofasetrangeandturnedoffwhenthemeasuredvariable
returnstothatrange.ExamplesincludeturningonairblowerswhenDOlevelintheaerationbasin
dropsbelowasetlevel.Proportionalcontroladjustsaparameterinproportiontothedepartureofthe
measuredparameterfromasetpoint.Integralcontrolvariestheadjustedparameterinproportionto
theareaunderaplotofthedifferencefromtheoffsetovertime.Proportionalintegralcontrolisa
combinationofproportionalandintegralcontrol.Proportionalderivativecontroladdsaresponsethat
isproportionaltothederivativeofthedifferencebetweenthemeasuredvalueandthesetpoint.The
addedderivativecontrolmakesthesystemmuchfastertorespond,butalsomorelikelytoexperience
chatterasthecontrollersearchesforthecorrectvaluearoundthesetpoint.Thistypeofcontrolisnot
aspopular.Proportionalintegralderivativecontrolcombinesallthreefeedbackcontrolmethods.
Whilethistypeofcontrolcombinesthebenefitsofallthreetypesofcontrol,itcanbehardertotunethe
controllerbecauseofthelargernumberofvariables.
13.5.3 Feedforwardandfeedback
Feedforwardandfeedbackcontrolcombinesthetwocontrolstrategies.Thecontrollerinitially
respondstoadisturbancefromthesetpointusingafeedforwardcontrolstrategy.Theresponseis
thenfinetunedusingafeedbackcontrol.Again,whilecombiningstrengthsofthetwostrategies,this
typeofcontrolcanbedifficulttotune.
13.5.4 Cascade
Incascadecontrol,onefeedbackcontrollersetsthesetpointforasecondcontroller.This
configurationisusedwheretwocontrolloopsmayinteractwitheachother.Forexample,controlofair
controllersandcontrolofDOconcentrationsinteractandcanbeacandidateforthistypeofcontrol.
13.5.5 AdvancedControl
Advancedcontrolsystemsapplyuniquealgorithmsspecifictoagiventreatmentconfiguration
throughuseofacomputerorotherprogrammabledevices.Theyuseinputfrommanysensorsand
mathematicalmodels,equations,orconditionmatricestomanipulateequipmenttoobtainthedesired
outcome.Otherstraightforwardcontrolsystemssuchasfeedforwardorfeedbackareoftenpartofan
advancedsystem.ControlcanbebasedonmathematicalmodelssuchasASM1(seeChapter10for
additionalinformationonthemanyusesofmodelsforplantdesign,operation,andoptimization).
13.6 ControlEquipmentSCADA
SupervisoryControlandDataAcquisition(SCADA)systemsinvolveacentralcomputerthatis
linkedtovariousdevicesbymeansofacommunicationssystem.Thecentralcomputerreceivesand
sendsinformationbymeansofthecommunicationssystem,whichcanbethroughphonelinesorradio
waves.SCADAsystemscanbeusedforcontinuousprocesscontrol,dataacquisition,supervisory
control,alarming,historicaldatacollection,asaninformationdatabase,andtoprovidesecurityfor
storedinformation.
ASCADAsystemwillconstantlymonitorandmaybeusedtocontrolthewastewaterprocess.
Thecentralservercancommunicatewithindividualsensorsandmakecontroldecisionsbasedon
processlogiccontainedintheserver.Communicationwithoperatorconsolesoccursthrougheither
proprietaryprotocols,TCP/IPprotocols,orthroughOPCprotocols.ProgramlogicshouldmeetIEC
611313standards.
TheSCADAsystemwillalsomonitorallsensorsthroughouttheplant.Thedataarecollected
andcanthenbeusedforotherfunctionssuchascontrol,displayforoperators,orhistoricalstorage.
SupervisorycontrolisoneoftheessentialfeaturesofaSCADAsystem.Itallowsoperatorsto
makechangestotheautomaticcontroloftheplantbychangingsetpointsandstartingandstopping
machinery.TheSCADAsystemwillalsoallowtheoperatortomonitorthevariousprocessesfroma
centralpoint.
SCADAsystemsalsoperformtheimportantfunctionofnotificationofproblemsthrougha
hierarchyofalarms.TheSCADAsystemwillrecordalarmconditions,prioritizealarms,notifyoperators
throughaudibleandvisiblealarms,andallowalarmacknowledgement.SCADAsystemscanalsobeset
tonotifyoffsitepersonnelthroughphonemessagesortextmessages.
SCADAsystemscanarchivealldatacollectedsuchasprocessvariables,alarmlogs,and
operatingconditions.Thesedatacanbedisplayedatanytimefortroubleshootingandanalysisofthe
plant.DatacanbeanalyzedusingfunctionsontheSCADAcomputerandcanalsobeusedasinputsfor
wastewatermodelsandotheranalytictools.TheSCADAsystemstoresallinformationinacentral
databasewhereitcanbeaccessedbyallplantpersonnelforvariouspurposesincludingpreparing
reports,troubleshooting,andmonitoringtheplant.
SecurityisanessentialcomponentofaSCADAsystem.Thesecurityissetuptoprevent
unauthorizeduseandalsotospecifywhatfunctioneachauthorizedusercanperformdependingonthat
personsresponsibilities.

13.7 References
Akin,B.S.andA.Ugurlu.2005.MonitoringandControlofBiologicalNutrientRemovalinaSequencing
BatchReactor.ProcessBiochemistry.40(8):28732888.
Wastewater,21stEdition.Eds.A.D.Eaton,L.S.Clesceri,E.W.Rice,A.E.Greenberg,andM.H.Franson.
Baeza,J.A.,D.Gabriel,andJ.Lafuente.2004.EffectofInternalRecycleontheNitrogenRemoval
EfficiencyofanAnaerobic/Anoxic/Oxic(A2O)WastewaterTreatmentPlant.ProcessBiochemistry.
39(11):16151624.
Baeza,J.A.,E.C.Ferreira,andJ.Lafuente.2003.KnowledgeBasedSupervisionandControlofWastewater
TreatmentPlantRealTimeImplementation.WaterScienceandTechnology.14(12):129137.
Barnard,J.L.,A.Shaw,J.B.Watts.2003.OptimizedControlofNitrifyingSuspendedGrowthSystems
UsingRespirometry.ProceedingsoftheOzwaterConventionandExhibition,AWA20thConvention,
Perth,Australia.Sydney:AustralianWaterAssociation.
Ekster,A.andI.RodrguezRoda.2003.TheEffectofSludgeAgeontheOperationCostofActivated
SludgeSystem.PresentedatWEFTEC2003.
Hill,R.D.,R.C.Manross,E.V.Davidson,T.M.Palmer,M.C.Ross,S.G.Nutt.2002.SensingandControl
Systems:AReviewofMunicipalandIndustrialExperiences.WERFReport99WWF4.WERF.
Alexandria,VA.
Isaacs,S.,M.Henze,andM.Kummel.1995.AnAdaptiveAlgorithmforExternalCarbonAdditiontoan
AlternatingActivatedSludgeProcessforNutrientRemovalfromWastewater.ChemicalEngineering
Science.50(4):617629.
Kestel,S.,G.J.Duffy,M.Gray,T.Stahl,andG.Lee.2009.DOControlBasedonOnlineAmmonia
Measurement.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.Washington,DC.WEF.
Lara,J.M.V.andB.E.A.Milani.2005.ControlofNitrateFlowinPrenitrificationSystemsUsingLongRange
IdentificationforPredictiveControl.DecisionandControl.2005EuropeanConference.
Love,N.G.2000.AreviewandNeedsSurveyofUpsetEarlyWarningDevices.WERFReport99WWF2.
WERF.Alexandria,VA
Liu,W.,G.Lee,andJ.Goodley.2003.UsingOnLineAmmoniaandNitrateInstrumentstoControl
ModifiedLudzackEttinger(MLE)Process.PresentedatWEFTEC2003.
Ma,Y.,Y.Peng,andS.Wang.2005.NewAutomaticControlStrategyforSludgeRecyclingandWastage
fortheOptimumOperationofPredenitrificationProcesses.JournalofChemicalTechnologyand
Biotechnology.81(1):4147.

