Eisagwg sthn Anlush II

M. Papadhmhtrkhc Tmma Majhmatikn Panepistmio Krthc

Fjinpwro 2006

Prlogoc

Oi shmeiseic autc diafroun ap tic paliterec kat pol.

1. 'Eqei prosteje lh kai qoun gnei pollc allagc wc proc thn ditax thc. Se merikc periptseic qei allxei ousiastik h parousash thc lhc. Gia

pardeigma, dnetai o orismc thc sumpgeiac msw thc nnoiac thc anoiktc kluyhc en prin dintan o orismc msw thc nnoiac thc akoloujac. Epshc, qei afaireje to keflaio gia thn topologa tou touc euklediouc qrouc qrwn. 2. Arketc apodexeic qoun allxei rizik. 3. 'Eqoun prosteje pra poll paradegmata kai pollc askseic se la ta Oi askseic den enai pia sto tloc kje kefalaou all

R kai qei aporrofhje maz me

Rn

wc ektenc pardeigma sto keflaio twn metrikn

eppeda duskolac.

eke pou emfanzontai oi antstoiqec nnoiec. 4. 'Eqoun diorjwje arket ljh (kai, mllon, qoun emfanisje kainoria).

Bibliografa

1.

W. Rudin. Principles of mathematical analysis (3rd edition). McGraw-Hill.

2.

T. Apostol. Mathematical analysis (2nd edition). Addison-Wesley.

Perieqmena

Seirc pragmatikn arijmn.

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8

Genik. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Seirc me mh arnhtikoc prosjetouc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5 11 17 21 22 25 31 36

Apluth sgklish seirn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sgklish up sunjkh. Dekadikc parastseic. Dunamoseirc. Ginmeno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . seirn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Cauchy

Anadiatxeic seirn.

Akoloujec Sunartsewn.

39

2.1 2.2 2.3

Kat shmeo sgklish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Omoimorfh sgklish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . To jerhma tou

39 41 49

Weierstrass.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Seirc Sunartsewn.

55

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

Genik. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dunamoseirc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

55 60 65 68

Oi trigwnometrikc sunartseic.

Parrthma: h ekjetik sunrthsh.

Metriko qroi.

73

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Paradegmata metrikn qrwn.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

73 80 95 105 110

Perioqc, anoikt snola, kleist snola. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Eswterik, kleistthta, snoro. 'Oria kai sunqeia sunartsewn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Akoloujec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sumpgeia.

117

5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

Genik. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sumpgeia kai akoloujec. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sumpgeia ston eukledio qro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sumpgeia kai suneqec sunartseic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

117 125 128 132

Genikeumna oloklhrmata.

135

6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6

Genik. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mh arnhtikc sunartseic. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apluth sgklish. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

135 144 147 149 150 157

Sgklish up sunjkh.

Oloklhrmata me parmetro. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H sunrthsh

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Keflaio 1
Seirc pragmatikn arijmn.

1.1

Genik.

Orismc 1.1

An qoume ma akolouja

(an )
n

sto

R,

mporome na kataskeu-

soume thn akolouja

(sn ),

epshc sto

R,

bsei tou tpou:

sn = a1 + + an =
k=1
Dhlad,

ak ,

n N.

H akolouja

s1 = a1 , s2 = a1 + a2 , s3 = a1 + a2 + a3 kai otw kajexc. (sn ) onomzetai an (n N) kai sumbolzetai

seir twn

a1 + + an +

ak .
k=1

Pollc forc qrhsimopoiome kai to smbolo

a1 + a2 + + an + a1 + a2 +

to

a1 + a2 + a3 + + an +
na emfansoume.

klp, anloga me to psouc arqikoc rouc jloume to

Epshc qrhsimopoiome kai to smbolo klp, an o

a1 + a2 + a3 +

n-ostc

roc

an

enai fanerc ap touc arqikoc

rouc ap ta sumfrazmena. Merikc forc emfanzetai kai roc

nontac tic katllhlec prosarmogc, grfoume

a0 + a1 + a2
to

kai, geniktera,

qrhsimopoiome ton ro

seir twn

+ k=0

a1 , a2 , . . . , opte, ks0 = a0 , s1 = a0 + a1 , s2 = n sn = a0 + + an = k=0 ak (n N0 ). Epshc, an (n N0 ) kai to smbolo a0 + +an +

prin ap touc

a0

ak .
+

Merikc forc h akolouja

prosarmog twn sumblwn gia thn antstoiqh seir enai profanc:

an + k=n0 ak . sn0 +1 = an0 + an0 +1 N, n n0 ).

Paradegmata:

n 0 > 1. H an0 + + Epshc, gia ta merik ajrosmata grfoume sn0 = an0 , n kai, geniktera, sn = an0 + + an = k=n0 ak (n
gia kpoio

(an ) xekinei ap ton ro an0

1. H seir

+ k=1

enai h akolouja me rouc:

1, 1 + 2 = 3, 1 + 2 + 3 = 6

kai,

1 + + n = n(n+1) . 2 + 2 2. H seir k=1 k enai h akolouja me rouc: 1, 1 + 4 = 5, 1 + 4 + 9 = 14 n(n+1)(2n+1) 2 kai, geniktera, 1 + 4 + + n = . 6 + 3. H seir (1) enai h akolouja me rouc: 1, 1 + (1) = 2, k=1 1 + (1) + (1) = 3 kai, geniktera, 1 + + (1) = n. + k 4. H seir k=0 2 enai h akolouja me rouc: 1, 1 + 2 = 3, 1 + 2 + 4 = 7 kai, 2n+1 1 n geniktera, 1 + 2 + + 2 = = 2n+1 1. 21 + 1 1 3 1 1 7 5. H seir k=0 2k enai h akolouja me rouc: 1, 1 + 2 = 2 , 1 + 2 + 4 = 4
geniktera, kai, geniktera, 6. H seir

1+

+ k=0 (1)

1 2 + k

1 2n

1 1 2n+1 1 2 1

=2 1, 0,

1 2n

enai h akolouja me rouc:

kai, geniktera,

1 + (1) + + (1)n =

1, 1+(1) = 0, 1+(1)+1 = an o n enai rtioc, an o n enai perittc.

Orismc 1.2

sn =
seirc

+ To an onomzetai n-ostc prosjetoc thc seirc k=1 ak . To n k=1 ak , dhlad o n-ostc roc thc akoloujac (sn ) , isodnama, thc + k=1 ak , onomzetai n-ost merik jroisma twn an (n N).

Ac tonsoume ti stouc prohgomenouc orismoc den proupotjetai tpota se sqsh me th sgklish ete thc akoloujac An h seir

(an )

ete thc akoloujac

(sn ).

Orismc 1.3

+ k=1

ak

, isodnama, h akolouja

(sn )

qei rio

s R {+, },

grfoume

s = a1 + + an + s

s=
k=1

ak . s R,

To

onomzetai
sto

jroisma

thc

seirc

+ k=1

ak .

An

lme ti h seir
apoklnei sto

sugklnei

s,

en, an

s = +
+ k=1

s = ,

lme ti h seir

apoklnei sto

antistoqwc.

Orismc 1.4

An h seir
apoklnei.

ak

, isodnama, h akolouja

(sn ) den qei rio,

lme ti h seir

Ac dome ti mporome na pome stic periptseic twn prohgomenwn paradeigmtwn.

Paradegmata:

+, opte h seir k=1 k apoklnei + sto + , isodnama, qei jroisma + kai grfoume: k=1 k = +. + n(n+1)(2n+1) +, h seir k=1 k 2 apoklnei sto + , 2. Omowc, epeid 6 + 2 isodnama, qei jroisma + kai grfoume: k=1 k = +. + 3. Epeid n , h seir k=1 (1) apoklnei sto , isodnama, qei + jroisma kai grfoume: k=1 (1) = . + n+1 4. Epeid 2 1 +, h seir k=0 2k apoklnei sto + , isodnama,
1. H akolouja apoklnei sto 6

n(n+1) 2

qei jroisma 5. Epeid

+ kai grfoume: 2 21 2, h seir n

kai grfoume:

jroisma 6.

+ 1 k=0 2k

+ k k=0 2 + 1 k=0 2k

= +.
sugklnei sto

, isodnama, qei

= 2. sn = 1, 0,
an o an o

Epeid h akolouja

(sn )

me tpo

n n

enai rtioc, enai perittc

den qei

rio, h seir ote sto

+ k k=0 (1)

apoklnei kai, mlista, den apoklnei ote sto

.
1:

' Askhsh

Upologste ta merik ajrosmata kai ta ajrosmata, an aut ta

teleutaa uprqoun, twn seirn kai

+ k=0

1 k . 3

+ k1 k, k=1 (1)

+ k1 2 k , k=1 (1)

+ k k=0 (3)

Ap to gegonc ti ma seir enai ma akolouja (h akolouja twn merikn ajroismtwn mac prouprqousac akoloujac) enai profanc ti h extash thc sgklishc mac seirc den enai tpota llo ap thn extash thc sgklishc mac akoloujac. Epeid, mwc, oi seirc emfanzontai pol suqn sth Majhmatik Anlush kai stic efarmogc thc, ja tic meletsoume xeqwrist ap tic akoloujec.

Paradegmata:

1. H

gewmetrik seir:

+ k=0

xk (x R).
lgoc

To

xR

enai parmetroc kai onomzetai

thc gewmetrikc seirc.

Dhlad, ousiastik, uprqoun peirec gewmetrikc seirc, ma gia kje tim tou

x. O arqikc prosjetoc thc seirc enai o x0 , o opooc qei thn tim 1 gia kje x = 0. 'Opwc gnwrzoume, h parstash 00 enai aprosdiristh, all, eidik sthn
perptwsh thc gewmetrikc seirc (pwc kai sthn genikterh perptwsh twn dunamoseirn pou ja meletsoume argtera), knoume thn paradoq: O o

xn ,

n-ostc prosjetoc thc gewmetrikc seirc enai o x0 = 1, an n = 1, 2, . . . . 'Ara, to n-ost merik jroisma enai to sn = 1 + x + x2 + + xn =
xn+1 1 x1

an

00 = 1. n = 0, kai

, x,

an an

n + 1,

x = 1, x = 1.

Diakrnontac periptseic wc proc thn tim tou mpersmata.

qoume ta paraktw su-

(i) An x = 1, tte sn = n + 1 +, opte h seir apoklnei sto +. (ii) An x > 1, tte xn+1 +, opte sn + kai, epomnwc, h seir apoklnei sto +. 1, an o n enai rtioc, (iii) An x = 1, tte sn = Epomnwc, h (sn ) ote 0, an o n enai perittc. sugklnei ote apoklnei sto + sto . |x|n+1 1 , an n enai perittc. xn+1 1 x1 (iv) An x < 1, tte sn = x1 = |x|n+1 1 +, an n enai rtioc. x1 'Ara, h (sn ) ote sugklnei ote apoklnei sto + sto . n+1 1 1 (v) An |x| < 1, tte xn+1 0, opte sn = x x1 1x . Epomnwc, h seir
sugklnei sto

1 1x

To genik sumprasma gia th gewmetrik seir enai

xk =
k=0

, +,

1 1x

an an

|x| < 1. x 1.

Se kje llh perptwsh, dhlad, an ote apoklnei sto 2.

x 1,

h gewmetrik seir ote sugklnei

sto

Thleskopikc seirc.

(an ) kai gnwrzoume ma llh akolouja (bn ) ste + + n N, lme ti h k=1 ak = k=1 (bk+1 bk ) + enai . Sthn perptwsh aut h seir k=1 ak sugklnei apoklnei sto + apoklnei sto an kai mnon an h akolouja (bn ) sugklnei apoklnei sto + apoklnei sto , antistoqwc.
An qoume thn akolouja na isqei

an = bn+1 bn

gia kje

thleskopik

H apdeixh baszetai ston tpo:

sn = a1 + + an = (b2 b1 ) + (b3 b2 ) + + (bn+1 bn ) = bn+1 b1 .

Enai faner ti:

bn b

(, isodnama,

bn+1 b)

an kai mnon an .

Ac dome, gia pardeigma, th seir

+ 1 k=1 k(k+1)

sn b b1 .

Mporome na gryoume

1 n(n+1)

1 n

1 n+1

kai, epomnwc,

sn = 1
Dhlad,

1 1 1 1 1 1 + + + =1 1. 2 2 3 n n+1 n+1
+

' Askhsh 2:

Gryte tic

k=1 + k+1 k k=1 k k+1

1 = 1. k(k + 1)
,

+ 1 k=1 k+1+ k

kai

+ 1 k=1 k(k+1)(k+2)

wc thleskopikc, kai upologste ta merik ajrosmata kai ta ajrosmat touc. 1. An oi seirc

Prtash

1.1

den enai

kai

kai

ak kai k=1 bk qoun ajrosmata ta opoa + +, h seir k=1 (ak + bk ) qei jroisma kai
+ +

+ k=1

(ak + bk ) =
k=1
2. An

ak +
k=1 k=1

bk .
+ k=1 (ak )

R, = 0 kai h seir
+

+ k=1

ak

qei jroisma, h seir

qei

jroisma kai

(ak ) =
k=1
An thc

ak .
k=1

+ k=1

= 0, h isthta aut isqei ak enai + , opte

kat profan trpo, ektc an to jroisma h arister meri enai sh me

kai h dexi

enai aprosdiristh morf.

s = k=1 ak kai t = k=1 bk . n n 1. An sn = ak , tn = k=1 bk kai un = k=1 (ak + bk ) enai ta n-ost merik ajrosmata twn an , bn kai an + bn , antistoqwc, qoume un = sn + tn . Epeid sn s kai tn t, sunepgetai un s + t. n n 2. An sn = k=1 (ak ) enai ta n-ost merik ajrosmata k=1 ak kai un = twn an kai an , antistoqwc, qoume un = sn . Epeid sn s, sunepgetai un s. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: 'Estw

n k=1

' Askhsh

3:

Upologste ta ajrosmata twn seirn

+ k=0

2 +
1.2

4 2k

+ k k=0 (2

+ 4k)

kai

+ k k=0 (2

+ k=0

2 3k

3(1)k 21 k
+ k=1 bk

3k).
+ k=1

Prtash

Sgkrish seirn,

ajrosmata kai an

an bn

gia

I. An oi seirc kje n N, tte

+ +

ak

kai

qoun

ak
k=1 k=1

bk . an = bn
gia

An, epiplon, ta do ajrosmata enai soi pragmatiko arijmo, tte kje

n N.
n k=1

Apdeixh: 'Estw 1. An

sn = an kai bn , antistoqwc, qoume tn t, sunepgetai s t. + + 2. 'Estw k=1 bk k=1 ak =

kje

s= ak

+ k=1 ak kai tn =

kai

+ t = k=1 bk . n k=1 bk enai ta n-ost sn tn gia kje n

merik ajrosmata twn

N.

Epeid

sn s

kai

kai h koin tim twn do ajroismtwn enai

pragmatikc arijmc. Parnoume opoiodpote

nm

isqei

tn sn =

n k=1 (bk

m N kai parathrome ti gia ak ) bm am 0, afo to bm am

epeid oi

enai nac ap touc rouc tou ajrosmatoc kai lec oi llec parenjseic enai mh-arnhtikc. Parnoume rio kajc

n + kai,
O.E.D.

wc rio ton dio pragmatik arijm, sumperanoume ti

(sn ) kai (tn ) qoun bm am = 0. 'Ara, n N.

am = bm
1. An 2. An

gia opoiodpote
1.3

m 1.
+ k=1 bk + k=1 ak

Prtash

Sgkrish seirn,

+ k=1 ak + k=1 bk
An

= +, tte = , tte
n

II. 'Estw an bn = +. = .
n

gia kje

sn = k=1 ak kai tn = k=1 bk enai ta n-ost merik smata twn an kai bn , antistoqwc, qoume sn tn gia kje n N. 1. Epeid sn +, sunepgetai tn +. 2. Epeid tn , sunepgetai sn . O.E.D.
Apdeixh:
' Askhsh 4:

ajro-

Na sugkrnete tic seirc

+ k=1

k,

+ k=1

k2

kai

+ k=1

pol apl seir gia na apodexete ti kai oi treic apoklnoun sto

Prtash 1.4

2k +.

me ma

1. An apaleyoume peperasmnou pljouc arqikoc prosjetouc

miac seirc, den ephrezetai h sgklis thc. 2. An allxoume peperasmnou pljouc prosjetouc miac seirc, den ephrezetai h sgklis thc.

ak kai apalefoume touc prosjetouc + a1 , a2 , . . . , an0 1 , opte h kainoria seir grfetai k=n0 ak . An sn enai to n-ost merik jroisma twn an (n = 1, 2, . . .), tte sn = a1 + + an . Omowc, an tn enai to n-ost merik jroisma twn an (n = n0 , n0 + 1, . . .), tte tn = an0 + + an . Epomnwc, an n n0 ,
Apdeixh: 1. Jewrome th seir

+ k=1

sn = a1 + a2 + + an0 1 + an0 + + an = a1 + + an0 1 + tn . (sn ) sugklnei an kai mnon an h (tn ) sugklnei. Epiplon, an sn tn t, parnontac rio sthn prohgomenh isthta kajc n +, sumperanoume ti s = a1 + a2 + + an0 1 + t. Dhlad,
'Ara, h

kai

ak = a1 + + an0 1 +
k=1
2. Jewrome th seir Ja uprqei,

ak .
k=n0

touc.

+ k=1 tte, n0

ak

kai allzoume peperasmnou pljouc prosje-

ste ta

an (n = n0 , n0 + 1, . . .)

na paramenoun

dia. Epomnwc, tso h arqik so kai h kainoria seir qoun to dio kommti

+ k=n0

ak

kai, aplc, efarmzoume to apotlesma tou mrouc 1.

O.E.D.

' Askhsh

5:

Meletste wc proc th sgklish tic seirc

+ k=3

2k7

kai

+ 1 k=8 k(k+1)

+ k=7

2k ,

+ 1 k=1 2k+15

, knontac anagwg se llec aplosterec.

Prtash

1.5

'Estw ti h seir

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei. Tte

1.

an 0

kai

2. gia kje

>0

uprqei

n0 = n0 ( ) N

ste:

n n0 s=
+ k=1

ak < .
k=n+1

Apdeixh: 'Estw epomnwc, 1. 2.

ak

kai

s R.

An

sn =

n k=1

ak ,

tte

sn s

kai,

an = sn sn1 s s = 0 kai + n + k=n+1 ak = k=1 ak k=1 ak = s sn 0.

Lgo paraktw ja meletsoume pardeigma seirc

O.E.D.

Prpei na tonisje me mfash ti to antstrofo thc Prtashc 1.5.1 den isqei.

+ k=1

ak

(thn armonik

seir) h opoa apoklnei en

an 0.

Pardeigma:

An

+ k=0

|x| 1, mporome na dome kai me detero trpo ti h gewmetrik xk apoklnei. Prgmati, |xn | = |x|n 1 kai, epomnwc, xn 0.
Apodexte ti oi

seir

' Askhsh 6:

+ k=1

1+(1)k

+ k2 k+1 k=1 k2 +1

kai

+ 1 1 k=1 k log(1+ k )

+ 2k +3k k=1 2k+1 +3k+1

apoklnoun.

10

Jerhma 1.1

Kritrio

mnon an gia kje

Cauchy. H seir k=1 ak > 0 uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) N ste:

tou

sugklnei an kai

n0 m < n
Apdeixh: 'Estw

k=m+1

ak = |am+1 + + an | < .

sugklnei an kai mnon an h

sn = a1 + + an to n-ost merik jroisma. H seir (sn ) sugklnei , isodnama, an kai mnon an h (sn ) enai akolouja Cauchy. 'Omwc, to ti h (sn ) enai akolouja Cauchy isoduname, ex orismo, me to ti gia kje > 0 uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) N ste: n0 m < n |am+1 + + an | = |(a1 + + an ) (a1 + + am )| = |sn sm | < .
O.E.D.

To kritrio tou an kai mnon an

n k=m+1

Cauchy ekfrzetai kai wc exc: h ak 0 kajc m, n +.

+ 1 k=1 k

seir

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei

Pardeigma:

armonik

seir:

1 1 1 1 + + n n + + n = (n m) n . Efarmzoume, tra, to kritrio Cauchy. An h armonik seir sugklnei, tte, parnontac = 1 , ja uprqei kpoio n0 N ste: n0 m < n 4 1 1 1 m+1 + + n < 4 . Eidiktera, parnontac m = n0 kai n = 2n0 , ja isqei 1 1 1 1 1 n0 +1 + + 2n0 < 4 . Aut, mwc, antifskei me to ti n0 +1 + + 2n0 1 (2n0 n0 ) 2n0 = 1 . 2
Kat' arqn, an

m < n,

isqei

1 m+1

'Ara, h armonik seir apoklnei kai tsi apodeiknetai ti to antstrofo thc Prtashc 1.5.1 den isqei.

' Askhsh

7:

Efarmste to kritrio tou

Cauchy
kai

gia na katalxete sta dh

gnwst apotelsmata wc proc th sgklish twn seirn

+ k=1

k,

+ k k=1 (2) ,

+ 1 k=1 2k

+ 1 k=1 k(k+1)

+ 1 k=1 k2

+ k=1
.

1,

+ k k=1 (1) ,

1.2

Seirc

me mh

arnhtikoc

prosjetouc.

Jerhma 1.2

'Estw

+ k=1

ak

me

an 0

gia kje

nN

kai

sn =

n k=1

ak .

1. An h akolouja 2. An h

(sn )

enai nw fragmnh, h seir sugklnei.

(sn )

den enai nw fragmnh, tte

+ k=1

ak = +.

Apdeixh: Kat' arqn parathrome ti h

(sn ) enai axousa. Prgmati, sn+1 = (sn ) enai nw fragmnh, tte sugklnei kai, epomnwc, h seir sugklnei. Antijtwc, an h (sn ) den enai nw fragmnh, tte sn + + kai, epomnwc, O.E.D. k=1 ak = +. sn +an+1 sn .
'Ara, an h Prpei na tonisje ti, smfwna me to Jerhma 1.2, kje seir mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc ete sugklnei ete apoklnei sto

+ k=1

ak

me

kai, se kje

11

perptwsh, qei jroisma.

Mlista, ap thn Prtash 1.2 qoume

+ k=1

0 = 0.

Mporome, loipn, na sumpernoume ti kje seir

+ k=1 ak + k=1 ak me

mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc qei opwsdpote jroisma to opoo enai ete mh arnhtikc arijmc ete

+.

Dhlad,

0
k=1

ak +. ak < +, ak = +. + seir k=1 ak ,

+ k=1

'Etsi, h sgklish thc seirc enai isodnamh me thn anisthta en h apklish thc seirc enai isodnamh me thn isthta

+ k=1

Epshc prpei na epishmnoume ti, an qoume ma genik mporome na gryoume thn anisthta h seir qei jroisma, dhlad an to

+ k=1 ak +, mnon an gnwrzoume ti + k=1 ak qei upstash wc stoiqeo tou

R {, +}.

Aut h proupjesh enai ek twn protrwn exasfalismnh, an

h seir qei mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc.

Prtash 1.6
Sgkrish seirn,

III.

'Estw

0 an bn

gia kje

n N.

Tte 1.

2. an h

+ + k=1 bk k=1 ak + bk sugklnei, k=1

kai tte kai h

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei. qoun mh-arnhtikoc prosje-

Apdeixh: Epeid oi seirc

+ k=1

ak

kai

+ k=1 bk

touc, qoun kai oi do ajrosmata. 1. Ap thn Prtash 1.2 sunepgetai 2. Epeid

+ k=1 bk

< +,

sumperanoume

+ k=1 ak + k=1 ak <

+ k=1 bk .

+.

O.E.D.

Paradegmata:

1.

'Opwc edame, h armonik seir

+ 1 k=1 k

apoklnei.

Epeid enai seir me

mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc, sumperanoume ti apoklnei sto

+:

k=1
2. H seir

1 = +. k

1 1 + 2! + 3! + . k1 Gia kje k 1 isqei k! = 1 2 3 k 1 2 2 = 2 kai, epomnwc, + 1 1 1 0 n! 2n1 gia kje n 1. Smfwna me thn Prtash 1.2, k=0 k! = + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 1 + k=1 k! 1 + k=1 2k1 = 1 + k=0 21 = 1 + 1 1 = 3. 'Ara h k=0 k! k

+ 1 k=0 k!

=1+

1 1!

sugklnei.

H epmenh Prtash 1.7 lei ti to jroisma thc seirc to rio thc akoloujac
Prtash 1.7

(1 +

1 n n)

+ 1 k=0 k!

enai to dio me

, ton gnwst arijm

e.

k=0

1 = e. k!
12

Apdeixh: 'Estw

sn = 1 + n 1

1 1!

+ +

1 n!

kai

tn = 1 +

1 n . n

Tte

tn = 1 + =1+

1 n + n 2

1 n + + n2 k

1 n + + nk n

1 nn

1 1 1 1 1 2 k1 + 1 + + 1 1 ... 1 + 1! 2! n k! n n n 1 1 n1 + 1 ... 1 . n! n n Epeid lec oi parenjseic enai jetikc kai mikrterec ap to 1, sunepgetai 1 1 tn 1 + 1! + + n! = sn gia kje n 1. Akmh, an 1 k n, paralepontac touc (jetikoc) rouc met ap ton k -ost, qoume tn 1 + 1 1 1 1 1 + 1 + + 1 1! 2! n k! n n +,
qoume

2 k1 ... 1 . n n
1 k!

Parnontac ria kajc kje

k 1 kai, me allag sumbolismo, 'Ara, tn sn e gia kje n 1 kai,

8:

1 1 e 1 + 1! + 2! + + e sn gia kje n 1. epomnwc, sn e.

= sk

gia

O.E.D.

' Askhsh

'Estw

1.

Sugkrnontac me ma gnwst seir, apodexte ti

+ 1 k=1 k

= +.
1. Na sugkrnete (me kpoio trpo) th seir

' Askhsh 9:

+ 1 k=1 k(k+1)
2. 'Estw

=1

ste na apodexete ti

+ 1 k=1 k2

+ 1 k=1 k2

me th seir

< +.
+ 1 k=1 k

2.

Sugkrnontac me gnwst seir, apodexte ti

< +.

' Askhsh 10:

'Estw

an 0 gia kje n N.
sugklnei. (Updeixh:

An h

ti h

+ k=1

ak ak+1

xy

+ k=1 ak sugklnei, apodexte 1 2 x + 1 y 2 .) An, epiplon, h 2 2

(an )

enai fjnousa, apodexte ti alhjeei kai to antstrofo.

' Askhsh

11:

'Estw h akolouja

n1 < n 2 < n 3 < . . . 90.

twn fusikn arijmn oi

opooi den periqoun to yhfo

sth dekadik touc parstash. Apodexte ti h (Updeixh: Brete psoi roi

+ 1 k=1 nk
thc

sugklnei se arijm mikrtero ap

(nk )

brskontai anmesa se do diadoqikc dunmeic tou

10.)

' Askhsh 12:

rn =
1. An

an > 0 gia kje n N kai h k=1 ak sugklnei. Orzoume + k=n ak gia kje n N. n+1 n m 1 m < n, apodexte ti am + + an 1 rrm (Updeixh: H r r
'Estw kai sumpernate ti h

(rn )

enai fjnousa.)

+ ak k=1 rk

apoklnei.

(Updeixh:

Qrhsimopoiste to kritrio tou 2. Apodexte ti

a n rn

Cauchy kai to ti rn 0.) < 2( rn rn+1 ) gia kje n N kai

sumpernate ti h

+ ak k=1 rk
' Askhsh

sugklnei.

13:

'Estw

+ k=1

an > 0

kai

sn = a1 + a2 + + an

gia kje

nN

kai h

ak

apoklnei.

13

1. Apodexte ti h sugklnei, opte fragmnh, opte

+ ak + ak k=1 1+ak apoklnei. (Updeixh: Upojste ti h k=1 1+ak an 1+an 0. Apodexte ti an 0. 'Ara h (an ) enai nw an an M gia kpoio M kai, epomnwc, an (1 + M ) 1+an .
apodexte ti

Qrhsimopoiste to Jerhma Sgkrishc.) 2. An

1 m < n,

am+1 sm+1

+ +

(sn )

enai axousa.)

kai sumpernate ti h

an sn + ak k=1 sk

sm sn

(Updeixh:

apoklnei.

(Updeixh:

Qrhsimopoiste to kritrio tou 3. Apodexte ti

Cauchy

kai to ti

an s2 n

kai sumpernate ti h

1 1 sn1 sn gia kje + ak k=1 s2 sugklnei. k + k=1

sn +.) n N (Updeixh: an = sn sn1 .)

Pollc forc sunantme seirc noun proc to

0: an+1 an

gia kje

ak twn opown oi n N kai an 0. Ja Cauchy.

prosjetoi

an

fj-

dome do kritria

sgklishc qrsima se ttoiec periptseic. 'Estw seir

Prtash

1.8

Kritrio

sumpknwshc

tou

+ k=1

ak

me prosjetouc oi opooi fjnoun proc to 0. H seir aut sugklnei an kai mnon an h seir

+ k=0

2k a2k
n

sugklnei.

Apdeixh: 'Estw ti h

+ k=0

2k a2k

sugklnei. Tte ta merik ajrosmata

a1 +

2a2 + 4a4 + + 2 a2n

thc

enai nw fragmna, stw ap ton arijm

M.

Arke,

smfwna me to Jerhma 1.2, na apodexoume to dio gia ta merik ajrosmata

+ k=1

ak .

'Estw

do diadoqikc dunmeic tou 2, stw

sm = a1 + + am . O arijmc m brsketai anmesa se 2n m < 2n+1 . Qrhsimopointac ti h

(an )

enai fjnousa,

sm = a1 + (a2 + a3 ) + (a4 + a5 + a6 + a7 ) + + (a2n1 + + a2n 1 )+ +(a2n + + am ) a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n1 a2n1 + 2n a2n M.
Antistrfwc, stw ti h nh, opte uprqei kpoio

+ k=1
ste

ak sugklnei. Tte h (sm ) enai nw fragmsm M gia kje m N. Sunepgetai

a1 + 2a2 + 4a4 + + 2n a2n 2a1 + 2a2 + 2(a3 + a4 ) + + 2(a2n1 +1 + + a2n ) = 2s2n 2M.
'Ara, ta merik ajrosmata thc seirc smfwna me to Jerhma 1.2, h

+ k=0

+ k=0 k

2k a2k

enai nw fragmna, opte, O.E.D.

2 a2k

sugklnei.

Paradegmata:

1.

+ 1 k=1 k

( R).
1 n

Diakrnoume periptseic wc proc tic timc tou

(i) An 0, tte
Enallaktik,

Epeid h seir qei

(ii)

An

> 0,

. 1, opte, bsei thc Prtashc 1.5.1, h seir de sugklnei. mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc, apoklnei sto +. + + 1 + 1 k=1 1 = + kai, epomnwc, k=1 k = +. k=1 k 1 fjnei proc to 0. Exetzoume th seir akolouja n
14

+ k=0 1 21

1 2k (2k ) = 1 21

+ k=0

k 1 . 21

H teleutaa seir enai gewmetrik me lgo

. H seir aut sugklnei, an an

+,

1,

dhlad an

'Ara, h seir

+ 1 k=1 k

< 1, dhlad an > 1, kai apoklnei sto 0 < 1. sugklnei, an > 1, kai apoklnei sto +, an 1.
+
sugklnei, apodexte

1 21

' Askhsh 14:

ti h

+ k=1

'Estw

ak k

an > 0 gia kje n N. An h k=1 ak 1 2 1 2 sugklnei. (Updeixh: xy 2 x + 2 y .) ( R). . n3

qoume 'Ara,

2.

+ 1 k=2 k(log k)

Diakrnoume periptseic wc proc to

(i)

An

0,

gia kje

+ 1 k=3 k(log k)

+ 1 k=3 k

= +.

(log n)|| 1 1 n n(log n) = n + 1 k=2 k(log k) = +.

kai, epomnwc,

1 (ii) An > 0, h akolouja n(log n) fjnei proc to 0. Bsei tou prohgomenou + 1 + k 1 1 paradegmatoc, h seir k=1 k sugklnei, an > k=1 2 2k (log(2k )) = (log 2)

1,

kai apoklnei sto 'Ara, h

+,

an

+ 1 k=2 k(log k)
15:

sugklnei, an

0 < 1. > 1,

kai apoklnei sto

+,
1

an

1.
, an-

' Askhsh

Exetste th sgklish thc seirc

+ k=3

k log k log(log k)

loga me thn tim thc paramtrou

R.
+ k=1

Ja meletsoume, tra, na detero kritrio sgklishc seirn prosjetouc oi opooi fjnoun proc to 0. Ac upojsoume ti gnwrzoume ma sunrthsh opoa isqei ti:

ak

me

f : [1, +) R

gia thn

(i) h f enai fjnousa sto [1, +) (ii) f (n) = an gia kje n N.

Gia pardeigma, gia thn

kai

(1 x < +). Enai pol ekolo na apodexoume kpoiec epiplon idithtec thc f . Ma ttoia idithta enai h (iii) f (x) 0 gia kje x 1. Prgmati, gia tuqn x 1 parnoume opoiondpote fusik n x, opte f (x) f (n) = an 0. Ma deterh idithta enai h (iv) limx+ f (x) = 0. Gia na thn apodexoume parnoume > 0 kai, epeid an 0, uprqei n0 N ste: 0 an < gia kje n n0 . Sunepgetai ti gia kje x n0 isqei 0 f (x) f (n0 ) = an0 < . x Katpin, jewrome th sunrthsh f (t) dt (1 x < +). Parathrste 1 ti, epeid h f enai fjnousa, enai Riemann oloklhrsimh se kje disthma x [a, b] [1, +). H sunrthsh 1 f (t) dt tou x enai axousa sto [1, +). x y x y Prgmati, an 1 x < y , tte f (t) dt = 1 f (t) dt + x f (t) dt 1 f (t) dt. 1 y To teleutao isqei diti f (t) 0 gia kje t [x, y], opte f (t) dt 0. x x x Epeid h f (t) dt enai axousa, sunepgetai ti to limx+ 1 f (t) dt 1 f (x) =
uprqei kai, mlista, qoume akribc do endeqmena:

1 x

+ 1 k=1 k

mporome na epilxoume th sunrthsh

15

(i) an h 1 f (t) dt enai nw fragmnh, dhlad uprqei M R ste 1 f (t) dt x M gia kje x 1, tte to limx+ 1 f (t) dt enai pragmatikc arijmc, x x (ii) an h 1 f (t) dt den enai nw fragmnh, tte limx+ 1 f (t) dt = +.
Prtash 1.9
Kritrio oloklhrmatoc.

'Estw

+ k=1

ak

me prosjetouc oi

opooi fjnoun proc to 0 kai sunrthsh

f : [1, +) R

gia thn opoa isqei:

(i) h f enai fjnousa sto [1, +) (ii) f (n) = an gia kje n N.

To sumprasma enai: 1. an to

kai

limx+
x 1

x 1

f (t) dt

enai pragmatikc arijmc, h seir

+ k=1

ak

su-

gklnei kai 2. an

limx+

f (t) dt = +,

tte

+ k=1

ak = +.
x

Epshc, se kje perptwsh

x x+

lim

f (t) dt
1 k=1

ak a1 + lim

x+

f (t) dt.
1

Apdeixh:

Parnoume tuqao

nousa, gia kje Sunepgetai

k N kai parathrome ti, epeid h f enai fjt [k, k + 1] isqei ak+1 = f (k + 1) f (t) f (k) = ak .
k+1

ak+1
k
Ajrozontac autc tic anisthtec gia

f (t) dt ak .

n+1 1

f (t) dt a1 + + an
n+1

gia

k = 1, . . . , n, brskoume a2 + + an+1 kje n N. Isodnama,

n

f (t) dt a1 + + an a1 +
1
Epeid uprqei to

f (t) dt ,
1

n N.
n

limx+ 1 f (t) dt, uprqei kai to limn+ 1 f (t) dt kai n x + limn+ 1 f (t) dt = limx+ 1 f (t) dt. Epshc, h k=1 ak qei jroisma, diti qei mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc. Parnontac ria kajc n + sthn x + teleutaa dipl anisthta, sumperanoume limx+ f (t) dt k=1 ak 1 x a1 + limx+ 1 f (t) dt.
Tra ta sumpersmata (1) kai (2) enai mesa. O.E.D.

Pardeigma:

Jewrome, pli, thn armonik seir

Epilgoume th suneq kai fjnousa sunrthsh upologzoume

x limx+ 1 1 t
'Estw

1 f (x) = x (1 x < +) kai + 1 dt = limx+ log x = +. 'Ara, k=1 k = +.

+ 1 k=1 k

' Askhsh 16:

> 0.

Qrhsimopoiste to kritrio tou oloklhrmatoc gia

na meletsete wc proc th sgklish tic seirc

+ 1 k=1 k

kai

+ 1 k=2 k(log k)
kje .

' Askhsh

17:

1.

'Estw

1 1

1 (n+1)1

> 0 kai = 1. Apodexte ti gia 1 1 1 1 + 21 + + n 1 + 1 1 n1

16

n N

(Updeixh:

Qrhsimopoiste thn anisthta

n+1 1 1 2

f (t) dt a1 + + an a1 +
gia kje

n 1

f (t) dt

pou emfanzetai sthn apdeixh thc Prtashc 1.9.) 2. Apodexte ti 3. An

log(n + 1) 1 + 1 > 1, apodexte ti 1 lim1+ ( 1)

1 + + n 1 + log n + 1 k=1 k 1 .

n N.

4. Apodexte ti

+ 1 k=1 k

= 1.

1.3

Apluth

sgklish

seirn.

Orismc 1.5

Lme ti h

gklnei.

Lme ti h

+ k=1

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei up

apoltwc,

an h

+ k=1

|ak |

su-

ak

sugklnei

sunjkh,

an sugklnei all de

sugklnei apoltwc.

Enai profanc ti gia seirc me mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc h nnoia thc apluthc sgklishc tautzetai me thn nnoia thc sgklishc. An h

Prtash

1.10

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei apoltwc, tte sugklnei. Epshc

ak
k=1
Apdeixh: Efarmzoume to kritrio tou

|ak | .
k=1 +

Cauchy. 'Estw > 0. Afo h k=1 |ak | n sugklnei, uprqei n0 N ste: n0 m < n k=m+1 |ak | < . Sunep+ n n getai: n0 m < n ak k=m+1 |ak | < . 'Ara, h k=1 ak k=m+1 ikanopoie to kritrio tou Cauchy kai, epomnwc, sugklnei. + + H anisthta k=1 ak k=1 |ak | prokptei ap tic stoiqeideic anisn n thtec O.E.D. k=1 ak k=1 |ak |, parnontac rio kajc n +.
+ k=1 |ak | onomzetai trigwnik anisthta. n + H Prtash 1.10 lei ti, an k=1 |ak | < +, to k=1 ak enai pragmatikc + + arijmc kai isqei h trigwnik anisthta ak k=1 k=1 |ak |. Aut to n + apotlesma sumplhrnetai wc exc: an k=1 |ak | = + kai an h k=1 ak qei + + jroisma, to ak enai stoiqeo tou R {, +}, opte to k=1 k=1 ak
H anisthta

+ k=1

ak

enai stoiqeo tou

[0, +] |ak |

kai, epomnwc, h trigwnik anisthta isqei kat

profan trpo. Prpei, mwc, na tonisje me mfash ti h trigwnik anisthta

+ k=1

ak

+ k=1

isqei mno me thn proupjesh ti h

+ k=1

ak

qei

jroisma.

Paradegmata:

1.

2.

+ 1 k=1 k2 < +. + (1)k1 H k=1 k

An

+ (1)k1 k=1 k2

sugklnei, afo sugklnei apoltwc:

+ (1)k1 k=1 k2 + 1 k=1 k 1 2m1

= =

de sugklnei apoltwc, afo

+ (1)k1 k=1 k 1 2

+.

Ja dexoume tra ti aut h seir sugklnei, dhlad ti sugklnei up

sunjkh.

sn =

n (1)k1 k=1 k

, tte

s2m = 1

1 3

1 4

+ +

17

Sunepgetai s2m+2 s2m = (s2m ) enai axousa. Epiplon, 1 1 1 h dia upoakolouja enai kai nw fragmnh, diti s2m = 1 2 + 3 4 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 + 2m1 2m = 1 2 3 2m2 2m1 2m < 1. 'Ara, h upoakolouja (s2m ) sugklnei, opte s2m s gia kpoio s R. 'Omwc, 1 s2m+1 = s2m + 2m+1 s + 0 = s. 'Ara, sn s. . kai, epomnwc, h upoakolouja

1 1 2m = 1 2 + 1 1 2m+1 2m+2 0

1 3

1 4

+ +

1 2m1

1 2m

Jerhma 1.3

Sgkrish

seirn,

IV.

'Estw ti gia tic seirc

(ii): (i) uprqei mh arnhtikc arijmc M ste |an | M bn gia kje n N n (ii) isqei bn > 0 gia kje n N kai h akolouja an sugklnei. b + + Tte, an h k=1 bk sugklnei, h k=1 ak sugklnei apoltwc.
isqei ete to ete to Apdeixh:

+ k=1 bk

+ k=1

ak

kai

(i)

(i)

An h

+ k=1 bk

sugklnei, h

thn Prtash 1.6 sunepgetai ti kai h

(ii) H

an bn

+ k=1

+ k=1 (M bk )

sugklnei, epshc.

Ap

|ak |

sugklnei.

sugklnei kai, epomnwc, enai fragmnh. 'Ara, uprqei mh arnhtikc

M ste perptwsh (i).

arijmc
Paradegmata:

|an | bn

an bn

gia kje

n N

kai katalgoume sthn

O.E.D.

1.

+ 3kk2 k=1 k4 k2 +3

.
3 1 3nn2 n4 n2 +3 n 1 1 n4 n2 +3 = n2 1 1 + 3 . 'Ara, n2 n4 n2 + 3kk2 h k=1 k4 k2 +3 sugklnei apoltwc. 3nn2

Parathrome ti

kai, afo h

2.

+ 1 k=1 k2 sugklnei, + 2k +1 k=1 3k +2k +5 .

Tra,

2n +1

3n +2n +5

sugklnei, h

1+ 21 n 2n 3n 1+ 2n + 35 , opte n 3n + 2k +1 sugklnei. k=1 3k +2k +5

2n +1 3n +2n +5 2n 3n

1.

Epeid h

+ k=1

2 k 3

' Askhsh 18:

'Estw

an > 0 gia kje n N.

kai

An h

ti oi

+ k=1

a2 , k

+ ak k=1 1+ak

+ k=1 1+a2 k

a2 k

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei, apodexte

sugklnoun.

' Askhsh 19:

+ + k+1 k + 1 2 , 1 k=1 ( 1 + k k), k=1 k=1 1+ k , k k + p 1 + p 1 (p R), k=1 k ( k + 1 2 k + k 1) (p R), k=1 k k+1 k + + 1 1 k=2 kp kq (0 < q < p) kai k=1 pk q k (0 < q < p) wc proc th sgklish, + 1 + k sugkrnontc tic me seirc thc morfc k=0 gia katllhla . k=1 k
Meletste tic

'Opou emfanzontai oi parmetroi ntstoiqec seirc sugklnoun.

p, q

brete tic timc touc gia tic opoec h a-

' Askhsh

20:

Brete tic timc tou Dete pte

nei.

(Updeixh:

1 1+xn

1 x = 1 gia tic opoec h k=1 1+xk sugkl 0 kai sugkrnate th seir me katllhlh

gewmetrik seir.)

18

Jerhma 1.4

Kritrio

lgou

tou

d Alembert.

'Estw seir

+ k=1

ak

me

an = 0 gia kje n N. + an+1 1. An lim sup < 1, h k=1 ak sugklnei apoltwc. an + an+1 > 1, h k=1 ak apoklnei. 2. An lim inf an an+1 n+1 3. An lim inf 1 lim sup aan , den uprqei genik an
Apdeixh: 1. Parnoume

sumprasma.

n+1 lim sup aan < x < 1. Tte uprqei n0 N ste x gia kje n n0 . Sunepgetai |an0 +1 | x|an0 |, |an0 +2 | 2 x|an0 +1 | x |an0 | kai, epagwgik, |an | xnn0 |an0 | gi kje n n0 . + + k n Sugkrnoume tic seirc k=n0 |ak | kai k=n0 x . Isqei |an | M x , pou

ste

an+1 an |

M =

|an0 | + k k=n0 x sugklnei, diti prorqetai ap th gewmetrik seir xn0 . H + k k=0 x met ap apaloif twn n0 1 arqikn prosjetwn thc kai 0 x < 1. + + 'Ara, h k=n0 |ak | sugklnei kai, epomnwc, h k=1 |ak | sugklnei. an+1 2. Uprqei n0 N ste 1 gia kje n n0 . Dhlad, |an | |an1 | an + . . . |an0 | > 0 gia kje n n0 . 'Ara, an 0 kai, epomnwc, h k=1 ak de
sugklnei. 3. Gia thn

+ 1 k=1 k

, h opoa de sugklnei, isqei

1 (n+1)2 1 n2

1 n+1 1 n

n n+1

1.

Gia thn

+ 1 k=1 k2

, h opoa sugklnei, isqei

n2 (n+1)2

1.

O.E.D.

Paradegmata:

1. H

ekjetik seir:

Isqei

xn+1 (n+1)! xn n!

+ xk k=0 k!

n! = |x| (n+1)! = k=0

|x| n+1

0.

'Ara

lim sup

xn+1 (n+1)! xn n!

= 0 < 1

kai,

epomnwc, h seir sugklnei. 2. H gewmetrik seir:

n+1

xk . n+1 x = |x| |x|. An |x| < 1, lim sup xxn = |x| < 1 kai h Isqei xn xn+1 = |x| > 1 kai h seir apoklnei. An seir sugklnei. An |x| > 1, lim inf xn |x| = 1, dhlad x = 1, to kritrio lgou de dnei sumprasma, opte meletme
th seir me llo trpo. Aut qei dh gnei kai eutuqc, diti h gewmetrik seir qrhsimopoijhke sthn apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 1.4.

Jerhma 1.5

Kritrio

rz ac

tou

Cauchy.

'Estw seir

+ k=1

ak .

1. An 2. An 3. An

lim sup lim sup lim sup

n n n

|an | < 1, |an | > 1, |an | = 1,

h seir sugklnei apoltwc. h seir apoklnei. den uprqei genik sumprasma.

x ste lim sup n |an | < x < 1. Tte uprqei n0 N + n ste: n n0 |an | x |an | xn . Sugkrnoume tic seirc k=n0 |ak | + + k kai k=n0 x . Afo x < 1, h deterh seir sugklnei. 'Ara, h k=n0 |ak | + sugklnei kai, epomnwc, h k=1 ak sugklnei apoltwc. n 2. Uprqoun peiroi roi thc akoloujac |an | oi opooi enai 1. Dhlad, + gia peira n isqei |an | 1. 'Ara, an 0 kai, epomnwc, h k=1 ak de
Apdeixh: 1. Dialgoume 19

sugklnei. 3. Gia tic seirc

+ 1 k=1 k

kai

+ 1 k=1 k2

isqei

1 n

kai

1 n2

1.

prth seir apoklnei en h deterh sugklnei.

O.E.D.

Paradegmata:

1.

+ xk k=1 k
Isqei
n

(x R).
xn n

|x| n n

|x|

kai, epomnwc, An

lim sup

xn n

= |x|.
An

h seir sugklnei apoltwc.

|x| > 1,
An

h seir apoklnei.

|x| < 1, |x| = 1, to

An

kritrio rzac de dnei sumprasma. opoa apoklnei. An

x = 1,

h seir enai h

x = 1,
+ xk k=1 k

h seir enai h

+ (1)k k=1 k

+ 1 k=1 k

, h

, h opoa sugklnei kai sugklnei

up sunjkh. ' ra, h A apoltwc mno tan 2.

sugklnei mno tan

1 x < 1

+ x2k k=1 k2
Tra,
n

1 < x < 1. (x R).

x2n n2
2 2n

x = n2 x2 . 'Ara, lim sup n x 2 = x2 . An |x| > 1, h n n seir apoklnei. An |x| < 1, h seir sugklnei apoltwc. An |x| = 1, to kritrio + 1 rzac de dnei sumprasma. 'Omwc, tan x = 1, h seir enai h k=1 k2 kai sugklnei. 'Ara, h seir sugklnei apoltwc, tan |x| 1, kai apoklnei, tan |x| > 1. + k k Exetste th sgklish thc seirc k=1 ( k 1) .
' Askhsh 21: ' Askhsh 22:

Brete tic timc twn paramtrwn

p, q R
1 2 1 3

gia tic opoec h seir

+ k=1

pk k q

sugklnei.

' Askhsh

23:

Exetste th sgklish twn seirn kai

+
1 64

1 24

1 34

1 2

+1+

1 8

1 4

1 32

1 16

1 128

1 1 1 1 + 22 + 32 + 23 + 3 3 + + , efarmzontac ta

kritria lgou kai rzac.

'Iswc anarwthje kanec an uprqei kpoia sqsh anmesa sto kritrio lgou kai sto kritrio rzac sthn perptwsh pou mporon na efarmosjon kai ta do tautoqrnwc, dhlad, an qoume seir

+ k=1

ak

me

an = 0

gia kje

n.

apnthsh enai ti to kritrio rzac enai isqurtero ap to kritrio lgou. Dhlad, an to kritrio lgou dnei kpoio apotlesma gia th sgklish thc seirc, tte kai to kritrio rzac dnei to dio apotlesma kai uprqoun paradegmata seirn gia ta opoa to kritrio lgou de dnei apotlesma en to kritrio rzac dnei. Ap thn llh meri, merikc forc, pwc sto epmeno pardeigma, enai

pio ekolo na efarmosje to kritrio lgou ap to na efarmosje to kritrio rzac.

Pardeigma:

H ekjetik seir:

+ xk k=0 k!

. Gia na

Meletsame th sgklish thc seirc autc me to kritrio lgou. efarmsoume to kritrio rzac, qreiazmaste thn tim tou

lim sup

xn n!

20

lim sup

|x| n n!

. Gia na thn upologsoume ja apodexoume prta to rio

n! +, n n! =
n 2

to opoo enai qrsimo all qi arket gnwst. 'Eqoume

n

1 2n n 2.

([ n ] 2

+ 1) n >

n 2

n 2

Epeid 'Ara,

n 2 +, |x| 0 n n!

sunepgetai

n ( n )n[ 2 ] 2

n ( n )n 2 2

gia kje

n! +. lim sup
xn n!

kai, epomnwc,

loipn, ti h ekjetik seir sugklnei gia kje

= 0 < 1. x R.
+ 2k xk k=1 k2

Sumperanoume,

' Askhsh

24:

Efarmste ta kritria lgou kai rzac stic seirc ,

+ xk k=0 k!
timc tou

+ xk k=1 k2

+ k=0

k 3 xk ,

+ 2k k k=0 k! x ,

kai

+ k k k=1 k x , + k3 k k=0 3k x . Ti

parathrete?

Mporete na apofassete th sgklish twn seirn autn gia tic

gia tic opoec ta do kritria de dnoun apnthsh?

' Askhsh 25:

lim sup

n+1 an > 0 gia kje n, apodexte ti lim inf aan lim inf an+1 an lim sup an . Sumpernate ti, tan to kritrio lgou

An

an

deqnei

sgklish apklish seirc, to dio sumbanei kai me to kritrio rzac kai, tan to kritrio rzac de deqnei tpota, to dio sumbanei kai me to kritrio lgou. (Updeixh: 'Estw
n+1 n+1 x > lim sup aan . Uprqei n0 N ste: aan x gia kje an0 +1 an0 +2 an an n n0 . 'Ara, an n n0 , an = an an +1 an1 xnn0 . Opte n an < 0 0 0 n0 n+1 xx n n an0 kai, epomnwc, lim sup n an x. Afo gia kje x > lim sup aan an+1 n a n a sunepgetai lim sup n x, sumperanoume ti lim sup n lim sup an .)

1.4

Sgklish

up sunjkh.

Sthn prohgomenh enthta meletsame ta kritria sgkrishc, lgou kai rzac, ta opoa, mwc, enai kritria gia na sumpernoume an ma seir enai apoltwc sugklnousa. Qrsimo ja tan kai kpoio kritrio gia seirc oi opoec sugklnoun qwrc, mwc, na sugklnoun apoltwc (dhlad, gia seirc oi opoec sugklnoun up sunjkh). autn ton skop.
Lmma 1.1
' Ajroish kat mrh tou

Ja dome, tra, ma arket shmantik mjodo gi

kai orzoume

sn = a1 + + an
n

gia kje

Abel. 'Estw akoloujec (an ) kai (bn ) n N. Gia kje n 2 isqei

ak bk =
k=1
Apdeixh:

sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 .

k=1 n n

ak bk = a1 b1 + k=2 (sk sk1 )bk = s1 b1 + k=2 sk bk n n1 n n n sk1 bk = k=1 sk bk k=1 sk bk+1 = k=1 sk bk k=1 sk bk+1 +sn bn+1 k=2 n = k=1 sk (bk bk+1 ) + sn bn+1 . O.E.D.
De qreizetai na jummaste autn thn isthta! Arke na katanosoume thn ida: to jroisma

n k=1

n k=1

ak bk

antikajstatai me na llo, sto opoo th jsh

21

twn

ak

parnoun ta diadoqik merik ajrosmat touc

sk

kai th jsh twn

bk

parnoun oi diadoqikc diaforc touc roc

bk bk+1 .

Emfanzetai kai o {akraoc}

sn bn+1 .

Dirichlet. 'Estw do akoloujec (an ) kai (bn ) me tic idithtec: (i) h (bn ) fjnei proc to 0 kai (ii) h akolouja (sn = a1 + + an ) enai fragmnh. Dhlad, uprqei M ste |a1 + + an | M gia kje n N. + Tte h seir k=1 ak bk sugklnei.
Jerhma 1.6

Apdeixh: H

|sk (bk bk+1 )| |sk |(bk bk+1 ) M bk+1 ) = M b1 < +. H teleutaa + isthta isqei, afo h k=1 (bk bk+1 ) enai thleskopik kai bn 0. + n 'Ara, h sk (bk bk+1 ) sugklnei, opte to limn+ k=1 sk (bk bk+1 ) k=1 enai pragmatikc arijmc. Epshc, qoume limn+ sn bn+1 = 0, afo h (sn ) enai fragmnh kai limn+ bn = 0. n Ap to Lmma 1.1 sunepgetai ti to limn+ k=1 ak bk enai pragmatikc + ak bk sugklnei. O.E.D. arijmc kai, epomnwc, h k=1
sugklnei apoltwc, diti

+ k=1

+ k=1 sk (bk bk+1 )

+ k=1 (bk

+ k=1

Pardeigma:

Jewrome opoiadpote seir Tupik pardeigma apotele h

Ta merik ajrosmata thc akoloujac

n k1 k=1 (1)
tou

(1) enai fragmna, afo sn = n enai rtioc. = 'Ara, smfwna me to Jerhma an o n enai perittc. + Dirichlet, h k=1 (1)k1 bk sugklnei. 0, 1,
an o
26:

+ k1 bk , me thn k=1 (1) + (1)k1 seir . k=1 k n1

(bn )

na fjnei proc to 0.

' Askhsh

Brete tic timc thc paramtrou

gia tic opoec h seir

+ (1)k1 k=1 k

sugklnei. Gia poiec ap tic timc autc h seir sugklnei apol-

twc kai gia poiec sugklnei up sunjkh?

' Askhsh

27:

Meletste th sgklish thc seirc

+ k log k k=1 (1) k

' Askhsh

28:

Apodexte ti

(bn ) h opoa fjnei proc to 0 kai s = 0 (1)n (s sn ) bn+1 gia kje n N.

'Estw

+ k1 bk . k=1 (1)

1.5

Dekadikc parastseic.

Jewrome seirc thc morfc

k=1
pou

a1 a2 ak = + + , 10k 10 102
kai pou den epitrpetai to

na enai la ta onomzetai

an {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} gia kje n 1 an ap nan dekth kai pra sa me

dekadik seir.

9.

Kje ttoia seir

22

Kje dekadik seir qei mh-arnhtikoc prosjetouc kai, epomnwc, qei jroisma to opoo enai ete mh arnhtikc arijmc ete

+.

'Omwc, epeid

0 1,

an 10n

9 10n

gia kje

n N kai epeid
+ ak k=1 10k

sumperanoume ti

sunepgetai, bsei thc Prtashc 1.2, ti

+ 9 + 1 9 9 1 1 k=1 10k = 10 k=0 10k = 10 1 10 = + 9 + ak k=1 10k = 1. An k=1 10k = 1, an = 9 gia kje n 1, to opoo
Epomnwc,

antifskei me ma ap tic paradoqc mac gia tic dekadikc seirc.

kje dekadik seir sugklnei kai to jroism thc enai arijmc sto

[0, 1):

0
k=1
Jerhma 1.7

ak < 1. 10k

x [0, 1) uprqei akribc ma dekadik seir thc x. Pio analutik: gia kje x [0, 1) (i) uprqoun an {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9} (n 1) ste na mhn enai la ta an ap nan dekth kai pra sa me to 9 kai ste
Gia kje opoac to jroisma enai so me ton

x=
k=1

ak . 10k
mhn enai

(ii)

an, ektc twn

an ,

uprqoun

la ta

bn

ap nan dekth kai pra sa me to

bn {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9} (n 1) ste na + 9 kai ste x = k=1

an = bn (i)

gia kje

n 1. x [0, 1). [0, 1)

se dka upodiastmata sou mkouc

bk 10k

, tte

Apdeixh: 'Estw

Qwrzoume to disthma

brsketai se na ap aut, opte uprqei

a1 {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}

1 10

. To

ste

a1 + 1 a1 x< . 10 10
To disthma mata mkouc

[ a1 , a1 +1 ) 10 10
1 102

qei mkoc To

1 10

kai to qwrzoume se dka sa upodiast-

to kajna. ste

brsketai se na ap aut, opte uprqei

a2 {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9}

a1 a2 a1 a2 + 1 + x< + . 10 102 10 102

Suneqzontac epagwgik, blpoume ti gia kje ste

n 1 uprqei an {0, 1, . . . , 9}

a1 an a1 an + 1 + + n x < + + . 10 10 10 10n an Epomnwc, ta merik ajrosmata sn twn 10n (n 1) ikanopoion thn sn x < 1 1 sn + 10n , isodnama, thn 0 x sn < 10n gia kje n 1. 'Ara sn x kai,
epomnwc,

x=
k=1
23

ak . 10k

Ac upojsoume, gia na katalxoume se topo, ti ta kai pra la sa me to

an

enai ap nan dekth

9.

Dhlad, ti uprqei

n0 1

ste

an = 9

gia kje

n n0 + 1. x=

Tte

an0 a1 + + n0 + 10 10

k=n0 +1

9 a1 an0 9 = + + n0 + n0 +1 k 10 10 10 10

k=0

1 10k

an0 9 1 1 a1 a1 an0 + + n0 + n0 +1 1 = 10 + + 10n0 + 10n0 10 10 10 1 10

a1 10

kai aut antifskei me to ti isqei kje

+ +

an 10n

x<

a1 10

+ +

an +1 10n

gia

kai, epomnwc, kai gia to

n0 . bn {0, 1, 2, . . . , 9} (n 1) ste na 9 kai ste na isqei

(ii) x =

'Estw ti, ektc twn

an ,

uprqoun

mhn enai la ta

kpoio

n 1 ste an = bn . Baftzoume n0 to elqisto n N gia to opoo isqei an = bn , dhlad, a0 = b0 , a1 = b1 ,. . . ,an0 1 = bn0 1 kai an0 = bn0 . Ac upojsoume, qwrc blbh thc genikthtac, ti an0 < bn0 . Tte ap thn isthta + ak + bk + ak + bk k=1 10k sunepgetai h k=n0 10k = k=n0 10k kai ap autn, k=1 10k = qrhsimopointac kai to ti an bn 9 gia kje n, sunepgetai 1 bn an 0 n0 0 = n0 10 10
+ +

+ bk k=1 10k

bn

ap nan dekth kai pra sa me to

Ac upojsoume, gia na katalxoume se topo, ti uprqei

k=n0 +1

ak 10k

k=n0 +1

bk 10k

=
k=n0 +1
Tra, mwc,

ak bk 10k

k=n0 +1

9 1 = n0 . 10k 10

sunepgetai ti kje anisthta sthn prohgomenh allhlouq-

a isottwn kai anisottwn prpei na enai isthta, opte

+ 9 k=n0 +1 10k

+ ak bk k=n0 +1 10k

kai, bsei thc Prtashc 1.2,

Aut sumbanei mnon an

an bn = 9 gia kje an = 9 kai bn = 0 gia kje n n0 +1 kai katalgoume

O.E.D.

= n n0 + 1 .

se antfash me nan ap touc periorismoc gia tic dekadikc seirc. 'Ara, isqei

an = bn

gia kje

n 1.

Orismc 1.6

Smfwna me to Jerhma 1.7, gia kje

ma dekadik seir
dekadik

+ ak k=1 10k

ste

x=

+ ak k=1 10k

. Tte lme ti

x [0, 1) uprqei akribc x

o qei th

parstash

x = 0, a1 a2 a3 . . . .
Epshc, to

an

onomzetai

-ost

dekadik

yhfo

tou

x.
h dekadik

' Askhsh

29:

Apodexte ti, an

parstash tou

x,

isqei

x [0, 1) kai x = 0, a1 a2 a3 . . . enai an = 10n x 10[10n1 x] gia kje n 1.

24

1.6

Dunamoseirc.

Orismc 1.7

An

(an )

enai opoiadpote akolouja sto

R,

h seir

ak (x x0 )k
k=0
onomzetai
dunamoseir me suntelestc

an (n = 0, 1, . . .)

, parmetro

xR

kai kntro

x0 R. t0 enai sh ak (x x0 )k = a0 +

'Opwc kai sto pardeigma thc gewmetrikc seirc, knoume thn paradoq ti, an

t = 0,

h tim tou

me to

analutik:

+ k=0

+ k=1

Enai faner ti h gewmetrik seir moseirc.

1, pwc kai gia kje t = 0. Pio ak (x x0 )k . + k k=0 x enai eidik perptwsh duna-

To ousiastik prblhma pou antimetwpzoume, dedomnhc miac dunamoseirc, enai na brome lec tic timc thc paramtrou sugklnei. Enai, bbaia, profanc ti kje dunamoseir tan h parmetroc

x gia tic opoec h dunamoseir

+ k=0 ak (x + k=0 ak (x0

+ k=1

x prei ak (x0 x0 )k = a0 . 0 a +),

thn tim

x0 .
+ k=0

Prgmati,

x0 )k sugklnei x0 )k = a0 +

Orismc 1.8

'Estw dunamoseir o arijmc

ak (x x0 )k .

An

a = lim sup

|an |

(opte

R=
onomzetai

1 1 = a lim sup n |an | = + kai (x0 R, x0 + R)

1 0

aktna

sgklishc

thc dunamoseirc. (Deqmaste ti Epshc, to disthma

1 +

=0

kai, epomnwc,

0 R +.) R

onomzetai

disthma sgklishc

thc dunamoseirc.

Aut h onomasa tou

kajc kai h onomasa tou

(x0 R, x0 + R) R=
1 a

dikaio-

logontai ap to paraktw Jerhma 1.8.

Jerhma 1.8

'Estw dunamoseir

+ k=0

ak (x x0 )k

kai

1 . lim sup n |an |

R > 0 kai x (x0 R, x0 + R), h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc. R < + kai x [x0 R, x0 + R], h dunamoseir apoklnei. / 3. An R < + kai x = x0 R, den uprqei genik sumprasma (ektc, bbaia, ap thn perptwsh R = 0, opte h seir sugklnei apoltwc).
1. An 2. An Apdeixh: Gia ta 1 kai 2 efarmzoume to kritrio thc rzac gia sgklish seirn. 1. 'Estw

0 < R +
n

(, isodnama,

0 a < +)
n

kai

|x x0 | < R.

Tte

lim sup

|an (x x0 )n | = |x x0 | lim sup

25

|an | = |x x0 |a =

|x x0 | < 1. R

2. 'Estw

0 R < +
n

(, isodnama,

0 < a +)
n

kai

|x x0 | > R.

Tte

lim sup

|an (x x0 )n | = |x x0 | lim sup

+ k=0 (x

|an | = |x x0 |a =

|x x0 | > 1. R

3. Gia th dunamoseir

1 1, opte a = 1. An + k k=0 (1) oi opoec apoklnoun.

Gia th dunamoseir

x0 )k upologzoume R = 1. Prgmati, n |1| = + x = x0 1, katalgoume stic seirc k=0 1k kai

qoume
n

+ (xx0 )k k=0 (k+1)2

1 (n+1)2

a = 1

kai

R = 1.

An

x = x0 1,

katalgoume stic

1 1, opte n n+1)2 + 1 seirc k=0 (k+1)2 kai

+ (1)k k=0 (k+1)2

oi opoec sugklnoun.

Gia th dunamoseir

+ (xx0 )k k=0 k+1

qoume

1 n+1

a=1

kai

R = 1.

An

x = x0 + 1,

katalgoume sth seir

1 1, n n+1 + 1 k=0 k+1 h

opte opoa

+ (1)k apoklnei kai, an x = x0 1, sth seir k=0 k+1 h opoa sugklnei. k + (1)n n 1 k (xx0 ) qoume = n+1 1, Gia th dunamoseir n k=0 (1) k+1 n+1 + (1)k opte a = 1 kai R = 1. An x = x0 + 1, katalgoume sth seir k=0 k+1 + 1 h opoa sugklnei kai, an x = x0 1, sth seir k=0 k+1 h opoa apoklnei.
O.E.D.

Blpoume, loipn, ti se kje dunamoseir h aktna sgklisc thc 1. an 2. an

+ k=0

ak (xx0 )k

antistoiqzetai

R [0, +]

kai ti uprqoun ta exc apl endeqmena:

R = +, h seir sugklnei gia kje x (, +), R = 0, h seir sugklnei, an x = x0 , kai apoklnei gia

kje llh tim tou

x
3.

kai an

0 < R < +, h seir sugklnei gia kje x A kai apoklnei gia x A, pou A enai to disthma (x0 R, x0 + R) sto opoo mpore na qoun prosteje na kai ta do kra x0 R. Dhlad A = (x0 R, x0 + R) (x0 R, x0 +R] [x0 R, x0 +R) [x0 R, x0 +R], anloga me th sugkekrimnh
kje seir. Grfontac

perptwsh, blpoume ti se lec tic periptseic h gia kje

A = (, +) sthn prth perptwsh kai A = {x0 } sth deterh + k k=0 ak (x x0 ) sugklnei x A. 'Ara, se kje x A antistoiqzetai o arijmc
+

s(x) =
k=0
kai, epomnwc, orzetai ma sunrthsh
orzei th sunrthsh

ak (x x0 )k s : A R. Lme ti s : A R
h h dunamoseir ap th

s : A R

ti

orzetai

dunamoseir.

Gia pardeigma, h gewmetrik seir tpo

s(x) =

1 1x

+ k=0

xk

orzei thn

s : (1, 1) R

me

gia kje

x (1, 1). A.
Dhlad na uprqei sunrthsh

'Opwc fanetai kai sto pardeigma, enai dunatn h sunrthsh netai kai ektc tou sunlou

s na epektef : B R me

26

B A, B = A, ste f (x) = s(x) gia kje x A. Prgmati, sto 1 f : R \ {1} R me tpo f (x) = 1x gia kje x R \ {1} enai s. 'Omwc, prosxte ti h dunamoseir orzei thn s kai qi thn f .
Paradegmata:

pardeigma h epktash thc

1.

H ekjetik dunamoseir:

a = 0 kai, epomnwc, h aktna sgklishc thc ekjetikc dunamoseirc enai R = +. Dhlad, to disthma sgklishc thc dunamoseirc enai to (, +), opte h ekjetik dunamoseir sugklnei kai, mlista, apoltwc gia kje x R.
Gnwrzoume dh ti opte H onomasa autc thc dunamoseirc ofeletai sto epmeno apotlesma.
Prtash 1.11

1 n!

+ xk k=0 k! . 1 0, n n!

ex =
k=0
Apdeixh: stash 1. Parnoume tuqn

xk , k!
kai

x R. n N
kai jewrome thn par-

x t 1 n n! 0 e (x t) dt. Efarmzontac diadoqikc oloklhrseic kat mrh, n x t x t 1 xn 1 xn1 n n1 qoume dt = x (n1)! + n! 0 e (x t) dt = n! + (n1)! 0 e (x t) n! n 1 n 1 x t x 1 1 n2 dt = . . . = x x + 0! 0 et dt = x x 1+ (n2)! 0 e (xt) n! 1! n! 1! x k x x n 1 xn+1 ex . 'Ara ex k=0 x = n! 0 et (x t)n dt e 0 (x t)n dt = (n+1)! ex 0 k! n! + xk kajc n +. To teleutao isqei, diti h seir k=0 k! sugklnei kai, xn 0. epomnwc, n! + xk x 'Ara, k=0 k! = e gia kje x > 0. H apdeixh enai parmoia sthn perptwsh

x > 0

x<0

kai to apotlesma enai profanc, an

x = 0. n N kai jtoume A = tn+1 A (n+1)! gia kje

2. Ac dome ma enallaktik apdeixh. Parnoume, pli, tuqn

x > 0

kai opoiodpote

(n+1)! xn+1

n xk k=0 k!

Orzoume thn

f (t) = e

n tk k=0 k!

t [0, x]. Parathrome ti f (0) = f (0) = f (2) (0) = . . . = f (n) (0) = 0 kai f (x) = 0. Ap tic f (0) = f (x) = 0 sunepgetai ti uprqei x1 (0, x) ste f (x1 ) = 0. Ap tic f (0) = f (x1 ) = 0 sunepgetai ti uprqei x2 (0, x1 ) (0, x) ste f (2) (x2 ) = 0. Ap tic f (2) (0) = f (2) (x2 ) = 0 sunepgetai ti (3) uprqei x3 (0, x2 ) (0, x) ste f (x3 ) = 0. Suneqzontac epagwgik, ap (n) (n) tic f (0) = f (xn ) = 0 sunepgetai ti uprqei xn+1 (0, xn ) (0, x) ste f (n+1) (xn+1 ) = 0. Blpoume ti f (n+1) (t) = et A gia kje t, opte h teleutaa n xn+1 xn+1 xk x x kai, isthta grfetai A = e n+1 . Sumperanoume e k=0 k! = (n+1)! e
epomnwc,

ex

n xk k=0 k!

n xk xn+1 xn+1 k=0 k! = (n+1)! e + k ex , opte k=0 x = ex gia k!

xn+1 x (n+1)! e

kajc

n +.

' ra A

kje

H apdeixh enai parmoia sthn perptwsh profanc, an

x > 0. x < 0

kai to apotlesma enai

x = 0.

O.E.D.

' Askhsh 30:

Sumplhrste tic do apodexeic thc Prtashc 1.11 sthn perptw-

sh

x < 0.
27

Argtera, sto keflaio gia seirc sunartsewn, ja dome kai trth apdeixh thc Prtashc 1.11. 2.
H logarijmik dunamoseir:

k + k1 (x1) k=1 (1) k

Epeid

(1)n1 n

1 n n

1,

sunepgetai

a=1

kai, epomnwc,

'Ara to disthma sgklishc thc dunamoseirc enai to kai h seir sugklnei apoltwc gia kje dunamoseir sugklnei (up sunjkh) tan

R = 1. (1 1, 1 + 1) = (0, 2)
h

x (0, 2). Blpoume ekola ti x = 2 kai apoklnei tan x = 0.

H onomasa thc dunamoseirc ofeletai sto epmeno apotlesma.

Prtash 1.12

log x =
k=1
Apdeixh: 'Estw

(1)k1

(x 1)k , k

x (0, 2].

1 x 1 n Me n 1 tn (x t) dt. n x 1 n n n (x1) diadoqikc oloklhrseic kat mrh: (1) (x t) dt = (1) + n 1 tn+1 n n1 n1 x 1 n1 n (x1) n1 (x1) (1) (x t) dt = . . . = (1) + (1) + + n n1 1 tn n n1 x 1 (x1)2 (x1)2 n (x1) n1 (x1) (x1)+ 1 t dt = (1) +(1) + + 2 (x1)+ 2 n n1 k x 1 n k1 (x1) log x. 'Ara, log x k=1 (1) = 1 tn+1 (xt)n dt . Allzontac th k k n x n x k1 (x1) = 1 (t1) dt . metablht ap t se k=1 (1) t , brskoume log x k t n+1 x (t1)n x 1 An 1 x 2, tte dt 1 (t 1)n dt = (x1) n+1 0 kajc t n+1 1 1 (1t)n 1 x (t1)n dt = x dt (1 x)n x 1 dt = n +. An 0 < x 1, tte 1 t t t 1 (1 x)n log x 0 kajc n +. k n k1 (x1) 0 kajc n + 'Ara, an x (0, 2], isqei log x k=1 (1) k k + k1 (x1) = log x. O.E.D. kai, epomnwc, k=1 (1) k

x (0, 2].

Jewrome thn parstash

'Opwc kai gia thn ekjetik dunamoseir, sto keflaio gia seirc sunartsewn ja dome ma akmh apdeixh thc Prtashc 1.12. Endiafron parousizei h eidik perptwsh tou apotelsmatoc thc Prtashc 1.12, dhlad:

k=1
3.
H dunamoseir tou

(1)k1 = log 2 . k
+ k x2k k=0 (1) (2k)!

sunhmitnou:

Tra, prpei na prosxoume lgo. H akolouja twn suntelestn thc dunamoseirc autc enai

an =
n

(1) 2 n!

an o an o

0,
1 n n!

n n

enai rtioc, enai perittc.

Sunepgetai

|an | =

an o an o

0,

rtiwn kai perittn deiktn thc

(n

n enai rtioc, n enai perittc, |an |) sugklnoun

28

opte oi upoakoloujec sto

0.

'Ara,

a = 0

kai,

epomnwc, kje

R = +. x R.

Kai aut, loipn, h dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc gia

H onomasa autc thc dunamoseirc ofeletai sto ti qrhsimeei gia na orisje to sunhmtono tou
Orismc 1.9

gia kje

x R.
sunhmtono tou

Gia kje

xR

orzoume to

x,

to opoo sumbo-

lzoume

cos x,

wc to jroisma thc

+ k x2k k=0 (1) (2k)!

. Dhlad,

cos x =
k=0

(1)k

x2k , (2k)!

x R.

Autc enai, swc, o aplosteroc trpoc na orisje me austhr majhmatik trpo to sunhmtono enc arijmo. O sunjhc orismc pou majanei kanec sto lkeio exarttai ap th gewmetrik epoptea kai den enai austhr jemeliwmnoc sta aximata twn pragmatikn arijmn. Ap ton orism apodeiknontai orismnec aplc idithtec tou sunhmitnou.

(i) cos 0 = 1. (ii) cos(x) = cos x gia kje x R. (iii) H sunrthsh cos enai suneqc sto
an

shmeo

H apdeixh baszetai stic gnwstc mac anisthtec

|x| < 2, | cos x 1| =

+
2

+ k x2k k=1 (1) (2k)!

kajc

0: limx0 cos x = 1 = cos 0. n! 2n1 . Prgmati, + |x|2k + |x|2k k=1 (2k)! k=1 22k1 =

2 k=1 x 4 (iv) limx0

me

2x2 4x2 1cos x = 1. x2 2

x 0. |x| < 2,
kajc qou-

'Opwc kai sthn apdeixh thc prohgomenhc idithtac, an

1 cos x
+ k=2 x2 k 4

2 (v)

+ x2k 1 2 = k=2 (1)k (2k)! 2x x4 1cos x 82x2 kai, epomnwc, x2

1 2

+ |x|2k k=2 (2k)! x2 82x2 0

+ |x|2k k=2 22k1

x 0.

H sunrthsh Prgmati,

cos

enai paragwgsimh sto shmeo

kai

cos xcos 0 x0

= x 1cos x 0 x2

1 2

Ja dome lgo argtera ti h sunrthsh se kje

= 0 kajc cos enai suneqc kai paragwgsimh 0 pou mlic apodexame. .

cos 0 = 0. x 0.

x R.

Ma apdeixh ja parousiasje sthn epmenh enthta kai ja

qrhsimopoie th sunqeia kai thn paragwgisimthta sto

Ma akmh apdeixh ja parousiasje sto keflaio gia seirc sunartsewn. 4.

H dunamoseir tou hmitnou:

+ k x2k+1 k=0 (1) (2k+1)!

'Opwc kai sto prohgomeno pardeigma, h akolouja twn suntelestn thc dunamoseirc autc enai

0, an =
n n1 (1) 2

an o

n n

enai rtioc, enai perittc.

n!
'Ara,

an o

|an | =

0,
1 n n!

an o

an o

n n

enai rtioc, enai perittc, opte oi upoakoloujec rtiwn

kai perittn deiktn thc

( n |an |)

sugklnoun sto

0.

'Ara,

a=0

kai, epomnwc,

R = +.
kje

H dunamoseir sugklnei apoltwc, kai aut, gia kje

x R. x
gia

Tra, h dunamoseir aut qrhsimeei gia na orisje to hmtono tou

x R.
29

Orismc 1.10

Gia kje

xR

orzoume to

hmtono

tou

x,

to opoo sumbol-

zoume

sin x,

wc to jroisma thc

+ k x2k+1 k=0 (1) (2k+1)!

. Dhlad,

sin x =
k=0

(1)k

x2k+1 , (2k + 1)!

x R.

To sqlio pou kname met ap ton orism tou sunhmitnou isqei kai gia ton orism tou hmitnou. idithtc tou. Epshc, enai ekolo na apodexoume merikc aplc

(i) sin 0 = 0. (ii) sin(x) = sin x gia kje x R. (iii) H sunrthsh sin enai suneqc sto
Diti, an

shmeo

|x| < 2, 1.

qoume

| sin x| =
k

0: limx0 sin x + k x2k+1 k=0 (1) (2k+1)!

kajc

= 0 = sin 0.
+ |x|2k+1 k=0 (2k+1)!

+ |x|2k+1 = |x| k=0 22k (iv) limx0 sin x = x

Omowc, an

+ k=0

x 4

4|x| 4x2

x 0. 1
+ |x|2k+1 k=1 (2k+1)! x2 4x2 0

|x| < 2, tte | sin xx| =

+ k=1 x2 k 4

+ k x2k+1 k=1 (1) (2k+1)!

kai, epomnwc,

+ |x|2k+1 k=1 22k

kajc

= |x| sin

x 0.
sin xsin 0 x0

|x|3 4x2

sin x x

(v)

H sunrthsh Prgmati,

enai paragwgsimh sto shmeo

kai

sin 0 = 1.

sin x x

kajc

x 0.

'Opwc kai me thn ti h sunrthsh

sin

enai suneqc kai paragwgsimh se kje

cos, ja dome lgo argtera kai, mlista, me do apodexeic x R.

' Askhsh 31:

Efarmste to kritrio lgou gia na apodexete th sgklish twn

dunamoseirn tou sunhmitnou kai tou hmitnou.

' Askhsh

32:

'Estw

R.
k
kai

Brete tic aktnec sgklishc twn

+ k=0

k k

+ k=0

k!x

+ 2k k=0 (2k)! x . +

+ k=0

k xk ,

' Askhsh

A, B R kai dunamoseir k=0 ak xk . Upojtoume ti an + Aan1 + Ban2 = 0 gia kje n 2. 1. Apodexte ti gia kje x sto disthma sgklisc thc h seir qei jroisma a0 +(a1 +Aa0 )x 1+Ax+Bx2 . (Updeixh: Pollaplasiste thn an + Aan1 + Ban2 = 0 me + n to x , sqhmatste to n=2 tou apotelsmatoc kai lste wc proc to s(x) = + k ak x .) k=0 2. Upologste thn aktna sgklishc thc seirc. (Updeixh: Brete kai ste + = A kai = B kai parathrste ti an an1 = (an1 an2 ) gia kje n N. Upologste, epagwgik, to an an1 kai, katpin, pli epagwgik, to an .)
33:

'Estw

' Askhsh

34:

'Estw ti h aktna sgklishc thc

m N, brete tic aktnec sgklishc twn + k kai k=0 akm (x x0 ) .

30

+ k=0

+ k=0 ak (x m ak (x x0 )k ,

x0 )k enai R. An + mk k=0 ak (x x0 )

1.7

Ginmeno

Cauchy
+ k=0

seirn.