Manning,A.2008.Automation,InstrumentationGenerations2,3andBeyond:LetsGetitRightThis
Time.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Meyer,J.2008.FiestaVillageAdvancedWastewaterTreatmentPlant:ManagersPerspectiveon
FollowingSeparateStageDenitrificationwithFixedFilmSystemsforLowNitrogen.Presentedat
WEF/WERF:DemonstratedProcessesforLimitofTechnologyNutrientRemoval:AchievableLimitsand
StatisticalReliability.October18,2008.Chicago,IL.
Neupane,D.,M.Peric,B.Stinson,M.Laquidara,S.Kharkar,N.Passarelli,S.Murthy,W.Bailey,R.
DerMinassian,andM.Sultan.2009.ComparativeStudyofOnlineInstrumentsforMonitoringLow
NutrientConcentrations.PresentedatNutrientRemoval2009.Washington,DC.WEF.
Palmer,T.2007.On-Line Nitrogen Monitoring and Control Strategies. Report: 03CTS8.Alexandria,VA:

WERF.
Puznavan,N.,S.Zeghel,andE.Reddet.1998.SimpleControlStrategiesofMethanolDosingforPost
denitrification.WaterScienceandTechnology.38(3):291297.
Samuelesson,P.,Carlsson,B.2001.ControlofAerationVolumeinanActivatedSludgeforNutrient
Removal.ProceedingsofthefirstIWAConferenceonInstrumentation,ControlandAutomation.
Malmo,Sweden,June37.pg.429437
Tata,P.,K.Patel,S.Soszynski,C.LueHing,K.Carns,andD.Perkins.PotentialfortheUseofOnline
RespirometryfortheControlofAeration.PresentedatWEFTEC2000.
Weerapperuma,D.andV.deSilva.2004.OnlineAnalyzerApplicationsforBNRControl.Presentedat
WEFTEC2004.
WEF,2007.OperationofMunicipalWastewaterTreatmentPlantsMOP11,6
th
Ed.WaterEnvironment
Federation.Alexandria,VA.WEFPress.
WEFPress.
Reston,Va.
Yuan,Z.,H.Bogaert,P.Vanrolleghem,C.Thoeye,G.Vansteenkiste,andW.Verstaete.1997.Journal
EnvironmentalEngineering.123(11):10801086.
Yuan,Z.andJ.Keller.2003.IntegratedControlofNitrateRecirculationandExternalCarbonAdditionina
PredenitrificationSystem.WaterScienceandTechnology.48(1112):345354.
14. SustainableNutrientRecoveryandReuse
14.1 Introduction
Sustainablenutrientrecoveryandreuseisgainingnationalandinternationalattentionas
wastewaterutilitieslookforwaystodecreaseenergycostsandgreenhousegasemissions,utilizeexcess
capacity,generatenewrevenue,andaddressevermorestringentregulatoryrequirements.This
evolutioninthinkingismovingwastewatertreatmenttoenhancedenergyefficiencyandchangingthe
roleofwastewatertreatmentfacilitiesfromwastegeneratorstoresourceproviders.
IntheUnitedStatesandabroad,researchoninnovativesustainablenutrientrecoverysystems
ischangingthewayliquidandsolidwasteisbeingtreatedandreused.Thischapterwilldescribesome
oftheonsiteandcentralizedtechnologiesandapproachescurrentlybeinginvestigatedand
implemented.
14.2 SeparatingandTreatingWasteOnSite
AnumberofEuropeancountriesincludingSwitzerland,Sweden,andtheNetherlandsare
conductingresearchoninnovativesustainablenutrientrecoverysystems.Theconceptbehindthese
newtechnologiesistoseparatetoiletwastebeforeitleavesthehomeorbuildingandmixeswiththe
largerwastestreamtobecarriedtowastewatertreatmentplants(WWTPs).Recentstudieshaveshown
thatabout80percentofthenitrogenand50percentofthephosphorusinwastewaterarederivedfrom
urine,eventhoughurinemakesuponly1percentofthevolumeofwastewater(LarsenandLeinert
2007).Separatingtheurinefromwastewatercouldoffervariousadvantages:WWTPscouldbebuilton
asmallerscale,waterbodieswouldbebetterprotectedfromnitrogenandphosphoruspollution,
nutrientscouldberecycledforagriculturaluse,andvariousconstituentsofconcernincludinghormones
andpharmaceuticalcompoundsfoundinurinecouldberemovedwithoutbeingmixedwithwastewater
andreleasedtotheenvironment.AmajorbenefitwouldbereducedenergyconsumptionatWWTPsas
aresultofreducedtreatmentrequirementsfornitrogen.Also,separating50to60percentofurine
couldreduceinplantnitrogengasdischargesandresultinfewerimpuritiesinmethanecapturedfrom
sludgedigestion.
OrganizationssuchastheSwissFederalInstituteofAquaticScienceandTechnology(EAWAG)
arecurrentlyexperimentingwiththedevelopmentandapplicationofNoMixtechnologytoseparate
urinefromsolidwasteatthetoiletbowl.Whilesimilarinsizeandshapetocurrenttoilets,thisnew
technologyhastwowastepipesasmallfrontonethatcollectsanddivertsurineintoastoragetank,
andalargerrearwastepipethatoperateslikeastandardtoilet.Thefirstofthesetoiletswereinstalled
intwoecovillagesinSwedenin1994andsincethenhavespreadtootherlocationsthroughoutthe
countryandtoDenmark,theNetherlands,andSwitzerland.TheconceptisnowtakingholdinAustria
Chapter14covers:
14.1 Introduction
14.2 SeparatingandTreatingWasteOnSite
14.3 UsingWastewaterTreatmentByproducts
14.4 References
andGermany.Whiletheurine,orurevit,canbesprayapplieddirectlyontoagriculturalfields,a
companycalledGrontmijintheNetherlandstransportsstoredurinetoaspecialtreatmentplantwhere
thephosphateisprecipitatedoutasstruvite(magnesiumammoniumphosphate)andusedasa
fertilizer.
EAWAGisalsoexperimentingwithapilotdecentralizedbasementsewageplantinwhich
domesticwastewateristreatedinamembranebioreactor(MBR)soitcanbereusedforflushingthe
toiletsorwateringthegardenandthesludgeiscomposted.Whilestillexperimental,someofthese
technologiesmayhavepracticalfutureapplicationsifwidelyapplicablelowcostsolutionscanbefound
forurinetransport,orstableandcosteffectivetechnologiescanbedevelopedfordecentralized
treatment.Whilestudiesofconsumerattitudesandacceptanceappeartobepositive,technological
improvementsarestillneededtopreventclogginginpipes,toidentifybesttreatmentoptionsthatcan
beappliedinpractice,andtoidentifyhowandwheretoconverturinetofertilizer.
14.3 UsingWastewaterTreatmentByproducts
Sustainabilityconcernsarealsodrivingthewastewatertreatmentindustrytolookatliquidsand
sludgeasrenewableresources.Historically,agriculturalusehasbeenthetraditionalapproachfor
disposalofmunicipalsludgeduetoitshighnutrientcontentforfertilizingcropsanditslowcost.As
scientificadvancesdetectsmallerandsmallerquantitiesofchemicals,heavymetals,pathogenic
microorganisms,pharmaceuticals,andpersonalcareproducts,concernsarebeingraisedabout
continuingthispractice.
Researchersareexploringalternativeapproachestotreatingandusingthevaluableproducts
generatedfromsewagetreatmentbyproductssuchasenergyextractedfromanaerobicdigestion,
constructionmaterialssuchascementandbricks,andnutrientssuchasphosphorusthatcanbe
extractedfromsludgeandusedasfertilizer.Liquidsgeneratedthroughthetreatmentprocessarealso
beingharvestedfornutrientsforfertilizersandreusedasnonpotablesourcesofwaterforagriculture,
landscapeirrigation,andindirectpotablereusesuchasaquiferstorageandrecovery.Ithasalsobeen
demonstratedthatstruvitewillforminanaerobicdigesterstreatingbiologicalphosphorusremoval
(BPR)sludgesandwillremaininthesludgeratherthansubsequentlyprecipitateintheoutflowpipes.
Thesludgecanthenbesterilizedbyfurtherprocessingsuchascomposting.Additionally,several
processeshavebeendevelopedfortheprecipitationofstruvitefromhighlyconcentratedwastestreams
suchasdigestersupernatantsanddewateringfiltrates.Severaldifferentprocesseshavebeenproposed
thatrelyonprecipitationofthephosphorusaseitherstruviteorcalciumphosphate.Scope(2004)
reportedthatatthetime,workwasunderwayinItaly,Germany,theNetherlands,andCanada.
InFebruary2008,thenonprofitGlobalWaterResearchCoalition,aninternationalwater
researchallianceformedby12worldleadingresearchorganizations,releasedareportincollaboration
withUSEPAandtheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)titled,StateofScienceReport:
EnergyandResourceRecoveryfromSludge(KalogoandMonteith2008).Thereportfocuseson:
Theinternationalsituationofenergyandresourcerecoveryfromsludge.
Howtheuseofdifferentsludgetreatmentprocessesaffectsthepossibilityofrecovering
energyand/ormaterialsfromtheresidualsludge.
Theinfluenceofmarketandregulatorydriversonthefateofthesludgeendproduct.
Thefeasibilityofenergyandresourcerecoveryfromsludge.
Thesocial,economic,andenvironmentalperformance(triplebottomlineorTBL
assessment)ofcurrentalternativetechnologies.
Inthereport,energyrecoverytechnologiesareclassifiedintothefollowingprocesses:sludge
tobiogas,sludgetosyngas,sludgetooil,andsludgetoliquid.Thetechnologiesavailableforresource
recoverydiscussedinthereportincludethosetorecoverphosphorus,buildingmaterials,nitrogen,and
volatileacids.Thereport,whichcoversbothestablishedandemergingtechnologies,formsthebasisof
thecoalitionsstrategicresearchplanonenergyandrecoveryfromsludge.Asatechnicalresource,it
providesavaluableoverviewofsludgedisposalpracticesinvariouscountriessuchastheUnitedStates,
theNetherlands,theUnitedKingdom,Germany,Sweden,Japan,andChina,aswellasanumberof
treatmentprocessesforresourcerecovery.
Examplesoftheseprocessesaredescribedbelow.
14.3.1 Durham,OR,AdvancedWastewaterTreatmentFacility
OperatedbyCleanWaterServices,theDurhamAdvancedWastewaterTreatmentFacilityin
Tigard,OR,hasincorporatedanewtechnologyfromOstaraNutrientRecoveryTechnologies,Inc.to
extractphosphorusandothernutrientsfromwastewaterandrecyclethemintoanenvironmentallysafe
commercialfertilizercalledCrystalGreen.Ratherthanreprocessingthesludgeliquidsbackthrough
thewastewatersystem,theOstaraproprietaryfluidizedbedreactorusesmagnesiumtorecover
ammoniaandphosphateandturnsthemintoafertilizerpellet.Byextractingthesenutrients,the
concretelikescaleofpuremineralcalledstruvite(magnesiumammoniumphosphate)nolongerclogs
thefacilityspipes,valves,andotherequipment,therebyincreasingplantcapacityandreducing
maintenancecosts,whilecreatingarevenuegeneratingbyproduct.Struviteisaveryvaluableslow
releasefertilizer.FullscaleplantoperationbeganinMay,2009.Itisprojectedthatmorethan90
percentofthephosphorusinthereturnstreamswillberemovedandmorethan500tonsofstruvite
fertilizerwillbeproducedannuallyandsoldtocommercialenterprises.CleanWaterServicesexpects
thattheinitialinvestmentof$2.5millionwillbepaidbackwithinfiveyears.Formoreinformation,see
theCleanWaterServiceswebsiteat
http://www.cleanwaterservices.org/AboutUs/WastewaterAndStormwater/Ostara.aspx
Inadditiontophosphorusrecovery,theOstaraprocess:
Reducespollution
Reduceschemicaluse
Removesabout20percentofthenitrogeninthereturnstreams
Generatesrevenuefromthesaleofthefertilizer
Increasesthereliabilityandcapacityofthewastewaterfacility
Reducesoperationandmaintenancecosts
Reducesgreenhousegasemissionsthroughreducedenergyuse
Potentiallygeneratescarboncredits
Theprocessdoesnothaveasignificantimpactonhowwastewateristreated.Moreover,itdoesnot
requirefurtherchemicalphosphorusprecipitationfromthereturnstreamwhileitremovessomeofthe
ammoniathatwillotherwiseneedtobeoxidizedanddenitrifiedinthemainstream.Thistechnologyis
particularlysuitedforWWTPsthatemploybiologicalphosphorusremovalandanaerobicsludge
digestion.
14.3.2 EastBayMunicipalUtilityDistrict,CA
EastBayMunicipalUtilityDistrict(EBMUD)hasapplieditsbiosolidstoagriculturallandsfor
decades,returningnutrientstothesoil.Biosolidsarerichinnutrientssuchasnitrogenandphosphorus,
andthebenefitsoflandapplicationarewellknown.However,manyagriculturalcommunitiesare
adoptingmorestringentlandapplicationstandardsbecauseofconcernsregardingpathogens.EBMUD
hasconductedresearchtodevelopeconomicalalternativesfortheproductionofClassA(pathogen
free)biosolids,includingthermophilicanaerobicdigestion.EBMUDholdsapatentforathermophilic
anaerobicdigestionprocess.In2005,EBMUDdevelopedanenvironmentalmanagementsystem(EMS)
toidentifycostandenvironmentalsavings,ensureregulatorycompliance,andincreasepublic
awarenessandinvolvementinthebiosolidsprogram.AspartofthisprogramEBMUDundergoesthird
partyaudits.Forresults,seeEBMUDswebsiteathttp://www.ebmud.com/ourwater/wastewater
treatment/wastewatertreatmentprograms/environmentalmanagementsystem.
EBMUDalsocapturesandreusesbiogasfromitsanaerobicdigesters.Methanefromthebiogas
isusedtofuela6megawattonsitepowerplant.Toincreasemethaneproduction,EBMUD
implementedatruckedwasteprogramwherebytheyacceptliquidandsolidwastestreamsfrom
outsidetheirserviceareaandprocessitattheplanttoincreasemethaneproduction.Wallisetal.
(2008)reportedadoublingofenergyproductionoverthepastsixyears.EBMUDplanstoaddtwo4.5
megawattturbinesthatwillallowthemtogenerate100percentoftheirenergyneedsonsitebytheend
of2010.FormoreinformationonEBMUDssustainabilityprograms,see
http://www.ebmud.com/environment/sustainability.
14.4 References
Kalogo,Y.,andH.Monteith.2008.StateofScienceReport:EnergyandResourceRecoveryfromSludge.
PreparedforGlobalWaterResearchCoalition,byWERF,STOWA,andUKWaterIndustryResearch
Limited.
Larsen,T.A.,andJ.Leinert,Eds.2007.NovaquatisFinalReport.NoMixANewApproachtoUrban
WaterManagement.Switzerland:EAWAG,Novaquatis.
SCOPE.2004.NewsletterNo.57.July.CentreEuropendEtudessurlesPolyphosphates.Brussels,
Belgium.Availableonline:http://www.ceep
phosphates.org/Files/Newsletter/Scope%20Newsletter%2057%20Struvite%20conference.pdf
Wallis,M.,M.Ambrose,andC.Chan.2008.ClimateChange:ChartingaWaterCourseinanUncertain
Future.JournalAWWA100:6,June2008.
Water&WastewaterNews.2008.OregonPlantRecyclesNutrientsintoFertilizer.L.K.Williams,Ed.
October2,2008.Availableonline:http://www.wwnonline.com/print.aspx?aid=68074.
AppendixA.
RecommendationsforMethanolSafety
NutrientControlDesignManual A2 August2010
AppendixA.RecommendationsforMethanolSafety
Methanol(CH
3
OH)isarelativelysimplecompoundwithasinglecarbonbond.Clearand
colorlessatroomtemperature,itisfullysolubleinwaterandhasafaintlysweetpungentodor.Itis
typicallymadefromnaturalgas,althoughitcanbegeneratedusingrenewablematerialssuchaswood.
AsnotedinChapter4,methanolisthemostcommonexternalcarbonsourcefordenitrification
becauseofitshistoricallylowcostandrelativelylowcellyield.Theuseofmethanol,however,poses
severalsafetyandhealthrisks:
RiskofFire.Methanolishighlyflammable,withaflashpointof12
o
C(54
o
F).Evenmixtures
containingaslittleas25percentofmethanolbyweightareflammable.Becausemethanolis
heavierthanair,vaporscantraveltoasourceofignitionandflashback.Vaporscanalso
accumulateinconfinedspacesandmayexplodeifignited.Containersofmethanolsolutioncan
ruptureifexposedtofireorexcessiveheatforalongduration.Methanolburnswithaclearblue
flame.Duringdaylighthours,methanolfiresmaynotbevisibletothenakedeye.TheU.S.
DepartmentofTransportation(DOT)ranksmethanolandsolutionsofmethanolwithstrengths
ofgreaterthan25%asClass3FlammableLiquids,meaningthattheycouldigniteunderalmost
allambientconditions.
HealthRisks:Methanolisirritatingtotheeyes,skin,andrespiratorytrackandisveryharmfulif
swallowedorabsorbedthroughtheskin.Swallowingaslittleas50millilitersofmethanol(1/4