'Estw do seirc

ak

kai

+ k=0 ck

+ k=0 bk .

Sqhmatzoume mia kainoria seir

wc exc:

c0 = a0 b0 c1 = a1 b0 + a0 b1 c2 = a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0 b2 .........
n

cn = an b0 + an1 b1 + + a1 bn1 + a0 bn =
m=0

anm bm

.........
Orismc 1.11
meno

H seir twn

Cauchy

+ k=0

+ k=0 ck

ak

kai

+ k=0 bk .

+ k=0

k m=0

akm bm

onomzetai

gin-

H ida gia ttoiou edouc pollaplasiasm prorqetai ap tic dunamoseirc, dhlad tic seirc thc morfc

+ k=0

ak x

kai

+ k k=0 bk x

+ k=0

ak xk .

An pollaplasisoume do seirc

pwc pollaplasizoume do polunuma, dhlad oma-

dopointac diec dunmeic tou thc opoac oi suntelestc 1.

x,

blpoume ti sqhmatzetai h seir

+ k k=0 ck x ,

cn

dnontai ap touc parapnw tpouc.

Jerhma 1.9

An h ma ap tic seirc

+ k=0

ak

poltwc kai h llh, aplc, sugklnei, to ginmeno seirn sugklnei kai

+ k=0 bk sugklnei a+ Cauchy k=0 ck twn do

kai

ck =
k=0
2. An kai oi do seirc

ak
k=0 k=0 + k=0 bk

bk .
sugklnoun apoltwc, to ginmeno

Cauchy
Apdeixh:

+ k=0 ck

+ k=0

ak

kai

twn do seirn sugklnei apoltwc.

+ 1. Ac upojsoume ti h k=0 ak sugklnei apoltwc, dhlad ti + + + h |ak | sugklnei, kai ti h k=0 bk sugklnei. 'Estw s = k=0 ak kai k=0 + n n t = k=0 bk . Jewrome ta merik ajrosmata sn = k=0 ak , tn = k=0 bk n n kai un = k=0 ck kajc kai ta Sn = k=0 |ak |. Jewrome, epshc, ton mh + arnhtik arijm S = |ak |. k=0
Gnwrzoume ti apodexoume ti

sn s, tn t un st.

kai ti

Sn S

gia kje

kai jloume na

un = a0 b0 +(a1 b0 +a0 b1 )+(a2 b0 +a1 b1 +a0 b2 )+ +(an b0 +an1 b1 + +a0 bn ) = a0 (b0 + b1 + + bn ) + a1 (b0 + b1 + + bn1 ) + + an1 (b0 + b1 ) + an b0 = a0 tn + a1 tn1 + + an1 t1 + an t0 .
31

'An orsoume

t = tn t, n

tte

t 0 n

kai

un = a0 (t + t) + a1 (t + t) + + an1 (t + t) + an (t + t) n n1 1 0 = a0 t + a1 t + + an1 t + an t + (a0 + a1 + + an )t n n1 1 0 = a0 t + a1 t + + an1 t + an t + sn t. n n1 1 0

'Afou

sn t st,

arke na dexoume ti

a0 t + a1 t + + an1 t + an t 0. n n1 1 0 t 0, uprqei kpoio M ste |t | M gia kje n N. Epshc, n n + afo 0 kai afo h k=0 |ak | sugklnei, prokptei ti gia opoiodpote + > 0 uprqei n0 N ste: |t | < 2S kai k=n+1 |ak | < 2M gia kje n n0 . n + (Gia to detero efarmzoume thn Prtash 1.5.2 sth seir k=0 |ak |.) 'Ara, an n 2n0 ,
Epeid

t n

|a0 t + a1 t + + an1 t + an t | n n1 1 0 |a0 ||t | + |a1 ||t | + + |ann0 ||t 0 | + |ann0 +1 ||t 0 1 | + n n1 n n + |an ||t | 0 2S (|a0 | + |a1 | + + |ann0 |) + M (|ann0 +1 | + + |an |)
+

Afo, mwc,

2S

S+M
k=nn0 +1

|ak |.

n n0 n0 , |a0 t + a1 t + + an t | n n1 0 2S S+M 2M = .

Apodexame, loipn, ti gia kje

an t | 0

> 0 uprqei n0 N ste |a0 t +a1 t + n n1

gia kje

n 2n0 .

Aut shmanei ti

a0 t + a1 t + + an1 t + an t 0. n n1 1 0
2. Tra, upojtoume ti kai h arnhtik arijm kai

Un =

n k=0

T = |bk | kajc kai ta merik ajrosmata Tn = |ck |. Tte

+ k=0

+ k=0 bk

sugklnei apoltwc kai jewrome ton mh

n k=0

|bk |

Un = |a0 b0 | + |a1 b0 + a0 b1 | + |a2 b0 + a1 b1 + a0 b2 | + + |an b0 + an1 b1 + + a1 bn1 + a0 bn | |a0 ||b0 | + (|a1 ||b0 | + |a0 ||b1 |) + (|a2 ||b0 | + |a1 ||b1 | + |a0 ||b2 |) + + (|an ||b0 | + |an1 ||b1 | + + |a1 ||bn1 | + |a0 ||bn |) = |a0 |(|b0 | + |b1 | + + |bn |) + |a1 |(|b0 | + |b1 | + + |bn1 |) +
32

 + |an1 |(|b0 | + |b1 |) + |an ||b0 | = |a0 |Tn + |a1 |Tn1 + + |an1 |T1 + |an |T0 |a0 |T + |a1 |T + + |an1 |T + |an |T = Sn T ST
gia kje

n N.

'Ara h O.E.D.

(Un )

enai nw fragmnh kai, epomnwc, h

+ k=0

|ck |

sugklnei.

Paradegmata:

1. Ginmeno

Cauchy thc k=0 xk me ton eaut thc. n n1 x+ +xxn1 +1xn = An |x| < 1, h seir sugklnei apoltwc kai x 1+x + k n (n + 1)x . 'Ara, h seir k=0 (k + 1)x sugklnei apoltwc, an |x| < 1, kai
+ +

(k + 1)xk =
k=0
2. Jewrome opoiadpote

xk
k=0

1 , (1 x)2

|x| < 1.
+ xk k=0 k! + y k k=0 k! ,

x, y R

kai tic seirc

kai

oi

opoec sugklnoun apoltwc. Upologzoume

xn y 0 xn1 y 1 x1 y n1 x0 y n + + + + n! 0! (n 1)! 1! 1! (n 1)! 0! n! = 1 n! n n 0 x y + n n n1 xn1 y 1 + + =

Epomnwc,

n 1 n1 n 0 n x y + x y 1 0

(x + y)n . n! xk k!
+

k=0

(x + y)k = k!

k=0

k=0

yk , k!

x, y R.

Smfwna me thn Prtash 1.11, h isthta aut epalhjeei th gnwst idithta thc ekjetikc sunrthshc:

ex+y = ex ey ,
+ (x+y)k k=0 k!
3.

x, y R.

Ja dome argtera, sto keflaio gia tic seirc sunartsewn, ti h isthta

+ xk k=0 k!

+ y k k=0 k!

mpore na qrhsimopoihje gia na doje enal-

laktik apdeixh thc Prtashc 1.11. Jewrome opoiadpote

2k + k y k=0 (1) (2k)!

x, y R

kai tic seirc

cos x =

+ k x2k k=0 (1) (2k)!

kai

cos y =

, oi opoec sugklnoun apoltwc. Jtoume

cn = (1)n

x2n y 0 x2(n1) y2 + (1)n1 (1)1 + (2n)! 0! (2(n 1))! 2!

33

 + (1)1 = (1)n (2n)!

x2 y 2(n1) x0 y 2n (1)n1 + (1)n 2! (2(n 1))! 0! (2n)! 2n 2n 2n 2 x2n y 0 + 2n 2n 2 2n 0 x2n2 y 2 + x0 y 2n .

+
Eidiktera,

x2 y 2n2 +

c0 = 1,

opte, bsei tou Jewrmatoc 1.9,

cos x cos y = 1 +
k=1

ck = 1 +
k=0

ck+1 .
+ k x2k+1 k=0 (1) (2k+1)!
kai

Katpin, knoume to dio me tic seirc

2k+1 + k y k=0 (1) (2k+1)!

sin x =

sin y =

. Dhlad, jtoume

cn = (1)n

x2n+1 y 1 x2n1 y3 + (1)n1 (1)1 + (2n + 1)! 1! (2n 1)! 3! x3 y 2n1 x1 y 2n+1 (1)n1 + (1)n 3! (2n 1)! 1! (2n + 1)! 2n + 2 2n + 1 2n + 2 3 x2n+1 y 1 + x3 y 2n1 + 2n + 2 2n 1 2n + 2 1 x2n1 y 3 + x1 y 2n+2

+ (1)1 = (1)n (2n + 2)! +

kai qoume

sin x sin y =
k=0
Parathrome, tra, ti

ck .

cn+1 cn =

(1)n+1 (2n + 2)! 2n + 2 1

2n + 2 2n + 2

x2n+2 y 0 + 2n + 2 0

2n + 2 2n + 1

x2n+1 y 1 +

x1 y 2n+1 +

x0 y 2n+2

= (1)n+1
Epomnwc,

(x + y)2n+2 . (2n + 2)!

+

cos x cos y sin x sin y = 1 +

k=0 +

(ck+1 ck ) = 1 +
k=0

(1)k+1

(x + y)2k+2 (2k + 2)!

=1+
k=1

(1)k

(x + y)2k = cos(x + y). (2k)!

34

1. cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y gia kje x, y R. sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y gia kje x, y R. 2 2 2 2 3. cos(2x) = cos x sin x, sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x kai sin x + cos x = 1 gia kje x R. 4. | sin x| 1 kai | cos x| 1 gia kje x R. 5. Oi sunartseic cos kai sin enai suneqec kai paragwgsimec sto R. Epshc, cos x = sin x kai sin x = cos x gia kje x R. x2 6. | sin x| |x| kai 0 1 cos x 2 gia kje x R.
Prtash 1.13

2.

Apdeixh:

1 kai 2.

H prth isthta qei dh apodeiqje kai h deterh apodei-

knetai me parmoio trpo. 3. Jtoume

y =x

sthn isthta thc 1,

y =x

sthn isthta thc 2 kai

y = x

sthn isthta thc 1, antistoqwc.

sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 qoume sin2 x 1 kai cos2 x 1 kai, epomnwc, | sin x| 1 kai | cos x| 1. 5. Ap th sunqeia thc cos sto 0, limyx cos y = limyx (cos x cos(y x) sin x sin(y x)) = cos x cos 0 sin x sin 0 = cos x. Epshc, ap th sunqeia thc sin sto 0, limyx sin y = limyx (sin x cos(y x) + cos x sin(y x)) = sin x cos 0 + cos x sin 0 = sin x. cos ycos x Ap thn paragwgisimthta thc cos kai thc sin sto 0, limyx = yx
4. Ap thn

limyx cos x cos(yx)sin x sin(yx)cos x = limyx cos x cos(yx)1 sin x sin(yx) yx yx yx = cos x 0 sin x 1 = sin x kai, epomnwc, cos x = sin x.
Me ton dio trpo,

limyx

= limyx sin x cos(yx)1 + yx epomnwc, sin x = cos x. 6. H sunrthsh me tpo f (x) = xsin x qei pargwgo f (x) = 1cos x 0 gia kje x kai, epomnwc, enai axousa. 'Ara, f (x) f (0) , isodnama, sin x x gia kje x 0. An 0 x 1 < 2 , sunepgetai | sin x| = sin x x = |x|. An 1 < x, | sin x| 1 < x = |x|. 'Ara, | sin x| |x| gia kje x 0. Tloc, an x 0, | sin x| = | sin(x)| | x| = |x|.
Tloc, O.E.D.

sin ysin x = limyx sin x cos(yx)+cos x sin(yx)sin x yx yx cos x sin(yx) = sin x 0 + cos x 1 = cos x kai, yx

1 cos x = 1 cos2

x 2

+ sin2

x 2

= 2 sin

x 2

x 2 2

x2 2

'Ola ta apotelsmata thc Prtashc 1.13 ja apodeiqjon me enallaktik trpo argtera, sto keflaio gia seirc sunartsewn.

' Askhsh 35:

Apodexte ti

+ k k=0 (k+1)(k+2)x

2 (1x)3

gia kje

x (1, 1).

' Askhsh 36:

H seir

+ (1)k k=1 k
pou

sugklnei. Apodexte ti to ginmeno (Updeixh: To ginmeno

thc seirc autc me ton eaut thc apoklnei. enai h seir

1 cn = (1)n m=1 mnm gia kje simopoiste thn anisthta 2 m n m m + (n m) = n gia na 2(n1) ti |cn | kai, epomnwc, ti cn 0.) n
35

+ k=2 ck ,

n1

Cauchy Cauchy n 2. Qrhapodexete

1.8

Anadiatxeic

seirn.

Orismc 1.12

'Estw

(an )

ma akolouja sto

R.

Jewrome ma na-proc-na

kai ep apeiknish

: N N,
Dhlad, oi arijmo

n (n) N.

(n) (n N)

perilambnoun ap ma for kje fusik An

arijm , me lla lgia, apotelon ma anaditaxh twn fusikn arijmn. jsoume

an = a(n) ,
tte h

n N, (an ). an .
Epshc, lme ti h seir

(an )

onomzetai

anaditaxh

thc

enai ma

anaditaxh

thc seirc

+ n=1

+ n=1

an

An

ak kai sn = k=1 ak , oi arijmo sn kai sn den enai dioi. To sn periqei touc a1 , a2 , . . . , an en to sn periqei touc a(1) , a(2) , . . . , a(n) . + Epomnwc, den enai kajlou bbaio kai en gnei den isqei ti, an s = k=1 ak , + dhlad, an sn s, tte s = ak , dhlad, sn s. k=1 sn =
Pardeigma:

n k=1

Gnwrzoume ti h seir th seir

1+

1 3

1 2

1 5

+ (1)k1 = k=1 k 1 1 1 + 1 + 11 7 4 9

1 1 + 1 1 + sugklnei. Jewrome 2 3 4 1 + , h opoa enai anaditaxh thc 6

prohgomenhc. Ja apodexoume ti h deterh seir sugklnei, epshc, all ti qei diaforetik jroisma ap thn prth. Parathrome ti h deterh seir apoteletai ap omdec trin rwn, pou h

sn ta merik ajrosmata 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 thc deterhc seirc, qoume s3n = 1+ 3 2 + 5 + 7 4 + + 4n3 + 4n1 1 1 1 1 2n . Tte s3(n+1) s3n = 4n+1 + 4n+3 2n+2 > 0 kai, epomnwc, h (s3n ) enai 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 axousa. Epshc, s3n = 1+ 3 2 5 7 2n2 4n3 4n1 2n < 1+ 4 1 3 = 3 epeid kje parnjesh enai jetik. 'Ara, h (s3n ) enai kai nw fragmnh 1 kai, epomnwc, sugklnei se kpoio s R. Tra, s3n+1 s3n = 4n+1 0 kai 1 1 s3n+2 s3n = 4n+1 + 4n+3 0, opte s3n+1 s kai s3n+2 s. 'Ara, sn s 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 kai, epomnwc, 1 + 3 2 + 5 + 7 4 + 9 + 11 6 + = s. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 Tloc, qoume s = 1+ 3 2 + 5 + 7 4 + 9 + 11 6 + > 1+ 3 2 = 6 . 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 An, tra, t = 1 2 + 3 4 + , tte t = 1 2 + 3 4 5 6 7 < 1 1 + 1 = 5 . 'Ara, t < s. 2 3 6 n-ost omda enai h
. An onomsoume 'Estw ti h

1 1 1 4n3 + 4n1 2n

Jerhma 1.10

anaditaxh

+ k=1

ak

thc

+ k=1

+ k=1

ak

sugklnei apoltwc.

Tte opoiadpote

ak

sugklnei, epshc, apoltwc kai

ak =
k=1 k=1

ak .

36

Apdeixh: 'Estw ti

:NN

enai h na-proc-na kai ep apeiknish h opoa

an = a(n) gia kje n N. + n 'Estw |ak | = S . An Sn = k=1 k=1 |ak |, tte Sn S , afo oi roi |a1 |, . . . , |an |, dhlad oi roi |a(1) |, . . . , |a(n) |, enai orismnoi mnon ap touc + |a1 |, |a2 |, . . . . 'Ara h (Sn ) enai nw fragmnh kai, epomnwc, h k=1 |ak | suorzei thn anaditaxh. Dhlad, gklnei.

s = k=1 ak kai ja apodexoume ti k=1 ak = s. Afo h ak sugklnei apoltwc kai afo sn s, gia opoiodpote > 0 + uprqei n0 N ste k=n0 +1 |ak | < 2 kai: n > n0 |sn s| < 2 . Ja sugkrnoume, tra, ta sn kai sn gia megla n. Dialgoume n1 arket meglo ste oi dektec (1), (2), . . . , (n1 ) na perilambnoun touc 1, 2, . . . , n0 . Enai profanc ti n1 n0 . Tte, an n n1 ( n0 ), sto sn sn den perilambnontai oi roi a1 , a2 , . . . , an0 , afo kajnac ap autoc periqetai ap ma for sto sn kai sto sn . Epomnwc, + an n n1 , |sn sn | |ak | < 2 . 'Ara, gia kje n n1 isqei k=n0 +1 |sn s| |sn sn | + |sn s| < 2 + 2 = . 'Ara, sn s. O.E.D.
'Estw, tra,

+ k=1

' Askhsh

37:

Upologste to jroisma thc seirc

1 24

1 210

1 29

1 28

1 27

1 215

1 214

1 213

1 212

1 1 + 1 + 23 + 2 1 + 211 + .

1 22

1 26

1 25

' Askhsh 38:

1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 + . Jewrome 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 thn anaditaxh 1 2 + 3 4 + 5 + 7 6 + 9 + 11 + 13 + 15 8 + 17 + 19 + 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 21 + 23 + 25 + 27 + 29 + 31 10 + . Apodexte ti h deterh seir apoklnei

'Estw h sugklnousa seir sto

+.

37

38

Keflaio 2
Akoloujec Sunartsewn.

2.1

Kat shmeo sgklish.

'Estw opoiodpote mh ken snolo A, sunrthsh f : A R kai sunartseic fn : A R gia kje n N. Oi sunartseic autc sqhmatzoun ma (fn ). Sunjwc, to A enai uposnolo tou R , geniktera, tou Rm gia kpoio m 1.
akolouja sunartsewn Orismc 2.1

Lme ti

(fn )

sugklnei

kat

shmeo

sthn

sto

snolo

kai sumbolzoume

fn f
an gia kje dhlad,

k.sv.

sto

A,
sugklnei ston arijm

x A

h akolouja arijmn

(fn (x))

f (x),

fn (x) f (x) ,
'H allic:
k.sv.

x A.
gia kje .

fn f sto A, an gia kje x A kai n0 = n0 ( , x) N ste: n n0 |fn (x) f (x)| <

suqn anafor se aut.

> 0

uprqei

Ta epmena paradegmata prpei na melethjon prosektik, diti ja gnetai

Paradegmata:

1 A = , f : A R kai fn (x) = f (x) + n gia kje n N. k.sv. Tte fn : A R kai fn f sto A, afo fn (x) f (x) gia kje x A. x 2. 'Estw fn : [0, ) R me tpo fn (x) = 1+nx . x Tte fn (0) = 0 0 kai, an x > 0, fn (x) = 1+nx 0. 'Ara, fn (x) 0 gia k.sv. kje x [0, ), opte fn sto [0, ).
1. 'Estw
0

'Otan grfoume orismo 3.

ennoome th

mhdenik sunrthsh 0 0

me opoiodpote pedo

A. Dhlad, th sunrthsh 'Estw fn : [0, 1] R me tpo fn (x) =

: A R me tpo (x) = 0 gia kje x A. , x 1, 1 0x n.

1 n

1 1+nx nx 2 ,

39

fn (0) = 0 0 kai, an 0 < x 1, gia arket meglo n, kai sugkekri1 1 n x , isqei fn (x) = 1+nx 0. 'Ara, fn (x) 0 gia kje x [0, 1] k.sv. kai, epomnwc, fn sto [0, 1]. 1 4. 'Estw fn : (0, 1] R me tpo fn (x) = 1+nx . k.sv. An 0 < x 1, fn (x) 0. 'Ara, fn sto (0,1]. x . 5. 'Estw fn : R R me tpo fn (x) = n k.sv. Tte fn (x) 0 gia kje x R, opte fn sto R. x 6. 'Estw fn : (1, +) R me tpo fn (x) = . x+n k.sv. Tte fn sto (1, +). n 7. 'Estw fn : [0, +) R me tpo fn (x) = x+n2 . k.sv. Pli, fn sto [0, +). n 8. 'Estw fn : [0, 1] R me tpo fn (x) = x . k.sv. n Tte fn (1) = 1 1 kai, an 0 x < 1, fn (x) = x 0. ' ra, fn f sto A 0, 0 x < 1, [0, 1], pou h f qei tpo f (x) = 1, x = 1. 1 1 (n+1)x1 , n x 1, 9. 'Estw fn : [0, 1] R me tpo fn (x) = 1 n2 x, 0x n. 1 Tte fn (0) = 0 0 kai, an 0 < x 1, gia arket meglo n isqei n x, k.sv. 1 opte fn (x) = sto [0, 1]. (n+1)x1 0. 'Ara fn
Tte mna gia
0 0 0 0 0 0

10. 'Estw

fn : [0, 2] R me tpo fn (x) = sin(nx) . n k.sv. 1 Gia kje x [0, 2] isqei |fn (x)| sto [0, 2]. n 0. 'Ara, fn 11. 'Estw fn : [0, 2] R me tpo fn (x) = cos(nx). n An x = , cos(n) = (1) , opte h (fn ()) de sugklnei. 'Ara, h (fn ) sugklnei kat shmeo se kama sunrthsh sto [0, 2].
0

de

nx n x fn (x) = 1+n2 x2 kai gn (x) = 1+n2 x2 gia kje x R. Apodexte ti oi (fn ) kai (gn ) sugklnoun kat shmeo se kpoiec sunartseic f kai g , antistoqwc, sto R. Poiec enai oi sunartseic autc?
' Askhsh 1:

'Estw

' Askhsh

2:

'Estw pou
1

fn (x) =

sto

R \ {0},

x n n[x]

gia kje

x = 0.

Apodexte ti
1

fn

k.sv.

enai h stajer sunrthsh me tpo

(Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste thn anisthta

(x) = 1 [a] a [a] + 1.)

gia kje

x.

x fn (x) = n [ n ] gia kje x = 0. x k.sv. 1. Apodexte ti fn sto (0, +). (Updeixh: An x > 0, meletste tic x x timc tou kai, epomnwc, tou [ ] tan to n enai pol meglo.) n n 2. Apodexte ti, an to A R \ {0} periqei toulqiston nan arnhtik arijm, h (fn ) de sugklnei kat shmeo se kama sunrthsh sto A. (Updeixh: Efarmste thn prohgomenh updeixh sthn perptwsh x < 0.)
' Askhsh 3:

'Estw

fn f sto A kai gn g sto A kai , R. Tte 1. fn + gn f + g sto A, k.sv. 2. fn gn f g sto A kai, 3. an, epiplon, g(x) = 0 kai gn (x) = 0 gia kje x A kai gia kje n 1, tte fn k.sv. f gn g sto A.
Prtash 2.1

'Estw

k.sv.

k.sv.

k.sv.

40

Apdeixh: 'Estw opoiodpote 1. 2. 3.

x A. Tte (fn + gn )(x) = fn (x) + gn (x) f (x) + g(x) = (f + g)(x), (fn gn )(x) = fn (x)gn (x) f (x)g(x) = (f g)(x) kai fn (x) f (x) fn f gn (x) = gn (x) g(x) = g (x)
O.E.D. Oi epmenec treic erwtseic enai pol shmantikc gia th Majhmatik An-

lgw gnwstn idiottwn twn akoloujin arijmn.

lush.

Erthsh

enai h

fn f f suneqc sto x0 ?
1:

An

k.sv.

sto A kai kje

fn 8

enai suneqc se kpoio

x0 A, 1

Apnthsh:

'Oqi pntote.

Sto pardeigma

lec oi

fn

enai suneqec sto

all h

den enai suneqc sto

k.sv.

1.
oloklhrsimh

Erthsh

2:

An h

sto

[a, b], enai b f (x) dx? a

1 0

fn f sto [a, b] kai kje fn enai Riemann f Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] kai isqei
Sto pardeigma 9,

b a

fn (x) dx
1 2
,

Apnthsh:

'Oqi pntote.

1 0

fn (x) dx =

1 2

+ 2 log n n+1

en

f (x) dx =
An

1 0

(x) dx = 0.
sto

Erthsh 3:

paragwgsimh

fn f sto A kai kje fn enai paragwgsimh k.sv. sto A kai isqei fn f sto A?
k.sv.
0

k.sv.

A,

enai h

Apnthsh:

'Oqi pntote.
0

fn sto [0, +). H stajer sunrthsh enai 1 paragwgsimh. All fn (x) = (1+nx)2 , opte fn (0) = 1 1 kai, an x > 0, fn (x) 0. Dhlad h (fn ) sugklnei kat shmeo sto [0, +) sth sunrthsh k.sv 0, 0 < x, me tpo g(x) = kai, epomnwc, fn = sto [0, +). 1, x = 0 Sto pardeigma 8 kje fn enai paragwgsimh sto 1 en h f den enai paragwgsimh sto 1. Sto pardeigma 10, fn (x) = cos(nx) kai h (fn ) den sugklnei kat shmeo
Sto pardeigma 2,
0 0

se kama sunrthsh, pwc fanetai sto pardeigma 11.

An orsoume na detero edoc sgklishc akoloujac sunartsewn, thn omoimorfh sgklish, ta do prta erwtmata qoun katafatik apnthsh en ma parallag tou trtou erwtmatoc qei, epshc, katafatik apnthsh.

2.2

Omoimorfh sgklish.

Orismc 2.2

Jewrome na mh ken snolo

omoimorfh

kai sunartseic
twn

g : A R. Orzoume thn sumbolzoume du (f, g), me ton tpo:

kai

apstash

kai

f : A R g , kai thn

du (f, g) = sup |f (x) g(x)|.

xA

41

Dhlad, gia kje

x A brskoume thn apstash twn arijmn f (x) kai g(x) kai supremum autn twn apostsewn kajc to x diatrqei to koin pedo orismo A. To snolo autn twn apostsewn enai, profanc, mh ken, afo uprqei toulqiston na x sto A (A = ). An to snolo aut enai kai nw fragmno, tte to du (f, g) uprqei kai enai pragmatikc arijmc kai,
met brskoume to

mlista, mh arnhtikc, afo lec oi apostseic enai mh-arnhtikc. An, mwc, to snolo twn apostsewn autn den enai nw fragmno, tte 'Ara,

du (f, g) = +.

0 du (f, g) +.
Paradegmata:

1. 'Estw

f, g : [0, 1] R me tpouc f (x) = x kai g(x) = x2 . 2 2 2 Tte |f (x)g(x)| = |xx | = xx , opte du (f, g) = supx[0,1] (xx ) = f, g : R R
me tpouc

1 4

2. 'Estw Tte

f (x) =

x 1+x2

kai

g(x) = 0.
2

3.

x |f (x) g(x)| = , opte du (f, g) = supxR 1+x2 = 1. 'Estw f, g : R R me tpouc f (x) = x kai g(x) = 1. Tte |f (x) g(x)| = |x 1|, opte du (f, g) = supxR |x 1| = +.
'Estw mh-ken kai

x2 1+x2

Orismc 2.3

gia kje

nN

A, akolouja sunartsewn (fn ) f : A R. Lme ti (fn )

h

me

fn : A R

sugklnei omoimorfa sthn

sto A

kai sumbolzoume

fn f
an

om

sto

A,

du (fn , f ) = sup |fn (x) f (x)| 0.

xA
'H allic:

fn f sto A, an gia kje n n0 supxA |fn (x) f (x)| . |fn (x) f (x)|
om

om

>0

uprqei

n0 = n0 ( ) N

ste:

Prpei na tonisje ti h anisthta ti: gia kje

supxA |fn (x) f (x)| x A.

isoduname me to

Prosxte pra pol kal th diafor tou orismo auto ap ton orism thc kat shmeo sgklishc.

A shmanei ti gia kje > 0 uprqei n0 , to opoo exarttai |fn (x) f (x)| gia kje n n0 kai gia kje x A. k.sv. (ii) fn f sto A shmanei ti gia kje > 0 kai gia kje x A uprqei n0 , to opoo exarttai ap to ap to x, ste: |fn (x) f (x)| gia kje n n0 . Sthn omoimorfh sgklish h epilog tou n0 exarttai ap to , all enai {omoimorfh} wc proc to x A : uprqei na n0 gia kje x A. En sthn kat shmeo sgklish diaforetik x kajorzoun (swc) diaforetik n0 (gia to
sto ap to , ste:
kai

(i) fn f

dio

).

Pardeigma:

Ac koitxoume to pardeigma 4 sto opoo sto

(0, 1].

Ac proume opoiodpote

1 fn (x) = 1+nx (x (0, 1]) kai fn x (0, 1] kai opoiodpote me 0 < < 1.
0

k.sv.

42

Tte:

|fn (x) 0|
1 1 x

n + 1,
an to

n0 (x, ) =
an to

1 1 1 x 1 1 1 x

'Ara, to katllhlo

n0

enai ete to

den enai akraioc, ete to

1 1 x

1 enai akraioc. Parathrome ti so to x enai konttera sto 0 n0 (x, ) megalnei kai mlista n0 (x, ) + kajc x 0+ . 'Ara, den uprqei na n0 gia to opoo na isqei |fn (x)0| gia kje x sto (0, 1] kai gia kje n n0 . Epomnwc, h sgklish enai kat shmeon all qi omoimorfh sto (0, 1].
tso to

1 1 x

du (f, g) . Ac A enai uposnolo tou R, opte ta grafmata twn f kai g periqontai sto R2 . Tte: du (f, g) supxA |f (x) g(x)| g(x) f (x) g(x) + gia kje x A. Epomnwc, to grfhma thc f brsketai olklhro anmesa sto grfhma thc g kai sto grfhma thc g + ,
Ac katanosoume ti shmanei {gewmetrik} h anisthta upojsoume ti to dhlad, msa sth znh pou dhmiourgetai summetrik grw ap to grfhma thc

kai qei katakrufo pltoc

'Ara,

to ti gia kje

> 0 f.

ta grafmata lwn

fn f twn fn , ap

om

sto

isoduname me

nan dekth kai pra,

brskontai olklhra msa sth znh katakrufou pltouc ap to grfhma thc

summetrik grw

Pardeigma:

Xanagurnme sto pardeigma 4, pou (sugkekrimna: gia

fn

k.sv.

sto

(0, 1].

Gia mikr

> 0

0 < < 1)
om
0

ta grafmata twn

fn

qoun la kpoio kommti

0

touc xw ap th znh summetrik grw ap to grfhma thc pltouc

katakrufou

. 'Ara,

fn

sto

(0, 1].

Ac epanexetsoume ta paradegmat mac.

Paradegmata:

1 1 du (fn , f ) = supxA |fn (x)f (x)| = supxA n = n 0. Epomnwc, fn f sto A. om 1 x sto [0, +). 2. du (fn , ) = sup0x<+ 1+nx = n 0. 'Ara, fn
1.
0 0

om

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

du (fn , ) = sup0x1 |fn (x)| =

0

1 2

om

. 'Ara,

fn
om
0

sto

[0, 1].

du (fn , ) = sup0<x1
0

1 1+nx

= 1.

'Ara, 'Ara,

fn
om

sto

(0, 1].

du (fn , ) =
0

x supxR n

= +.

fn

sto

R.

x du (fn , 0) = sup1<x<+ x+n = 1 . 'Ara, fn 0 sto (1, +). om 1 n du (fn , 0) = sup0x<+ x+n2 = n 0. 'Ara, fn 0 sto [0, +). om du (fn , f ) = sup0x1 |xn f (x)| = sup0x<1 xn = 1. 'Ara, fn
om

om

sto

[0, 1]. du (fn , ) = sup0x1 |fn (x)| = n. 'Ara, fn sto [0, 1]. om sin(nx) 1 10. du (fn , ) = sup0x2 = n 0. 'Ara, fn sto [0, 2]. n 11. H (fn ) de sugklnei omoimorfa se kama sunrthsh lgw thc epmenhc
9.
0 0 0 0

Prtashc 2.2.

43

Prtash

2.2

An

fn f

om

sto

A, tte fn f

k.sv.

sto

A.

Dhlad, h omoimorfh

sgklish enai pio isqur ap thn kat shmeo sgklish. Apdeixh: 'Estw opoiodpote x A kai > 0. Dialgoume n0 ste: n n0 du (fn , f ) . 'Omwc, |fn (x) f (x)| du (fn , f ) kai, epomnwc: n n0 |fn (x) f (x)| . 'Ara, fn (x) f (x). O.E.D. Met ap aut thn prtash mporome, pio ekola, na brome th sunrthsh proc thn opoa sugklnei (an sugklnei) omoimorfa ma dosmnh akolouja
k.sv.

(fn ).

Prta brskoume

ste

fn f .

Aut enai ekolo, diti gia kje

qoume na knoume me thn akolouja arijmn to onomzoume

f (x)

kai apomnei na

(fn (x)). Brskoume om exetsoume an fn f .

to ri thc,

' Askhsh 4:

'Estw

nei omoimorfa se

fn (x) = xenx (x [0, +)). Apodexte ti h (fn ) sugklkpoia sunrthsh sto [0, +). Poia enai h f ? fn (x) =
1 1+nx

' Askhsh 5:

(fn ) sugklnei [0, +). Poia enai h f ? Apodexte ti gia kje a > 0 h (fn ) sugklnei omoimorfa sthn f sto [a, +).
'Estw Apodexte ti h kat shmeo, all qi omoimorfa, se kpoia sunrthsh

(x [0, +)).

sto

' Askhsh

6:

Na epanalbete thn prohgomenh skhsh me tic

fn (x) = enx

kajc kai me tic

fn (x) = nxenx . fn (x) =

x2n 1+x2n

' Askhsh

7:

'Estw

(x R).

Apodexte ti h

kat shmeo, all qi omoimorfa, se kpoia sunrthsh

sto

(fn ) sugklnei R. Poia enai h

omoimorfa

f?

Katpin, apodexte ti gia kje

sthn

sto

me 0 < 1 h (fn ) sugklnei (, 1 ] [1 + , 1 ] [1 + , +).

'Estw

' Askhsh

8:

fn f

om

sto

kai

B A.
om

Apodexte ti

fn f
sto

om

sto

B.

' Askhsh

9:

dexte ti

A = BC fn f sto A.
'Estw
om

kai

fn f

sto

kai

fn f

om

C.

Apo-

A R, fn f sto A, h (xn ) periqetai sto A, x0 A kai xn x0 . An h f enai suneqc sto x0 , apodexte ti fn (xn ) f (x0 ). (Updeixh: |fn (xn ) f (x0 )| |fn (xn ) f (xn )| + |f (xn ) f (x0 )| du (fn , f ) + |f (xn ) f (x0 )|.)
' Askhsh 10:

'Estw

om

A R, fn f sto A, x0 A kai limxx0 fn (x) = yn R. Apodexte ti: 1. h (yn ) sugklnei sto R kai 2. limxx0 f (x) = limn+ yn . Dhlad,
' Askhsh 11:

Upojtoume

om

shmeo sussreushc tou

xx0 n+
' Askhsh 12:

lim

lim fn (x) = lim

n+ xx0

lim fn (x).
suneqc sto

'Estw

me

g(1) = 0.

Apodexte ti

fn (x) = xn sto [0, 1] kai g : [0, 1] R om gfn sto [0, 1].

0

[0, 1]

44

Orismc 2.4

Ma akolouja sunartsewn
fra gmnh sto

onomzetai

omoimorfa

tic fn , dhlad, n N.

an uprqei

ste

(fn ) me fn : A R gia kje n N A, an uprqei koin frgma gia lec |fn (x)| M gia kje x A kai gia kje
om om

Prtash

2.3

1. An

fn f
kai

om

kai

gn g

sto

kai

, R, fn + gn fn gn f g A,
fn gn
om

f + g A.

sto

A. (fn ) (fn ) (gn )

1 gn
enai omoimorfa fragmnec, sto
om

2. An, epiplon, oi

3. An, epiplon, oi sto

kai

enai omoimorfa fragmnec sto

f g

A.

> 0. Brskoume n0 = n0 ( ) N ste gia kje n n0 na |fn (x) f (x)| 2||+1 kai |gn (x) g(x)| 2||+1 gia kje x A. Tte gia kje n n0 isqei: |(fn (x) + gn (x)) (f (x) + g(x))| |||fn (x) f (x)| + |||gn (x) g(x)| || 2||+1 + || 2||+1 gia kje x A. 2. Uprqei M ste |fn (x)| M kai |gn (x)| M gia kje n N kai gia kje om k.sv. x A. Epeid fn f sto A, sunepgetai fn f sto A, opte gia kje x A isqei fn (x) f (x). 'Ara, |f (x)| M gia kje x A. Dhlad, to koin frgma twn fn enai frgma kai thc f . 'Estw opoiodpote > 0. Dialgoume n0 = n0 ( ) ste gia n n0 na isqei: |fn (x) f (x)| 2M kai |gn (x) g(x)| 2M gia kje x A. Tte gia kje n n0 isqei: |fn (x)gn (x)f (x)g(x)| |fn (x)gn (x)f (x)gn (x)|+|f (x)gn (x) f (x)g(x)| = |fn (x) f (x)||gn (x)| + |f (x)||gn (x) g(x)| M 2M + M 2M = gia kje x A. 1 3. Uprqei M ste |fn (x)| M kai gn (x) M gia kje n N kai gia kje x A. Aut, eidiktera, sunepgetai ti gn (x) = 0 kai, epomnwc, orzontai oi om k.sv. fn gn . Epeid fn f sto A, sunepgetai fn f sto A, opte gia kje x A isqei fn (x) f (x). 'Ara |f (x)| M gia kje x A. Omowc, sunepgetai f 1 g(x) M gia kje x A, opte g(x) = 0 kai, epomnwc, orzetai h g . 'Estw opoiodpote > 0. Dialgoume n0 = n0 ( ) ste gia n n0 na isqei: |fn (x)f (x)| 2M kai |gn (x)g(x)| 2M 3 gia kje x A. Tte gia kje n f n0 isqei: gn (x) f (x) fn (x)f (x) + f (x)(gn (x)g(x)) M 2M +M 3 2M 3 = g(x) gn (x) gn (x)g(x) n (x) gia kje x A. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: 1. 'Estw isqei:
' Askhsh 13:

'Estw

fn (x) =

1 x

1 + n , gn (x) =
om om

1 n

f (x) =

1 x

kai
om

g(x) = 0 gia kje

sto

x (0, +).
' Askhsh 14:

Apodexte ti

fn f , gn g

kai

fn gn f g

(0, +).

fn f sto A. An fn : A [a, b] gia kje n N, apodexte ti f : A [a, b]. An, epiplon, h g : [a, b] R enai suneqc sto om [a, b], apodexte ti g fn g f sto A. (Updeixh: H g enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, b].)
'Estw

om

Cauchy. 'Estw fn : A R gia kje n N. H (fn ) sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia sunrthsh sto A an kai mnon an gia kje
Jerhma 2.1
Kritrio

45

> 0 uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) ste: n, m n0 du (fn , fm ) |fn (x) fm (x)| gia kje x A.

Apdeixh: 'Estw
om

, isodnama,

fn f sto A kai tuqn > 0. Tte uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) ste: n n0 |fn (x) f (x)| 2 gia kje x A. 'Ara: n, m n0 |fn (x) fm (x)| |fn (x) f (x)| + |fm (x) f (x)| 2 + 2 = gia kje x A. Gia to antstrofo stajeropoiome x A. H upjesh sunepgetai ti gia kje > 0 uprqei n0 ste: n, m n0 |fn (x) fm (x)| du (fn , fm ) . 'Ara h akolouja (fn (x)) enai Cauchy kai, epomnwc, sugklnei se kpoion arijm o opooc exarttai ap to x. Se kje x A antistoiqzoume to rio thc k.sv. (fn (x)), to opoo onomzoume f (x). 'Ara fn f sto A. H upjesh enai ti gia kje > 0 uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) ste: n, m n0 |fn (x) fm (x)| gia kje x A. Kajc m + sunepgetai: n n0 om |fn (x) f (x)| gia kje x A. 'Ara fn f sto A. O.E.D.
' Askhsh 15:

An

fn f

om

sto

A kai kje fn

enai fragmnh sto

omoimorfa fragmnh sto me

A.

(Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste to kritrio

A, h (fn ) enai Cauchy

= 1.)
Tra ja dome ti me thn omoimorfh sgklish qoume pio ikanopoihtikc

apantseic sta tra erwtmata pou diatupjhkan sto tloc thc enthtac 2.1 ap' ti me thn kat shmeo sgklish.
Jerhma 2.2

A R, fn f enai suneqc sto x0 , h f enai suneqc sto x0 . sto A, h f enai suneqc sto A.
'Estw mh-ken Apdeixh: 'Estw

om

sto

kai

'Ara, an kje

x0 A. An kje fn fn enai suneqc

fn f sto A, uprqei n0 ste du (fn0 , f ) < 3 . Afo h fn0 enai suneqc sto x0 , uprqei > 0 ste: x A, |x x0 | < |fn0 (x) fn0 (x0 )| < 3 . 'Ara: x A, |x x0 | < |f (x) f (x0 )| |f (x) fn0 (x)| + |fn0 (x) fn0 (x0 )| + |fn0 (x0 ) f (x0 )| du (fn0 , f ) + |fn0 (x) fn0 (x0 )| + du (fn0 , f ) < 3 + 3 + 3 = . O.E.D. > 0.
Afo
Pardeigma:

om

Sto pardeigma 8 mporome na sumpernoume, qwrc upologism thc

om

du (fn , f ),
den enai

ti

suneqc sto

fn f sto [0, 1], 1.

16:

afo kje

fn

enai suneqc sto

en h

' Askhsh

Xanakoitxte stic askseic sto

5, 6
x 1+x2n
2n

kai

tic

fn (x) =

1 1+nx

kai

fn (x) = e

nx

[0, +)

kai tic

fn (x) =

antstoiqec

f,

apodexte, qwrc na upologsete tic

sto R. Afo qete brei tic du (fn , f ), ti h sgklish den

enai omoimorfh.

' Askhsh

17:

'Estw

fn (x) =

0, sin2

x<
x

1 n+1

(fn ) sugklnei kat om fn f sto R?

shmeo se kpoia

x f suneq sto R. ,

1 n+1

1 n 1 n

< x,
. Apodexte ti h Poia enai h

f?

Isqei

46

Jerhma 2.3

'Estw ti kje
om

[a, b] kai ti fn f sto [a, b]. b b kai f (x) dx a f (x) dx. a n

fn : [a, b] R enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto Tte h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] f
enai

Apdeixh: Gia na apodexoume ti h

Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] ja

om

qrhsimopoisoume to Kritrio Oloklhrwsimthtac.

> 0 kai jtoume 1 = 1+2(ba) . Epeid fn f , uprqei n0 N ste du (fn0 , f ) < 1 . Epomnwc, |fn0 (x) f (x)| 1 gia kje x [a, b]. Epeid h fn0 enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], uprqei, bsei tou Krithrou Oloklhrwsimthtac, diamrish = {a = x0 < x1 < . . . < xn1 < xn = b} ste (fn0 , ) (fn0 , ) < 1 . Se kje upodisthma [xk1 , xk ] orzoume Mk = supx[x f (x), mk = inf x[xk1 ,xk ] f (x) kajc kai Mk,n0 = k1 ,xk ] supx[xk1 ,xk ] fn0 (x), mk,n0 = inf x[xk1 ,xk ] fn0 (x). Smfwna me touc orismoc n twn kai , isqei (fn0 , ) (fn0 , ) = k=1 (Mk,n0 mk,n0 )(xk xk1 ) n kai (f, ) (f, ) = k=1 (Mk mk )(xk xk1 ). Gia kje x [xk1 , xk ] isqei f (x) = f (x) fn0 (x) + fn0 (x) |f (x) fn0 (x)| + fn0 (x) 1 + Mk,n0 kai, epomnwc, Mk 1 + Mk,n0 . Omowc, f (x) = f (x) fn0 (x) + fn0 (x) |f (x) fn0 (x)| + fn0 (x) 1 + mk,n0 kai, epomnwc, mk 1 + mk,n0 . Sunepgetai Mk mk Mk,n0 mk,n0 + 2 1 , opte, pollaplasizontac me to xk xk1 kai ajrozontac, brskoume (f, ) (f, ) (fn0 , ) n (fn0 , ) + k=1 2 (xk xk1 ) = (fn0 , ) (fn0 , ) + 2 1 (b a) < 1 + 2(b a) 1 = . Sumperanoume, loipn, ti gia kje > 0 uprqei diamrish tou [a, b] ste (f, ) (f, ) < . Smfwna me to Kritrio Oloklhrwsimthtac, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b]. Afo apodexame ti h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b] kai, epomb nwc, ti to f (x) dx qei upstash, qoume a
Parnoume

fn (x) dx
a a

f (x) dx
a

|fn (x) f (x)| dx

(b a) sup |fn (x) f (x)| = (b a)du (fn , f ) 0.

x[a,b]
'Ara,

b a

fn (x) dx

b a

f (x) dx.

O.E.D.

Paratrhsh:

Tic peristerec forc, tan prokptei perptwsh efarmogc tou

Jewrmatoc 2.3, h sunrthsh-rio simh sto

thc

(fn )

enai faner

Riemann

oloklhr-

[a, b].

Gia pardeigma, mpore lec oi

opte, me efarmog tou Jewrmatoc 2.2, kai mpore na gnwrzoume ton tpo thc

fn h f

na enai suneqec sto enai suneqc sto

[a, b], [a, b]. 'H

kai na diakrnoume ti enai kat tmmata

suneqc kat tmmata montonh sto

[a, b].

Se autc tic periptseic, to prto

kai safc pio dskolo mroc thc apdeixhc tou Jewrmatoc 2.3 (to opoo exasfalzei thn parxh tou apl apdeixh tou ti

b a

f (x) dx) enai peritt kai qreizetai mnon h sqetik b fn (x) dx a f (x) dx.

b a

Pardeigma:

47

Sto pardeigma 9 qoume qwrc na upologsoume to

1 0

fn (x) dx = 1 +2 log n 2 n+1

1 2

kai

1 0

f (x) dx = 0.
sto

'Ara,

om

du (fn , f ),

sumperanoume ti

fn f

[0, 1].

' Askhsh

fn (x) = np x(1 x2 )n (x [0, 1]), pou p R enai parmetroc. Apodexte ti gia kje p R h (fn ) sugklnei kat shmeo se kpoia f p n sto [0, 1]. (Updeixh: Ti tim qei to limn+ n a , an 0 a < 1, kai ti tim qei to dio rio, an a = 1?) Gia poiec timc tou p enai h sgklish omoimorfh? 1 1 f (x) dx 0 f (x) dx? Gia poiec timc tou p isqei 0 n
18:

'Estw

'Opwc fanetai ap ta paradegmata 10 kai 11, de mporome na perimnoume anlogo jerhma gia paraggouc. Dhlad, to ti tai pntote ti katejunsh. 'Estw fn : [a, b] R gia kje n N, g : [a, b] R kai kje fn enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b]. An om (i) fn g sto [a, b] kai (ii) h (fn (x0 )) sugklnei gia toulqiston na x0 [a, b], tte h (fn ) sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia f sto [a, b], h opoa enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b], kai f (x) = g(x) gia kje x [a, b].
Jerhma 2.4

fn f

om

fn f

om

sto

A de sunepge-

sto

A.

Uprqei, mwc, na apotlesma sthn antjeth

fn g sto [a, b] kai h (fn (x0 )) sugklnei, uprqei, smfwna me to kritrio tou Cauchy, n0 N ste: n, m n0 du (fn , fm ) 2(ba) kai |fn (x0 ) fm (x0 )| 2 . Gia kje n, m n0 kai gia kje x [a, b] uprqei anmesa sta x kai x0 ste |fn (x) fm (x)| (fn (x) fm (x)) (fn (x0 ) fm (x0 )) + |fn (x0 ) fm (x0 )| = |fn () fm ()||x x0 | + |fn (x0 ) fm (x0 )| du (fn , fm )(b a) + |fn (x0 ) fm (x0 )| 2(ba) (b a) + 2 = . 'Ara: n, m n0 du (fn , fm ) . Smfwna me to kritrio tou Cauchy, h (fn ) sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia f sto [a, b]. 2. Parnoume tuqn x [a, b] kai ja apodexoume ti f (x) = g(x). om 'Estw > 0. Epeid fn g sto [a, b], uprqei, smfwna me to kritrio tou Cauchy, n0 N ste: n, m n0 du (fn , fm ) 3 kai du (fn , g) 3 .
Apdeixh: 1. Parnoume tuqn

> 0.

Epeid

om

Katpin, epilgoume me

>0

ste:

fn0 (y)fn0 (x) yx

fn0 (x)

gia kje

y [a, b]

0 < |y x| < .
Parnoume, tra,

y [a, b] me 0 < |y x| < kai tuqn n n0 kai qoume (f (y)fn0 (y))(fn (x)fn0 (x)) f (y)f (x) g(x) n + n0 yxn0 fn0 (x) + yx |fn0 (x) g(x)|. Kat' arqn, |fn0 (x) g(x)| du (fn0 , g) 3 . Katpin, uprqei
fn (y)fn (x) yx

anmesa sta

kai

ste

du (fn , fn0 ) 3 . 'Ara, Aut isqei gia kje n n0 kai kje y [a, b] me 0 < |y x| < . Parnontac rio kajc n +, f (y)f (x) qoume g(x) gia kje y [a, b] me 0 < |yx| < . Aut shmanei yx
ti

(fn (y)fn0 (y))(fn (x)fn0 (x)) yx fn (y)fn (x) g(x) 3 + 3 + 3 = . yx

= |fn () fn0 ()|

limyx

f (y)f (x) yx

= g(x)

kai, epomnwc,

f (x) = g(x).

O.E.D.

Parathrseic sto Jerhma 2.4:

1. Upojtoume thn omoimorfh sgklish

48

thc 2.

(fn )

kai sumperanoume thn omoimorfh sgklish thc

(fn ).

Gia thn

(fn )

arke na upojsoume thn kat shmeo sgklish se na mno

shmeo

x0 .
19:

f ste fn f sto R. Apodexte ti h f enai paragwgsimh sto R kai fn (x) f (x), an x = 0, all fn (0) f (0).
' Askhsh

'Estw

fn (x) =

om

x 1+nx2

(x R).

Apodexte ti uprqei

' Askhsh

20:

'Estw

1. Apodexte ti 2.

1 fn (x) = n en x (x R). om k.sv. fn sto R kai fn sto R.

0 0

om

Apodexte ti gia kje

a>0

isqei

fn
1

sto

[a, a]

kai

fn

om

sto

(, a] [a, +).
' Askhsh

fn (x) = |x|1+ n (x [1, 1]). Apodexte ti fn f sto [1, 1] gia kpoia f . Poia enai h f ? Apodexte ti lec oi fn enai paragwgsimec sto 0 en h f den enai paragwgsimh sto 0.
21:

Jewreste tic

om

2.3

To jerhma

tou

Weierstrass.

Lmma 2.1

1.

2. 3.

n k=0 n k=0

k n k k2 n k

x)nk = 1. x (1 x) = nx. xk (1 x)nk = (n2 n)x2 + nx.

k n k=0 n k

n k=0

n k k x (1 nk

Apdeixh: Qrhsimopoiome ton diwnumik tpo 1. Jtoume

tk snk = (t + s)n .

t=x

kai

s = 1 x. t=x
kai

2. Paragwgzoume ton diwnumik tpo wc proc pou prokptei me

kai jtoume

3. Paragwgzoume deterh for wc proc

t, pollaplasizoume thn isthta s = 1 x. t, pollaplasizoume me t kai jtoume

t=x

kai

s = 1 x.

O.E.D.

Sthn enthta aut ja apodexoume mno na jerhma.

Jerhma 2.5

Weierstrass.

An h

f : [a, b] R

enai suneqc sto

[a, b],

gia

kje

>0

uprqei polunumo

ste

|f (t) P (t)| ,

t [a, b].

To apotlesma tou jewrmatoc grfetai isodnama

du (f, P ) .
Parnontac

du (f, Pn ) strass enai h

Jerhma

1 n

1 = 1, 1 , . . . , n , . . . kai ta antstoiqa P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn , . . . , qoume 2 0. 'Ara, ma isodnamh diatpwsh tou jewrmatoc tou Weier-

paraktw.

2.5

Weierstrass.

An h

f : [a, b] R
49

enai suneqc sto

[a, b],

uprqei akolouja poluwnmwn

(Pn )
om

ste sto

Pn f
rousiaste ed enai tou

[a, b].

Uprqoun pollc apodexeic auto tou jewrmatoc. H apdeixh pou ja pa-

S. Bernstein. [0, 1].

Apdeixh: 1. Meletme prta thn perptwsh tou diastmatoc 'Estw

f : [0, 1] R

suneqc sto

[0, 1].

Jewrome to polunumo

Bn (x) =
k=0
Ja dexoume ti gia dedomno

n k k x (1 x)nk . f n k
an proume to

> 0,

n = n( )

arket meglo, to

Bn

enai to zhtomeno

P,

dhlad

|Bn (x) f (x)| ,

Lgw tou Lmmatoc 2.1(1),

x [0, 1].

f (x) = f (x) 1 = f (x)

k=0
Afairntac kat mlh,

n k x (1 x)nk = k

k=0

n f (x)xk (1 x)nk k

Bn (x) f (x) =
k=0
Kratme stajer to tic timc Gia

n k

k f (x) xk (1 x)nk . n

n kai to x [0, 1] kai afnoume ton akraio k na parnei 1 2 k 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, opte o lgoc n parnei tic timc 0, n , n , . . . , n1 , 1. n k 1 1 kpoiec timc tou k o lgoc periqetai sto disthma x , x + , 4 4 n n n x
k n

dhlad

1 4 n

, kai gia tic uploipec timc tou

o lgoc

k n

enai ektc

auto tou diastmatoc, dhlad

x
kai

k n

>
.

1 4 n
Sto

. Qwrzoume, loipn, to jroisma ajrozoume mno touc rouc

n k=0

se do ajrosmata:

oi opooi antistoiqon sta

k
k n

pou ikanopoion thn

k n

1 4 n

kai sto

ajrozoume touc uploipouc rouc, dhlad, autoc oi opooi antistoiqon sta

pou ikanopoion thn

x
n

>

1 4 n

. Sumbolzoume

|xy|

max 1 |f (x) f (y)|.

4n

Tte gia ta

k f

tou prtou ajrosmatoc

isqei

k n

f (x)

. 'Ara,

n k

k f (x) xk (1x)nk n n k x (1 x)nk k

n n k=0

n k

k f (x) xk (1x)nk n
n

n k x (1 x)nk = k

50

Afo h

k n

f enai suneqc sto [0, 1], qei kpoio nw frgma M . k f (x) f n + |f (x)| 2M . 'Eqoume, loipn, n k f k f (x) xk (1 x)nk n n k x (1 x)nk = 2M k 2M = 2M n 2M n = 2M n
n n k ( n x)2 1 ( n )2 4 k (n

Epomnwc,

n 2M xk (1 x)nk k x)2 n k x (1 x)nk k

= 2M

k ( n x)2

n k x (1 x)nk k
2

k x n k x n

n k x (1 x)nk k n k x (1 x)nk k n k x (1 x)nk k

n

k=0

k=0

k2 k 2 x + x2 n2 n

1 = 2M n 2 n

k2
k=0

n k 2x x (1 x)nk k n
n

k
k=0

n k x (1 x)nk k

+x2
k=0

n k x (1 x)nk k

1 2x = 2M n 2 (n2 n)x2 + nx nx + x2 n n M 2M x(1 x) = . n 2 n

'Eqoume, loipn, mqri tra apodexei ti

|Bn (x) f (x)| =

'Estw, loipn,

+
Afo h

f n

M + . 2 n

> 0.

enai suneqc sto

[0, 1]. |f (x) f (y)| 2 .

suneqc sto 'Ara,

'Ara, uprqei Dialgoume

> 0
ste

ste:

1 4 n

[0, 1], enai kai omoimorfa x, y [a, b], |x y| kai 2Mn 2 , opte n 2 . x [0, 1]. [a, b].
Orzoume th sunrthsh

|Bn (x) f (x)|

M + + = , 2 2 2 n
suneqc sto

2. Jewrome, tra, th genik perptwsh diastmatoc 'Estw sunrthsh

f : [a, b] R

[a, b].

: [0, 1] [a, b]

me tpo

x = (t) = (b a)t + a ,
51

t [0, 1].

 enai na-proc-na kai ep kai, epomnwc, : [a, b] [0, 1]. O tpoc thc enai
H

uprqei h antstrofh sunrthsh

t = (x) =

x a , ba ba

x [a, b].

f (t) = f (b a)t + a

g = f : [0, 1] R me tpo g(t) = t [0, 1]. Epeid h g enai snjesh suneqn sunartsewn, enai suneqc sto [0, 1]. Ap to prto mroc thc apdeixhc sunepgetai ti uprqei polunumo Q(t) ste
Katpin, jewrome th snjesh gia kje

|g(t) Q(t)| ,

t [0, 1].

Tra, jewrome th snjesh P = Q : [a, b] R me tpo P (x) = x a Q (x) = Q ba ba gia kje x [a, b]. Epeid to Q enai polunumo, to P enai kai aut polunumo kai, mlista, diou bajmo me to Q. Parathrome ti ap thn g = f sunepgetai h f = g . Tloc,

|f (x) P (x)| = g (x) Q (x)

Pardeigma:

x [a, b]. x [0, 1]

O.E.D.

'Estw h sunrthsh me tpo

f (x) =

gia kje

kai

= 104 .

Ja

akoloujsoume ton algrijmo pou perigrfetai sto prto mroc thc apdeixhc tou Jewrmatoc tou

Weierstrass gia na | x P (x)| 104 gia kje x [0, 1].

brome polunumo
2

ste na isqei

= 4 1 108 , tte: |x y| = 4 1 4 | x y| 2 = 2 10 . Profanc, 0 x 1 gia kje x [0, 1], 1 1 opte M = 1. ' ra, qreiazmaste A 1 108 kai 2n 1 104 , isodnama, 4 4 2 n n 44 1032 . Me n = 44 1032 qoume to zhtomeno polunumo:
Apodeiknetai ekola ti, an proume

44 1032

B44 1032 (x) =

k=0

44 1032 k 44 1032 . P (x)

4 32 k xk (1 x)4 10 k . 44 1032

To polunumo aut enai bajmo

' Askhsh

22:

1.

Brete polunumo

ste

|x| P (x)
kai

x [100, 100].
2. Epshc, brete polunumo kje

1 1000

gia kje

Q(x)

ste

Q(0) = 0

| sin x Q(x)|

x [100, 100].
23:

1 100

gia

f : [0, 1] R suneq sto [0, 1] me thn idithta: x f (x) dx = 0 gia kje n = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . Apodexte ti f = , dhlad, f (x) = 0 gia kje x [0, 1]. (Updeixh: Uprqei polunumo P (x) ste 1 |f (x) P (x)| gia kje x [0, 1]. Bsei thc upjeshc, 0 f (x)P (x) dx = 0. 1 2 1 1 Sunepgetai 0 f (x) dx = 0 f (x)P (x) dx + 0 f (x) f (x) P (x) dx = 0 1 1 1 f (x) f (x) P (x) dx 0 |f (x)||f (x) P (x)| dx 0 |f (x)| dx. Epeid to 0
' Askhsh

Jewrome

1 0

52

enai tuqn,

1 0

f 2 (x) dx = 0.)

'Estw f : [1, +) R suneqc sto [1, +) kai stw ti to limx+ f (x) enai pragmatikc arijmc. Apodexte ti gia kje > 0 uprqei 1 gia sunrthsh thc morfc Q(x) = polunumo tou x ste |f (x) Q(x)| kje x 1. (Updeixh: Jsate l = limx+ f (x). Jewrste thn : (0, 1] [1, +) me tpo x = (t) = 1 kai thn antstrofh : [1, +) (0, 1] me tpo t 1 t = (x) = x . 'Estw g = f : (0, 1] R. H g enai suneqc sto (0, 1] kai, afo orsete g(0) = l , apodexte ti h g enai suneqc sto [0, 1]. Efarmste to Jerhma tou Weierstrass sthn g .)
' Askhsh 24:

'Estw f : [0, +) R suneqc sto [0, +) kai stw ti to limx+ f (x) enai pragmatikc arijmc. Apodexte ti gia kje > 0 uprqei x sunrthsh thc morfc Q(x) = polunumo tou e ste |f (x) Q(x)| gia kje x 0. (Updeixh: Prosarmste thn updeixh thc prohgomenhc skhshc 1 parnontac : (0, 1] [0, +) me tpo x = (t) = log t .)
' Askhsh 25:

53

54

Keflaio 3
Seirc Sunartsewn.

3.1

Genik.

Orismc 3.1

'Estw akolouja pragmatikn sunartsewn

mh ken snolo jroisma

A.

Dhlad,

fn : A R

gia kje

(fn ) n N.

orismnwn se Jewrome to

sn

twn arqikn

ap autc:

sn = f1 + f2 + + fn : A R.
Dhlad,

sn (x) = f1 (x) + + fn (x) gia kje x A. k.sv. s : A R ste sn s sto A, lme + s A kai grfoume k=1 fk
An uprqei sunrthsh
sugklnei kat shmeo sthn sto

ti h seir

fk = s
k=1
An
om

k.sv.

sto

A.

sto

sn s sto A, A kai grfoume

lme ti h seir

+ k=1

fk

sugklnei omoimorfa sthn

fk = s
k=1
To

om

sto

A.
twn

sn

onomzetai
kat

-ost merik jroisma jroisma

fn (n N).

H sunrthsh antistoqwc,

onomzetai

shmeo

omoimorfo

jroisma,

thc seirc

+ k=1

fk

sto

A.
uprqoun enallaktiko sumbolismo

'Opwc kai gia tic seirc arijmn,

kai parallagc twn prohgomenwn sumbolismn:

+ k=0

fk

s=

om

+ k=n0

s = f1 + f2 +

k.sv.

s =

k.sv.

fk

klp.

Paratrhsh:

H isthta

+ k=1

fk = s
55

k.sv.

sto

isoduname me to ti gia kje

x A isqei sn (x) s(x) kai aut isoduname me to ti gia kje x A h seir + arijmn k=1 fk (x) sugklnei ston arijm s(x). Dhlad,
+ +

fk = s
k=1
' Askhsh 1:

k.sv.

sto

k=1 + k=0 (1

fk (x) = s(x) ,

x A.

Apodexte ti h

omoimorfa, se kpoia sunrthsh

x)xk sugklnei kat shmeo, all qi sto (1, 1]. Poia enai aut h sunrthsh?

(Updeixh: Brete ta merik ajrosmata.)

Epomnwc, h sgklish seirn sunartsewn angetai se sgklish akoloujin sunartsewn.

Prtash 3.1

An

+ k=1

fk =s

om

sto

A,

k=1

fk = s

k.sv.

sto

A.

Apdeixh: Jewrome ta

mog thc Prtashc 2.2 sthn

sn = f1 + + fn , opte (sn ). O.E.D. xk . (1, 1) h

+ k=0

h apdeixh enai mesh efar-

Pardeigma:

H gnwst mac gewmetrik seir: Gnwrzoume ti sto disthma sunrthsh me tpo

seir sugklnei kat shmeo sth

(1, 1). (1, 1). An x n+1 n 1xn+1 k (1, 1), qoume sn (x) = k=0 x = 1x , opte sn (x) s(x) = x 1x . An om sn s sto (1, 1), ja prpei gia kje > 0 na uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) ste n+1 |x| gia kje n n0 kai kje x (1, 1). Aut, mwc, |1x| = |sn (x) s(x)|
. Dhlad, sto Ac dome an h sgklish thc seirc enai omoimorfh sto enai adnato, diti gia opoiodpote

s(x) =

1 1x

+ k=0

xk =

k.sv.

1 1x

n qoume limx1
+ k=1 gk
om

|x|n+1 |1x|

= +.

Epomnwc,

h sgklish thc seirc den enai omoimorfh.

Prtash 3.2

An

+ k=1

fk = s,

om

=s

om

sto

kai

, R,

(fk + gk ) = s + t
k=1
To dio isqei gia thn kat shmeo sgklish. Apdeixh: Parnontac 2.3.1 sthn
Prtash

sto

A.

sn = f1 + + fn ,
O.E.D.

efarmzoume tic Protseic 2.1.1 kai

(sn ).
3.3

kpoia sunrthsh) an kai mnon an gia kje ste:

A (se > 0 uprqei n0 = n0 ( ) N n0 m < n |fm+1 (x) + + fn (x)| gia kje x A.

Kritrio

Cauchy.

+ k=1

fk

sugklnei omoimorfa sto

Apdeixh: Jewrome ta

mog tou Jewrmatoc 2.1 sthn

sn = f1 + + fn , (sn ).

opte h apdeixh enai mesh efarO.E.D.

To epmeno apotlesma enai na exairetik qrsimo kritrio gia omoimorfh sgklish seirn sunartsewn.

56

Jerhma 3.1

kai

Weierstrass. 'Estw fn : A R |fn (x)| Mn gia kje n N kai kje x A. Dhlad, + frgma thc |fn |. An h seir arijmn k=1 Mk sugklnei, h (se kpoia sunrthsh) omoimorfa sto A.
Kritrio

gia kje to

nN

Mn + k=1 fk

enai nw sugklnei

Apdeixh: Gia kje 1.3, h seir

x A isqei |fn (x)| Mn , opte, smfwna me to Jerhma fk (x) sugklnei (kai, mlista, apoltwc) se kpoion arijm, ton opoo onomzoume s(x). 'Etsi orzetai sunrthsh s : A R kai qoume k.sv. + n k=1 fk = s sto A. Tra, an sn (x) = k=1 fk (x),
+ k=1 + n +

|s(x) sn (x)| =
k=1 +

fk (x)
k=1

fk (x) =
k=n+1 +

fk (x)

k=n+1
gia kje

|fk (x)|
k=n+1

Mk

x A.

'Ara,

du (s, sn ) = sup |s(x) sn (x)|

xA k=n+1
sugklnei. 'Ara,

Mk 0 sn s
om

kajc nwc,

n +, afo h om + k=1 fk = s sto A.

+ xk k=1 k2

+ k=1

Mk

sto

kai, epom-

O.E.D.

Paradegmata:

1. H seir Epeid

. h

+ 1 x 1 k=1 k2 sugklnei, n2 n2 gia kje x [1, 1] kai epeid h k + x seir k=1 k2 sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia sunrthsh sto [1, 1]. + sin(kx) . 2. H seir k=1 k2 + 1 sin(nx) 1 n2 gia kje x R kai epeid h k=1 k2 sugklnei, Epeid n2 + sin(kx) seir sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia sunrthsh sto R. k=1 k2
' Askhsh 2:

'Estw ti h

ak sin(kx) kai nartseic) sto R.

' Askhsh 3:

+ k=1

+ k=1

ak sugklnei apoltwc. Apodexte ti oi seirc ak cos(kx) sugklnoun omoimorfa (se kpoiec su1 2 + x k=1 k (1+kx2 )

+ k=1

'Estw

>

Apodexte ti h

sugklnei o-

moimorfa (se kpoia sunrthsh) sto

R.

(Updeixh:

Upologste to

Mn =

maxxR
' Askhsh

n (1+nx2 ) .)
'Estw

4:

a > 0.

Apodexte ti h

+ k x2 +k k=1 (1) k2

sugklnei omoi-

morfa (se kpoia sunrthsh) sto

[a, a].

(Updeixh: Qwrste th seir se do

seirc kai gia th ma efarmste to kritrio

h seir de sugklnei apoltwc gia kama tim tou

Weierstrass.) x.

Epshc, apodexte ti

57

' Askhsh

5:

'Estw

a > 0.

Apodexte ti h

+ (1)k1 k=1 k

sin 1 +

x k

sugklnei

[a, a]. (Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste ti 2 sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y , | sin x| |x| kai 0 1 cos x x .) 2
omoimorfa (se kpoia sunrthsh) sto
' Askhsh 6:

'Estw

gia kje

nN

kai kje

fn : A R x A.

gia kje An h

sugklnei omoimorfa (se kpoia

Jerhma 3.2

n N ste |fn (x) fn+1 (x)| Mn Mk sugklnei, apodexte ti h (fn ) sunrthsh) sto A.
+ k=1
kai

'Estw

fn : A R

gn : A R

gia kje

n N

me tic

idithtec:

(i) gia kje x A h (gn (x)) fjnei proc to 0 kai gn kai (ii) h akolouja (sn = f1 + + fn ) enai omoimorfa fragmnh. Dhlad, uprqei M ste |f1 (x) + + fn (x)| M gia kje x A kai n N. + Tte h seir k=1 fk gk sugklnei omoimorfa sto A.
0

om

Apdeixh: Ja mimhjome thn apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 1.6. 'Estw > 0. Lgw thc (i), uprqei n0 N ste 2M > gn0 (x) gn0 +1 (x) gn0 +2 (x) . . . 0 gia kje x A. 'An n0 m < n, tte, smfwna me n n1 to Lmma 1.1, qoume | k=m fk (x)gk (x)| = | k=m sk (x)(gk (x) gk+1 (x)) + n1 sn (x)gn (x) sm1 (x)gm (x)| k=m |sk (x)||gk (x) gk+1 (x)| + |sn (x)||gn (x)| + n1 |sm1 (x)||gm (x)| M k=m (gk (x)gk+1 (x))+M gn (x)+M gm (x) = 2M gm (x) < 2M 2M = . + 'Ara, h k=1 fk gk ikanopoie to kritrio tou Cauchy kai, epomnwc, sugklnei omoimorfa sto A. O.E.D.

Pardeigma:

'Estw

a>0

kai h seir

An jewrsoume ta

(1)
kai

+ (1)k1 k=1 kx n

sto

[a, +).
Epshc, h

wc stajerc sunartseic, ta merik touc ajro-

smata enai omoimorfa fragmna sto

[a, +). [a, +). A

kai

gia kje

x [a, +)
'Estw

1 nx

om

om

0.

Prgmati,

1 supx[a,+) nx

1 nx

fjnei proc to

1 na

0.
enai

'Ara, h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto

Jerhma 3.3

+ k=1

fk = s

sto

x0 A.

An lec oi

fn

suneqec sto sto

A,

x0 , h s enai suneqc sto x0 . s enai suneqc sto A. sn = sthn (sn ).

'Estw

Epomnwc, an lec oi

fn

enai suneqec

Apdeixh: An matoc 2.2

n k=1

fk ,

tte h apdeixh enai mesh efarmog tou Jewr-

O.E.D.

' Askhsh 7:

> 1.

Apodexte ti h seir

+ xk k=1 k

sugklnei omoimorfa

se kpoia sunrthsh, stw

s,

sto

[1, 1].

Enai h

suneqc sto

[1, 1]?
+ cos(kx) k=1 k

' Askhsh 8:

'Estw

> 1.

Apodexte ti oi seirc

+ sin(kx) k=1 k

kai

sugklnoun omoimorfa se kpoiec sunartseic sto tc suneqec sto

R.

Enai oi sunartseic au-

R?
+ 1 k=1 1+k2 x
.

' Askhsh

9:

'Estw h seir

58

1. Apodexte ti h seir sugklnei gia kje (Updeixh: Sgkrish me thn 2. An

x>0

kai ti apoklnei gia

x = 0.

+ 1 k=1 k2

.)

a > 0, apodexte ti h seir sugklnei omoimorfa (se kpoia sunrthsh) [a, +). (Updeixh: Kritrio Weierstrass.) + 1 3. H seir orzei sunrthsh s : (0, +) R me tpo s(x) = k=1 1+k2 x . Enai h s suneqc sto pedo orismo thc? (Updeixh: Prte tuqn x (0, +). Katpin, prte a ste 0 < a < x. Sumpernate ap to 2 ti h s enai suneqc sto [a, +). Epeid to x enai eswterik shmeo tou [a, +), h s enai suneqc sto x kai ap tic do pleurc tou. Epeid to x enai tuqn, h s enai suneqc 1 n sto (0, +).) Enai h s fragmnh? (Updeixh: Apodexte ti s n2 2 .) 4. Sugklnei h seir omoimorfa sthn s sto (0, +)?
sto
' Askhsh 10:

'Estw h sunrthsh

I :RR

me tpo

I(x) = R

0, 1, xk )

an an

x 0, x > 0.

'Estw akolouja

(xn ) R

diaforetikn an do shmewn tou

kai stw apolsugklnei

twc sugklnousa seir omoimorfa sto

+ k=1 ck .

Apodexte ti h

+ k=1 ck I(x

kai ti h sunrthsh

h opoa orzetai ap autn th seir

enai suneqc se kje shmeo tou

ektc ap ta shmea thc

(xn ).

(Updeixh:

Gia to prto mroc qrhsimopoiste to kritrio mroc to Jerhma 3.2.) Apodexte ti h

Weierstrass

kai gia to detero

xn kai ti cn . (Updeixh: Gryte + n1 s(x) = k=1 ck I(x xk ) + cn I(x xn ) + k=n+1 ck I(x xk ) kai parathrste + n1 ti h k=1 ck I(x xk ) kai h k=n+1 ck I(x xk ) enai suneqec sto xn .)
enai asuneqc se kje se kje ttoio shmeo parousizei {pdhma} me tim
' Askhsh 11:

Apodexte ti h seir

+ kx[kx] k=1 k2

sugklnei omoimorfa sto

R.

Apodexte ti kje rhtc enai shmeo asunqeiac thc sunrthshc

h opoa

orzetai ap th seir en kje rrhtoc enai shmeo sunqeiac thc

Jerhma 3.4

s.

fk = s sto [a, b] kai ti lec oi fn enai Riemann oloklhrsimec sto [a, b]. Tte h s enai, epshc, Riemann oloklhrsimh sto b + b [a, b] kai a s(x) dx = k=1 a fk (x) dx. Dhlad,
'Estw

+ k=1

om

b a
Apdeixh: An 2.3 sthn

fk (x) dx =
k=1 k=1 a

fk (x) dx.

sn =

n k=1

fk ,

h apdeixh enai mesh efarmog tou Jewrmatoc

(sn ).
12:

O.E.D.

' Askhsh

Apodexte ti h sunrthsh

s
h

pou orzetai ap thn

+ kx[kx] k=1 k2

thc skhshc 11 enai

Jerhma 3.5

Riemann

oloklhrsimh se kje fragmno disthma

[a, b].

'Estw ti gia kje

nN

fn : [a, b] R

enai paragwgsimh

sto

[a, b].

An

(i) (ii)

om + k=1 fk = g sto [a, b] kai + h k=1 fk (x0 ) sugklnei gia toulqiston na x0 [a, b], + tte h k=1 fk sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia sunrthsh s sto

[a, b],

s enai

59

paragwgsimh sto

[a, b]

kai

s (x) = g(x)
+

gia kje

x [a, b]. x [a, b].

Dhlad,

fk (x) =
k=1
Apdeixh: An 2.4 sthn

fk (x) ,
k=1

sn =

n k=1

fk ,

h apdeixh enai mesh efarmog tou Jewrmatoc

(sn ).
13:

O.E.D.

' Askhsh

'Estw

> 2.

Apodexte ti oi

+ sin(kx) k=1 k

kai

+ cos(kx) k=1 k

sugklnoun omoimorfa se kpoiec sunartseic sto autc enai paragwgsimec sto

kai ti oi sunartseic

R.

Poioi enai oi tpoi twn paraggwn?

' Askhsh

14:

Jewrste th seir

gklnei gia kje

-sunrthsh tou

x > 1 kai apoklnei sto + gia kje x 1. Riemann, : (1, +) R, me ton tpo:
+

+ 1 k=1 kx

Gnwrzoume ti h seir aut suOrzoume th

(x) =
k=1
1. Apodexte ti gia kje (Updeixh:

1 , kx

1 < x < +.

sto Weierstrass.) Sumpernate ti h enai suneqc sto (1, +). (Updeixh: Prte tuqn x (1, +). Katpin, prte a ste 1 < a < x kai apodexte ti h enai suneqc sto [a, +). Epeid to x enai eswterik shmeo tou [a, +), h enai suneqc sto x kai ap tic do pleurc tou. Epeid to x enai tuqn, h enai suneqc sto (1, +).) + log k 2. Apodexte ti h seir k=1 kx sugklnei gia kje x > 1 kai ti gia kje a > 1 h dia seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, +). 3. Apodexte ti h enai paragwgsimh se kje shmeo tou (1, +) kai
h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sth

a > 1

[a, +).

Kritrio tou

(x) =
k=1

log k , kx

1 < x < +.

(Updeixh: Prosarmste thn updeixh tou 1.)

3.2

Dunamoseirc.

To epmeno jerhma enai sumplrwma tou Jewrmatoc 1.8. kai stw R h aktna (x0 R, x0 + R) to disthma sgklisc thc. An 0 < R kai to disthma [a, b] periqetai sto (x0 R, x0 + R), dhlad, x0 R < a b < x0 + R, h seir sugklnei omoimorfa sto disthma [a, b]. Jewrome dunamoseir Apdeixh: Jtoume

Jerhma 3.6

+ k=0

ak (x x0 )k

sgklisc thc kai

kai ti gia kje

r < r1 < R .

r = max(|a x0 |, |b x0 |) kai parathrome ti r < R x [a, b] isqei |x x0 | r. Katpin, epilgoume r1 ste 1 n Tte lim sup |an | = R < r1 , opte uprqei n0 N ste 1
60

|an |

1 r1

gia kje

n n0 .
|xx0 |n n r1

'Ara, gia kje

n n0

kai gia kje

x [a, b]
efar-

qoume

|an (x x0 ) |
k

r n . r1

Epomnwc, sto disthma

[a, b]

mzetai to kritrio tou h sto

Weierstrass,
epomnwc,

ak (x x0 ) kai, [a, b]. O.E.D.

+ k=n0

+ diti h seir k=n0 + ak (x x0 )k h k=0

r k r1

sugklnei. 'Ara,

sugklnei omoimorfa

Paratrhsh:

To Jerhma 3.5 lei ti ma dunamoseir sugklnei omoimorfa

se kje disthma thc. Dhlad, to

[a, b]

to opoo periqetai {gnhswc} sto disthma sgklisc

mpore na enai so kont jloume sto

x0 R

kai to

kont jloume sto

x0 + R.

Prpei, mwc, na tonisje me mfash ti to

b so a den

epitrpetai {en gnei} na enai

x0 R
+ k=0

ote to

na enai

dunamoseir {en gnei} de sugklnei omoimorfa sto rdeigma thc gewmetrikc seirc omoimorfa sto

x0 + R. Dhlad, h (x0 R, x0 + R). To pa-

xk

enai endeiktik: h seir de sugklnei

(1, 1).

Stic epmenec protseic ja exetsoume merikc shmantikc idithtec thc sunrthshc h opoa orzetai ap mia dunamoseir sto disthma sgklisc thc.

Prtash

3.4

Sunqeia dunamoseirn.

'Estw dunamoseir

+ k=0

ak (xx0 )k

me aktna sgklishc enai suneqc sto

R > 0. H sunrthsh s (x0 R, x0 + R).

pou orzetai ap th dunamoseir

x (x0 R, x0 + R). Katpin, epilgoume opoiax0 R < a < x < b < x0 + R. H dunamoseir sugklnei n omoimorfa sthn s sto [a, b] kai, epeid kje sunrthsh an (x x0 ) enai suneqc sto [a, b], h s enai, smfwna me to Jerhma 3.2, suneqc sto [a, b]. Tloc, epeid to x enai eswterik shmeo tou [a, b], h s enai suneqc (kai ap tic do pleurc) sto x. (Prosxte: an to x tan kro tou [a, b], h s ja tan suneqc sto x mno ap th ma pleur tou.) 'Ara, h s enai suneqc se kje x (x0 R, x0 + R). O.E.D.
Apdeixh: Parnoume tuqn dpote

a, b

ste

Prtash

3.5

Oloklrwsh

dunamoseirn.

'Estw

+ k=0

ak (x x0 )k

me a-

ktna sgklishc

R > 0.