ofacup)canbefatal.Inhalationisthemostcommonformofexposureandcanleadto
respiratoryproblems.Methanolcanalsoaffectthenervoussystemandcausealossof
consciousness.Repeatedexposurestolowconcentrationsmayaccumulateinthebodyand
causeillness.Foradditionalinformationonthehealtheffectsofmethanol,seeinformation
fromEPAsIntegratedRiskInformationSystem(IRIS)at
http://www.epa.gov/iris/subst/0305.htm.
Thisappendixcontainsrecommendationsformethanolhandling.Literaturereviewedforthe
appendixincludedareportbytheU.S.ChemicalSafetyandHazardInvestigationBoardontheBethune
PointWastewaterTreatmentPlantaccident,aWaterEnvironmentFederation(WEF)webcastentitled,
MethanolSafety:UnderstandingandManagingRisks,andproceedingsfromWEFTEC2008.When
designingandoperatingamethanolfeedsystem,plantsshouldalwaysfollowguidelinesinthe
manufacturersMaterialSafetyDataSheet(MSDS).Agoodclearinghouseofinformationonmethanol
isprovidedonlinebytheMethanolInstitute,http://www.methanol.org/.Wastewaterutilitiesshould
alsoalwaysfollowOccupationalSafety&HealthAdministration(OSHA)regulationsandNationalFire
ProtectionAssociation(NFPA)codesandstandards.
A.1 PreventativeMeasures
Itisimperativetokeepopenflames,sparks,andoxidantsawayfrommethanol.Thebestwayto
preventfireistoeliminatethesourceofignition.Operatorsandmaintenancepersonnelshouldalways
usehandtoolsthatdonotspark.
Methanolstorageandhandlingareasshouldbeequippedwiththefollowing:
Localexhaust
Safetyshowerandeyewashstation
Smokeand/orheatdetectors
Firesuppressionsystem(extinguishingmaterialsincludingdrychemicalpowder,alcohol
resistantfoam,andwater)
Supplyofabsorbent,noncombustiblematerialsineventofsmallspill
Controlmeasurestolimitspreadofspillorfire(i.e.,secondarycontainment)
Wastewaterutilitiesshouldconsidermonitoringformethanolvaporsusingdetectortubes,electronic
instruments,absorbenttubes,orbiologicalmonitoring(Dolan2007).
Methanolisnoncorrosivetomostmetals,theexceptionsbeinglead,magnesium,andplatinum.
Mildsteeliscommonlyusedformethanolstorage.Vaporcontrolsincludeinternalorexternalfloating
roofs,inertgasblanketing(suchasdrynitrogen),andpressurevacuumrelieftocontroltankpressures
(Methanex2006).Flamearresterscanbeattachedtoventpipestoallowpassageofmethanolvapors
butpreventflamefrommovingintothepipebytransferringheattometalwiresorplates.Flame
arrestersmaybecomeineffectiveiftheycontainanyblockagesorcorrosion.
Whendesigningandconstructinganewmethanolfeedsystem,considerinvolvinglocalfire
officialsintheprocess.AttheStamfordWaterPollutionControlAuthority(WPCA),theFireMarshall
waspresentatthestartupofthemethanolsystemandwitnessedtheinitialfoamfiresuppression
systemtest.TheFireMarshallsofficeperiodicallyinspectsthefacilityandalarm,sprinkler,andfoam
suppressionsystems(Brown2007).
Operationsmanualsshouldspecifyregularinspectionsandmaintenanceofmethanolhandling
equipment.Operatorsshouldundergoregulartrainingonmethanolhandlingandsafety.
A.2 AddressingaSpill
Themethodforcleaningupamethanolspilldependsonitssize.Forsmallspills(generallyless
thanthecontentsofa55gallondrum),methanolcanbeabsorbedwithearth,sand,orothernon
combustiblematerial.Materialshouldbestoredinasealedcontaineranddisposedofatafacility
licensedtohandlehazardouswaste.Afinewatersprayorvaporsuppressingfoamcanbeusedto
reducevapor.Personnelshouldwearprotectivegloves,fireretardantclothing(e.g.,rubber),andsafety
gogglesorotherformofeyeprotection.
Forlargerspills,itisimportanttofollowlocalemergencyprotocolsandtreatthespillasa
hazardoussituation.Wastewaterutilitypersonnelshouldeliminateignitionsources,securetheareaup
toa500meterradius,restrictaccess,movepersonnelupwind,anddecontaminatepersonneland
equipment.Allpersonnelallowedentryshouldwearafullchemicalsuit,compressedairbreathing
apparatus(CABA),rubberboots,andgloves.Althoughmethanolbiodegradesquicklyinsoilandwater,
measuresshouldbetakentopreventmethanolfromenteringwaterways,sewers,basements,or
confinedareas.
Intheeventofafire,utilitypersonnelshouldfollowwrittenemergencyresponseprocedures
andshouldimmediatelynotifylocalauthoritiesincludingthefiredepartmentandEmergency
ManagementServices(EMS)personnel.Powderextinguisher,alcoholresistantfoam,carbondioxide,
andlargeamountsofwatercanbeusedtosuppressthefireintheeventofanemergency.Watercan
belesseffectivethanothermethods;however,itmaybeusefulindilutingmethanoltoanon
flammablelevel.Avoidusingstraightstreamsofwatertopreventspreadofcontamination.Drums
shouldbekeptcoolbysprayingthemwithwatertopreventexplosion.
A.3 References
Brown,J.A.2007.MethanolStorageandDeliverySystem.WERFExternalCarbonWorkshop.Stamford
WPCA.December12,2007.Washington,DC.
deBarbadillo,C.,J.Barnard,S.Tarallo,andM.Steichen.2008a.GotCarbon?:WidespreadBiological
NutrientRemovalisIncreasingtheDemandforSupplementalSources.WaterEnvironment&
deBarbadillo,C.,P.Miller,S.Ledwell.2008b.AComparisonofOperatingIssuesandDosing
RequirementsforAlternativeCarbonSourcesinDenitrificationFilters.InProceedingsofWEFTEC
Dolan,G.2007.MethanolSafeHandling.WERFCarbonSourcesSeminar.MethanolInstitute.
December12,2007.Washington,DC.
EDIE.MethanolStorageandDosingforDenitrification.Gee&CompanyProductInformation.
EnvironmentalDataInteractiveExchange.Surrey,England:FavershamHouseGroup.AccessedJuly
24,2008.Availableonline:http://www.edie.net/products/view_entry.asp?id=2401
IPCS.2004.MethanolDataSheet:0057.InternationalProgrammeonChemicalSafety.Available
online:
http://www.ilo.org/public/english/protection/safework/cis/products/icsc/dtasht/_icsc00/icsc0057.ht
m
MethanexCorporation.2006.TechnicalInformation&SafeHandlingGuideforMethanol,Version3.0.
Vancouver,BritishColumbia,Canada:Methanex.
MethanexCorporation.MethanolSafeHandlingandStorage,DistributedGenerationCodeWorkshop.
Vancouver,BritishColumbia,Canada:Methanex.
MethanolInstitute.MethanolEmergencyResponseFactsheet.Arlington,VA:MethanolInstitute.
MethanolInstitute.MethanolHealthEffectsFactsheet.Arlington,VA:MethanolInstitute.
MethanolInstitute.2005.MethanolandWastewaterDenitrification.Arlington,VA:Methanol
Institute.
MethanolInstitute.WastewaterTreatmentwithMethanolDenitrification.Arlington,VA:Methanol
Institute.
NPI.2007.Methanol:Rank24of90Substances.AustralianGovernment.Departmentofthe
EnvironmentandWaterResources.NationalPollutantInventory.LastupdatedOctober26,2007.
Availableonline:http://www.npi.gov.au/database/substanceinfo/profiles/54.html
OnnisHayden,A.andA.Z.Gu.2008.ComparisonsofOrganicSourcesforDenitrification:
Biodegradability,DenitrificationRates,KineticConstantsandPracticalImplicationforTheir
ApplicationsinWWTPs.InProceedingsofWEFTEC2008.Alexandria,VA:WEF.
TerraNitrogenCorporation.2001.MaterialSafetyDataSheet:Methanol.MSDSNumber2016.Sioux
City,Iowa:Terra.
U.S.ChemicalSafetyandHazardInvestigationBoard.2003.PublicBoardMeeting.March6,Houston,
Texas.
U.S.ChemicalSafetyandHazardInvestigationBoard.2007.InvestigationReport:MethanolTank
ExplosionandFire,BethunePointWastewaterTreatmentPlant,CityofDaytonaBeach,FL,January11,
2006.Report200603IFL.
WEF.2008.MethanolSafety:UnderstandingandManagingRisks.WebcastorganizedbytheWEF
Safety,Security,andOccupationalHealthCommittee(SSoHC)withtheWEFMunicipalWastewater
DesignCommittee,theMethanolInstitute,andtheChemicalSafetyBoard.23July2008.

AppendixB.
OrganicCompoundsandInhibitoryConcentrations
toNitrification

NutrientControlDesignManual B2 August2010
AppendixB.OrganicCompoundsandInhibitoryConcentrationstoNitrification

OrganicCompound InhibitoryConcentration(mg/L)
Acetone 2000
Allylalcohol 19.5
Allylchloride 180
Allyl 1.9
Allylthiourea 1.2
AM(2amino4 50
Aminoacids 11000
Aminoethanol 12.2
Aminoguanidine 74.0
2Aminophenol 0.27
4Aminophinol 0.07
Aminopropiophen 43
Aminotriazole 70.0
Ammonium 1000
Aniline 7.7
1Arginine 1.7
Benzene 13.00
Benzidine 50.0
Benzocaine 100
Benzothiazzole 38.0
Benzylamine 100
Benzyldimethyldod 2.0
Benzylthiuronium 40.0
2.2'Bipyridine 10.0
BisphenolA 100
Bromodichloropro 84.0
2Bromophenol 0.35
4Bromophenol 0.83
nButanol 8200
Cadmium 14.3
Carbamate 2

Carbondisulphide 35.0
Chlorine 1
Chlorobenzene 0.71,500
Chloroform 18.0
2Chloronaphthol 14.3
2Chlorophenol 2.70
3Chlorophenol 0.20
4Chlorophenol 0.73
5Chloro1 0.59
2Chloro6 11.0
mCresol 01.100
oCresol 11.4
pCresol 12.8
Cyanide 16.5
Cyclohexylamine 0.500
Diallylether 100
1,2Dibromoethane 50.0
Dibromethane 60
1,2 100
1,1Dichloroethane 0.91
2,4Dichloroethane 0.79
1,5 13.00
2,3Dichlorophenol 0.42
1,3 0.67
1,3 0.48
Dicyandiamide 250
Dicyclohexylcarbod 10.0
Diethyl 0.1
Diguanide 50.0
Dimethylgloxime 140

Dimethylhydrazine 19.2
Dimethylp 19.0
Dimethylp 30
2,4Dinitrophenol 37.0
Diphenylthiocarbaz 7.5
Dithiooxamide 1
Dodecylamine <1
Erythromycin 50.0
Ethanol 2400
Ethanolamine 100
Ethylacetate 18
Ethylenediamine 100
Ethylurethane 1000
Ethylxanthate 10
Flavonoids 0.01
Guanidine 4.7
Hexamethylene 85
Histidine 5
Hydrazine 58.0
Hydrazinesulphate 200
Hydrogensulfide 50
8Hydroxyquiniline 1
Lauryl 118
1Lysine 4.0
Mercaptobenzothi 3
Methanol 160
Methionine 9.0
nMethylaniline <1
Methylhydrazine 12.3
Methyl 0.800
Methylmercaptan 300
Methylpyridines 100
2Methylpyridine 100

4Methylpyridine 100
Methylthiourea 0.455
Methylthiuronium 1
Methylamine 100
Methyleneblue 30
Monethanolamine >200
Nserve 10
Napthylethylenedi 23
Ninhydrin 10.0
pNitroaniline 10.0
p 50.0
Nitrobenzene 50.0
4Nitrophenol 2.60
2Nitrophenol 11.00
2Nitrophenol 50.0
Nitrourea 1.0
Panthothenicacid 50
Pentachloroethane 7.90
Perchloroethylene 5.6
Phenolics 100
Phenolicacids 0.01
pPhenylazoaniline 100
Potassium 800
Potassiumchlorate 2500
Potassium 6.0
Potassium 300
nPropanol 20.0
Purines 50
Pyridine 10.0
Primidines 50
Pyruvate 400
Resurcinol 7.80
Skatole 7.0

Sodiumazide 23.0
Sodiumazide 20
Sodiumarsenite 2000
Sodiumchloride 35000
Sodiumcyanate 100
Sodiumcyanide 1
Sodiumdimethyl 13.6
Sodiummethyl 0.90
Sodiumpluoride 1218
Sodium 1
ST(sulfathiazole) 50
Strychnine 100
Sulphides 5.0
Tannin 0.01
Tetrabromobisphen 100
1,2,3,4 20.00
1,2,4,5 9.80
1,1,1,2 8.70
1,1,2,2 1.40
12,3,5,6 1.30
Tetramethylammon 2200
Tetramethyl 5
Thiamine 0.530
Thioacetamide 500
Thiocyanates 0.180
Thiosemicarbazide 0.760
Thiourea 1
Thiourea 3.6
1Threonine 5
Threonine 50.0
2,4,6 7.70
2,4,6 50
2,4,6 2.5

2,2,2 2.00
1,1,2 1.90
Trichloroethylene 0.81
Trichlorophenol 100
2,3,5 3.90
2,3,6 0.42
2,4,6 7.90
Triethylamine 100
Trimethylamine 118
2,4,6 30.0
1Valine 1.8
Vitaminsriboflavin, 50
Source:ReprintedwithpermissionfromBiologicalNutrientRemovalOperationinWastewaterTreatmentPlants,Copyright
2005,WaterEnvironmentFederationAlexandria,VA,www.wef.org.FromBlumandSpeece,1991;ChristensenandHarremos,
1977;HockenburyandGrady,1977;Painter,1970;Payne,1973;Richardson,1985;SharmaandAhlert,1977.


Appendix C.