Gia kje

a, b

sto

(x0 R, x0 + R)

isqei

b a

ak (x x0 )
k=0
Eidiktera, an

dx =
k=0

ak (b x0 )k+1 (a x0 )k+1 . k+1

a = x0
x x0

kai

b = x,
+

ak (t x0 )k dt =
k=0 k=0

ak (x x0 )k+1 . k+1

a < b, opte x0 R < a < b < x0 + R. An s enai h sunrthsh pou orzetai ap thn dunamoseir sto (x0 R, x0 + R), h dunamoseir sugklnei sthn s omoimorfa sto [a, b], opte
Apdeixh: Qwrc blbh thc genikthtac upojtoume ti to sumprasma enai mesh sunpeia tou Jewrmatoc 3.3. O.E.D.

61

' Askhsh 15:

Apodexte ti

x 1 0 1+t2

dt =

+ k x2k+1 k=0 (1) 2k+1

gia kje

x (1, 1).

(Updeixh: Gryte to

1 1+x2

wc gewmetrik seir.)

Prtash

3.6

Para g gish

dunamoseirn.

'Estw

+ k=0

ak (x x0 )k

me a-

ktna sgklishc paragwgsimh

R > 0. H sunrthsh s sto (x0 R, x0 + R) kai

+

pou orzetai ap th dunamoseir enai

s (x) =
k=1
, isodnama,

kak (x x0 )k1 ,

x (x0 R, x0 + R)

d dx

ak (x x0 )k =
k=0 + k=1 k=1

kak (x x0 )k1 ,
+

x (x0 R, x0 + R) .
qei thn

H dunamoseir

dia aktna sgklishc

kak (x x0 )k1 = k=0 (k + 1)ak+1 (x x0 )k + k me thn k=0 ak (x x0 ) .

d n dx an (x x0 ) k1
. H seir

Apdeixh: Jewrome tic touc,

+ k=1

gia ta dia akribc

kak (x x0 ) x kai, 1

= nan (x x0 )n1 (n 1) kai th seir + k aut kai h k=1 kak (x x0 ) sugklnoun

epomnwc, qoun to dio disthma sgklishc kai thn

dia aktna sgklishc. H aktna sgklishc thc deterhc dunamoseirc enai

lim sup R

|nan |

lim

1 n lim sup
n

|an |

1 lim sup
n

|an |

= R.

'Ara, h dunamoseir twn paraggwn, sgklishc kai to dio disthma

kak (x x0 )k1 , qei thn dia aktna sgklishc (x0 R, x0 + R) me thn arqik

+ k=1

dunamoseir. 'Estw, tra, tuqn x (x0 R, x0 + R). Dialgoume opoiadpote a, b ste x0 R < a < x < b < x0 + R. Smfwna me to Jerhma 3.5, h dunamoseir twn paraggwn sugklnei omoimorfa sto [a, b] sth sunrthsh g me tpo g(t) = + k1 gia kje t [a, b]. Smfwna me to Jerhma 3.4, h s k=1 kak (t x0 ) enai paragwgsimh sto [a, b] kai s (t) = g(t) gia kje t [a, b]. Epeid to x enai eswterik shmeo tou [a, b], h s enai paragwgsimh sto x (kai ap tic do + k1 pleurc tou) kai s (x) = g(x) = . O.E.D. k=1 kak (x x0 ) 'Estw

' Askhsh

16:

R>0

h aktna sgklishc thc

sunrthsh pou orzetai ap th dunamoseir sto gia kje

+ k k=0 ak (x x0 ) kai s h (x0 R, x0 + R). Apodexte ti

nN
+ +

s(n) (x) =
k=n
gia kje

k(k 1) (k n + 1)ak (x x0 )kn =

k=0
kai

(k + n) (k + 1)ak+n xk

x (x0 R, x0 + R)

s(n) (x0 ) = n!an .

62

Paradegmata:

1.

H gewmetrik seir:

+ k=0

xk .

Gnwrzoume dh ti h sunrthsh pou orzetai ap th gewmetrik seir sto

(1, 1)

qei tpo

1 1x

H sunrthsh aut enai, profanc, suneqc kai para-

gwgsimh sto

(1, 1)

kai aut epibebainei tic Protseic 3.4 kai 3.6.

Paragwgzontac, smfwna me thn Prtash 3.6, qoume

1 = (1 x)2

kxk1 =
k=1 k=0

(k + 1)xk ,

1 < x < 1.

Jumhjete ti qoume dh apodexei ton dio tpo, qrhsimopointac to ginmeno

Cauchy

seirn.

Epanalambnoume thn paraggish sec forc jloume,

diathrntac to dio kje for disthma sgklishc:

2 = (1 x)3

k(k 1)xk2 =
k=2 k=0

(k + 2)(k + 1)xk ,

......... n! = (1 x)n+1
+ +

k(k1) (kn+1)xkn =
k=n k=0

(k+n)(k+n1) (k+1)xk ,

.........
gia kje

x (1, 1).
x 1 0 1t

Oloklhrnontac th gewmetrik seir smfwna me thn Prtash 3.5, qoume

log(1 x) = x

dt =

+ xk+1 k=0 k+1

+ xk k=1 k

gia kje

x (1, 1).
gia kje

Metatrpontac to

se

x,
+

brskoume

x (1, 1).

Tloc, metatrpontac to

log(1 + x) = 1 + x se x, apodeiknoume 0 < x < 2.

+ k xk k=1 (1) k
ti

log x =
k=1

(1)k1

(x 1)k , k

H isthta aut qei dh apodeiqje kai mlista kai gia to shmeo

x = 2.

Me

th mjodo thc oloklrwshc thc gewmetrikc seirc de mporome na qoume thn isthta kai gia to

x = 2,

diti qreiazmaste thn omoimorfh sgklish thc

gewmetrikc seirc sto disthma sto 2.

[0, 2] h opoa den isqei, afo ote h sgklish

.

x=2

isqei.

H ekjetik seir:

+ xk k=0 k!

Gnwrzoume dh ti h sunrthsh pou orzetai ap thn ekjetik dunamoseir enai h ekjetik sunrthsh me tpo lad,

e =

+ xk k=0 k!

gia kje

ex sto disthma sgklishc (, +). Dhx R. H ekjetik sunrthsh enai suneqc kai

R kai epalhjeontai oi Protseic 3.4 kai 3.6. Paragwgzo+ xk1 + xk1 + xk d x ntac, brskoume k=1 k k! = k=1 (k1)! = k=0 k! kai, epomnwc, dx e = d x e = ex gia kje x R. Epalhjeoume tsi ma gnwst idithta thc ekdx
paragwgsimh sto jetikc sunrthshc. Bbaia, o prosektikc anagnsthc ja parathrsei ti h

63

idithta

d x dx e

= ex

qrhsimopoijhke sthn apdeixh thc isthtac

ex =

+ xk k=0 k!

sthn Prtash 1.11 kai, epomnwc, de mporome na isquristome ti apodexame thn

d x dx e

= ex ,

paragwgzontac thn dunamoseir

+ xk k=0 k!

Mporome, mwc,

na apodexoume me nan akmh trpo thn isthta

ex =
k=0
Jewrome th sunrthsh tpo

xk , k!

x R.

pou orzetai ap thn ekjetik dunamoseir me

s(x) =

+ xk k=0 k!

gia kje

x R,

h opoa enai, smfwna me tic Protseic

R. Paragwgzontac smfwna me thn + xk1 + xk Prtash 3.6, qoume, pwc prohgoumnwc, s (x) = k=1 k k! = k=0 k! = d s(x) gia kje x R. Sunepgetai dx s(x)ex = s (x)ex s(x)ex = 0 kai, x x epomnwc, h sunrthsh me tpo s(x)e enai stajer sto R. 'Ara, s(x)e = 0 x s(0)e = 1 , isodnama, s(x) = e gia kje x R. k + k1 (x1) 3. . k=1 (1) k
3.4 kai 3.6, suneqc kai paragwgsimh sto
H logarijmik seir:

'Eqoume apodexei ti to disthma sgklishc thc dunamoseirc autc enai to

(0, 2) kai ti log x =

paragwgsimh sto

k + k1 (x1) k=1 (1) k

gia kje

x (0, 2).

Thn isthta aut

thn qoume apodexei dh do forc. H logarijmik sunrthsh enai suneqc kai

epalhjeetai h gnwst idithta:

(0, 2) kai tsi epalhjeontai oi Protseic 3.4 kai 3.6. Epshc, d 1 dx log x = x gia kje x (0, 2). Prgmati, =
1 x
gia kje

paragwgzontac th dunamoseir, qoume

+ k=0 (1

x)k =

1 1(1x)

log x = k=1 (1)k1 k (x1) = k x (0, 2). Mporome, mwc, na apoded dx

k1

xoume me nan akmh trpo thn isthta

log x =
k=1
An

(1)k1

(x 1)k , k

0 < x < 2.
k + k1 (x1) k=1 (1) k

enai h sunrthsh pou orzetai ap th seir

sto

(0, 2), ap tic Protseic 3.4 kai 3.6 sunepgetai ti h s enai suneqc kai paragwk1 + k1 (x1) = gsimh sto (0, 2). Paragwgzontac, qoume s (x) = k k=1 (1) k + 1 1 d k k=0 (1 x) = 1(1x) = x gia kje x (0, 2). Epomnwc, dx (s(x) log x) = 1 1 x = 0 gia kje x (0, 2), opte h sunrthsh me tpo s(x) log x enai x stajer sto (0, 2). 'Ara s(x)log x = s(1)log 1 = 0 , isodnama, s(x) = log x gia kje x (0, 2).
' Askhsh 17:

'Estw

a R. 1+

Jewrome th seir

k=1
1. An

a(a 1) (a k + 1) k x . k!

enai sh me

a {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}, (1 + x)a .

apodexte ti h seir gnetai polunumo kai, mlista,

64

Sto exc upojtoume ti 2.

a R \ {0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}. 1.
(Updeixh: An

Apodexte ti h aktna sgklishc thc seirc enai sh me

duskoleutete me ton tpo orismo thc aktnac sgklishc, qrhsimopoiste to

|x| < 1, kai apoklnei, |x| > 1.) 3. 'Estw s h sunrthsh pou orzetai ap th dunamoseir sto (1, 1). Apodexte ti (1 + x)s (x) = a s(x) gia kje x (1, 1). d s(x) a 4. Apodexte ti s(x) = (1+x) gia kje x (1, 1). (Updeixh: dx (1+x)a = 0.) 'Etsi parnoume ton Newton:
kritrio lgou gia na apodexete ti h seir sugklnei, an an
genik diwnumik tpo tou

(1 + x)a = 1 +
k=1
' Askhsh 18:

a(a 1) (a k + 1) k x , k!
x 1 0 1t2

1 < x < 1. x2k+1

gia kje

Apodexte ti

dt = x+

+ 135(2k1) k=1 2k k!(2k+1)

x (1, 1). (Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste ton genik diwnumik tpo tou Newton 1 2 me a = 2 kai to x sth jsh tou x.)
3.3 Oi trigwnometrikc sunartseic.

Gnwrzoume ti oi dunamoseirc qoun wc disthma sgklishc to

+ k x2k k=0 (1) (2k)!

kai

+ k x2k+1 k=0 (1) (2k+1)!

antistoqwc:

(, +)

kai qoume dh sumbolsei tic su-

nartseic pou orzontai ap tic seirc autc

cos

kai

sin,

cos x =
k=0

(1)k

x2k , (2k)!

sin x =
k=0

(1)k

x2k+1 . (2k + 1)!

Sthn enthta aut qi mno ja dome enallaktikc apodexeic twn idiottwn twn

sin

kai

cos,

tic opoec qoume dh apodexei stic enthtec 1.6 kai 1.7, all

ja apodexoume kai llec shmantikc idithtc touc. Ap tic Protseic 3.4 kai 3.6 sunepgetai ti oi sunartseic enai suneqec kai paragwgsimec sto brskoume

cos

kai

sin

R.

Paragwgzontac tic dunamoseirc,

d cos x = dx d sin x = dx
Tra,

(1)k 2k
k=1

x2k1 = (2k)!

(1)k
k=1

x2k1 = sin x , (2k 1)! (1)k x2k = cos x , (2k)!

x R,

(1)k (2k + 1)
k=0

x2k = (2k + 1)!

x R,

k=0

apodeiknontac me detero trpo to pmpto apotlesma thc Prtashc 1.13.

x + cos2 x) = 2 sin x sin x + 2 cos x cos x = 2 sin x cos x 2 cos x sin x = 0 gia kje x R. 'Ara h sunrthsh me tpo sin2 x + cos2 x enai 2 2 2 2 stajer sto R kai, epomnwc, sin x + cos x = sin 0 + cos (0) = 1 gia kje x R. Dhlad, sin2 x + cos2 x = 1 , xR
65

2 d dx (sin

kai, epomnwc,

| sin x| 1 ,

| cos x| 1 ,

x R.

Mporome, epshc, na apodexoume tic isthtec

cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y ,

gia kje

sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y

x, y R.

Tic sqseic autc tic qoume dh apodexei me idiaitrwc

perploko trpo sthn Prtash 1.13, qrhsimopointac ginmena 'Enac deteroc trpoc enai o exc. Parnoume opoiodpote

Cauchy seirn. y R kai tte d dx cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x = sin(y x) cos x cos(y x) sin x + cos(y x) sin x sin(y x) cos x = 0 gia kje x R. 'Ara h sunrthsh me tpo cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x enai stajer sto R kai, epomnwc, cos(y x) cos x sin(y x) sin x = cos(y 0) cos 0 sin(y 0) sin 0 = cos y gia kje x R. Katpin, metatrpoume to y se y + x kai katalgoume sthn cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y . H deterh isthta apodeiknetai ete me parmoio trpo ete paragwgzontac thn prth isthta wc proc to x. Ja apodexoume, tra, merikc epiplon idithtec twn sunartsewn cos kai sin.
Prtash 3.7

Uprqei elqisth jetik lsh thc exswshc

cos x = 0.

Apdeixh: H isthta Prgmati,

cos 0 = 1 enai profanc. Ja dome, tra, ti cos 3 < 0. 4 6 8 6 8 2 cos 3 = 1 3 + 3 3 3 = 1 3 3 < 1 < 0 2! 4! 6! 8! 8 6! 8! 8 6 8 10 12 3 3 , 3 3 , . . . enai jetikc. Epeid h cos enai diti lec oi diaforc 6! 8! 10! 12! suneqc kai cos 0 > 0, cos 3 < 0, sunepgetai ti uprqei kpoio x (0, 3) ste cos x = 0. Epomnwc, to snolo {x > 0 : cos x = 0}, wc mh ken kai ktw fragmno ap to 0, qei inmum, stw x0 . Epeid to 0 enai ktw frgma tou sunlou, sunepgetai ti 0 x0 . Epshc, epeid x0 = inf{x > 0 : cos x = 0}, uprqei akolouja (xn ) sto snolo aut (dhlad, cos xn = 0 gia kje n N) ste xn x0 . Lgw sunqeiac thc cos, qoume cos x0 = limn+ cos xn = 0. Epeid cos 0 = 1, sunepgetai 0 < x0 kai, epomnwc, to x0 enai stoiqeo tou sunlou {x > 0 : cos x = 0}. Epeid, loipn, to x0 enai stoiqeo tou sunlou {x > 0 : cos x = 0} kai, tautqrona, enai so me to inmum tou sunlou auto, to x0 enai to elqisto stoiqeo tou , isodnama, enai o mikrteroc jetikc arijmc o opooc enai lsh thc exswshc cos x = 0. O.E.D.
Orismc 3.2

Sumbolzoume

to diplsio tou mikrterou jetiko arijmo o

opooc enai lsh thc exswshc Epomnwc,

cos x = 0.

cos
H sqsh

=0 2

kai

cos x > 0 ,

x 0,

. 2

sin x = cos x > 0 gia kje x 0, sunepgetai ti h sin enai 2 2 2 gnhswc axousa sto 0, 2 . Ap thn sin 2 + cos 2 = 1 parnoume sin 2 = 1 kai, epeid sin 0 = 0 kai h sin enai gnhswc axousa sto 0, 2 , sunepgetai
66

sin = 1. 2
gia kje

Epomnwc, h sunrthsh

sin : 0, [0, 1] 2 cos enai [0, 1] enai

me

enai na-proc-na (wc

gnhswc axousa) kai ep (wc suneqc). Katpin, h sqsh

x 0, 2

sunepgetai ti h

gnhswc fjnousa sto

Epomnwc, h sunrthsh

cos : 0, 2

cos x = sin x < 0 0, . 2 x 0, 2

kai aut na-proc-na kai ep.

Prtash

3.8

Gia kje kai

ste

sin x = a

a, b [0, 1] cos x = b.

a2 + b2 = 1

uprqei monadik

sin : 0, [0, 1] enai na-proc-na kai 2 2 2 monadik x 0, ste sin x = a. 'Ap thn sin x + cos x = 1 cos x = b kai, epeid cos x 0, qoume cos x = b. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: Epeid h

ep, uprqei sunepgetai

Ap tic isthtec cos(x + y) = cos x cos y sin x sin y kai sin(x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y brskoume tic timc twn cos kai sin sta shmea , 3 kai 2 2 kai, katpin, parnoume ekola tic sqseic cos x+ = sin x, cos(x+) = 2 cos x, cos x + 3 = sin x kai cos(x + 2) = cos x gia kje x R. Ap tic 2 sqseic autc kajc kai ap th sumperifor thc cos sto 0, 2 , diakrnoume th 3 3 , , , 2 kai 2 , 2 , dhlad sunosumperifor thc cos sta diastmata 2 lik sto [0, 2]. Epshc, h teleutaa sqsh shmanei ti h cos enai periodik me perodo 2 . Parmoiec sqseic kai sumpersmata isqoun kai gia thn sin. 1. Oi sunartseic

Prtash

3.9

sin kai cos enai periodikc me elqisth jetik

uprqei monadik

2 . 2. Gia kje a, b [1, 1] sin x = a kai cos x = b.

perodo ton arijm

me

a2 + b2 = 1

x 0, 2)

ste

Ja apofgoume na apodexoume thn prtash aut, diti oi leptomreiec enai ekolec kai neu ousac. Kai ta do sumpersmata prokptoun ap thn prohgomenh suzthsh. To detero sumprasma enai epktash tou sumpersmatoc thc Prtashc 3.8 kai h apdeix tou qrhsimopoie thn Prtash 3.8 kai th dikrish twn periptsewn:

a 0, b 0 a 0, b < 0 a < 0, b 0 a < 0, b < 0. cos

kai

Ac asqolhje o anagnsthc me tic leptomreiec. 'Otan orsame tic sunartseic

sin

msw twn antstoiqwn dunamosei-

rn eqame tonsei ti o sunhjismnoc orismc pou majanoume sto lkeio de jewretai austhr majhmatikc, diti baszetai sth gewmetrik epoptea kai qi sta aximata twn pragmatikn arijmn. Enai, mwc, anamenmeno ti pollo protimon ton {gewmetrik} orism lgw thc aplthtc tou. Epshc, uprqoun kai lloi, kai mlista austhro, trpoi orismo twn sunartsewn

cos

kai

sin.

Asqtwc, mwc, tou trpou orismo twn sunartsewn autn, apodeiknetai ti qoun tic exc basikc idithtec:

cos x = sin x

kai

sin x = cos x

gia kje

xR

kai

cos 0 = 1, sin 0 = 0.

Ja apodexoume, tra, ti, asqtwc tou trpou ton opoo epilgoume gia na orsoume tic sunartseic autc, katalgoume stic diec sunartseic. Jewrome do zegh sunartsewn

Prtash

3.10

f1 , g1

kai

f2 , g2

sto

me

tic idithtec

(i) f1 (x) = g1 (x)

kai

g1 (x) = f1 (x)

gia kje

x R,

67

(i ) f2 (x) = g2 (x) kai g2 (x) = f2 (x) (ii) f1 (0) = f2 (0) kai g1 (0) = g2 (0).
Tte ta do zegh enai ta dia. kje

gia kje

xR

kai

Dhlad,

f1 (x) = f2 (x)

kai

g1 (x) = g2 (x)

gia

x R.
Upologzoume

(f1 (x) f2 (x))2 + (g1 (x) g2 (x))2 = 2(f1 (x) f2 (x))(g1 (x) + g2 (x)) + 2(g1 (x) g2 (x))(f1 (x) f2 (x)) = 0 gia kje x R. 2 2 'Ara, h sunrthsh me tpo (f1 (x)f2 (x)) +(g1 (x)g2 (x)) enai stajer sto R. 2 2 2 2 'Ara, (f1 (x) f2 (x)) + (g1 (x) g2 (x)) = (f1 (0) f2 (0)) + (g1 (0) g2 (0)) = 0 gia kje x R kai, epomnwc, f1 (x) = f2 (x) kai g1 (x) = g2 (x) gia kje x R.
Apdeixh: O.E.D.

d dx

' Askhsh 19:

H sunrthsh

epomnwc, na-proc-na)

sin : , [1, 1] enai gnhswc axousa (kai, 2 2 kai ep. Sumbolzoume arcsin : [1, 1] , thn 2 2 1 3 5 (2k 1) 2k+1 x , 2k k!(2k + 1) arcsin x =
1 1x2

antstrofh sunrthsh. Apodexte ti

arcsin x = x +
k=1
(Updeixh: Apodexte ti

x (1, 1).

d dx

kai dete thn skhsh 18.)

H tou x sumbolzetai tan x kai orzetai me ton sin tan x = cos x gia kje x gia to opoo cos x = 0 , isodnama, gia kje x x R \ {k + : k Z}. 2 1. Apodexte ti h tan : , R enai suneqc, paragwgsimh kai gnhswc 2 2 axousa sto 2, 2 . 2. Apodexte ti limx + tan x = kai limx tan x = +. Bsei 2 2 auto apodexte ti h tan : , R enai ep. 2 2 3. Sumbolzoume arctan : R , thn antstrofh sunrthsh. Apodexte 2 2
' Askhsh 20: efaptomnh

tpo

arctan x =
k=0
(Updeixh: Apodexte ti

(1)k

x2k+1 , 2k + 1
1 1+x2

x (1, 1).
kai dete thn skhsh 15.)

d dx

arctan x =

3.4

Parrthma:

h ekjetik

sunrthsh.

H ekjetik sunrthsh

ex

kai, geniktera, h

ax

gia opoiodpote

a > 0 orzetai

sta arqik majmata Anlushc. Ja upenjumsoume thn porea pou akoloujome. dnamh Kat' arqn orzoume th

1 an = a a, an n N. Katpin, orzoume a0 = 1 kai an = an , an n n Z \ N0 . 'Olec oi gnwstc idithtec thc dnamhc a sthn perptwsh akraiou
ekjth apodeiknontai ekola. Katpin, apodeiknetai, arket dskola, ti, an

a > 0 1 to a n

kai

n N,

h exswsh

xn = a

qei monadik jetik lsh kai orzoume

na enai akribc aut h lsh thc

xn = a.

Tra, an

x=

m n

me

mZ

68

kai

n N,

orzoume

ax = a n

. 'Etsi orzetai h dnamh

ax

gia kje

xQ

kai apodeiknontai lec oi gnwstc idithtec thc dnamhc sthn perptwsh rhto ekjth. Tloc, gia na orsoume th dnamh

ax

sthn perptwsh

x R \ Q,

akoloujome ma, epshc, arket dskolh diadikasa.

Gia opoiodpote rrhto

(xn ) ste xn x kai apodeiknoume (axn ) sugklnei. Apodeiknoume ti to rio exarttai mno ap x x to x kai qi ap thn (xn ) kai orzoume to a na enai to rio thc (a n ). 'Etsi x orzetai h a gia kje x R kai apodeiknontai lec oi gnwstc idithtec thc
parnoume tuqosa akolouja rhtn ti h akolouja dnamhc sthn perptwsh pragmatiko ekjth. H ekjetik sunrthsh me wc

ton arijm

ex enai h eidik perptwsh thc ax , pou qrhsimopoio1 n e = limn+ 1 + n .

d x dx e

Tloc, apodeiknontai kai oi gnwstc idithtec sunqeiac kai paragwgisimthtac thc ekjetikc sunrthshc kai, eidiktera, h sqsh:

= ex

gia kje

x R.

H apdeixh thc teleutaac isthtac enai arket perplokh.

'Olh h prohgomenh diadikasa orismo kai melthc thc ekjetikc sunrthshc enai arket epponh (me thn proupjesh ti apaitome majhmatik austhrthta). Ja dome, tra, ma deterh mjodo orismo kai melthc thc ekjetikc sunrthshc, h opoa baszetai mno ston orism kai tic idithtec thc dnamhc

an

gia akraio ekjth

n.

H mjodoc aut qei to pleonkthma ti apofegei

la ta dskola mrh thc prthc mejdou: thn apdeixh parxhc lshc thc exswshc thc

d x dx e

xn = a, thn apdeixh sgklishc thc (axn ) tan xn x kai = ex . To meionkthma thc deterhc mejdou enai ti den

thn apdeixh enai {fusio-

logik}, diti qrhsimopoie th jewra twn dunamoseirn, h opoa emfanzetai arket arg sthn anptuxh thc basikc jewrac. Par' la aut ja anaptxoume th deterh mjodo, diti enai endiafrousa kai diti enai parmoia me th mjodo orismo kai melthc twn trigwnometrikn sunartsewn pou gnwrsame stic prohgomenec enthtec. 'Enac trtoc lgoc enai ti h mjodoc aut qrhsimopoietai suqn sth Migadik Anlush tan orzetai h ekjetik sunrthsh gia migadik metablht

ez

z. E:RR
+ + 1 k k=0 k! x ,
h opoa sugklnei gia kje th sunrthsh pou orzetai ap autn me

Jewrome thn ekjetik dunamoseir

x R,
tpo

kai sumbolzoume

E(x) =
k=0

1 k x , k!

x R. E
enai suneqc kai paragw-

Ap tic protseic 3.4 kai 3.6 sunepgetai ti h gsimh sto

kai

E (x) =
k=1

k k1 x = k!

k=1

1 xk1 = (k 1)!

k=0

1 k x = E(x) , k!

x R.

Katpin, apodeiknoume thn isthta

E(x + y) = E(x)E(y) ,

x, y R. Cauchy
+ 1 k k=0 k! x

H apdeixh mpore na gnei me do trpouc. O nac trpoc enai na qrhsimopoisoume, pwc qoume dh knei, to ginmeno twn seirn kai

69

= E (y x)E(x) + E(y x)E (x) = E(y x)E(x) + E(y x)E(x) = 0 gia kje x R. 'Etsi sunepgetai ti, gia kje y R, h sunrthsh tou x me tpo E(yx)E(x) enai stajer sto R kai, epomnwc, E(yx)E(x) = E(y0)E(0) = E(y). Tloc, antikajistome to y me to y + x. + 1 Profanc, E(0) = 1. H isthta e = k=0 k! = E(1) qei dh apodeiqje x x2 sthn Prtash 1.7. An x 0, sunepgetai E(x) = 1 + 1! + 2! + 1 > 0. Epeid E(x)E(x) = E(x + x) = E(0) = 1, sunepgetai E(x) > 0 gia kje x < 0. 'Ara, E(x) > 0 gia kje x R. Ap thn E (x) = E(x) > 0 gia kje x R prokptei ti h E enai gnhswc axousa sto R. Akmh, an x x > 0, E(x) 1 + 1! = 1 + x kai, epomnwc, limx+ E(x) = +. Ap thn E(x)E(x) = 1 prokptei amswc ti limx E(x) = 0. Akmh, an (n+1)! xn xn+1 x > 0, E(x) (n+1)! , opte 0 < E(x) x gia kje x > 0 kai, epomnwc,
O deteroc trpoc baszetai ston upologism

+ 1 k k=0 k! y .

d dx (E(y x)E(x))

limx+

xn E(x)

=0

gia kje

n N.
qei tic paraktw idithtec:

Anakefalainontac, h

(i) h E enai suneqc kai paragwgsimh sto R kai E (x) = E(x) gia kje x R, (ii) E(0) = 1, E(1) = e kai E(x + y) = E(x)E(y) gia kje x, y R, (iii) h E enai gnhswc axousa sto R kai E(x) > 0 gia kje x R, (iv) limx+ E(x) = + kai limx E(x) = 0, (v) h E : (, +) (0, +) enai na-proc-na kai ep kai xn (vi) limx+ E(x) = 0 gia kje n N. 'Ara h sunrthsh E qei lec tic basikc idithtec pou apaitome ste na
thn onomsoume {ekjetik sunrthsh}. Axzei ton kpo na apodexoume ti, asqtwc tou trpou me ton opoo epilgoume na orsoume thn ekjetik sunrthsh, katalgoume sthn dia sunrthsh. Ja dome do apodexeic, anloga me tic upojseic pou knoume gia tic idithtec thc ekjetikc sunrthshc. 'Estw sunartseic f1 kai f2 paragwgsimec (i) f1 (x) = f1 (x) kai f2 (x) = f2 (x) gia kje x R kai (ii) f1 (0) = f2 (0) = 0. Tte f1 (x) = f2 (x) gia kje x R.
Prtash 3.11

sto

ste:

f2 (x)f2 (x) = f2 (x)f2 (x) f2 (x)f2 (x) = f2 (x)f2 (x) f2 (x)f2 (x) = 0 gia kje x R, opte h sunrthsh me tpo f2 (x)f2 (x) enai stajer sto R. 'Ara, f2 (x)f2 (x) = f2 (0)f2 (0) = 0 kai, f1 (x)f2 (x)f1 (x)f2 (x) d f1 (x) = epomnwc, f2 (x) = 0 gia kje x R. Epshc, dx f2 (x) = f 2 (x)
Apdeixh: Upologzoume
2

d dx

f1 (x)f2 (x)f1 (x)f2 (x) 2 f2 (x) f1 (x) f2 (x) enai stajer

gia kje

= 0
sto

gia kje 'Ara,

x R =

kai, epomnwc, h sunrthsh me tpo

R.

f1 (x) f2 (x)

f1 (0) f2 (0)

=1

kai, epomnwc,

f1 (x) = f2 (x)

x R.
3.12

O.E.D.

'Estw sunartseic f1 kai f2 suneqec sto R ste: (i) f1 (x + y) = f1 (x)f1 (y) kai f2 (x + y) = f2 (x)f2 (y) gia kje x, y R (ii) f1 (1) = f2 (1) = 0. Tte f1 (x) = f2 (x) gia kje x R.
Prtash

kai

70

Kat' arqn, f1 (1) = f1 (1 + 0) = f1 (1)f1 (0) kai, epeid f1 (1) = 0, f1 (0) = 1. Omowc, f2 (0) = 1. Katpin, f1 (x)f1 (x) = f1 x + (x) = f1 (0) = 1 kai, epomnwc, f1 (x) = 0 gia kje x R. Omowc, f2 (x) = 0 gia kje x R. f1 (x) Orzoume th sunrthsh me tpo h(x) = f2 (x) gia kje x R kai parathrome ti h h enai suneqc sto R, ti h(0) = h(1) = 1 kai h(x + y) = h(x)h(y) gia kje x, y R. Epshc, h(x) = 0 gia kje x R kai, epeid h h enai suneqc sto R kai h(0) = 1, sunepgetai h(x) > 0 gia kje x R. Tra, h(2) = h(1)h(1) = 1, h(3) = h(2)h(1) = 1 kai, epagwgik, h(n) = 1 gia kje n N. Katpin, 1 = h(0) = h n + (n) = h(n)h(n) = h(n) gia kje n Z \ N0 . 'Ara, h(n) = 1 gia kje n Z. n m = h m h m = h m , An m Z kai n N, 1 = h(m) = h n n n n n m opte h = 1. 'Ara, h(x) = 1 gia kje x Q. n Parnoume, tra, tuqn x R \ Q kai akolouja (xn ) sto Q ste xn x. Lgw sunqeiac thc h, qoume h(x) = limn+ h(xn ) = limn+ 1 = 1. 'Ara, h(x) = 1 , isodnama, f1 (x) = f2 (x) gia kje x R. O.E.D. Apdeixh: qoume

71

72

Keflaio 4
Metriko qroi.

4.1

Paradegmata metrikn

qrwn.

Pardeigma: O

-distatoc eukledioc qroc

Rn . RR
tou

To snolo

Rn ,

dhlad, to kartesian ginmeno

me ton eaut tou, enai to snolo me stoiqea lec tic diatetagmnec pragmatikn arijmn:

R n forc n-dec

Rn = R R = {(x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : x(1) , . . . , x(n) R} .

To

R1

tautzetai me to

kai anaparstatai gewmetrik me to snolo twn To

shmewn mac (opoiasdpote) eujeac.

R2

anaparstatai gewmetrik me to

snolo twn shmewn enc (opoioudpote) epipdou. Tloc, to gewmetrik me to snolo twn shmewn tou qrou.

R3

anaparstatai

R, h apstas touc wc shmea thc |x y|. An x = (x(1) , x(2) ) kai y = (y (1) , y (2) ) 2 enai opoiadpote stoiqea tou R , h apstas touc wc shmea tou epipdou enai sh me (x(1) y (1) )2 + (x(2) y (2) )2 . Tloc, an x = (x(1) , x(2) , x(3) ) kai (1) (2) (3) y = (y , y , y ) enai opoiadpote stoiqea tou R3 , h apstas touc wc shmea tou qrou enai sh me (x(1) y (1) )2 + (x(2) y (2) )2 + (x(3) y (3) )2 . H apstash twn x kai y enai sh me to mkoc tou eujugrmmou tmmatoc pou
An enai opoiadpote stoiqea tou eujeac enai sh me thn posthta qei kra ta shmea aut, ete aut enai shmea thc eujeac ete enai shmea tou epipdou ete enai shmea tou qrou. Uprqoun merikc aplc idithtec thc apstashc, tic opoec ja exetsoume amswc tra. Kat' arqn, h apstash do shmewn enai pntote mh arnhtikc arijmc. Deteron, h apstash do shmewn enai sh me do shmea tautzontai.

x kai y

an kai mnon an ta

Trton, h apstash do shmewn de metablletai an

summetra

allxoume th seir touc. Aut h idithta onomzetai

thc apsta-

shc. Tloc, h apstash do shmewn den enai megalterh ap to jroisma twn apostsewn touc ap opoiodpote trto shmeo.
trigwnik idithta

Aut h idithta onomzetai

thc apstashc, diti ekfrzei me llon trpo to gegonc

73

ti to mkoc mac pleurc trignou den enai megaltero ap to jroisma twn mhkn twn do llwn pleurn. Oi apodexeic autn twn idiottwn sthn eujea, sto eppedo kai ston qro enai zthma apln prxewn. De ja knoume leptomreiec, diti ja dome thn apdeixh sth genik perptwsh tou sunlou

Rn .

' Askhsh

1:

Diatupste me smbola kai apodexte algebrik thn trigwnik

idithta thc apstashc stouc

R, R2

kai

R3 .

Kat' arqn, bbaia, prpei na genikesoume thn nnoia thc apstashc ap tic periptseic

sh twn antstoiqwn sunlwn den

n = 1, n = 2 kai n = 3, stic opoec uprqei gewmetrik anaparstaR, R2 kai R3 , sthn perptwsh n 4, sthn opoa n uprqei antstoiqh gewmetrik anaparstash tou sunlou R . Dnoume,
Orzoume thn kai do opoiwndpote stoiqe-

loipn, ton exc orism.

Orismc 4.1
eukledia apstash

x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) dn,2 (x, y), me ton tpo

wn

y = (y (1) , . . . , y (n) )

tou

Rn ,

kai th sumbolzoume

dn,2 (x, y) = d1,2 (x, y) =

(x(1) y (1) )2 + + (x(n) y (n) )2 .

R, qoume gia kje x, y R (x y)2 = |x y|. Akmh pio profanc enai ti, stic pe2 3 riptseic twn R kai R , h dn,2 (x, y) tautzetai me touc antstoiqouc t(1) y (1) )2 + (x(2) y (2) )2 , an x = (x(1) , x(2) ) kai y = pouc d2,2 (x, y) = (x (y (1) , y (2) ), kai d3,2 (x, y) = (x(1) y (1) )2 + (x(2) y (2) )2 + (x(3) y (3) )2 , an x = (x(1) , x(2) , x(3) ) kai y = (y (1) , y (2) , y (3) ).
Enai profanc ti, sthn perptwsh tou ti Prin genikesoume tic tsseric idthtec thc apstashc ap thn perptwsh

n3

sth genik perptwsh, apodeiknoume ta paraktw apotelsmata.

4.1
Anisthta

Prtash

Cauchy - Schwarz.

Gia kje

a1 , . . . , an R

kai

b1 , . . . , b n R

isqei

|a1 b1 + + an bn |
Apdeixh:

a2 + + a2 n 1

b2 + + b2 . n 1

a2 + + a2 = 0, tte a1 = . . . = an = 0, opte h anisthta n 1 2 2 katalgei sthn 0 0, h opoa enai swst. Omowc, an b1 + + bn = 0, tte b1 = . . . = bn = 0 kai, pli, h anisthta katalgei sthn 0 0. 2 2 2 2 Upojtoume, tra, ti a1 + + an > 0 kai b1 + + bn > 0 kai jtoume 2 + + a2 kai B = 2 + + b2 . Tra, a1 b1 + + an bn A = a1 b1 n n A B A B
An
2 2 2 2 |an | |bn | |a1 | |b1 | 1 a1 1 b1 1 an 1 bn A B + + A B 2 A2 + 2 B 2 + + 2 A2 + 2 B 2 |a1 b1 ++an bn | 1 1 1 kai, epomnwc, 2 + 2 = 1. 'Ara, AB a2 + + a2 b2 + + b2 . O.E.D. n n 1 1

1 = 2 1 A2 n + 1 1 B 2 n = 2 |a1 b1 + + an bn | AB =

a2 ++a2

b2 ++b2

Lmma 4.1

Gia kje

a1 , . . . , an R

kai

b1 , . . . , b n R

isqei

(a1 + b1 )2 + + (an + bn )2
74

a2 + + a2 + n 1

b2 + + b2 . n 1

Apdeixh:

Uynoume tic do pleurc thc anisthtac sto tetrgwno kai, met

ap apaloifc diwn rwn, brskoume thn isodnamh

2a1 b1 + + 2an bn

2 a2 + + a2 n 1
thc Prtashc 4.1.

b2 + + b2 , n 1

h opoa enai mesh aprroia thc anisthtac

O.E.D.

Tra emaste toimoi na apodexoume tic basikc idithtec thc euklediac apstashc ston

Rn .

Prtash

2. 3. 4.

dn,2 (x, y) 0 gia kje x, y Rn . n Gia kje x, y R isqei: dn,2 (x, y) = 0 an kai mnon an x = y . dn,2 (x, y) = dn,2 (y, x) gia kje x, y Rn . dn,2 (x, y) dn,2 (x, z) + dn,2 (z, y) gia kje x, y, z Rn .
4.2

1.

Apdeixh:

Oi idithtec 1, 2 kai 3 enai profanec.

H 4 prokptei ap thn anikai

sthta tou Lmmatoc 4.1, an jsoume

ak = x(k) z (k)

bk = z (k) y (k)

gia

k = 1, . . . , n.

O.E.D.

Rn h sunrthsh dn,2 orzetai n se la ta zegh (x, y) stoiqewn x kai y tou R kai se kje ttoio zegoc antistoiqzei ton pragmatik arijm dn,2 (x, y), thn eukledia apstash twn x kai y . Dhlad, h dn,2 enai sunrthsh me pedo orismo to Rn Rn kai pragmatikc
Parathrome ti sthn perptwsh tou sunlou timc. To snolo

Orismc 4.2

Rn

efodiasmno me thn

zetai

-distatoc eukledioc qroc.

H sunrthsh

dn,2 : Rn Rn R dn,2 onomzetai

onom-

eukledia

apstash

eukledia

metrik

ston

Rn .

Ja dome, tra, pc genikeetai h nnoia thc apstashc. Estw

Orismc 4.3
apstash sto

na mh ken snolo.

Onomzoume

metrik

sto

kje sunrthsh

orismnh sto kartesian ginmeno

X X X

kai me pragmatikc timc

d:X X R
me tic paraktw idithtec:

(i) d(x, y) 0 gia kje x, y X . (ii) Gia kje x, y X isqei: d(x, y) = 0 an kai mnon an x = y . (iii) d(x, y) = d(y, x) gia kje x, y X . (iv) d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y) gia kje x, y, z X . Lme ti to zeugri (X, d) apotele na ti d X Epshc, thn tim d(x, y) sto zeugri (x, y) thn onomzoume y.
metrik o qro enai efodiasmnoc me th metrik qroc me kai

qroc

th

metrik twn

apstash

X d. x

Parathrseic:

1. Me aploik lgia, metrikc qroc enai na mh ken snolo

kai nac sugkekrimnoc trpoc mtrhshc apostsewn anmesa sta stoiqea Bbaia, qoume sunhjsei na meletme ta snola

tou.