Mathematical Models for Wastewater Treatment
NutrientControlDesignManual C2 August2010
AppendixC.MathematicalModelsforWastewaterTreatment
Modelsaresetsofequationswhichdescribeaphysicalsystem.Wastewatermodelinghas
advancedfromarudimentaryunderstandingoftheactivatedsludgeprocesstocomplexsystemsof
equationsrepresentingalltheprocessesoccurringinawastewaterplant.FigureC1showsabrief
outlineofthedevelopmentofmodelingofactivatedsludgeprocesses.Activatedsludgemodelingfirst
begantofindwidespreaduseinthewastewaterindustryaftertheInternationalWaterAssociation
(IWA)producedthefirstActivatedSludgeModel(ASM1)in1986.Sincethenmanyenhancementshave
beenaddedtoASM1resultinginseveralimprovedversionsofthebasicASMmodels.Severalother
modelshavealsobeendevelopedtoaddressspecificprocesseswithintheactivatedsludgeprocessas
wellasmodelsforfixedfilmprocessesandsettling.Powerfulsimulationpackageshavealsobeen
developed,capableoflinkingseveralmodelsrepresentingeachprocessintheplantfromprimary
settlingthroughtheactivatedsludgeprocesstosecondaryclarificationandsludgedigestion.
FigureC1TheDevelopmentofActivatedSludgeModels.
Source:Johnson,2009,slide6.ReprintedwithpermissionfromtheDistanceLearningWebcastSeries,February25,2009,Copyright2009,WaterEnvironmentFederation,
Alexandria,VA,www.wef.org.
Modelscanbeeitherblackboxmodelsorwhiteboxmodels.Blackboxmodelsfitasetof
experimentaldatatoanempiricalequation.Whiteboxmodelsarebasedonactualknowledgeofthe
processesandtheirdescriptioninmathematicalterms.Althoughsomeworkhasbeendoneusingblack
boxmodelsinwastewater,mostcommonlyusedmodelsfordesignarewhiteboxmodels.This
appendixwillfocusonthosewhiteboxmodelscommonlyusedfordesignofwastewaternutrient
removal.
Therearemanyexcellentreferencesonmathematicalmodelingofwastewatertreatment
plants.Gernaeyetal.,(2004)provideaconcisesummaryofexistingmodelsandtheirunderlying
assumptions.ComeauandTakcs(2008)proposeschematicrepresentationsforthemathematical
modelsandastandardizedlistofsymbolstofurtherunderstandingofthemodelsmechanisms,use,and
limitations.AdditionalinformationonfixedfilmmathematicalmodelscanbefoundinWanneretal.,
(2006).ReferencesforindividualmodelscanbefoundintablesC1andC2.
C.1 DescriptionofAvailableModels
Settling
Modelsavailableforsettlingarewellknownandaregenerallybasedonmathematicalconcepts.
Mostsimulatorsusesimilaronedimensional(ID)settlingmodelsforprimaryandsecondaryclarifiers.
Themodelsmaydifferslightlyintermsofthenumberoflayersusedtomodeltheclarifierandthe
methodsfordeterminingthesettlingvelocitiesofparticles.Thesemodelsdonotgenerallytakeinto
accountanybiologicalreactionsoccurringintheclarifierorcompressionofthesludgeblanket.
Recently,somemodelshaveintegratedanactivatedsludgemodeltoaccountforreactionstakingplace
intheclarifier.
Onedimensionalclarifiermodelstypicallyarebasedonmassfluxtheorywhichcalculates
settlinginonedimensionbasedonthesludgecharacteristics.Onedimensionalmodelscannottakeinto
accountdensitycurrentsandothernonverticalflowsinaclarifierandthusrepresentanidealized
condition.Inordertomoreproperlyrepresentactualclarifierperformance2and3dimensionalmodels
arenecessary.Thesemodelshavebeenconstructedusingcomputationalfluiddynamics(CFD).CFDisa
mathematicalmodelingmethodwhichusesnumericaltechniquestosolvethemassandenergy
conservationequationsintwoandthreedimensions.Thesemodels,whilemorecomplicated,can
modelthecurrentscausedbydensitydifferencesandalsoflowcurrentsduetobafflingandother
structuralfeatures.AliteraturereviewofCFDtechniquesandstudiescanbefoundinBrouckaertand
Buckley(1998).
ActivatedSludge
Themostsignificantdecisionisintheselectionofamodeltodescribetheactivatedsludge
system.ActivatedsludgemodelingfirstgainedwideacceptancewhentheInternationalWater
Association(IWA)releasedtheactivatedsludgemodel,laterknownasASM1.Althoughvery
sophisticated,therearenumeroussimplifyingassumptionsunderlyingASM1.Theseincludeconstant
temperatureandpHandnodependenceofthebiologicalreactionratesonfoodsource.Themodelalso
didnotincludephosphorusremoval.ASM2andASM2dweredevelopedtocapturebiological
phosphorusremoval.ASM3followedandincludesawidertemperaturerangeandallowsfortheeffects
ofdifferentfoodsources.AdditionalequationscanbeaddedtoASM3toaccountforbiological
phosphorusremoval.ThemetabolicbiologicalphosphorusmodeloftheDelftUniversityofTechnology
(TUDP)wasdevelopedtofullyaccou
organisms(PAOs)duringenhancedb
modeltoincludedifferentratesofg
ntforthemetabolismoccurringinphosphorusaccumulating
iologicalphosphorusremoval.BarkerandDold(1997)developeda
rowthdependingonthecarbonsource.TheUCTPHO+modelisable
tomodeluptakeofphosphorusunderbothanoxicandanaerobicconditions.TableC1liststhe
activatedsludgemodelsavailableforvarioussuspendedgrowthbiologicaltreatmentprocesses.
TableC1.AvailableActivatedSludgeModelsforSuspendedGrowthProcesses
ModelName WastewaterTreatmentUnitProcesses Reference

ASM1 Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification Henzeetal.1987
ASM2 Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced Henzeetal.1995
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation,chemical
phosphorusremoval
ASM2d Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced Henzeetal.2000
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation,chemical
phosphorusremoval
ASM3 Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification Gujeretal.1999
ASM3w/BioP Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced Reigeretal.2001
biologicalphosphorusremoval
TUDP Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced Brdjanovicetal.2000
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation
B&D Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,enhanced BarkerandDold1997
biologicalphosphorusremoval,fermentation
UCTPHO+ Carbonoxidation,nitrification,denitrification,biological Huetal.2007
phosphorusremoval
Sources:WERF2003,Gernaeyetal.2004,Comeauetal.2008
SomereactionratespredictedbytheASMfamilyofmodelsfortheliquidphasemaybevalidfor
biofilmreactionsaswell,butthetransferofmaterialtoandfromthebiofilmforreactioncannotbe
handled.Therefore,attachedorfixedgrowthprocessesrequireadifferentmathematicalmodelto
representtransportofsubstratetothebiofilm,consumptionofthesubstrateinthebiofilm,andthen
transportoftheproductsoutofthebiofilm.
Therearenumerousmathematicalmodelscapableofmodelingattachedgrowthprocesses.
Unfortunatelytheyarenotasstandardizedastheactivatedsludgemodelsandthereareaconsiderable
numberofthem.Aswithactivatedsludgemodels,amodelfullydescribingallaspectsofthebiofilm
processwouldbeexceedinglycomplexandwouldrequirelargeamountsofcomputingpowertosolve.
Thereforenumeroussimplifyingassumptionsaremade.
Biofilmmodelscanbecategorizedasanalytical,pseudoanalytical,1dimensional,and
multidimensional.Inanalyticalmodels,enoughassumptionsaremadethattheequationscanbesolved
analytically.Psuedoanalyticalmodelsmakeafewlesssimplifyingassumptionsbutrequiresimple
numericalprocedurestofindasolution.Onedimensionalmodelsmakelessassumptionsbutmustbe
solvednumerically,althoughtheycanstillbesolvedusingadesktopcomputer.Twoand3dimensional
modelsareverycomplexandalthoughtheyhavefewerassumptionstheyrequiresignificantlymore
computingtime.Thesemultidimensionalmodelshavenotfoundwideuseinindustryandarenot
includedinanywidelyavailablesimulators.Theywillnotbediscussedfurther.TableC.2listssome
referencesavailabledescribingpseudoanalyticaland1dimensionalmodels.
TableC2.ReferencesforBiofilmModels
ModelType References
PsuedoAnalytical RittmannandMcCarty2001,Gradyetal.1999,SaezandRittmann1992
1Dimensional Kisseletal.1984,WannerandGujer1986,Reichert1998
Inaddition,workiscontinuallybeingdonetodevelopmodelsfornewandinnovativeprocesses.
Forexample,investigatorshaveadaptedbiofilmmodelstosimulatetheAnnamoxprocess(Capunoetal.
2008;DapenaMoraetal.2004).Modelshavealsobeendevelopedtodescribeotheremerging
processessuchasSHARON(Volckeetal.2006;WettandRauch2003;Borgeretal.2008),DEMONand
STRASS(Wettetal.2008).Thesemodelsfornewprocessescanbelinkedwiththeexistingmodelsfor
activatedsludgeplantsusingsimulatorstomodelnewerflowdiagrams.
C.2 ComparisonofMathematicalModels
SuspendedGrowthActivatedSludgeModels
AssummarizedinTableC1,thereareanumberofmodelsavailabletorepresentactivated
sludgeprocesses.ThelistinC1isnotexhaustive,butonlyrepresentsthemajormodelsinusetoday.
Eachmodelhasitsownsetofstatevariables.Astatevariableisaparameterusedtodescribethe
conditionofthesystem.Inthecaseofactivatedsludgemodelstheyarethespeciesthatmakeupthe
systemsuchasparticulateorganiccarbonandheterotrophicbiomass.Eachmodelisalsorepresented
byasetofreactionswhichdescribethetransformationsundergonebythestatevariables.TableC3
summarizesthenumberofstatevariablesandreactionseachofthemajormodelsuse.
TableC3.StateVariablesandReactionsforActivatedSludgeModels
Model NumberofStateVariables NumberofReactions

ASM1 13 8
ASM2 19 19
ASM2d 19 21
ASM3 12 12
ASM3w/BioP 16 23
TUDP 14 21
BarkerandDold 19 36
UCTPHO+ 16 35
Source(s):ComeauandTakcs(2008),Gernaeyetal,(2004)
Whileacompletelistofallthestatevariablesandreactionsisbeyondthescopeofthis
appendix,TableC4givesanexampleofthestatevariablesusedfortheASM3w/BioPmodel.
TableC4StateVariablesfortheASM3w/BioPModel
StateVariable Description Units

S
S
Readilybiodegradableorganicmatter mgCOD/L
S
I
Solubleunbiodegradableorganicmatter mgCOD/L
S
O
Dissolvedoxygen mgO
2
/L
X
S
Slowlybiodegradableorganicmatter mgCOD/L
X
STO
Generalstoragecompound mgCOD/L
X
PHA
StoredPHA mgCOD/L
X
I
Particulateunbiodegradableorganicmatter mgCOD/L
S
NH
Totalammonia mgN/L
S
NO
Totalnitrateandnitrite mgN/L
S
N2
Nitrogengas mgN/L
S
PO4
Inorganicsolublephosphorus mgP/L
X
PP
Storedpolyphosphate mgP/L
X
H
Ordinaryheterotrophicorganisms mgCOD/L
X
A
Nitrifyingorganisms mgCOD/L
X
PAO
Phosphorusaccumulatingorganisms mgCOD/L
S
HCO
Solubleinorganiccarbon mmolC/L
X
TSS
Totalsuspendedsolids mgTSS/L
Source:ComeauandTakcs(2008)
Thereactionsofeachmodelrepresentthetransformationofthestatevariables.Comeauand
Takcs(2008)havedevelopedaschematicrepresentationofthesereactions.FigureC2showssucha
schematicrepresentationoftheASM3wBio/Pmodel.Eachlinewithanarrowrepresentsareactionin
themodel.Eachreactionisrepresentedbyconstantswhichindicatetherateofthereactionandthe
stoichiometryofthereaction.ForexampleinthediagramtheareaproceedingfromS
S
toX
STO
shows
thatreadilybiodegradablematterinthepresenceofoxygenornitrateisconvertedintogeneralstorage
compoundinordinaryheterotrophicorganisms.Areactionlinemeetingaverticallineoutsidethe
dottedboundaryrepresentstheproductionofenergy.
X
S
S
S
S
NH
S
I
S
O
, S
NO
effluent
X
STO
S
O
, S
NO
X
H
S
O
, S
NO
(S
NH
)
X
I
X
I
S
NH
S
O
, S
NO
X
NIT
S
O
, S
NO
Nitrifying organisms
S
NH
S
O
S
NO
Ordinary heterotrophic
organisms
Phosphate Accumulating Organisms
S
S
X
PHA
S
O
S
NO
P10 P11
X
PAO
S
O
, S
NO
S
O
, S
NO
X
I
X
PP
S
PO4
S
O
, S
NO
(Cell lysis)
FigureC2
Source:Co
the81stA
SchematicRepresentationofASM3w/BioP
meauandTakcs2008fromWEFTECconference2008.ReprintedwithpermissionfromProceedingsofWEFTEC.08,
nnualWaterEnvironmentFederationTechnicalExhibitionandConference,Chicago,IL,October1822,2008.
Copyright2008WaterEnvironmentFederation,Alexandria,Virginia,www.wef.org.
Eachmodelhasitsownsetofreactionsalongwithasetofassumptionsunderlyingthose
assumptions.TableC5showsthemajormodelsandsomeofthekeyassumptions.Adiscussionofeach
followsthetable.
TableC5.AssumptionsofActivatedSludgeModels
Model Temperature
Dependent
Microbial
Growth
Heterotroph
GrowthRate
Dependenton
FoodSource
PAOscan
Denitrify
PAODecay
Dependent
onFood
Source
ASM1 N DR N N NA
ASM2 Y DR N N N
ASM2d Y DR N Y N
ASM3 Y ER Y N NA
ASM3w/BioP Y ER Y Y Y
TUDP Y DR N Y Y
BarkerandDold Y DR Y Y Y
UCTPHO+ Y ER Y Y Y
Key:DRdeathregeneration;ERendogenousrespiration;NAnotapplicable.
Source:Gernaeyetal.2004
Mostreactionsaretemperaturedependent.ASM1doesnotincludetemperaturedependence,
insteadincludingachoiceofeither10or20degreesCelsius.Theothermodelsdoincludetemperature
dependentterms.Temperaturedependentterms,however,areoftenlimitedintheirapplicability.For
example,thetermsusedinASM2areonlyvalidbetween10and25degreesCelsius.
Microbialgrowthisgenerallydescribedinoneoftwoways;deathregenerationorendogenous
respiration.Thedeathregenerationconceptsetsseparateratesforthegrowthanddecayof
microorganisms.Endogenousrespirationassumesamaintenanceconceptwheremicroorganismsusea
portionoftheirmasstoprovideenergy.Eachapproachhasitsstrengthsandweaknesses.Death
regenerationallowsthemodeltotakeintoaccountdifferentreactionsoccurringupondeathofthe
microorganismanddifferentfatesofthematerial.Itlumpstogether,however,thereactionsof
heterotrophsandautotrophs.Theendogenousrespirationconceptclearlyseparatesheterotrophand
autotrophreactionsbutcannottakeintoaccountthedifferentreactionsoccurringonthedeathofthe
microorganisms.
Microbescanutilizesomefoodsourcesmoreeasilythanothers.Forexample,whileboth
methanolandVFAcanbeusedasasubstratefordenitrifyingbacteria,onlyVFAcanbeusedasafood
sourceforphosphorusaccumulatingorganisms(PAO).Alsobacterialgrowthratescandifferdepending
onthecarbonsource.Manymodelsdonottakethisintoaccount.
IthasbeenshownthatdenitrificationcanbeaccomplishedbyPAOsintheanaerobiczoneof
biologicalphosphorusremovalplants.Someofthebiologicalphosphorusmodelsincludethisoption.
Importantlimitationsofvariousmodelsarelistedbelow:
ASM1modelsdonottakeintoaccounteithernitriteproductionorproductionofnitrogengas.
ThereforeitisnotpossibletoclosethenitrogenbalanceusingtheASM1model.
TheASM2,ASM2d,andTUDPmodelsdonotaccountforGAOcompetitionwithPAOsduring
biologicalphosphorusremoval.
NoneofthemodelslistedinTableC2canaccountforfilamentousbiomassorsludgebulking.
Biologicalphosphorusmodelscannothandletotaldepletionofsubstrateorthesimultaneouspresence
ofsubstrateandanotherfoodsource.
BiofilmModels
Characterizationforthebiofilmmodelsarebasedonmodeltypeandassumptionsaboutnot
onlykineticsandbiologicalgrowthbutalsotransportandthenatureofthebiofilm.TableC6
summarizeseachtypeofmodelandtheassumptionsandtypesofproblemsitcansolve.
TableC6.ApplicabilityofBiofilmModels
ModelType Assumptions
Analytical 1substrateisratelimiting,homogenous1Dbiofilm,first
orzeroorderkinetics
PsuedoAnalytical 1microbialspecieslimitedabilitytomodelmultiple
species,1ratelimitingsubstrate,monodkinetics
1Dimensional Heterogenousbiomass,masstransferinbiofilm
Analyticalmodelsareverysimpleandcanonlyhandleverysimpleproblems.Theyarelimited
tobiofilmsofeventhicknessandmadeupofasinglespecies.Onlyasingleratelimitingsubstratecanbe
used.Thisdoesnotmeanthatthereactionofmorethanonesubstratecannotbehandled,butthat
microbialgrowthcanonlybelimitedbyoneofthem.Forexample,consumptionofbothnitrateand
oxygencanbemodeled,butthemodelermustdecidebeforehandwhichwillbetheratelimiting
concentrationformicrobialgrowth.Analyticalmodelscanonlyusefirstorzeroorderrateconstants
insteadofthemorerealisticmonodrateconstants.Althoughnosystemmatchesthesedetailsexactly,
somemaybecloseenoughdependingontheobjective.Iftheonlyinterestisinsteadystate
consumptionofasinglesubstrate(e.g.nitrate)andthebiofilmisfairlyeven,theanalyticalmodelmay
beappropriate.Nonmonodkineticsmaybeappropriateifthehalfsaturationconstantisnotnearthe
concentrationofsubstrateinthebulksolution.Ifthesubstrateconcentrationismuchlessthanthehalf
saturationconstant,firstorderkineticscanbeused.Ifthesubstrateconcentrationismuchgreaterthan
thehalfsaturationconstant,zeroorderkineticsareappropriate.Ifthesubstrateconcentrationandhalf
saturationconstantareaboutthesamemagnitude,analyticalmodelsarenotappropriate.
Pseudoanalyticalmodelsusemostofthesameassumptionsaboutbiomassastheanalytical
models.Theystillgenerallyonlytakeintoaccountasinglespeciesandratelimitingsubstrate.Some
modificationscanbemadetohandlemultiplespeciesifeachspecieshasonlyonelimitingsubstrate.
Thebiggestadvantageofthepseudoanalyticalmodelisthatitcanincludemonodkinetics.Otherwise
itsapplicabilityissimilartotheanalyticalmodel.
The1dimensionalmodelskeepseparatetrackofdissolvedandparticulatecomponentsandcan
modeltheconcentrationofasubstratethroughoutthebiofilmwithtime.Thesemodelsareabletouse