R, R2

kai

R3 ,

gia ta

opoa qoume kai thn empeirik gewmetrik epoptea, kai na metrme apostseic sta snola aut me ton sugkekrimno eukledio trpo pou upagoreetai

75

ap th gewmetrik epoptea mac. 'Omwc, uprqoun kai lloi trpoi na metrme apostseic kai sta snola snola. 2. Metrikc qroc enai do prgmata maz: na mh ken snolo

R, R2

kai

R3

all kai se poll lla endiafronta

metrik

d : X X R.

Tupik, dhlad, tan qoume na snolo

X X

kai ma de mpo-

rome na milme gia metrik qro

par mnon tan enai dh kajorismnh

kai ennoetai ap ta sumfrazmena ma sugkekrimnh metrik

sto snolo

X.

PARADOQH:

Lgontac o metrikc qroc Rn , ennoome to zegoc (R , dn,2 ), dhlad, to Rn efodiasmno me thn eukledia metrik.
n

An jelsoume na efodisoume ton

Rn

me ma metrik diaforetik ap thn eu-

kledia, ja prpei na thn anafroume rht.

x, y sto R orzoume: d1 (x, y) = (x y)2 , d2 (x, y) = |xy| |x y|, d3 (x, y) = |x2 y 2 |, d4 (x, y) = |x 2y| kai d5 (x, y) = 1+|xy| . Poic ap tic d1 , . . . , d5 enai metrikc sto R? (x(1) y (1) )2 + 4(x(2) y (2) )2 gia kje x = (x(1) , x(2) ) 2. Orzoume d(x, y) = (1) (2) kai y = (y , y ) sto R2 . Enai h d metrik sto R2 ? (1) 3. Orzoume d1 (x, y) = |x y (1) | + |x(2) y (2) | + |x(3) y (3) | kai d2 (x, y) = (1) (1) (1) |x y | gia kje x = (x , x(2) , x(3) ) kai y = (y (1) , y (2) , y (3) ) sto R3 . Poiec 3 ap tic d1 kai d2 enai metrikc sto R ?
' Askhsh 2:

1.

Gia kje

Paradegmata:

1.

H diakrit metrik.

'Estw opoiodpote mh ken snolo me tpo:

kai h sunrthsh

X : X X R X
qei

X (x, y) =
An

0, 1,

an an

x = y, x = y.

Enai ekolo na dei kanec ti h

Oi idithtec (i), (ii) kai (iii) enai proX (x, y) = 0, h anisthta X (x, y) X (x, z) + X (z, y) isqei, diti X (x, z) 0 kai X (z, y) 0. An X (x, y) = 1, tte x = y , opte na toulqiston ap ta x kai y enai diaforetik ap to z kai, epomnwc, na toulqiston ap ta X (x, z) kai X (z, y) enai so me 1 (kai to llo enai 0). 'Ara, X (x, y) = 1 X (x, z) + X (z, y). tic tsseric idithtec miac metrikc. fanec. 'Estw mh ken snolo

Orismc 4.4

X. 0, 1,

X : X X R x = y, x=y

me tpo

X (x, y) =
onomzetai
diakrit metrik

an an

sto

X.

Enai axioprsekto ti h diakrit metrik orzetai se opoiodpote mh ken snolo qro

X . Blpoume, loipn, ti, prgmati, de mporome na milme gia metrik X qwrc na qoume up' yin mac kpoia sugkekrimnh metrik sto X . Din ti, gia pardeigma, o R mpore na efodiaste me toulqiston do diaforetikc metrikc: thn eukledia metrik dn,2 kai th diakrit metrik Rn . Se lgo ja
76

dome ti o 2.

Rn

mpore na efodiasje me pollc llec metrikc.

Metriko upqwroi.

(X, d) kai opoiodpote mh ken W X . Katpin, parnoume ton periorism thc sunrthshc d : X X R sto W W . Dhlad, gia kje x, y W h tim d(x, y) tou periorismo d : W W R enai dia me thn tim d(x, y) thc d : X X R. Me apl lgia: h apstash twn x, y W wc stoiqea tou mikrterou sunlou W qei thn dia akribc tim me thn apstas touc wc stoiqea tou megalterou sunlou X . Ja dome, tra, ti h d : W W R enai metrik sto W . Aut enai exairetik ekolo. Prgmati, oi tsseric idithtec thc d isqoun gia ta stoiqea tou X kai, epomnwc, oi idithtec autc ja isqoun kai gia ta stoiqea tou W , afo ta stoiqea tou W enai stoiqea tou X .
Jewrome nan opoiondpote metrik qro uposnolo
Orismc 4.5

'Estw metrikc qroc thc

d:W W R
up qwroc tou

apstash up qwrou sto

(X, d) kai mh ken W X . O periorismc d : X X R onomzetai W W kai o metrikc qroc (W, d) onomzetai (X, d).
metrik up qwrou sto metrikc

Jewrome ton R me thn eukledia d2 kai to uposnolo W = (0, 1] [4, 7]. H apstash twn stoiqewn 1 kai 4 tou W me th metrik upqwrou enai sh me |4 1| = 3, diti aut akribc enai h apstas touc wc stoiqea tou R me thn eukledia metrik. Ac dome ma apl eidik perptwsh. metrik

An qoume na mh ken uposnolo W tou Rn , sumfwnome ti, lgontac o metrikc qroc W , ja ennoome ton (W, dn,2 ) wc metrik upqwro tou (Rn , dn,2 ), dhlad, to snolo W efodiasmno me ton periorism thc euklediac metrikc tou Rn sto W . Me aplostera lgia: oi apostseic anmesa sta stoiqea tou W enai akribc oi diec me tic euklediec apostseic touc.
PARADOQH:

3.

-metrik tou

Jewrome tpo

Minkowski parmetro p [1, +]

p

ston

kai

Rn (1 p +). n n th sunrthsh dn,p : R R R

an an

me

dn,p (x, y) =
gia kje

|x(1) y (1) |p + + |x(n) y (n) |p , max1kn |x(k) y (k) | ,

kai

1 p < +, p = +,
Prosxte ti h

y = (y (1) , . . . , y (n) ) sto Rn . dn,p enai genkeush thc euklediac metrikc dn,2 . n Ja dome, tra, ti h dn,p enai metrik ston R .
Lmma 4.2

x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) )

'Estw

1 < p < + x+
1 q

kai

q =

a, b 0.
Apdeixh: H

p p1

Isqei

ab

ap p

bq q

gia kje

0, an 1 x < +, kai x + 1 enai fjnousa sto 0, an 0 x 1. 'Ara h sunrthsh me tpo q [0, 1] kai axousa sto [1, +) kai, epomnwc, qei elqisth tim sto 1. 'Ara,
enai

d xp dx p

= xp1 1

xp p

77

xp p

x+

1 q

1p p

1+
kai

1 q

=0

, isodnama,

x
An

An, tra,

a0

b > 0,
ap p

jtoume to

anisthta kai parnoume thn anisthta gnetai

ab

ap p

ab + bq

q p q

xp p

1 q

gia kje

x [0, +).
h teleutaa

sth jsh tou

sthn prohgomenh

a 0

kai

b = 0,

kai enai, profanc, swst.

O.E.D.

Lmma 4.3

Anisthta

a1 , . . . , an R

kai

Hlder. 'Estw 1 < p < + o b1 , . . . , bn R isqei

p

kai

q=

p p1

. Gia kje

|a1 b1 + + an bn |
Apdeixh:

|a1 |p + + |an |p

|b1 |q + + |bn |q .

|a1 |p + +|an |p = 0, tte a1 = . . . = an = 0, opte h anisthta q q katalgei sthn 0 0, h opoa enai swst. Omowc, an |b1 | + + |bn | = 0, tte b1 = . . . = bn = 0 kai, pli, h anisthta katalgei sthn 0 0. p p q q Upojtoume, tra, ti |a1 | + + |an | > 0 kai |b1 | + + |bn | > 0 kai q p |a1 |p + + |an |p kai B = |b1 |q + + |bn |q . Sunepgetai jtoume A = p q p |a1 | |b1 | |an | |bn | a1 b1 an bn 1 |a1 | 1 |b1 | 1 |an | A B + + A B A B + + A B p Ap + q B q + + p A p +
An
q 1 |bn | q Bq

p p 1 |a1 | ++|an | p Ap p

+ an bn | AB =
Lmma 4.4

q q 1 |b1 | ++|bn | q Bq |a1 |p + + |an |p

=
q

1 p

1 q

=1

kai, epomnwc,

|a1 b1 +

|b1 + + |bn

|q

|q

O.E.D. Tte gia kje

Anisthta

a1 , . . . , an R
p

kai

Minkowski. 'Estw 1 p < +. b1 , . . . , bn R isqei

p

|a1 + b1 |p + + |an + bn |p

|a1 |p + + |an |p +

|b1 |p + + |bn |p .

p = 1 h anisthta gnetai |a1 + b1 | + + |an + bn | |a1 | + + |an | + |b1 | + + |bn | kai enai, profanc, swst. p Upojtoume, loipn, ti 1 < p < + kai jtoume q = p1 . 'Eqoume |a1 + b1 |p + + |an + bn |p = |a1 + b1 ||a1 + b1 |p1 + + |an + bn ||an + bn |p1 |a1 ||a1 + b1 |p1 + + |an ||an + bn |p1 + |b1 ||a1 + b1 |p1 + + |bn ||an + bn |p1 . p1 Me efarmog tou Lmmatoc 4.3, |a1 ||a1 + b1 | + + |an ||an + bn |p1 p p + + |a |p q |a + b |p + + |a + b |p kai |b ||a + b |p1 + + |a1 | n 1 1 n n 1 1 1 |bn ||an +bn |p1 p |b1 |p + + |bn |p q |a1 + b1 |p + + |a1 + bn |p . Sunepgep p p tai ti |a1 +b1 | + +|an +bn | |a1 |p + + |an |p + p |b1 |p + + |bn |p q |a1 + b1 |p + + |an + bn |p . An |a1 + b1 |p + + |a1 + bn |p > 0, diairntac q ta do mlh thc teleutaac anisthtac me to |a1 + b1 |p + + |a1 + bn |p , kap p talgoume sthn anisthta thc ekfnhshc. An |a1 + b1 | + + |a1 + bn | = 0,
Apdeixh: Sthn perptwsh h anisthta thc ekfnhshc enai profanc. Gia kje O.E.D. isqei

Lmma 4.5

a1 , . . . , an R

kai

b1 , . . . , b n R
1kn

1kn
Apdeixh: tuqn Jtoume

max |ak + bk | max |ak | + max |bk | .

1kn
Parnoume Epomnwc,

A = max1kn |ak | kai B = max1kn |bk |. 1 k n kai qoume |ak + bk | |ak | + |bk | A + B . max1kn |ak + bk | A + B . O.E.D. k
me 78

Prtash

4.3

dn,p : Rn Rn R

enai metrik ston

Rn

gia kje

[1, +].
Apdeixh: Enai ekolo na dei kanec ti h kai kai

dn,p ikanopoie tic idithtec (i), (ii) (iii) mac metrikc. H idithta (iv) prokptei an jsoume ak = x(k) z (k) bk = z (k) y (k) gia k = 1, . . . , n stic anisthtec twn Lhmmtwn 4.4 kai 4.5.

O.E.D.

dn,p (1 p +) tautzontai sthn R. Prgmati, gia kje x, y R qoume d1,p (x, y) = p |x y|p = |x y| = d1,2 (x, y), an 1 p < +, kajc kai d1, (x, y) = max1k1 |x y| = |x y| = d1,2 (x, y), an p = +.
Enai profanc ti lec oi metrikc perptwsh tou qrou
Orismc 4.6

H metrik
p

dn,p : Rn Rn R

sto snolo

Rn

me tpo

dn,p (x, y) =
gia kje
metrik

|x(1) y (1) |p + + |x(n) y (n) |p , max1kn |x(k) y (k) | ,

an an

1 p < +, p = +,
-

metrikc

x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) kai y = (y (1) , . . . , y (n) ) sto Rn onomzetai p Minkowski , apl, Minkowski ston Rn . O n qroc (R , dn,p ) onomzetai n Minkowski.
tou metrik tou -distatoc qroc

'Ara, sthn perptwsh

p=2

n-distatoc

qroc

Minkowski

enai o dioc me ton

n-distato
' Askhsh

eukledio qro.

3:

Pc metablletai h tou

(1, 0)

kai

(0, 0)

erthsh gia ta

p-apstash Minkowski R2 kajc to p auxnei sto [1, +]? shmea (1, 1) kai (0, 0).
korufn tou monadiaou kbou.

anmesa sta shmea Apantste thn dia

4.

To snolo twn

Jewrome to uposnolo tou

Rn

kai orzoume th

En = {( (1) , . . . , (n) ) : (1) = 1, . . . , (n) = 1} sunrthsh d : En En R me tpo

to pljoc twn

d(x, y) =
gia kje

gia ta opoa

(k) = (k)

x = ( (1) , . . . , (n) ) kai y = ( (1) , . . . , (n) ) sto En . Enai profanc ti h d ikanopoie tic treic prtec idithtec mac metrikc. (1) An proume x = ( , . . . , (n) ), y = ( (1) , . . . , (n) ) kai z = ( (1) , . . . , (n) ) sto En , tte gia kje k , gia to opoo (k) = (k) , isqei toulqiston ma ap tic (k) = (k) , (k) = (k) . Ap aut sunepgetai ti d(x, y) d(x, z) + d(z, y). 'Ara, h d enai metrik sto En . Parathrste ti to snolo En enai pepen rasmno me 2 stoiqea kai ti to snolo timn thc d enai to {0, 1, . . . , n}.
5.
H omoimorfh apstash sunartsewn.

Jewrome opoiodpote mh ken snolo enai fragmnh, an uprqei kpoio

A.

Gnwrzoume ti ma

M R

(to opoo exarttai ap thn

f :AR f ) ste

|f (x)| M

gia kje

x A.

Orismc 4.7

Orzoume

B(A) = {f : h f : A R
79

enai fragmnh

}.

To

sto

B(A) A.

onomzetai

qroc

twn

fra gmnwn

pra gmatikn

sunartsewn

du (f, g) = supxA |f (x)g(x)| f : A R kai g : A R. An oi f, g enai kai fragmnec, isqei 0 du (f, g) < +. Prgmati, an uprqoun M, N R ste |f (x)| M kai |g(x)| N gia kje x A, sunepgetai |f (x) g(x)| |f (x)| + |g(x)| M + N gia kje x A kai, epomnwc, du (f, g) = supxA |f (x) g(x)| M + N < +.
'Eqoume dh orsei thn omoimorfh apstash sunartsewn
Prtash 4.4

du : B(A) B(A) R

enai metrik sto

B(A).

du ikanopoie, profanc, tic idithtec (i) kai (iii) mac metrikc. supxA |f (x) g(x)| = du (f, g) = 0, sunepgetai |f (x) g(x)| = 0 gia kje x A kai, epomnwc, f = g . 'Ara, h du ikanopoie kai thn idithta (ii) mac metrikc. Epshc, gia kje x A qoume |f (x) g(x)| |f (x) h(x)| + |h(x) g(x)| du (f, h) + du (h, g) kai, epomnwc, du (f, g) = supxA |f (x) g(x)| du (f, h) + du (h, g). O.E.D.
Apdeixh: H Tra, an
Orismc 4.8

du : B(A) B(A) R

onomzetai

omoimorfh

metrik

omoimorfh apstash

metrik thc omoimorfhc sgklishc ston

B(A).

4.2

Perioqc, anoikt

snola, kleist snola.

Orismc 4.9

'Estw

zoume

-perio q tou

(X, d) a

nac metrikc qroc. An

aX

kai

> 0,

onom-

perio q kntrou

kai aktnac

, kai sumbolzoume

Na ( )

N (a; ),

to snolo

Na ( ) = N (a; ) = {x X : d(x, a) < } .

'Otan lme adieukrnisto
' Askhsh 4:
perio q

Na

tou

ennoome kpoia

-perioq tou

gia kpoio

> 0.
'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d), a X .

Apodexte ti

>0

Na ( ) =

kai

>0

Na ( ) = {a} .
'Estw metrikc qroc

' Askhsh 5:

ti uprqei

>0

ste

(X, d) kai a1 , a2 X Na1 ( ) Na2 ( ) = .

me

a1 = a2 .

Apodexte

Paradegmata:

1. Ston kai

R oi perioqc enai gnwst > 0, to Na ( ) enai to snolo

se mac snola. Prgmati, gia kje

aR

lwn twn shmewn thc eujeac twn opown

h (eukledia, ennoetai) apstash ap to anoikt disthma

a enai mikrterh ap , dhlad, to (a , a + ), me kntro to a kai pltoc 2 . 2 Omowc, ston R h perioq kntrou a kai aktnac > 0 enai to snolo lwn twn shmewn tou epipdou twn opown h apstash ap to a enai mikrterh ap , dhlad, o anoiktc dskoc me kntro a kai aktna . 3 Tloc, ston R h perioq kntrou a kai aktnac > 0 enai to snolo lwn twn shmewn tou qrou twn opown h apstash ap to a enai mikrterh ap , dhlad, h anoikt mpla me kntro a kai aktna .
80

Enai faner ti ap ta paradegmata tou dskou kai thc mplac stouc kai

R2

, antistoqwc, prorqontai oi roi kntro kai aktna sth genik perMlista, kai sthn perptwsh tou

ptwsh twn perioqn se metrikoc qrouc. euklediou qrou

n 4, sthn opoa den uprqei gewmetrik epoptea, qrhsimopoiome ton ro (n-distath) anoikt mpla kntrou a kai aktnac gia thn perioq Na ( ). 2. Jewrome mh ken snolo X kai th diakrit metrik X sto X . Oi mnec timc thc X enai 0 kai 1. Enai faner, loipn, ti gia kje a X qoume Na ( ) = {a}, an 0 < 1, kai Na ( ) = X , an 1 < . 3. 'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d) kai opoiodpote mh ken W X to opoo efodizoume me ton periorism thc d ap to X sto W . Dhlad, jewrome ton metrik upqwro (W, d) tou (X, d). Ja dome, tra, poia enai h sqsh anmesa stic perioqc tou (X, d) kai stic perioqc tou (W, d) kai, gia na mhn uprqei X W kndunoc sgqushc, sumbolzoume Na ( ) tic prtec kai Na ( ) tic deterec. X Ap touc orismoc qoume Na ( ) = {x X : d(x, a) < } gia kje a X kai W Na ( ) = {x W : d(x, a) < } gia kje a W . Enai profanc ti, an to kntro a ankei sto mikrtero snolo W , tte
me

Rn

W X Na ( ) = Na ( ) W .

(W, d) enai oi tomc twn perioqn (me diec aktnec kai W. Ac exetsoume to apl pardeigma tou W = (0, 1] [4, 7] wc upqwrou tou R (me thn eukledia, ennoetai, metrik). Gia a (0, 1] [4, 7] h perioq ston W me kntro a kai aktna enai h tom tou anoikto diastmatoc (a , a + ) 3 me to (0, 1] [4, 7]. Gia pardeigma, h perioq tou > 0, enai to 4 me aktna 3 1 3 1 3 ( 4 , 4 + ), an 0 < 4 , to ( 4 , 1], an 4 < 3 , to (0, 1], an 3 < 13 , 4 4 4 3 13 25 25 to (0, 1] [4, 4 + ), an 4 < 4 kai, tloc, to (0, 1] [4, 7], an 4 < .
Dhlad, oi perioqc ston kntra) ston

(X, d)

me to

Blpoume, loipn, ti to gewmetrik sqma twn perioqn mpore na enai telewc diaforetik ap to sunhjismno sqma twn diasthmtwn, twn dskwn kai twn mpaln. Aut ja fane kai sto epmeno pardeigma.

Minkowski (R2 , d2, ). Jummaste ti d2, (x, y) = max |x y |, |x y (2) | gia kje x = (x(1) , x(2) ) kai y = (y (1) , y (2) ) ston R2 . Enai ekolo na de kanec ti h perioq tou a = (a(1) , a(2) ) me aktna > 0 enai to anoikt tetrgwno me kntro a, mkoc pleurc so me 2 kai me pleurc parllhlec stouc kriouc xonec. 2 Jewrome, tra, ton qro tou Minkowski (R , d2,1 ), pou d2,1 (x, y) = (1) (1) (2) (2) (1) (2) |x y | + |x y | gia kje x = (x , x ) kai y = (y (1) , y (2) ) ston R2 . Tra, h perioq tou a = (a(1) , a(2) ) me aktna > 0 enai to anoikt tetr gwno me kntro a, mkoc pleurc so me 2 kai me pleurc parllhlec stic
4. Jewrome ton didistato qro tou

(1)

(1)

(2)

kriec diagwnouc.

' Askhsh

6:

Poio enai to sqma twn perioqn stouc tridistatouc qrouc kai

Minkowski (R3 , d3, )

Lmma 4.6

(R3 , d3,1 )?
Gia kje

'Estw

1 p < q < +.
p

a1 , . . . , an R
1 1 pq q

isqei

|a1 |q + + |an |q

|a1 |p + + |an |p n
81

|a1 |q + + |an |q .

Epshc, an

1 p < q = +,
1kn

max |ak |

|a1 |p + + |an |p n p max |ak | .

1kn
h dipl anisthta katalgei sthn

Apdeixh: An

h opoa isqei. Upojtoume, loipn, ti toulqiston na ap ta

0 0 0, a1 , . . . , an enai = 0, opte |a1 |p + + |an |p > 0. Jtoume A = p |a1 |p + + |an |p kai qoume |ak | |ak |q |p |akp gia kje k = 1, . . . , n. Ajrozontac, A q 1 kai, epomnwc, Aq A p p |a1 | ++|an |q |a1 | ++|an | = 1, opte |a1 |q + + |an |q Aq , isodnama, Aq Ap q |a1 |q + + |an |q A = p |a1 |p + + |an |p . p p Gia th dexi anisthta efarmzoume to Lmma 4.3: |a1 | + + |an | a1 = . . . = an = 0,
q p

(|a1 |p ) p + + (|an |p ) p
p

q qp

1 qp + + 1 qp = n
1 1 pq

qp q

q p

|a1 |q + + |an |q

kai, epomnwc,

Sthn perptwsh Tte

q |a1 |p + + |an |p n |a1 |q + + |an |q . q = +, uprqei kpoio k0 ste |ak0 | = max1kn |ak |. |ak0 |p |a1 |p + + |an |p n|ak0 |p kai h dipl anisthta, h opoa prpei

na apodeiqje, enai, tra, profanc.

5. Jewrome touc qrouc nolo

efodiasmno me

Minkowski (Rn , dn,p ) kai (Rn , dn,q ), dhlad, to stic metrikc dn,p kai dn,q kai upojtoume 1 p < q

+.
Ja meletsoume th sqsh anmesa stic perioqc twn do qrwn kai parnoume tuqn

p Na (

kai

q Na (

a Rn kai > 0. Gia na mhn uprxei sgqush, sumbolzoume ) tic antstoiqec perioqc stouc do qrouc. Qrhsimopointac
p q p Na ( ) Na ( ) Na n p q
1 1

to Lmma 4.6, apodeiknetai pol ekola ti

' Askhsh

ktna

> 0 perigryte plrwc thn perioq tou (1, 1, 1) me aE3 = {(1, 1, 1)} me th metrik pou qei tpo d(x, y) = (1) (2) (3) to pljoc twn diaforetikn suntetagmnwn twn x = ( , , ) kai y = (1) (2) (3) ( , , ) sto E3 .
7:

Gia kje

ston qro

' Askhsh

8:

Jewrste ton metrik qro

du

kai to stoiqeo

f B [0, 1]

me tpo

gryte gewmetrik la ta stoiqea thc

B [0, 1] me thn omoimorfh metrik f (x) = x2 gia kje x [0, 1]. Periperioqc tou f me aktna > 0. B [0, 1] f (x) =
me aktna me thn omoimorfh

' Askhsh

9:

Jewrste, pli, ton metrik qro

metrik

du

kai to stoiqeo

f B [0, 1]

me tpo

Apodexte ti la ta stoiqea thc perioqc tou tseic sto

[0, 1]

oi opoec den enai suneqec sto

1 2

1 3

1 0, an 0 x 3 , 1 1, an 3 < x 1. 1 enai sunar2

Apodexte, mwc, ti, an

<

, h perioq tou

me aktna

periqei toulqiston na stoiqeo to opoo

enai sunrthsh suneqc sto

Orismc 4.10

[0, 1]. (X, d)

kai

'Estw metrikc qroc

uprqei kpoia perioq

Nx

tou

h opoa periqetai sto

A X. A,

An gia kje

xA

dhlad, an gia kje

82

x A

uprqei

uposnolo tou

= (x) > 0 (X, d)

ste

Nx ( ) A,

tte to

onomzetai

anoikt

anoikt uposnolo tou

X,

an den uprqei amfibola

gia thn

d.

Paradegmata:

A opoiodpote anoikt disthma ston R. Dhlad, A = (a, b) (a, +) (, b) (, +). An x enai opoiodpote shmeo tou A, parnoume to pol so me thn apstash tou x ap to kontintero proc to x kro tou A. (An A = (, +), parnoume opoiodpote > 0.) Tte, profanc, (x , x + ) A. 'Ara kje anoikt disthma enai anoikt uposnolo tou R. 'Estw, tra, ti to A enai opoiodpote kleist disthma [a, b]. Den uprqei kama perioq tou a h opoa periqetai sto A. To dio isqei kai gia to b. 'Ara uprqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A tou opoou kama perioq den periqetai sto A kai, epomnwc, to A den enai anoikt uposnolo tou R. Omowc, kanna ap ta diastmata [a, +), (, b], [a, b) kai (a, b] den enai anoikt uposnolo tou R.
1. 'Estw Sto tloc thc enthtac autc ja perigryoume plrwc la ta anoikt uposnola tou 2. 'Estw

R.
opoiodpote anoikt orjognio parallhlgrammo ston

R2 .

Fusi-

k, tan lme anoikt orjognio parallhlgrammo ennoome ti den periqei kanna shmeo thc perifreic tou. An

enai opoiodpote shmeo tou

enai

profanc ti uprqei anoiktc dskoc kntrou opooc na periqetai sto 'Estw, tra, ti to

kai me arket mikr aktna o

A.

'Ara, to

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R2 .

qei toulqiston na shmeo thc perifreic tou.

A enai orjognio parallhlgrammo ston R2 pou periAn x enai shmeo tou A kai, x
o opooc na

tautqrona, shmeo thc perifreiac tou orjogniou parallhlogrmmou, den uprqei kannac anoiktc dskoc, so mikrc ki an enai, kntrou periqetai sto

A.

'Ara uprqei toulqiston na shmeo tou

tou opoou kama

perioq den periqetai sto tou

kai, epomnwc, to

den enai anoikt uposnolo

R2 .
Omowc, an

enai anoiktc dskoc, dhlad, dskoc pou den periqei kanna

shmeo thc perifreic tou, to enai dskoc ston to

A enai anoikt uposnolo tou R2 . R2 .

En, an to

R2

pou periqei toulqiston na shmeo thc perifreic tou,

den enai anoikt uposnolo tou

Diaisjhtik, mporome na diakrnoume an na sugkekrimno snolo anoikt uposnolo tou

A enai R2 , an katafroume na ftixoume mia gewmetrik eikna

tou sto qart ( sto mual mac). 'Estw, gia pardeigma, ti qoume ma apl sqetik kamplh to snolo

sto eppedo h opoa qwrzei to eppedo se tra uposnola:

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma meri thc

to snolo

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc thc

kai to snolo twn shmewn

Tte kajna ap ta do prta snola enai anoikt uposnolo tou

An, mwc, sto

A1

sto

A2

episunyoume na toulqiston ap ta shmea thc

R2 . ,

tte to prokpton snolo den enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R2 .

3. 'Opwc kai sto prohgomeno pardeigma, enai ekolo na dome ti opoiadpote anoikt mpla anoikt orjognio parallhleppedo enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R3 .

Epshc, opoiadpote mpla orjognio parallhleppedo pou periqei

83

toulqiston na shmeo thc sunoriakc epifneiac den enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R3 .
Kai pli, diaisjhtik, mporome se pollc periptseic na diakrnoume an

na snolo

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R3 .

'Estw, gia pardeigma, ti

qoume ma apl sqetik epifneia tra uposnola: to snolo

ston qro h opoa qwrzei ton qro se

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma meri thc

to snolo

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai to

snolo twn shmewn thc uposnolo tou

Tte kajna ap ta do prta snola enai anoikt

R3 en, an sto A1 sto A2 episunyoume na toulqiston ap 3 ta shmea thc , tte to prokpton snolo den enai anoikt uposnolo tou R .
' Askhsh 10:

Apodexte ti kje mh ken anoikt uposnolo tou

periqei

kai rhtoc kai rrhtouc arijmoc. Poia ap ta paraktw enai anoikt uposnola tou R? To A kai R \ A, pou A enai opoiodpote peperasmno uposnolo tou R, to N, to Q, 1 1 R \ Q, to R \ { n : n N} kai to R \ {0} { n : n N} .
12:

' Askhsh 11:

to to

To A R \ A, pou A enai opoiodpote peperasmno uposnolo tou R2 , to {(x(1) , x(2) ) : x(1) x(2) > 1}, to {(x(1) , x(2) ) : x(1) x(2) 1}, to {(x(1) , x(2) ) : 1 x(1) > 0}, to R2 \ {(n, 0) : n N}, to R2 \ {( n , 0) : n N}, to R2 \ {(0, 0)} 1 1 {( n , m ) : n, m N} , to {(x(1) , 0) : a x(1) b}, to {(x(1) , 0) : a < x(1) < b}, 2 (1) to R \ {(x , 0) : a x(1) b}, to R2 \ {(x(1) , 0) : a < x(1) < b}, to Q2 , to 1 1 2 2 2 R \Q , to R \ [0, 1]){ n : n N} kai to R2 \ [0, 1])({0}{ n : n N}) .
' Askhsh

Poia ap ta paraktw enai anoikt uposnola tou

R2 ?

kai to

' Askhsh

13:

Poia ap ta paraktw enai anoikt uposnola tou

R3 ?

To

R \ A, pou A enai opoiodpote peperasmno uposnolo tou R3 , (1) to {(x , x(2) , x(3) ) : x(1) + x(2) + x(3) > 1}, to {(x(1) , x(2) , x(3) ) : (x(1) )2 + (2) 2 (x ) < x(3) }, to {(x(1) , x(2) , x(3) ) : x(1) > 0}, to R3 \ {(n, 0, 1) : n N}, 1 3 (1) , 0, 0) : a < x(1) < b}, to to R \ {(0, 0, 0)} {( n , 0, 0) : n N} , to {(x R3 \ {(x(1) , 0, 0) : a x(1) b}, to Q3 , to R3 \ Q3 kai to R3 \ {(x(1) , x(2) , 0) : a x(1) b, c x(2) d}. A
kai to 'Estw a1 , . . . , an R toulqiston na ek twn opown enai = 0 a R. To uposnolo = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + + an x(n) = a} n tou R onomzetai Rn . Sthn perptwsh n = 1 to uposnolo 2 aut tou R enai monosnolo, sthn perptwsh n = 2 enai ma eujea ston R 3 (1) kai sthn perptwsh n = 3 enai na eppedo ston R . H exswsh a1 x + + an x(n) = a onomzetai . Ta snola A1 = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + + an x(n) > a} kai A2 = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + + an x(n) < a} onomzontai me sunoriak upereppedo to . Apodexte ti oi do anoikto hmiqroi A1 kai A2 enai anoikt uposnola n (1) tou R . (Updeixh: Jewrste ton A1 kai tuqn x = (x , . . . , x(n) ) A1 . (1) (n) Jsate = a1 x ++an x 2 a > 0 kai apodexte ti Nx ( ) A1 .) 2
' Askhsh 14:

kai

upereppedo tou

exswsh

tou

uperepipdou

anoikto

hmiqroi

a1 ++an

84

'Estw mh ken X me th diakrit metrik X kai opoiodpote A X . An x A, tte Nx (1) = {x} A. 'Ara, gia kje x A uprqei perioq tou x h opoa periqetai sto A kai, epomnwc, to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, X ). 'Eqoume, loipn, ti kje uposnolo tou X enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, X ). n n 5. Jewrome touc qrouc Minkowski (R , dn,p ) kai (R , dn,q ) me stqo na 4. sugkrnoume ta anoikt uposnola tou enc me ta anoikt uposnola tou llou. 'Opwc qoume dh knei, sumbolzoume stouc do qrouc. Upojtoume

p q Na ( ) kai Na ( ) tic antstoiqec perioqc

1 p < q +
q Na n
1 1 qp

kai stw

tuqn anoikt uposnolo tou

(Rn , dn,p ).
n

Parnoume opoiodpote

a A,

opte uprqei

>0

ste

p Na ( ) A

kai sunepgetai

A.

' ra, gia kje A

(R , dn,q ) h opoa n tou (R , dn,q ).

periqetai sto

A.

Epomnwc, to

a A uprqei perioq tou ston A enai anoikt uposnolo

A tuqn anoikt uposnolo tou (Rn , dn,q ). Parnoume q p a A, opte uprqei > 0 ste Na ( ) A. Sunepgetai Na ( ) A. 'Ara, n gia kje a A uprqei perioq tou ston (R , dn,p ) h opoa periqetai sto A. n Epomnwc, to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (R , dn,p ). n 'Ara, ta anoikt uposnola tou (R , dn,p ) enai ta dia me ta anoikt upon snola tou (R , dn,q ).
Antistrfwc, stw
Orismc 4.11

'Estw mh ken snolo

efodiasmno me do metrikc

d1

kai

d2 .
tou

Oi do autc metrikc onomzontai

isodnamec,

an ta anoikt uposnola

(X, d1 )

enai ta dia me ta anoikt uposnola tou

(X, d2 ).

Pardeigma:

'Olec oi metrikc

Minkowski X

sto

Rn

enai an do isodnamec.

' Askhsh

15:

'Estw

opoiodpote peperasmno mh ken snolo.

Apodexte Ma ap

ti opoiesdpote do metrikc sto tic metrikc sto

enai isodnamec.

(Updeixh:

enai h

X . X

Poia enai ta anoikt uposnola tou

(X, X )?

Apodexte to dio gia kje llh metrik sto

X .)
kai

' Askhsh 16:

'Estw mh ken

kai metrikc

d1

d2

sto

X.

Ja sumbolsoume

d Nx 1

kai

d Nx 2
kai

tic perioqc tou

wc proc tic metrikc

d1

kai

d2 ,

antistoqwc.

Apodexte ti ta paraktw enai isodnama.

d2 enai isodnamec. d d x X kai kje > 0 uprqei > 0 ste Nx 1 () Nx 2 ( ) kai, d antistrfwc, gia kje x X kai kje > 0 uprqei > 0 ste Nx 2 () d1 Nx ( ).
1. Oi 2. Gia kje
' Askhsh 17:

d1

'Estw metrikc qroc

tpo

d (x, y) =

d(x,y) d(x,y)+1

gia kje

1. Apodexte ti h

2. Apodexte ti h 3. Apodexte ti

d d oi d

enai

(X, d). x, y X . metrik sto X .

Orzoume

d : X X R

me ton

enai fragmnh metrik. kai

enai isodnamec. (Updeixh: Apodexte ti, an

85

1,
1 , d Nx ( ).

, 0<

1 2

1 2

tte

d d Nx () Nx ( ).

Epshc, an

+1 ,

tte

d Nx ()

Qrhsimopoiste to apotlesma thc prohgomenhc skhshc 16.)

'Estw f, g : [a, b] R suneqec sto [a, b] ste g(x) < f (x) x [a, b]. Jewrome, epshc, ton metrik upqwro C([a, b]) = {h : h suneqc sto [a, b]} tou B([a, b]) me thn omoimorfh metrik du . Apodexte ti to A = {h C([a, b]) : g(x) < h(x) < f (x)} enai anoikt uposnolo tou C([a, b]), du . (Tpdeixh: Prte opoiadpote h A kai, qrhsimopointac to Jerhma Megstou-Elaqstou, apodexte ti uprqei > 0 ste g(x) + h(x) f (x) gia kje x [a, b].)
' Askhsh 18:

gia kje

Orismc 4.12

'Estw

an to sumplrwm tou,

A X. X \ A,

To

A onomzetai

kleist uposnolo tou

(X, d),

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

(X, d).

Prtash

(X, d) an kai mnon an to (X, d). 2. To A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) an kai mnon an to X \A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d).
4.5

1.

To

enai kleist uposnolo tou

X \A

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

Apdeixh: 1. Aut den enai tpota llo ap ton Orism 4.12.

(X, d), to X \ (X \ A) = A enai aX \ A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). Antistrfwc, an to X \ A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d), to A = X \ (X \ A) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). O.E.D.
2. An to

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

noikt uposnolo tou

(X, d)

kai, epomnwc, to

Paradegmata:

1. 'Estw opoiodpote kleist disthma tou

[a, b]

R. (b, +)

To sumplhrwmatik snolo enai to to

[a, +) (, b] (, +) (, a) (b, +) (, a)

antistoqwc. Enai ekolo na dei kanec ti la aut ta snola

enai anoikt uposnola tou

R.

Eidik gia to

isqei ti enai anoikt uposno-

lo opoioudpote metriko qrou kai aut ja apodeiqje se lgo sthn Prtash 4.6.1. tou Sumperanoume ti la ta kleist diastmata enai kleist uposnola

R.
An proume to disthma

(a, b), R.

to sumplhrwmatik tou snolo enai to

(, a] [b, +),
2.

to opoo den enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R.

'Ara to

den enai kleist uposnolo tou

Omowc, kje llo disthma

[a, b)

(a, b) (a, b]

(, b)

(a, +)

den enai kleist uposnolo tou

R. R2 ,
mporome,

'Opwc kai sto pardeigma gia ta anoikt uposnola tou

diaisjhtik, na katalboume an na sugkekrimno snolo posnolo tou

enai kleist uGia pardeigma,

R2 ,

an sullboume th gewmetrik eikna tou.

stw ma apl sqetik kamplh uposnola: to snolo snolo

sto eppedo pou qwrzei to eppedo se tra

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma meri thc

to

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai to snolo

twn shmewn thc uposnola tou

. R2 .

Tte ta snola

An, mwc, ap to

A1 kai A2 enai kai ta do kleist A1 ap to A2 afairsoume na

86

toulqiston ap ta shmea thc uposnolo tou

tte to prokpton snolo den enai kleist

R2 . R2
enai kleist uposnola tou

Gia pardeigma, la ta kleist orjognia parallhlgramma kai loi oi kleisto dskoi ston

R2 .

Ennoetai ti na

kleist orjognio parallhlgrammo periqei la ta shmea thc perifreic tou kai nac kleistc dskoc periqei, epshc, la ta shmea thc perifreic tou. Akmh, na eujgrammo tmma (maz me ta kra tou), ma eujea, h perifreia enc dskou kai h perifreia enc orjogniou parallhlogrmmou enai kleist uposnola tou

R2 .

Kai, geniktera, opoiadpote sqetik apl kamplh

3.

(maz me ta kra thc) enai kleist uposnolo tou

R2 .

'Ola aut ta para-

degmata ta meletme msw twn sumplhrwmatikn sunlwn. 'Opwc kai sto prohgomeno pardeigma, enai opoiadpote kleist mpla

kleist orjognio parallhleppedo enai kleist uposnolo tou

R3

en opoia-

dpote mpla orjognio parallhleppedo pou den periqei toulqiston na shmeo thc sunoriakc epifneiac den enai kleist uposnolo tou Geniktera, stw ti qoume ma apl sqetik epifneia qwrzei ton qro se tra uposnola: to snolo sth ma meri thc thc

R3 .

ston qro h opoa

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai

, to snolo A2 twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri kai to snolo twn shmewn thc . Tte kajna ap ta snola A1 3 kai A2 enai kleist uposnolo tou R en, an ap aut afairsoume na toulqiston ap ta shmea thc , tte ta prokptonta snola den enai kleist 3 uposnola tou R .
Akmh, opoiodpote eujgrammo tmma eujea kleistc dskoc (pou

periqetai, fusik, se na eppedo) eppedo tou qrou enai kleist uposnolo tou

R3 .

Geniktera, kje sqetik apl kamplh

(maz me ta kra thc) kai kje

sqetik apl epifneia uposnola tou

(maz me thn sunoriak thc kamplh) enai kleist

R3 .
1. To

Parathrseic:

(, +)

enai kai anoikt uposnolo kai kleist

uposnolo tou

R.

Autc enai o lgoc gia ton opoo onomzetai kai anoikt Den uprqei, mwc, kanna llo disthma to

disthma kai kleist disthma.

opoo enai kai anoikt uposnolo kai kleist uposnolo, tautoqrnwc, tou 2.

R.

Den prpei na menei h entpwsh ti kje uposnolo enc metriko qrou

ofelei na enai ete anoikt ete kleist uposnol tou. To anoikt ote kleist uposnolo tou

[a, b) den enai ote

R!

Dhlad, den isqei ti h nnoia tou

anoikto uposunlou enai h rnhsh thc nnoiac tou kleisto uposunlou.

' Askhsh

19:

Poia ap ta snola thc sk. 11 enai kleist uposnola tou

R?

' Askhsh 20:

Poia ap ta snola thc sk. 12 enai kleist uposnola tou

R2 ? R3 ?

' Askhsh 21:

Poia ap ta snola thc sk. 13 enai kleist uposnola tou

' Askhsh

22:

'Estw

a1 , . . . , an R

toulqiston na ek twn opown enai

kai

a R.

Jewrome to upereppedo

=0 = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + +

87

an x(n) = a} tou Rn pou mjame sthn skhsh 14. Ta snola A1 = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + + an x(n) a} kai A2 = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + + an x(n) a} onomzontai me sunoriak upereppedo to . Apodexte ti oi kleisto hmiqroi A1 kai A2 kajc kai to enai n kleist uposnola tou R .
kleisto hmiqroi ' Askhsh 23:

'Estw

dpote metrik sto uposnolo tou

X opoiodpote peperasmno mh ken snolo kai d opoiaX . Apodexte ti kje uposnolo tou X enai kleist (X, d). (Updeixh: Dete thn skhsh 15.)

4. Kje uposnolo tou tuqn

(X, X ) enai kleist uposnol tou. Prgmati, stw A X . Epeid kje uposnolo tou (X, X ) enai anoikt uposnol tou, to X \ A enai anoikt uposnolo kai, epomnwc, to A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, X ). 5. 'Estw 1 p < q +. 'Eqoume dei se na ap ta prohgomena paran degmata ti ta anoikt uposnola tou (R , dn,p ) enai ta dia me ta anoikt n uposnola tou (R , dn,q ). Enai, tra, profanc ti ta kleist uposnola tou (Rn , dn,p ) enai ta dia me ta kleist uposnola tou (Rn , dn,q ).
' Askhsh 24:

'Estw mh ken

kai

d1

kai

d2

do metrikc sto

X.

Apodexte ti

oi

d1

kai

d2

enai isodnamec an kai mnon an ta kleist uposnola tou

(X, d1 )

enai ta dia me ta kleist uposnola tou 'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d2 ). (X, d). (X, d). tou (X, d). (X, d).

Prtash

4.6

(X, d).

1. To 2. To

X X

kai to kai to

enai anoikt uposnola tou enai kleist uposnola tou

3. Kje

-perioq enai anoikt uposnolo

4. Kje peperasmno uposnolo tou Apdeixh 1. Gia opoiodpote 'Ara to

enai kleist uposnolo tou

Nx ( ) qoume Nx ( ) (X, d). An to den tan anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), ja uprqe kpoio x tou opoou kama perioq den ja perieqtan sto . Aut, mwc, enai topo, diti den uprqei kanna x sto . 2. To X \ X = enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), opte to X enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). Omowc, to X \ = X enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), opte to enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). 3. 'Estw a X kai > 0 kai parnoume tuqn b Na ( ). Ja apodexoume thn parxh kpoiou > 0 ste Nb () Na ( ). Afo b Na ( ), isqei d(b, a) < kai parnoume = d(b, a) > 0. An x Nb (), tte d(x, b) < , opte d(x, a) d(x, b)+d(b, a) < +d(b, a) = . Epomnwc: x Nb () x Na ( ). Dhlad: Nb () Na ( ). Apodexame ti gia kje b Na ( ) uprqei perioq tou b h opoa periqetai sto Na ( ). 'Ara to Na ( ) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). 4. 'Estw A = {x1 , . . . , xn } X . Parnoume tuqn x X \ A, opte d(x, x1 ) > 0, . . . , d(x, xn ) > 0, kai parnoume = min d(x, x1 ), . . . , d(x, xn ) > 0. Kanna ap ta x1 , . . . , xn den ankei sthn Nx ( ) kai, epomnwc, Nx ( ) X \ A. 'Ara,
kai gia opoiadpote

xX

X.

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

88

gia kje

Epomnwc, to

x X \ A uprqei kpoia perioq tou x h opoa periqetai sto X \ A. X \A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), opte to A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). O.E.D.
Wc efarmog thc Prtashc 4.6.3 qoume ti kje

n-distath

anoikt mpla

ston

Rn

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

Rn .
kleist -perioq

(X, d) h shmeou a X Na ( ) = {x X : d(x, a) }. Apodexte ti h Na ( ) enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). (Updeixh: Jewrste tuqn x X \ Na ( ), opte d(x, a) > , kai prte = d(x, a) > 0. Apodexte ti Nx () X \ Na ( ).)
' Askhsh 25:

Ston metrik qro

orzetai na enai to snolo

Ston eukledio qro kntrou

Rn

a kai aktnac

gia thn

25, ti kje kleist mpla

n-distath kleist mpla Na ( ). Isqei, loipn, wc efarmog thc skhshc n n ston R enai kleist uposnolo tou R .
qrhsimopoiome ton ro
oikogneia sunlwn

'Otan lme ti qoume kpoia

sullog sunlwn

ennoome ti qoume na snolo

tou opoou kje stoiqeo enai snolo.

A enai snolo. Thn nwsh lwn twn sunlwn-stoiqewn th sumbolzoume A A. Fusik: x A A an kai mnon an x A gia toulqiston na A . Omowc, thn tom lwn twn sunlwnstoiqewn thc sullogc th sumbolzoume A A. Epshc: x A A an kai mnon an x A gia kje A .
Dhlad, kje thc sullogc Pollc forc ma sullog sunlwn perigrfetai kai me nan diaforetik (all, telik, isodnamo) trpo. kje Xekinme me na snolo deiktn kai se antistoiqzoume na snolo A . Parnoume tsi th sullog sunlwn = {A : }. Tra, to na lme ti to A enai stoiqeo thc sullogc enai isodnamo me to na lme ti A = A gia kpoio . Epshc, h nwsh A A kai h tom A A sumbolzontai, isodnama, A kai A , antistoqwc. Sthn eidik perptwsh peperasmnhc sullogc, opte wc snolo

deiktn parnoume to grfontai kai wc

n k=1

= {1, . . . , n} gia kpoio n N, h nwsh kai h tom n Ak = A1 An kai k=1 Ak = A1 An .

tom grfontai kai wc

En sthn perptwsh peirhc arijmsimhc sullogc, opte wc snolo deiktn parnoume to kai

+ k=1

N, h nwsh kai h Ak = A1 A2 .
26:

+ k=1

Ak = A1 An

' Askhsh

'Estw opoiadpote mh ken sullog sunlwn

kje stoiqeo-

snolo thc opoac enai uposnolo enc sunlou

X.

Apodexte touc nmouc tou

de Morgan : 1. X \ A A = 2. X \ A A =
3. 4.

\ A) kai (X \ A). A Epshc, apodexte ti gia kje B X B A A = A (B A) kai B A A = A (B A).

A (X
'Estw metrikc qroc

isqei:

Jerhma 4.1

1. 'Estw opoiadpote oikogneia sunlwn

(X, d). kje

stoiqeo thc opoac enai anoi-

89

kt uposnolo tou

(X, d) kai stw M h nwsh twn stoiqewn thc , dhlad, M enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). 2. 'Estw peperasmnou pljouc anoikt uposnola A1 , . . . , An tou (X, d) kai M h tom touc, dhlad, M = A1 An . To M enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). 3. 'Estw opoiadpote oikogneia sunlwn kje stoiqeo thc opoac enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d) kai stw M h tom twn stoiqewn thc , dhlad, M = A A. To M enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). 4. 'Estw peperasmnou pljouc kleist uposnola A1 , . . . , An tou (X, d) kai M h nws touc,dhlad, M = A1 An . To M enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). M=
A A.
To Apdeixh 1. 'Estw tuqn

x M . To x ankei se kpoio ap ta A , stw A0 . Afo to A0 enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqei perioq Nx tou x h opoa periqetai sto A0 . Epomnwc, afo A0 M , h Nx periqetai sto M. 2. 'Estw tuqn x M , opte x A1 , . . . , x An . Afo kje Ak enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqoun perioqc Nx ( 1 ) A1 , . . . , Nx ( n ) An . Parnoume = min( 1 , . . . , n ) kai qoume Nx ( ) Nx ( 1 ) A1 , . . . , Nx ( ) Nx ( n ) An . 'Ara, Nx ( ) A1 An = M . 3. To snolo X \ M = X \ A A = A (X \ A) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), diti gia kje A to X \ A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). 'Ara, to M enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). 4. To X \ M = X \ (A1 An ) = (X \ A1 ) (X \ An ) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), diti la ta X \ A1 , . . . , X \ An enai anoikt uposnola tou (X, d). 'Ara, to M enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). O.E.D.
sto
' Askhsh 27:

'Estw metrikc qroc

kai

kleist uposnolo tou

snolo tou

(X, d)

kai to

(X, d), A anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) (X, d). Apodexte ti to A \ B enai anoikt upoB \ A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d).

Paradegmata:

1. 'Enwsh peperasmnou pljouc kleistn diasthmtwn enai kleist uposnolo tou 2.

R. R.

'Enwsh opoiasdpote sullogc anoiktn diasthmtwn enai anoikt upos-

nolo tou

1 A = {1, 2 , 1 , . . .}. Enai to A kleist uposnolo tou R? 3 + 1 1 To sumplhrwmatik snolo enai R\A = (, 0](1, +) n=1 ( n+1 , n ). Parathrome ti 0 R \ A all den uprqei kama perioq tou 0 h opoa na periqetai sto R \ A. Epomnwc, to R \ A den enai anoikt uposnolo tou R kai to A den enai kleist uposnolo tou R. 1 1 4. 'Estw to snolo B = {0, , , . . .}. Enai to B kleist uposnolo tou R? 2 3 + 1 1 Tra, R \ B = (, 0) (1, +) n=1 ( n+1 , n ), to opoo, wc nwsh anoiktn diasthmtwn, enai anoikt uposnolo tou R. 'Ara, to B enai kleist uposnolo tou R.
3. 'Estw to snolo 5. An qoume ma peirh sullog anoiktn uposunlwn enc metriko qrou,

90

h tom thc enai llote anoikt uposnolo tou qrou kai llote qi. pardeigma, me

Gia

An = (0, 1) gia kje n N parnoume n=1 An = (0, 1), dhlad, anoikt uposnolo tou R. All, me An = (1 1/n, 1 + 1/n) gia kje n N + parnoume n=1 An = [1, 1], to opoo den enai anoikt uposnolo tou R.
Ta dia mporome na pome gia peirh sullog kleistn uposunlwn kai thn

An = [1, 1] gia kje n N, qoume n=1 An = [1, 1], dhlad, kleist uposnolo tou R, en me An = [1 + 1/n, 1 1/n] gia + kje n N, qoume n=1 An = (1, 1), to opoo den enai kleist uposnolo tou R. 6. To Cantor. Jewrome to kleist disthma I0 = [0, 1]. Parnoume to uposnol tou I1 = [0, 1 ] [ 2 , 1]. Kratme, dhlad, ta do akrian kleist diastmata mkouc, to 3 3 1 kajna, to 3 tou mkouc tou arqiko I0 . Knoume to dio se kajna ap ta do 1 2 1 2 7 8 upodiastmata tou I1 . Dhlad, I2 = [0, ] [ , ] [ , ] [ , 1]. Suneqzoume 9 9 3 3 9 9 me epagwgik trpo gia na ftixoume ta I3 , I4 ,. . . . An, dhlad, qoume ftixei to In wc nwsh kleistn diasthmtwn, to kajna ap aut ta diastmata ja
nws thc. Gia pardeigma, me
snolo tou

gennsei do kainoria kleist diastmata: kajna, to

ta do akrian tou me mkoc, to

1 3

tou mkouc tou.

Blpoume, dhlad, ti se kje bma to pljoc

twn diasthmtwn diplasizetai kai, epomnwc, to diastmata, ap ta opoa to kajna qei mkoc kje diastmatoc upotriplasizetai.

In

apoteletai ap

2n

kleist

1 mkoc 3n , afo se kje bma to Kje In enai kleist snolo afo

enai nwsh peperasmnhc sullogc kleistn diasthmtwn. Epshc, to sunolik mkoc twn diasthmtwn pou apartzoun to Orzoume

In

enai so me
snolo

2n

1 3n

2 n . 3

C =

+ n=1 In .

To

onomzetai

tou

Cantor

kai, wc

tom sullogc kleistn uposunlwn tou

R,

enai kleist uposnolo tou

R.

' Askhsh

28:

Gryte to

R\C

wc nwsh katllhlhc sullogc anoiktn dia-

sthmtwn.

Ma endiafrousa idithta tou sthma. Prgmati, stw

enai ti den periqei kanna anoikt di-

(a, b) C .
gia kje

Tte

(a, b) In

gia kje

n N,
1 3n

opte to

(a, b) prpei na periqetai In . Epomnwc, b a 31 n b a > 0.

' Askhsh 29:

se na ap ta kleist diastmata pou apartzoun to

n N.

Aut enai topo, diti

en

Apodexte ti to snolo

tou

Cantor

periqei peira shmea.

' Askhsh

30:

Perigryte diadikasa kataskeuc sunlou

qste me to tetrgwno

1 [0, 3 ] [ 2 , 1] 3 I2 , I3 ,. . . .
1. Kje

I0 = [0, 1] [0, 1], ftixte 2 [ 3 , 1] [0, 1 ] [ 2 , 1] [ 2 , 1] kai 3 3 3

to

Cantor sto R2 : arI1 = [0, 1 ] [0, 1 ] 3 3

suneqste epagwgik me ta

In

apoteletai ap xna an do kleist tetrgwna. Kajna ap aut

psa kainoria tetrgwna ja gennsei kai po brskontai aut? Ap psa tetrgwna apartzetai to 2. Prte

C=

+ n=1 In

In

kai pso enai to embadn kje ttoiou tetragnou?

kai apodexte ti to

enai kleist uposnolo tou

R2 .

3. Apodexte ti to

den periqei kannan anoikt dsko.

91

' Askhsh 31:

ak < x

(k)

rallhleppedo

(a1 , b1 ) (an , bn ) = {(x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : < bk gia kje k = 1, . . . , n} onomzetai n ston R me akmc (ak , bk ) (1 k n) parllhlec stouc
'Ena snolo thc morfc
anoikt orjognio pa-

kriouc xonec.

Apodexte ti kje ttoio snolo enai tom kpoiac pepera-

smnhc sullogc anoiktn hmiqrwn kai, epomnwc, enai anoikt uposnolo tou kai

Rn . (Updeixh: Jewrste hmiqrouc Lk = {(x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : ak < x(k) } Mk = {(x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : x(k) < bk }.)
(k)

' Askhsh 32:

ak x

rallhleppedo

[a1 , b1 ] [an , bn ] = {(x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : bk gia kje k = 1, . . . , n} onomzetai n ston R me akmc [ak , bk ] (1 k n) parllhlec stouc
'Ena snolo thc morfc
kleist orjognio pa-

kriouc xonec.

Apodexte ti kje ttoio snolo enai tom kpoiac pepera-

smnhc sullogc kleistn hmiqrwn kai, epomnwc, enai kleist uposnolo tou

Rn .

(Updeixh: Prosarmste thn updeixh thc prohgomenhc skhshc.)

7. 'Estw metrikc qroc

letsoume th sqsh anmesa sta anoikt uposnola tou uposnola tou

(X, d) kai metrikc upqwroc (W, d) tou (X, d). Ja me(X, d) kai sta anoikt

(W, d). Ja qrhsimopoisoume thn dh gnwst mac sqsh anmeX W Nx ( ) kai Nx ( ) twn qrwn (X, d) kai (W, d), antistoqwc, gia kje x W . 'Estw tuqn anoikt uposnolo A tou (X, d). Jewrome to B = AW W . An x B , tte x A kai x W . Epeid to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou X W X (X, d), uprqei > 0 ste Nx ( ) A. Sunepgetai Nx ( ) = Nx ( ) W A W = B . 'Ara, gia kje shmeo x tou B uprqei perioq (ston (W, d)) tou x h opoa periqetai sto B . Aut shmanei ti to B enai anoikt uposnolo tou (W, d). 'Estw, tra, tuqn anoikt uposnolo B tou (W, d). Parnoume opoiodW pote x B , opte uprqei = (x) ste Nx ( (x)) B . Epshc, gnwrX X W Jtoume A = zoume ti Nx ( (x)) = Nx ( (x)) W . xB Nx ( (x)) kai, smfwna me to Jerhma 4.1.1, to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). Tra, X X W A W = xB Nx ( (x)) W = xB Nx ( (x)) W = xB Nx ( (x)). Parathrome ti to teleutao snolo enai to dio me to B . Aut isqei diti, W W af' enc Nx ( (x)) B gia kje x B kai, epomnwc, xB Nx ( (x)) B , W W af' etrou gia kje y B qoume y Ny ( (y)) xB Nx ( (x)), opte W B xB Nx ( (x)). Katalgoume, epomnwc, sto ti A W = B . Apodexame, loipn, ti ta anoikt uposnola tou (W, d) enai ta dia me tic tomc twn anoiktn uposunlwn tou (X, d) me to W .
sa stic perioqc
' Askhsh

(X, d) kai upqwroc (W, d) tou (X, d). A kleist uposnolo tou (X, d) to B = A W enai kleist uposnolo tou (W, d). Antistrfwc, apodexte ti gia kje kleist uposnolo B tou (W, d) uprqei kpoio kleist uposnolo A tou (X, d) ste B = A W.
33:

'Estw metrikc qroc

Apodexte ti gia kje

8.

'Ac jewrsoume ton upqwro

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

W = [0, 1] [2, 3] tou R. R, to [0, 1] = ( 1 , 3 ) W 2 2

92

Epeid to

1 ( 2 , 3 ) 2

enai, smfwna me

to prohgomeno pardeigma 7, anoikt uposnolo tou to

( 3 , 4) 2

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

uposnolo tou

(W, d).

Tra, to

(W, d). Omowc, epeid R, to [2, 3] = ( 3 , 4) W enai anoikt 2 [2, 3] = W \ [0, 1] kai to [0, 1] = W \ [2, 3] enai (X, d)
na toulqiston upo-

kleist uposnola tou

W.

'Eqoume, loipn, pardeigma metriko qrou snolo

tou opoou enai anoikt kai, tautqrona, kleist uposnol tou.

Prosxte ti aut to

den enai dio ote me to

ote me to

Prin proqwrsoume, ac dome, qwrc th bojeia tou paradegmatoc 7, giat

[2, 3]) enai anoikt uposnolo tou W = [0, 1] [2, 3]. x [0, 1]. An 0 < x < 1, mporome na proume wc thn mikrterh ap tic apostseic tou x ap ta kra tou [0, 1], opte qoume ti W 1 (x , x + ) [0, 1]. An x = 0, parathrome ti h perioq N0 ( 2 ) tou 0, dhlad, to snolo twn shmewn tou W pou apqoun ap to 0 apstash mikrterh 1 1 1 ap 2 , enai to disthma [0, 2 ) [0, 1]. Omowc, an x = 1, h perioq N1 ( 2 ) 1 enai to disthma ( , 1] [0, 1]. 'Ara, gia kje x [0, 1] uprqei perioq tou 2 (ston W ) h opoa periqetai sto [0, 1], opte to [0, 1] enai anoikt uposnolo tou W = [0, 1] [2, 3].
to

[0, 1]

(kai, omowc, to

Parnoume tuqn

' Askhsh

34:

Anaferjete sto amswc prohgomeno pardeigma kai gia kje

x [0, 1]
' Askhsh

brete to mgisto

>0

ste

W Nx ( ) [0, 1].

'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d), mh ken A X kai > 0. OrzouNA ( ) = {x X : uprqei y A ste d(y, x) < } = {x X : Nx ( ) A = }. 1. Gia pardeigma, ston R poia enai ta NA ( ) gia kje > 0 kai gia kajna A 1 ap ta: {1}, [0, 1], (0, 1), {0, 1}, N, Q kai { : n N}? n 2. Apodexte ti to NA ( ) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) kai A NA ( ). 3. Apodexte ti kje mh ken kleist uposnolo tou (X, d) enai tom arijmsimhc sullogc anoiktn uposunlwn tou (X, d). (Updeixh: An to A enai klei+ + 1 1 st uposnolo tou (X, d), apodexte ti A = n=1 NA ( n ) n=1 NA ( n ). H A + + 1 1 enai profanc. Gia thn A n=1 NA ( n ) upojste ti uprqei x n=1 NA ( n ) ste x X \ A, opte uprqei > 0 ste Nx ( ) X \ A, kai apodexte ti, an 1 to n enai arket (pso?) meglo, tte x NA ( ).) / n
35:

me to snolo

An qoume ma sullog ap xna an do anoikt diastmata, tte h nws thc enai anoikt uposnolo tou

R.

Tra ja apodexoume to antstrofo kai ja

qoume ma ikanopoihtik eikna twn anoiktn uposunlwn tou 'Estw mh ken anoikt uposnolo

R. A
enai uprqei ma

Jerhma 4.2

tou

R.

Tte to

nwsh an do xnwn anoiktn diasthmtwn. sullog sullog

Pio sugkekrimna:

xnwn an do anoiktn diasthmtwn ste A = I I . Epshc, h enai arijmsimh, dhlad, ete peperasmnh ete peirh arijmsimh. xA R,
kai, kat' arqn, ja apodexoume ti uprqei

Apdeixh: Jewrome tuqn

mgisto anoikt disthma to opoo periqei to

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

uprqei kpoio

x kai periqetai sto A. Epeid to > 0 ste (x , x + ) A.

H ida enai na tentsoume thn perioq aut so to dunatn perisstero qwrc

93

na xefgei ap to ta do snola

A.

Kti ttoio gnetai, me austhr trpo, wc exc. Jewrome

R = {y R : [x, y) A} ,
Parathrome ti ta Wc proc to

L = {z R : (z, x] A} . x+ K R
kai

kai

enai mh ken diti

x L.

diakrnoume do periptseic. periqei aperirista

(i)

To

den enai nw fragmno. Aut shmanei ti to

y ste [x, y) A. A periqei olklhrh thn hmieujea dexi tou x. Prgmati, stw tuqn y1 [x, +). Uprqei y megaltero ap to y1 ste [x, y) A. Tte, mwc, y1 [x, y) kai, epomnwc, y1 A. 'Ara [x, +) A. (ii) To R enai nw fragmno. Tte to R qei supremum sto R. Jtoume = sup(R) < +. Enai sqetik ekolo na apodexoume ti [x, ) A. Prgmati, stw tuqn y1 [x, ). Epeid = sup(R), uprqei y R ste y1 < y . Epeid y R, sunepgetai ti [x, y) A. Epeid, mwc, y1 [x, y), qoume ti [x, y1 ) A kai, epomnwc, y1 A. 'Ara [x, ) A. Epshc, ekola apodeiknetai ti A. Prgmati, stw A. Epeid to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou R, uprqei perioq ( , + ) tou h opoa periqetai sto A. Tte, mwc, qoume ti [x, + ) A, to opoo shmanei ti + R kai to opoo antifskei me to ti = sup(R). 'Ara A. 'Epomnwc, [x, ) A kai A. Dhlad, to [x, ) enai to mgisto disthma dexi tou x to opoo periqetai sto A. Anakefalainoume: oi do periptseic gia to R lne ti uprqei mgisto disthma [x, ) dexi tou x to opoo periqetai sto A, pou ete = + ete R. Qrhsimopointac to snolo L, me moio trpo mporome na apodexoume ti uprqei mgisto disthma (, x] arister tou x to opoo periqetai sto A, pou ete = ete R. 'Ara, uprqei mgisto disthma (, ) to opoo periqei to x kai periqetai sto A. To disthma aut to onomzoume sunistsa tou A h opoa periqei to x kai to sumbolzoume I(x). Sullgoume lec tic sunistsec I(x) tou A kajc to x diatrqei to A. Oi
meglouc arijmoc. Dhlad, uprqoun aperirista megla Aut, mwc, sunepgetai ti

[x, +) A.

Dhlad, to

sunistsec autc qoun tic exc idithtec.

z I(x), tte I(x) I(z). I(x) enai anoikt disthma to opoo periqei to z kai periqetai sto A kai to I(z) enai to mgisto anoikt disthma to opoo periqei to z kai periqetai sto A. (ii) An z I(x), tte I(x) = I(z). Ap thn (i) sunepgetai ti I(x) I(z). Tte, mwc, epeid x I(x), sunepgetai x I(z). 'Ara, ap thn (i) sunepgetai I(z) I(x). (iii) An x A, y A kai I(x) I(y) = , tte I(x) = I(y). Diti, stw z I(x) I(y). Tte, lgw thc (ii), I(x) = I(z) = I(y). H idithta (iii) diatupnetai wc exc: do opoiesdpote sunistsec tou A (i)
An Diti to ete enai xnec ete tautzontai.

94

Jewrome tra thn sullog

lwn twn sunistwsn tou

A:

= {I(x) : x A} .
Fusik, pwc se kje snolo kanna stoiqeo tou den epanalambnetai perissterec ap ma for, sec sunistsec tautzontai tic parnoume ma mno for

kai, epomnwc, ta stoiqea thc enai xna an do diastmata. () kje I enai ma ap tic sunistsec tou A, () kje sunistsa tou A enai stoiqeo thc sullogc kai () an ta I kai I enai diaforetik stoiqea thc , ta I kai I enai xna anoikt diastmata. Kje I periqetai sto A, opte kai h nwsh I I periqetai sto A. Antistrfwc, kje x A periqetai se kpoia apo tic sunistsec tou A (sugkekrimna, sthn I(x)), dhlad, se kpoio I kai, epomnwc, sthn I I . 'Ara, to A periqetai sthn I I . Sumperanoume, loipn, ti A = I I .
sth sullog Dhlad, Kje anoikt disthma periqei toulqiston nan rht arijm. Epilgoume nan rht arijm se kje sunistsa tou

A.

Epeid oi sunistsec tou

enai

xnec an do, oi rhto oi opooi antistoiqon se kje sunistsa enai diaforetiko an do. 'Eqoume, tsi, man amfimonosmanth antistoiqa ap th sullog

twn sunistwsn tou

se na uposnolo

tou

Q.

To

enai arijmsimo,

wc uposnolo tou

Q,

kai, epomnwc, h

R.

enai arijmsimh.

' Askhsh 36:

'Estw uposnolo

tou

na, kleist uposnolo tou Prtoc trpoc.

R,

apodexte ti ete

Upojste ti

A=

kai

A enai anoikt kai, tautqroA = ete A = R. (Updeixh: A = R kai, qrhsimopointac to JeAn to

rhma 4.2, gryte to

wc nwsh xnwn an do anoiktn diasthmtwn. 'Ena

(a, b) (a, +) (, b). Stic do pra R \ A kai katalxte se topo, afo to R \ A enai anoikt uposnolo tou R. Omowc, katalxte se topo kai sthn trth perptwsh. Deteroc trpoc. Upojste ti A = kai A = R, prte a A kai b A kai stw / a < b. Jsate M = A [a, b] kai apodexte ti to sup(M ) den enai stoiqeo ote tou A ote tou R \ A.)
toulqiston ap aut qei thn morf tec periptseic,

4.3

Eswterik, kleistthta,

snoro.

x X . To x onomNx tou x h opoa periqetai sto A, dhlad, an uprqei > 0 ste Nx ( ) A. To snolo to opoo qei wc stoiqea la ta eswterik shmea tou A kai mnon aut onomzetai A A kai sumbolzetai A .
Orismc 4.13

'Estw metrikc qroc

shmeo tou

(X, d), A X

kai

zetai

eswterik

A,

an uprqei kpoia perioq

eswterik

tou

anoiktc

purnac

tou

Prtash

4.7

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

A X. A = A.
uprqei

1. Isqei 2. To

A A. (X, d)
an kai mnon an

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

Apdeixh: 1. An ste

Nx A.

Epeid

x A , to x enai eswterik shmeo tou A, opte x Nx , sunepgetai x A. 'Ara, A A.

95

Nx

2. 'Estw ti to

A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). An x A, tte to x enai A, opte x A . 'Ara, A A kai, epomnwc, A = A. Antistrfwc, stw A = A. An x A, tte x A , opte to x enai eswterik shmeo tou A. Afo kje stoiqeo tou A enai eswterik tou shmeo, to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). O.E.D.
eswterik shmeo tou
Paradegmata:

R. An A = (a, b), tte A = (a, b). An A = [a, b], tte A = (a, b). An A = {a}, tte A = . An A = [a, +), tte A = (a, +). An A = (a, b], tte A = (a, b). To Q den periqei kanna anoikt disthma, dhlad, kama perioq kane nc shmeou kai, epomnwc, den qei kanna eswterik shmeo. 'Ara, Q = . Omowc, to R \ Q den qei kanna eswterik shmeo, opte (R \ Q) = . To snolo C tou Cantor den periqei kanna anoikt disthma kai, epom nwc, den qei kanna eswterik shmeo. Dhlad, C = . 2 2. An ston R proume wc A opoiondpote dsko maz me kpoia (kanna
1. 'Estw o qroc

merik la) ap ta shmea thc perifreic tou, tte aut ta shmea thc perifreiac den enai eswterik shmea tou

kai, epomnwc, to eswterik tou

enai o antstoiqoc anoiktc dskoc. Akribc ta dia isqoun an ant gia dsko jewrsoume opoiodpote orjognio parallhlgrammo. Geniktera, stw ma apl sqetik kamplh eppedo se tra uposnola: to snolo meri thc

sto eppedo pou qwrzei to

A1 A A

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma

to snolo

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai to snolo twn shmewn thc shmea thc tou

An

enai to

A1

maz me merik ap ta

tte kanna ap ta shmea aut thc

kai, epomnwc, to eswterik tou

enai to

den enai eswterik shmeo A1 . Epshc, an A enai h

opoiodpote uposnol thc, to eswterik tou

den qei kanna eswterik shmeo, opte to

enai to

Epomnwc, na eujgrammo tmma, ma eujea, h perifreia enc dskou kai h perifreia enc orjogniou parallhlogrmmou qoun wc eswterik snolo to 3.

.
'Estw ti qoume ma apl sqetik epifneia

ston qro h opoa qwrzei

ton qro se tra uposnola: to snolo meri thc

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma

to snolo

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai to snolo twn shmewn thc ap ta shmea thc shmeo tou

An wc

jewrsoume to

A1

maz me kpoia

den enai eswterik A1 . Epshc, an wc A jewrsoume thn opoiodpote uposnolo thc , tte kanna shmeo tou A den enai eswterik tou shmeo, opte to eswterik tou A enai to .
tte kanna ap aut ta shmea thc

kai, epomnwc, to eswterik tou

enai to

Eidiktera, opoiodpote eujgrammo tmma eujea eppedo dskoc (pou periqetai, fusik, se na eppedo) qei ken eswterik snolo. Akmh, an

enai opoiadpote mpla orjognio parallhleppedo maz me kpoia ap ta shmea thc sunoriakc epifneiac, to eswterik tou

A enai h antstoiqh anoikt

mpla to antstoiqo anoikt orjognio parallhleppedo.

' Askhsh

37:

Brete to eswterik kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 11.

96

' Askhsh

38:

Brete to eswterik kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 12.

' Askhsh

39:

Brete to eswterik kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 13.

A wc uposnolo enc metriko (X, d) kai enc upqwrou (W, d). Gia pardeigma, stw A = [0, 1] ston R. Ta 0 kai 1 den enai eswterik shmea tou [0, 1], opte [0, 1] = (0, 1). Jewrome, tra, to [0, 1] wc uposnolo tou W = [0, 1] [2, 3] kai parathrome ti ta 0 kai 1 enai eswterik shmea tou [0, 1], opte [0, 1] = [0, 1].
4. Qreizetai lgh prosoq tan jewrome to qrou
' Askhsh 40:

sumbolsoume eswterik

'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d), upqwroc (W, d) kai A W . An A,X to eswterik tou A wc uposnolo tou (X, d) kai A,W to ,X tou A wc uposnolo tou (W, d), apodexte ti A A,W .

' Askhsh

41:

'Estw mh ken

kai

h diakrit metrik sto

X.

Gia kje

AX

apodexte ti
4.8

A = A. (X, d)
kai

Prtash

'Estw metrikc qroc

A X.

To

enai to pio

meglo anoikt uposnolo tou Apdeixh:

(X, d)

to opoo periqetai sto A.

A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d). 'Estw x A . Tte uprqei Nx A. 'Estw y Nx . H Nx enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), opte uprqei Ny Nx A. 'Ara, to y enai eswterik shmeo tou A. Epomnwc: y Nx y A . Opte Nx A . 'Ara, to A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) kai, pwc dh gnwrzoume, A A. Katpin, stw B anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) me B A. Ja apodexoume ti B A kai ja qoume teleisei. 'Estw y B . Tte, afo to B enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqei Ny B A. 'Ara y A . 'Ara, BA . O.E.D.
Ja dexoume prta ti to

' Askhsh

sullog uposunlwn tou 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

(X, d), A, B, A1 , . . . , An X kai X. Apodexte ti A B A B . Apodexte ti (A ) = A . Apodexte ti (A1 An ) = A1 An . Apodexte ti ( A A) A A . Brete sullog uposunlwn tou R ste ( A A) = A A . Apodexte ti ( A A) A A . Brete do uposnola A kai B tou R ste (A B) = A B .
42:

'Estw metrikc qroc

ma

1.

'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d) kai A, B X . A = B = kai to A enai kleist uposnolo tou X , apodexte (A B) = . 2. Brete uposnola A kai B tou R ste A = B = kai (A B) = R.
' Askhsh 43:

An

ti

(X, d), A X kai x X . To x onomzeA, an kje perioq Nx tou x periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A. Dhlad, an gia kje > 0 uprqei y Nx ( )A , isodnama, uprqei y A me d(y, x) < .
Orismc 4.14

'Estw metrikc qroc

tai

shmeo epafc

oriak shmeo tou

97

To snolo to opoo qei wc stoiqea la ta shmea epafc tou aut onomzetai

kleistthta

kai mnon

kleist

jkh tou

kai sumbolzetai

A.

Prtash

4.9

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

A X. A = A. A, A A. tuqn x A.

1. Isqei 2. To

A A. (X, d)
an kai mnon an

enai kleist uposnolo tou

Apdeixh: 1. An to dio to

x A,

tte kje

Nx

periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou

x,

kai, epomnwc, to

enai shmeo epafc tou

A.

'Ara,

A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). Parnoume x A, tte x X \ A kai, epeid to X \ A enai anoikt uposnolo tou / (X, d), uprqei Nx ste Nx X \ A. Dhlad, uprqei Nx h opoa den periqei kanna shmeo tou A. Aut, mwc, antifskei me to ti x A , isodnama, me to ti to x enai shmeo epafc tou A. 'Ara, x A. Epomnwc, A A, opte A = A. Antistrfwc, stw ti A = A. Parnoume tuqn x X \ A kai, epomnwc, x A. Dhlad, to x den enai shmeo epafc tou A, opte uprqei Nx h opoa / den periqei kanna shmeo tou A , isodnama, Nx X \ A. Afo gia kje x X \ A uprqei Nx ste Nx X \ A, sunepgetai ti to X \ A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) kai, epomnwc, to A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d).
2. 'Estw ti to An O.E.D.

' Askhsh

44:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

enai kleist uposnolo tou

an kai mnon an

A X. A A.

Apodexte ti:

to

Paradegmata:

1. 'Estw o qroc R. An A = [a, b], tte A = [a, b]. An A = (a, b), tte A = [a, b]. An A = (a, +), tte A = [a, +). An A = (a, b) (b, c), tte A = [a, c]. To C enai kleist uposnolo tou R, opte C = C . An proume tuqn x R, se kje (x , x + ) uprqei toulqiston nac rhtc, opte to x enai shmeo epafc tou Q. 'Ara, Q = R. Me thn dia aitiolghsh, R \ Q = R.

' Askhsh

45:

An to

sup A A. inf A A.
2. Ston

Omowc, an to

A R A

enai mh ken kai nw fragmno, apodexte ti enai mh ken kai ktw fragmno, apodexte ti

R2

jewrome wc

opoiondpote dsko maz me kpoia ap ta shmea

thc perifreic tou.

Enai faner ti, ektc twn shmewn tou dskou, la ta

shmea thc perifreiac enai shmea epafc tou

kai ti kanna shmeo pou

brsketai pra kai ap thn perifreia den enai shmeo epafc tou h kleistthta tou

A.

Epomnwc,

A enai o antstoiqoc kleistc dskoc.

Akribc ta dia isqoun

an ant gia dsko jewrsoume opoiodpote orjognio parallhlgrammo. Geniktera, stw ma apl sqetik kamplh eppedo se tra uposnola: to snolo meri thc sto eppedo pou qwrzei to

A1 A

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma

to snolo

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai to snolo twn shmewn thc

An

enai to

A1

maz me merik ap ta

98

 , tte, ektc twn shmewn tou A1 , kje shmeo thc enai shmeo A en kanna shmeo tou A2 den enai shmeo epafc tou A. 'Ara, h kleistthta tou A enai to A1 . 3. 'Estw ma apl sqetik epifneia ston qro h opoa qwrzei ton qro se tra uposnola: to snolo A1 twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma meri thc , to snolo A2 twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc kai to snolo twn shmewn thc . An wc A jewrsoume to A1 maz me kpoia ap ta shmea thc , tte, ektc twn shmewn tou A1 , la ta shmea thc enai shmea epafc tou A kai kanna ap ta shmea tou A2 den enai shmeo epafc tou A. Epomnwc, h kleistthta tou A enai to A1 . Eidiktera, an A enai opoiadpote mpla orjognio parallhleppedo maz me kpoia ap ta shmea thc sunoriakc epifneiac, h kleistthta tou A enai h
shmea thc epafc tou antstoiqh kleist mpla to antstoiqo kleist orjognio parallhleppedo.

' Askhsh

46:

Brete thn kleistthta kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 11.

' Askhsh

47:

Brete thn kleistthta kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 12.

' Askhsh

48:

Brete thn kleistthta kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 13.

4. 'Opwc kai me to eswterik enc sunlou, qreizetai prosoq tan jewrome

(X, d) kai enc upqwrou (W, d). Gia A = (0, 1) ston R. Ta 0 kai 1 enai shmea epafc tou (0, 1), opte (0, 1) = [0, 1]. Jewrome, tra, to (0, 1) wc uposnolo tou W = (0, 1) [2, 3] kai parathrome ti ta 0 kai 1 den enai shmea epafc tou (0, 1), diti, aplostata, den ankoun sto W . 'Ara, (0, 1) = (0, 1).
to wc uposnolo enc metriko qrou pardeigma, stw
' Askhsh

(X, d), upqwroc (W, d) kai A W . An W sumbolsoume A thn kleistthta tou A wc uposnolo tou (X, d) kai A thn W X kleistthta tou A wc uposnolo tou (W, d), apodexte ti A = A W.
49:

'Estw metrikc qroc

' Askhsh

50:

'Estw mh ken

kai

h diakrit metrik sto

X.

Gia kje

AX

apodexte ti

A = A.

Prtash

4.10

An

to opoo periqei to Apdeixh:

A X , to A enai to mikrtero kleist uposnolo tou (X, d) A.