anykineticexpressionsandcanhandlemultiplespeciesandmultipleratelimitingsubstrates.They
cannothandletheeffectsoffluidvelocityonsubstratetransferorbiofilmgrowth.Theyalsocannot
handleunevenbiofilmgrowth.Thedisadvantagetothe1dimensionalmodelsistheyrequiremore
computingpowerandtime,althoughmanysimulatorprogramstodaynowinclude1dimensional
models.
C.3 References
Barker,P.S.andP.L.Dold.1997.GeneralModelforBiologicalNutrientRemovalActivatedSludge
Systems:ModelPresentation.WaterEnvironmentResearch.69(5):969999.
Borger,A.R.,I.Takcs,P.M.Roeveld,andH.W.deMooij.2008.SHARONProcessStabilityModeledby
BioWin.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Brdjanovic,D.,M.C.M.vanLoosdrecht,P.Versteeg,C.M.Hooijmans,G.J.Alaerts,andJ.J.Heijnen.
2000.ModelingCOD,NandPRemovalinaFullscaleWWTPHaarlemWaarderpolder.Water
Research.34(3):846858.
Brouckaert,C.J.,andC.A.Buckley.1998.ResearchontheApplicationofComputationalFluidDynamics
toImprovingtheDesignandOperationofWaterandWastewaterTreatmentPlants.Universityof
Natal,Durban,SouthAfrica.
AutotrophicNitrogenRemovalunderDifferentReactorConfigurations.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
Comeau,Y.andI.Takcs.2008.SchematicRepresentationofActivatedSludgeModels.Presentedat
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DapenaMora,A.,S.W.H.VanHulle,J.L.Campos,R.Mendez,P.A.Vanrolleghem,andM.Jetten.2004.
EnrichmentofAnammoxBiomassfromMunicipalActivatedSludge:ExperimentalandModeling
Results.JournalofChemicalTechnologyandBiotechnology.79(12):14211428.
Gerges,H.andA.McCorquodale.2008.ThirtyYearsofSedimentationTanksModelingLearningfrom
Experience.PresentedatWEFTEC2008.
K.V.Gernaey,M.C.MvanLoosdrecht,M.Henze,M.Lind,andS.B.Jorgensen.2004.ActivatedSludge
WastewaterTreatmentPlantModellingandSimulation:StateoftheArt.EnvironmentalModelling
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Grady,C.P.L.,G.T.Daigger,andH.C.Lim.1999.BiologicalWastewaterTreatment.NewYork:Marcel
Dekker.
Gujer,W.,M.Henze,T.Mino,andM.C.M.vanLoostrecht.1999.ActivatedSludgeModelNo.3.Water
ScienceandTechnology.39(1):183193.
Henze,M.,C.P.L.Grady,W.Gujer,G.v.R.Marais,andT.Matsuo.1987.ActivatedSludgeModelNo.1,
IAWQ,LondonUK.

Henze,M.,W.Gujer,T.Mino,T.Matsuo,M.Wentzel,andG.v.R.Marais.1995.ActivatedSludgeModel
No.2.IAWPRCScientificandTechnicalReportNo.3.London,UK.IWA
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Nutrient Control Design Manual

Office of Research and Development

NutrientControlDesignManual xxii August2010

The manual is supported by three technical appendices containing recommendations on

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Chemical Formula Description TypicalWeight

Subclassof Salt affinity Preferred

Subclassof Ecophysiological Preferred

O 57H CO 104H 54NO NO H C

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Hellingaetal.( Figure44.EffectoftemperatureonminimalwashoutSRTAOB,HandNOB,Hfrom 1998)andAOB,MandNOB,

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KineticModelParameter Units TypicalValue

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TestSubstrate EthanolFedMixedLiquor MethanolFedMixedLiquor

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SDNR = 0.03(F/M) + 0.029 Eq.442

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Daigger,G. T.,C.D.Adams,andH.K.Steller.2007. DiffusionofOxygenthroughActivatedSludgeFlocs:

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VolatileFattyAcid ChemicalFormula PhosphorusUptake/VFAas

SubstrateTypetoTotal RecommendedMinimumRatio References

Figure54.Exampleofseco ryreleaseinseco anoxiczone.

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Configuration Type Technology Section

MediaType Description ProductsNames

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Configuration Type Technology SectionReference

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Configuration Technology SectionReference

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Flowcomponent Description EstimationMethodology