Kat' arqn ja apodexoume ti to A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). Parnoume tuqn x X \ A, opte to x den enai shmeo epafc tou A. Epomnwc, uprqei Nx h opoa den periqei kanna shmeo tou A. Katpin, parnoume tuqn y Nx . Epeid h Nx enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqei Ny Nx . 'Ara, uprqei Ny h opoa den periqei kanna shmeo tou A kai, epomnwc, to y den enai shmeo epafc tou A , isodnama, y X \ A. 'Ara, Nx X \ A. Apodexame, loipn, ti gia kje x X \ A uprqei Nx ste Nx X \ A, opte to X \ A enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) kai, epomnwc, to A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). Epshc, pwc dh gnwrzoume, isqei A A.

99

leisei h apdeixh prpei na apodexoume ti

(X, d) me A B . Gia na teA B . Parnoume tuqn x A. An x X \ B , epeid to X \ B enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqei Nx ste Nx X \ B . Sunepgetai ti h Nx den periqei kanna shmeo tou B kai, epeid A B , h Nx den periqei kanna shmeo tou A. Aut antifskei me to ti x A , isodnama, me to ti to x enai shmeo epafc tou A. Apodexame, loipn, ti gia kje x A isqei x B . 'Ara, A B . O.E.D.
Tra, stw tuqn

kleist uposnolo tou

' Askhsh

oikogneia uposunlwn tou 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

(X, d), A, B, A1 , . . . , An X X. Apodexte ti A B A B . Apodexte ti (A) = A. Apodexte ti A1 An = A1 An . Apodexte ti A A A A. Brete oikogneia uposunlwn tou R ste A A = A A. Apodexte ti A A A A. Brete do uposnola A kai B tou R ste A B = A B .
51:

'Estw metrikc qroc

kai

ma

' Askhsh 52:

'Estw metrikc qroc

kai tou

(A ) R

ste

A. Brete uposnolo (A ) = A. (X \ A) = X \ A

(X, d) kai A X . Apodexte ti A (A) A tou R ste A = (A) kai uposnolo A (X, d) kai A X . (X \A) =

' Askhsh 53:

'Estw metrikc qroc .

Apodexte ti

X \A

kai

A tou Rn onomzetai , an gia kje x, y A kai kje t (0, 1) isqei tx + (1 t)y A. Poio enai to gewmetrik nhma 2 3 auto tou orismo stouc R kai R ? 1. Apodexte ti ta mna kurt uposnola tou R enai ta diastmata. Apodexte ti kje n-distath (kleist anoikt) mpla, kje n-distato (kleist
' Askhsh 54:

'Ena uposnolo

kurt

anoikt) orjognio parallhleppedo, kje upereppedo kai kje (anoiktc kleistc) hmiqroc ston 2. An

Rn
.

enai kurt snolo.

enai kurt uposnolo tou

Rn ,

apodexte ti ta

kai

enai epshc

kurt uposnola tou

' Askhsh 55: ston

(X, d) kai A X . To A onomzetai A = X. 1. Apodexte ti: to A enai pukn ston X an kai mnon an kje perioq Nx kajenc shmeou x X periqei toulqiston na stoiqeo tou A. 2 2 n 2. Enai to Q pukn ston R? Enai to Q pukn ston R ? Enai to Q pukn n ston R ? 3. Poia uposnola tou X enai pukn ston X , an o X enai efodiasmnoc me thn X ?
'Estw metrikc qroc

pukn

(X, d),

an

' Askhsh

56:

'Enac metrikc qroc

(X, d)

onomzetai

diaqwrsimoc,

an u-

prqei uposnolo tou

me tic idithtec:

100

(i) to A enai arijmsimo kai (ii) A = X , dhlad, to A enai pukn ston X . n 1. Enai o R diaqwrsimoc? Enai o R diaqwrsimoc? 2. 'Estw o (X, X ). Apodexte ti: o (X, X ) enai diaqwrsimoc an kai mnon an to X enai arijmsimo snolo. 3. 'Estw upqwroc (W, d) tou (X, d). An o (X, d) enai diaqwrsimoc, apodexte ti kai o (W, d) enai diaqwrsimoc.
' Askhsh

1. Apodexte ti

(X, d), a X kai > 0. Na ( ) Na ( ). 2. Isqei pntote ti Na ( ) = Na ( )? (Updeixh: 'Estw d = X , metrik sto X .) n 3. Ston R apodexte ti Na ( ) = Na ( ).
57:

'Estw metrikc qroc

h diakrit

' Askhsh 58:

me thn

apstash tou

1. Apodexte 2. Apodexte

(X, d), E me ton thn parxh tou inmum. ti: dE (x) = 0 x E .

'Estw metrikc qroc

mh ken tpo

ap to

E X kai x E . OrzoudE (x) = inf yE d(x, y).

Orismc 4.15

nomzetai

(X, d), A X kai x X . To x oA, an kje perioq Nx tou x periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A diaforetik ap to dio to x. Dhlad, an gia kje > 0 uprqei y Nx ( ) (A \ {x}) , isodnama, uprqei y A me 0 < d(y, x) < . To snolo to opoo qei wc stoiqea la ta shmea sussreushc tou A kai mnon aut onomzetai A kai sumbolzetai A .
'Estw metrikc qroc
sussreushc tou shmeo par gw go snolo tou

Pardeigma:

Jewrome ton qro R. An A = [a, b], tte A = [a, b]. A = [a, b]. An A = (a, +), tte A = [a, +). 'Estw A = {a} (b, c), pou a < b < c. To a den enai tou A, opte A = [b, c]. An A = {a, b}, tte A = .

An

A = (a, b),

tte

shmeo sussreushc

' Askhsh 59:

Poia enai h diafor anmesa sthn nnoia tou shmeou epafc kai

sthn nnoia tou shmeou sussreushc? Uprqei pardeigma shmeou epafc to opoo den enai shmeo sussreushc kai pardeigma gia to antstrofo?

' Askhsh 60:

Brete to pargwgo snolo kajenc ap ta snola thc sk. 11.

' Askhsh 61:

Brete to pargwgo snolo kajenc ap ta snola thc sk. 12.

' Askhsh 62:

Brete to pargwgo snolo kajenc ap ta snola thc sk. 13.

' Askhsh

63:

Brete uposnolo tou

kai uposnolo tou

R2

me akribc do

shmea sussreushc gia to kajna.

' Askhsh

64:

'Estw metrikc qroc

ti: to

enai shmeo sussreushc tou

(X, d), A X kai x X . Apodexte A an kai mnon an kje perioq tou x

101

periqei peira shmea tou

A. X , A X Nx (1) enai dia x X . To x den enai {x} kai, epomnwc,

Blpoume, loipn, ti

Pardeigma:

'Estw mh ken

me thn diakrit metrik

kai

shmeo sussreushc tou

A,

diti h

me to

den periqei kanna shmeo tou kje uposnolo tou

ektc ap to dio to

x.

AX

qoume

X A = .

den qei kanna shmeo sussreushc. Dhlad, gia kje

Prtash

4.11

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

A X.

Tte

A=AA.

x A . Tte kje Nx periqei toulqiston na shmeo A diaforetik ap to X . 'Ara, kje Nx periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A kai, epomnwc, to x enai shmeo epafc tou A, dhlad, x A. 'Ara, A A. Epeid A A, sunepgetai A A A. 'Estw, tra, x A. An x A, tte x A A . 'Estw x A. Epeid / x A, kje Nx periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A kai, epeid to x den ankei sto A, to shmeo aut enai diaforetik ap to x. 'Ara, to x enai shmeo sussreushc tou A , isodnama, x A kai, epomnwc, x A A . 'Ara, kje x A ankei, se kje perptwsh, sto A A , opte A A A . O.E.D.
Apdeixh: 'Estw tuqn tou
' Askhsh 65:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

enai kleist uposnolo tou

an kai mnon an

A X. A A.

Apodexte ti:

to

' Askhsh

66:

'Estw metrikc qroc

1. Apodexte ti to 2. Apodexte ti reushc. 3. Apodexte ti 4. Apodexte ti 5. Brete

(X, d) kai A, B X . A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). A = (A) . Dhlad, ta A kai A qoun ta

dia shmea suss-

AB A B. (A ) A . uposnolo A tou R ste (A ) = A .

67:

(X, d) me thn exc idithta: opoiodpote X qei toulqiston na shmeo sussreushc. 1. Jewrste tuqn > 0 kai apodexte ti uprqoun peperasmnou pljouc shmea tou X ste kje llo shmeo tou X na qei apstash mikrterh ap
' Askhsh

'Estw metrikc qroc

peiro uposnolo tou

ap toulqiston na ap aut. (Updeixh: Upojste ti aut den isqei kai

x1 X . Tte uprqei x2 X ste d(x1 , x2 ) . Katpin, x3 X ste d(x1 , x3 ) kai d(x2 , x3 ) . Suneqzontac epagwgik, kataskeuste peiro uposnolo {xn : n N} tou X tou opoou kje do shprte tuqao uprqei mea qoun thn metax touc apstash qi mikrterh ap snolo aut den qei kanna shmeo sussreushc.) 2. Apodexte ti o . Sumpernate ti to

(X, d)

enai diaqwrsimoc.

(Updeixh:

Smfwna me to 1, ste kje

gia kje

nN

uprqoun

kn N
1 n

kai

xn,1 , . . . , xn,kn X

na qei apstash mikrterh ap Apodexte ti to pukn ston

ap toulqiston na ap ta

xX xn,1 , . . . , xn,kn .

A = {xn,m : n, m N, 1 m kn }

enai arijmsimo kai

X .)
102

' Askhsh knwshc

68: tou

'Estw

A R

kai

stoiqea tou 1. An to knwshc.

A, A.

an gia kje

x R. To x onomzetai > 0 h Nx ( ) periqei uperarijmsimou

shmeo

sump-

pljouc

enai arijmsimo, apodexte ti to

den qei kanna shmeo sump-

2. 'Estw ti to

sumpknwshc tou

A enai uperarijmsimo. An P enai to snolo lwn twn shmewn A, apodexte ti P = P kai ti to A \ P enai arijmsimo. P R.
To

' Askhsh

69:

'Estw

onomzetai

tleio,

an

1. Brete merik apl paradegmata tleiwn sunlwn. Enai to lo? 2. An

P = P. C tleio

sno-

enai opoiodpote kleist uposnolo tou

R,

apodexte ti uprqei

kpoio tleio snolo kai

Z ste A = P Z P Z = . (Updeixh: Dete thn prohgomenh skhsh kai diakrnate tic periptseic: A enai arijmsimo, A enai uperarijmsimo.) P
kai kpoio arijmsimo snolo
Orismc 4.16

(X, d), A X kai x X . To x onomNx periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A kai toulqiston na shmeo tou X \ A. To snolo to opoo periqei la ta sunoriak shmea tou A kai mnon aut onomzetai A kai sumbolzetai A.
'Estw metrikc qroc
shmeo tou

zetai

sunoriak

A,

an kje perioq

snoro

tou

Paradegmata:

1.

R. An A = (a, b) [a, b], tte A = {a, b}. An A = {a}. Kje perioq kajenc x R periqei kai rhtoc kai rrhtouc arijmoc. Epomnwc, Q = R kai (R \ Q) = R. 2 2. Ston R stw A opoiosdpote dskoc maz me kpoia ap ta shmea thc perifreic tou. Enai faner ti, ta mna sunoriak shmea tou A enai la ta shmea thc perifreiac tou dskou. Epomnwc, to snoro tou A enai h perifreia
Jewrome ton qro tte

A = (a, +),

tou dskou.

Omowc, an ant gia dsko jewrsoume opoiodpote orjognio

parallhlgrammo, to snoro tou

enai h perifreia tou parallhlogrmmou.

Geniktera, stw ma apl sqetik kamplh eppedo se tra uposnola: to snolo meri thc

sto eppedo pou qwrzei to

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma

, to snolo A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai

to snolo twn shmewn thc thc

An

enai to

A1

maz me merik ap ta shmea

tte la ta shmea thc

kai mnon aut enai sunoriak shmea tou

A.

'Ara, h kleistthta tou 3. 'Estw

enai h

. ,

ma apl sqetik epifneia ston qro h opoa qwrzei ton qro se

tra uposnola: to snolo to snolo

A1

twn shmewn pou brskontai sth ma meri thc

A2

twn shmewn pou brskontai sthn llh meri thc

kai to snolo

twn shmewn thc

. An A enai to A1 maz me kpoia ap ta shmea thc , tte kai mnon aut enai sunoriak shmea tou A kai, epomnwc, to snoro tou A enai h . Eidiktera, an A enai opoiadpote mpla orjognio parallhleppedo maz me kpoia ap ta shmea thc sunoriakc epifneiac, to snoro tou A enai h
la ta shmea thc antstoiqh sunoriak epifneia.

103

' Askhsh

70:

Brete to snoro kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 11.

' Askhsh

71:

Brete to snoro kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 12.

' Askhsh

72:

Brete to snoro kajenc ap ta snola thc skhshc 13.

' Askhsh

73:

Apodexte ti to snoro opoioudpote hmiqrou ston

Rn

me

sunoriak upereppedo

enai to

.
h diakrit metrik sto

' Askhsh

74:

'Estw mh ken

X , X

kai

A X.

Apodexte ti

A = .

Jewrste ton qro R kai ton upqwro [0, 1] [2, 3]. An to A = [0, 1] to jewrsoume wc uposnolo tou R, poio enai to snoro tou A? An to A = [0, 1] to jewrsoume wc uposnolo tou [0, 1] [2, 3], poio enai to snoro tou A?
' Askhsh 75:

' Askhsh

76:

'Estw metrikc qroc

sumbolsoume

X A

kai

antistoqwc, apodexte

(X, d), upqwroc (W, d) kai A W . An W A to snoro tou A wc uposnolo tou X kai tou W , ti W A X A W . (X, d) A X.

Prtash

4.12

'Estw metrikc qroc

kai

1. 2. 3.

A = A X \ A. A = (X \ A). A = A A.
1. H isthta aut enai mesh aprroia twn orismn tou shmeou

Apdeixh:

epafc kai tou sunoriako shmeou. 2. Oi orismo tou sunoriako shmeou tou enai akribc dioi.

kai tou sunoriako shmeou tou

X \A
3. stw

A A kai, ap to 1, A A. 'Ara, A A A. Antistrfwc, x A. An x A, tte x A A. 'Estw x A. Epeid x A, kje / Nx periqei toulqiston na shmeo tou A kai, epeid to x den ankei sto A, h dia perioq periqei kai toulqiston na shmeo tou X \ A, to dio to x. 'Ara to x enai sunoriak shmeo tou A, opte x A. 'Eqoume, loipn, ti kje x A ankei, se kje perptwsh, sto A A. 'Ara, A A A. O.E.D.
Isqei
' Askhsh 77:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

1. Apodexte ti to 2. Apodexte ti

A enai kleist A = A \ A .

uposnolo tou

A X. X an

kai mnon an

A A.

' Askhsh

78:

'Estw metrikc qroc

1. An to tou 2. 3.

enai anoikt uposnolo tou

(X, d) kai A, B X . X an to A enai

kleist uposnolo

(A) = . Brete uposnolo A tou R ste (A) = R. An A B = , apodexte ti (A B) = A B . X,

apodexte ti 104

4.4

'Oria kai

sunqeia sunartsewn.

Orismc 4.17

'Estw metriko qroi tou

x0 X shmeo sussreushc f x0 , kai sumbolzoume

sto

kai

(X, d) kai (Y, ), A X , f : A Y , y0 Y . Lme ti to y0 enai

rio thc

y0 = lim f (x) ,
xx0
an gia kje

>0

uprqei

= ( ) > 0

ste:

x A, 0 < d(x, x0 ) <

Isqei

>0

(f (x), y0 ) < .
uprqei

Enai faner ti o prohgomenoc orismc diatupnetai, isodnama, wc exc.

y0 = limxx0 f (x),

an gia kje

= ( ) > 0

ste:

x Nx0 () (A \ {x0 })
gia kje perioq

f (x) Ny0 ( ) . y0 = limxx0 f (x), Nx0 tou x0 ste:

an

Epshc, mporome na ton diatupsoume wc exc. Isqei

N y0

tou

y0

uprqei antstoiqh perioq

x Nx0 (A \ {x0 })
Pardeigma:

f (x) Ny0 . X .
Tte gia kama

'Estw ti to

enai efodiasmno me th diakrit metrik

sunrthsh orismnh se uposnolo tou kje uposnolo tou

den qei nhma h melth orou, diti

den qei kanna shmeo sussreushc.

(X, d) kai (Y, ), A X , x0 X shmeo A kai f : A Y h opoa enai stajer sto A, dhlad, uprqei y0 Y ste f (x) = y0 gia kje x A. Apodexte ti limxx0 f (x) = y0 . Poiec enai oi katllhlec epilogc gia to sunartsei tou ?
' Askhsh 79:

'Estw metriko qroi

sussreushc tou

Prtash

4.13

'Estw metriko qroi

(X, d)

kai

x0 X

shmeo sussreushc tou

A.

An uprqei ston

(Y, ), A X , f : A Y kai Y rio thc f sto x0 , aut

enai monadik.

y0 = limxx0 f (x) kai y0 = limxx0 f (x), pou y0 kai Y , kai parnoume tuqn > 0. Brskoume > 0 ste: x A, 0 < d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), y0 ) < 2 . Epshc, brskoume > 0 ste: x A, 0 < d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), y0 ) < 2 . Jtoume = min( , ), opte: x A, 0 < d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), y0 ) < 2 kai (f (x), y0 ) < 2 . Parnoume, tra, opoiodpote x A me 0 < d(x, x0 ) < , isodnama, opoiodpote x Nx0 () (A \ {x0 }). Uprqei toulqiston na ttoio x, diti to x0 enai shmeo sussreushc tou A. Me aut to x pou epilxame qoume (f (x), y0 ) < 2 kai (f (x), y0 ) < 2 kai, epomnwc, (y0 , y0 ) (f (x), y0 ) + (f (x), y0 ) < . Apodexame, loipn, ti gia kje > 0 isqei 0 (y0 , y0 ) < . 'Ara, (y0 , y0 ) = 0 kai, epomnwc, y0 = y0 . O.E.D.
Apdeixh: Upojtoume

y0

enai stoiqea tou

105

Bsei tou apotelsmatoc thc Prtashc 4.13, mporome na milme gia to rio mac sunrthshc se kpoio shmeo.
Orismc 4.18

'Estw metriko qroi

h

(X, d)

kai

x0 A. = ( ) > 0
kai

Lme ti ste:

enai

suneqc

sto

(Y, ), A X , f : A Y x0 , an gia kje > 0 uprqei

x A, d(x, x0 ) < x0 , >0

(f (x), f (x0 )) < . f

enai suneqc

O prohgomenoc orismc diatupnetai, isodnama, wc exc. H sto an gia kje uprqei

= ( ) > 0

ste:

x Nx0 () A
'H, pio apl. H uprqei perioq

f (x) Nf (x0 ) ( ) .
an gia kje perioq

f enai suneqc sto x0 , Nx0 tou x0 ste: x Nx0 A A,

Nf (x0 )

tou

f (x0 )

f (x) Nf (x0 ) .
kai

Orismc 4.19

'Estw metriko qroi

(X, d)

(Y, ), A X

kai

Lme ti
' Askhsh

enai suneqc sto

an enai suneqc se kje shmeo tou

f : A Y. A.

'Estw metriko qroi (X, d) kai (Y, ), A X , x0 A kai f :AY. 1. An to x0 den enai shmeo sussreushc tou A, apodexte ti h f enai suneqc sto x0 . 2. An to x0 enai shmeo sussreushc tou A, apodexte ti: h f enai suneqc sto x0 an kai mnon an limxx0 f (x) = f (x0 ).
80:

' Askhsh

81:

'Estw metriko qroi

(X, d)

kai

h opoa enai stajer sto

A,

dhlad, uprqei

(Y, ), A X kai f : A Y y0 Y ste f (x) = y0 gia kje

Poiec enai oi katllhlec epilo-

x A.

Apodexte ti h

enai suneqc sto ?

A.

gc gia to

sunartsei tou

' Askhsh 82:

Apodexte ti kje sunrthsh

orismnh se opoiodpote upos-

nolo

metriko qrou

(X, X )

enai suneqc sto ?

A.

Poiec enai oi katllhlec

epilogc gia to

sunartsei tou

'Estw metriko qroi (X, d) kai (Y, ), B A X ste B = A, y0 Y kai f : A Y suneqc sto A. An f (x) = y0 gia kje x B , apodexte ti f (x) = y0 gia kje x A. (Updeixh: Prte tuqn x0 A kai tuqn > 0. Efarmste ton orism thc sunqeiac sto x0 kajc kai to ti x0 B gia na apodexete ti uprqei kpoio x B ste (f (x), f (x0 )) < . Sumpernate ti (y0 , f (x0 )) < gia kje > 0, opte f (x0 ) = y0 .)
' Askhsh 83: Jerhma 4.3

'Estw metriko qroi

(X, d)

kai

(Y, ), A X

kai

f : A Y.

Ta aklouja enai isodnama: 1. H

enai suneqc sto

A. B
tou

2. Gia kje anoikt uposnolo

(Y, )
106

to

f 1 (B)

enai anoikt uposnolo

tou upqwrou

(A, d). B
tou

3. Gia kje kleist uposnolo tou upqwrou

(Y, )

to

f 1 (B)

enai kleist uposnolo

(A, d).

Apdeixh: nolo

[1 2]. 'Estw h f suneqc sto A. Parnoume tuqn anoikt uposB tou (Y, ) kai, katpin, tuqn x0 f 1 (B) (opte f (x0 ) B ). Uprqei > 0 ste Nf (x0 ) ( ) B . Katpin, uprqei > 0 ste: x Nx0 () A f (x) Nf (x0 ) ( ). Epomnwc: x Nx0 () A f (x) B . Isodnama: x Nx0 () A x f 1 (B). Isodnama: Nx0 () A f 1 (B). 'Omwc, to snolo Nx0 () A den enai tpota llo ap thn -perioq tou x0 ston metrik 1 upqwro (A, d). Apodexame, loipn, ti gia kje x0 f (B) uprqei kpoia 1 perioq tou x0 ston metrik upqwro (A, d) h opoa periqetai sto f (B). 1 Aut shmanei ti to f (B) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (A, d). [2 1]. Parnoume tuqn x0 A gia na apodexoume ti h f enai suneqc sto x0 . 'Estw tuqn > 0. H Nf (x0 ) ( ) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (Y, ), opte, 1 Nf (x0 ) ( ) enai anoikt uposnolo tou upqwrou bsei thc upjeshc, to f 1 (A, d). Epeid x0 f Nf (x0 ) ( ) (diti f (x0 ) Nf (x0 ) ( )), uprqei > 0 1 ste h Nx0 () A na periqetai sto f Nf (x0 ) ( ) . Dhlad: x Nx0 () A 1 xf Nf (x0 ) ( ) . Isodnama: x Nx0 () A f (x) Nf (x0 ) ( ). Aut shmanei ti h f enai suneqc sto x0 . [2 3]. 'Estw tuqn kleist uposnolo B tou (Y, ). To Y \ B enai anoikt 1 uposnolo tou (Y, ), opte to A \ f (B) = f 1 (Y \ B) enai anoikt upos1 nolo tou upqwrou (A, d). 'Ara, to f (B) enai kleist uposnolo tou (A, d). [3 2]. 'Estw tuqn anoikt uposnolo B tou (Y, ). To Y \ B enai kleist 1 uposnolo tou (Y, ), opte to A \ f (B) = f 1 (Y \ B) enai kleist upos1 nolo tou upqwrou (A, d). 'Ara, to f (B) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (A, d).
O.E.D. 'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d), A X , a, b, c R kai f : A R A. Apodexte ti ta aklouja enai kleist uposnola tou (A, d): {x A : f (x) = a}, {x A : f (x) a} kai {x A : f (x) = a b c}.
' Askhsh 84:

suneqc sto

{x R : 2 < x3 x < 4} kai {x R : sin x < 2 1 e < sin x} enai anoikt uposnola tou R. Apodexte ti to {x [0, 1] : 4 < 2 x < 4} enai anoikt uposnolo tou [0, 1].
' Askhsh 85:

Apodexte ti ta

' Askhsh

86:

'Estw metriko qroi

(X, d)

kai

(Y, ), A X

kai

f : A Y.

Apodexte ti ta aklouja enai isodnama: 1. H 2. 3.

f enai suneqc sto A. f 1 (B ) f 1 (B) A gia kje B Y . f (B A) f (B) gia kje B A.

Pardeigma:

Ja dome, tra, ma shmantik mjodo anagnrishc anoiktn kleistn uposunlwn tou euklediou qrou Gia pardeigma, stw

Rn kai upoqrwn A tou Rn . A Rn , f : Rn R suneqc sto A

107

kai

a, b R.

{x A : a < f (x)} = f 1 ((a, +)), {x A : f (x) < b} = f 1 ((, b)) 1 kai {x A : a < f (x) < b} = f ((a, b)) enai anoikt uposnola tou A wc antstrofec eiknec twn anoiktn uposunlwn (a, +), (, b) kai (a, b) tou R. Omowc, ta {x A : a f (x)} = f 1 ([a, +)), {x A : f (x) b} = f 1 ((, b]) kai {x A : a f (x) b} = f 1 ([a, b]) enai kleist uposnola tou A.
Ta Fusik, mporome, ektc ap diastmata, na qrhsimopoisoume opoiodpote llo anoikt kleist uposnolo tou

R.
Oi

H efarmog autc thc mejdou propojtei, bbaia, ti mporome na anagnwrzoume suneqec sunartseic

A R orismnec se uposnola A tou Rn .

epmenec protseic ja mac bohjsoun na apoktsoume na shmantik apjema suneqn sunartsewn. 'Estw (X, d), (Y, ) kai (Z, ) treic metriko qroi, A X , B Y , x0 A, f : A B kai g : B Z . An h f enai suneqc sto x0 kai h g enai suneqc sto y0 = f (x0 ), tte h g f : A Z enai suneqc sto x0 .
4.14

Prtash

'Estw > 0. Uprqei = ( ) > 0 ste (g(y), g(y0 )) < gia y B me (y, y0 ) < . Katpin, uprqei = ( ) = ( ) > 0 Epomnwc: x ste (f (x), f (x0 )) < gia kje x A me d(x, x0 ) < . A, d(x, x0 ) < (f (x), f (x0 )) < (g(f (x)), g(f (x0 ))) < . Dhlad: x A, d(x, x0 ) < ((g f )(x), (g f )(x0 )) < . 'Ara, h g f : A Z enai suneqc sto x0 . O.E.D. Apdeixh: kje

Prtash

4.15

'Estw metrikc qroc Tte

(X, d), A X , x0 A

kai

f, g : A R

suneqec sto 1. h

x0 .

f + g enai suneqc sto x0 gia kje , R, f g enai suneqc sto x0 kai, 1 3. an B = {x A : g(x) = 0} kai g(x0 ) = 0, tte h g : B R sto x0 .
2. h Apdeixh: 1. Parnoume

enai suneqc

> 0 kai brskoume > 0 ste |f (x)f (x0 )| < 2(||+1) |g(x) g(x0 )| < 2(||+1) gia kje x A me d(x, x0 ) < . Tte: x A, d(x, x0 ) < (f (x) + g(x)) (f (x0 ) + g(x0 )) |||f (x) f (x0 )| + |||g(x) g(x0 )| || 2(||+1) + || 2(||+1) < . 2. Parnoume > 0 kai jtoume 1 = min 3 , 3(|f (x0 )|+1) , 3(|g(x0 )|+1) . Brskoume > 0 ste |f (x) f (x0 )| < 1 kai |g(x) g(x0 )| < 1 gia kje x A me d(x, x0 ) < . Tte: x A, d(x, x0 ) < |f (x)g(x) f (x0 )g(x0 )| |f (x) f (x0 )||g(x) g(x0 )| + |f (x0 )||g(x) g(x0 )| + |g(x0 )||f (x) f (x0 )| 2 1 + |f (x0 )| 1 + |g(x0 )| 1 < . 3. Parnoume > 0 kai, kat' arqn, brskoume > 0 ste |g(x)g(x0 )| < |g(x0 )| 2 |g(x0 )| gia kje x A me d(x, x0 ) < . Sunepgetai |g(x)| > gia kje x A 2
kai

d(x, x0 ) < . Katpin, brskoume > 0 ste |g(x) g(x0 )| < g(x0 ) gia 2 kje x A me d(x, x0 ) < . Jtoume = min( , ) kai qoume: x B , 1 1 0 )| d(x, x0 ) < g(x) g(x0 ) = |g(x)g(x0 )| 2|g(x)g(x0 )| < . O.E.D. |g(x)||g(x g(x0 )2
me 108

Sunduzontac tic do teleutaec protseic, mporome, xekinntac ap pol aplc suneqec sunartseic, na kataskeuzoume lo kai pio polplokec.

Pardeigma:

Ston

Rn

orzetai gia kje

me

1kn

h sunrthsh

-probol

k : Rn R
me tpo

k (x) = x(k) ,
Kje

x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) Rn .

k enai suneqc ston Rn , diti, |k (x) k (y)| = |x(k) y (k) | y (1) )2 + + (x(n) y (n) )2 = dn,2 (x, y) gia kje x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) (1) kai y = (y , . . . , y (n) ) ston Rn . n 'Ara, an h g : R R enai suneqc sto R, tte h f : R R me tpo (x(1) f (x) = g(x(k) ) ,
enai suneqc ston

x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) Rn
dhlad, sunartseic me tpo

Rn ,

diti

'Ara, poluwnumikc sunartseic

f = g k . p : Rn R,

p(x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) = A (x(1) )a1 (x(n) )an + B (x(1) )b1 (x(n) )bn + ,
pou oi ekjtec enai loi mh arnhtiko akraioi arijmo, oi suntelestc enai loi pragmatiko arijmo kai to jroisma enai peperasmno, enai suneqec ston

Rn .

Rhtc sunartseic, dhlad klsmata poluwnumikn, enai epshc su-

neqec (ektc ap ta shmea sta opoa mhdenzetai o paronomastc) pwc kai sunartseic oi opoec enai aplo sunduasmo ekjetikn, trigwnometrikn k.l.p sunartsewn twn suntetagmnwn. 'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d), A X kai f, g : A R suneqec A. Apodexte ti to {x A : f (x) < g(x)} enai anoikt uposnolo tou (A, d) kai ti ta {x A : f (x) g(x)} kai {x A : f (x) = g(x)} enai kleist uposnola tou (A, d). (Updeixh: Jewrste thn f g .)
' Askhsh 87:

sto

'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d), A X , x0 shmeo sussreushc A, f, g : A R kai limxx0 f (x) = l kai limxx0 g(x) = m. 1. Apodexte ti limxx0 (f + g)(x) = l + m kai limxx0 (f g)(x) = lm. 2. An, epiplon, m = 0, jewrste to B = {x A : g(x) = 0} kai apodexte 1 ti to x0 enai shmeo sussreushc tou B kai ti gia thn g : B R isqei 1 1 limxx0 g(x) = m .
' Askhsh 88:

tou

(X, d), mh ken E X kai h dE : X R |dE (x) dE (y)| d(x, y) gia kje x, y X kai ti h dE : X R enai suneqc ston X . (Updeixh: Gia tuqn z E , d(y, z) d(x, z)d(x, y) dE (x)d(x, y). 'Ara, dE (y) dE (x)d(x, y) kai, epomnwc, dE (x) dE (y) d(x, y). Summetrik, dE (y) dE (x) d(x, y).)
' Askhsh 89:

'Estw metrikc qroc

pou orsjhke sthn skhsh.

Apodexte ti

' Askhsh

90:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)
109

kai mh ken kleist uposnola

B tou (X, d) me A B = . Orzoume th sunrthsh f : X R me tpo dA (x) f (x) = dA (x)+dB (x) gia kje x X . (Dete thn prohgomenh skhsh.) 1. Apodexte ti h f enai suneqc ston X . 2. Apodexte ti: f (x) = 1 x B kajc kai f (x) = 0 x A. 1 1 3. Orzoume K = f (, 2 ) kai L = f 1 ( 1 , +) . Apodexte ti ta K 2 kai L enai anoikt uposnola tou (X, d), ti K L = kai ti A K kai B L.
kai

4.5

Akoloujec.

Orismc 4.20

'Estw metrikc qroc

sugklnei sto

Lme ti
ston

(xn ) (X, d), kai

h

ston

(X, d), x X (X, d) ti

kai akolouja
to

enai

rio

(xn ) sto X . (xn )

thc

sumbolzoume

xn x
an gia kje

ston

(X, d)

n+

lim xn = x

ston

(X, d) ,

>0

uprqei

n0 = n0 ( ) N x

ste:

n n0
'H, isodnama, h

d(xn , x) < .
ston

(xn )

sugklnei sto

(X, d),

an gia kje

>0

uprqei

n0 = n0 ( ) N

ste:

n n0
Prtash 4.16

xn Nx ( ) . (X, d)
kai akolouja

'Estw metrikc qroc

(xn )

sto

X.

An

ston

(X, d)

uprqei rio thc

(xn ),

aut enai monadik.

xn x kai xn x ston (X, d). Parnoume tuqn > 0 n0 ste d(xn , x ) < 2 gia kje n n0 . Epshc, brskoume n0 ste d(xn , x ) < 2 gia kje n n0 . Parnoume n0 = max(n0 , n0 ) kai qoume d(xn0 , x ) < 2 kai d(xn0 , x ) < 2 . Sunepgetai d(x , x ) d(xn0 , x ) + d(xn0 , x ) < . 'Ara, gia kje > 0 isqei 0 d(x , x ) < kai, epomnwc, d(x , x ) = 0. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: 'Estw kai brskoume Smfwna me thn Prtash 4.16, mporome na milme gia to rio mac akoloujac.

' Askhsh 91:

Apodexte ti tou

xn x ston metrik qro (X, d) kai upoakolouja (xnk ). xnk x ston (X, d). (Updeixh: Mimhjete th gnwst apdeixh antstoiqou apotelsmatoc gia akoloujec sto R.)
'Estw
4.17

Prtash

'Estw metrikc qroc

Tte:

xn x (X, d)

ston

(X, d)

an kai mnon an

(X, d), x X kai akolouja (xn ) sto X . d(xn , x) 0 ston R. (xn )

O.E.D.

Apdeixh: H apdeixh enai profanc ap touc orismoc thc sgklishc thc ston kai thc

d(xn , x)

ston

R.
110

' Askhsh

92:

'Estw ti

xn x

kai

d(xn , yn ) d(x, y). d(yn , y).)

Paradegmata:

(Updeixh: Apodexte ti

yn y ston (X, d). Apodexte ti |d(xn , yn ) d(x, y)| d(xn , x) +

(X, d), x X kai (xn ) ston X h opoa met ap x. Tte xn x ston (X, d). Prgmati, stw ti uprqei kpoio n1 N ste xn = x gia kje n n1 . Parnoume tuqn > 0 kai epilgoume n0 = n1 . Tte: n n0 n n1 d(xn , x) = 0 < . 'Ara, xn x ston (X, d). Enallaktik, mporome na skeftome wc exc. H akolouja (d(xn , x)) enai akolouja ston R kai met ap kpoion dekth enai stajer kai sh me 0. 'Ara, d(xn , x) 0 ston R kai, epomnwc, xn x ston (X, d). n 2. H epmenh prtash angei th sgklish akoloujin ston R sth sgklish
1. 'Estw metrikc qroc kpoion dekth enai stajer kai sh me akoloujin pragmatikn arijmn.

Prtash

xm = (xm , . . . , xm ) (m N) akolouja x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) Rn . Ta paraktw enai isodnama. n 1. xm x ston R . (k) (k) ston R gia kje k = 1, . . . , n. 2. xm x
4.18

'Estw

(1)

(n)

ston

Rn

kai

Apdeixh:

[1 2]. 'Estw xm x ston Rn , opte dn,2 (xm , x) 0. Gia kje (k) (k) k = 1, . . . , n isqei |xm x(k) | dn,2 (xm , x) 0, opte xm x(k) ston R. (k) (k) [2 1]. 'Estw xm x(k) ston R gia kje k = 1, . . . , n. Tte (xm x(k) )2 0 (n) (1) (1) 2 ) + + (xm x(n) )2 0 kai, ston R gia kje k = 1, . . . , n. 'Ara, (xm x n epomnwc, dn,2 (xm , x) 0. 'Ara, xm x ston R . O.E.D. (xm ) kai (ym ) ston Rn kai akolouja (m ) ston R. An xm x, ym y ston Rn kai m ston R, apodexte ti xm + ym x + y , xm ym x y kai m xm x. (H telea dhlnei to
' Askhsh 93:

Jewrome tic akoloujec

eswterik ginmeno.) (Updeixh: Metasqhmatste se parastseic suntetagmnwn.)

0 < 1, An ma akolou1< . 1 ja (xn ) sugklnei sto x ston (X, X ), tte gia = 2 uprqei n0 N ste: 1 n n0 xn Nx ( 2 ) = {x}, dhlad, xn = x. 'Ara, h (xn ) enai met a3. Ston qro

(X, X )

isqei

Nx ( ) =

{x}, X,

an an

p kpoion dekth stajer. To antstrofo, smfwna me to prto pardeigma, isqei se kje metrik qro. 'Ara, oi sugklnousec akoloujec ston

(X, X )

enai ekenec kai mnon ekenec oi opoec enai met ap kpoion dekth stajerc. O qroc

(X, X )

enai arket aploikc kai dh gnwrzoume la ta anoikt

kai ta kleist uposnol tou kai lec tic sugklnousec akoloujec tou. Enai phg paradeigmtwn kai antiparadeigmtwn.

Ja dome, tra, thn pol isqur sqsh anmesa sthn nnoia thc sgklishc akoloujin kai se diforec nnoiec pou qoume dh meletsei: tic nnoiec

111

tou shmeou epafc kai tou shmeou sussreushc, thn nnoia tou kleisto uposunlou (kai, emmswc, tou anoikto uposunlou), thn nnoia tou sunoriako shmeou kai, tloc, tic nnoiec tou orou sunrthshc kai thc sunqeiac sunrthshc.
Prtash 4.19

'Estw metrikc qroc

shmeo epafc tou ston

(X, d), A X kai x X . To x enai A an kai mnon an uprqei akolouja (xn ) sto A ste xn x x
enai shmeo epafc tou

(X, d).
'Estw ti to

A kai stw tuqn n N. A kai stw xn na ttoio 1 . 'Ara, qoume akolouja (xn ) sto stoiqeo. Dhlad, xn A kai d(xn , x) < n A gia thn opoa isqei d(xn , x) 0 ston R kai, epomnwc, xn x ston (X, d). Antistrfwc, stw ti uprqei (xn ) sto A ste xn x ston (X, d). Parnoume tuqn > 0, opte uprqei n0 ste xn Nx ( ) gia kje n n0 . Eidiktera: xn0 Nx ( ). Apodexame ti gia kje > 0 h perioq Nx ( ) tou x periqei toulqiston na stoiqeo tou A, to xn0 . 'Ara, to x enai shmeo epafc tou A. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: Sthn

Nx

1 n

uprqei toulqiston na stoiqeo tou

H apdeixh thc epmenhc Prtashc 4.20 enai parmoia me thn apdeixh thc Prtashc 4.19.
Prtash 4.20

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d), A X

kai

shmeo sussreushc tou ste

an kai mnon an uprqei akolouja

x X . To x enai (xn ) sto A \ {x}

xn x Nx
1 n

ston

(X, d).

x enai shmeo sussreushc tou A kai stw tuqn n N. A\{x} kai stw xn na ttoio 1 stoiqeo. Dhlad, xn A \ {x} kai d(xn , x) < . 'Ara, qoume akolouja (xn ) n sto A \ {x} gia thn opoa isqei d(xn , x) 0 ston R kai, epomnwc, xn x ston (X, d). Antistrfwc, stw ti uprqei (xn ) sto A \ {x} ste xn x ston (X, d). Parnoume tuqn > 0, opte uprqei n0 ste xn Nx ( ) gia kje n n0 . Eidiktera: xn0 Nx ( ). Apodexame ti gia kje > 0 h perioq Nx ( ) tou x periqei toulqiston na stoiqeo tou A \ {x}, to xn0 . 'Ara, to x enai shmeo sussreushc tou A. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: 'Estw ti to Sthn uprqei toulqiston na stoiqeo tou
Paradegmata:

1.

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

tou

x ston (X, d). [a, b] ston R me a < b. Ap to prohgomeno pardeigma gnwrzoume ti kje x [a, b] enai shmeo epafc tou [a, b]. Epshc, kje x [a, b] enai shmeo sussreushc tou [a, b]. Prgmati, an a x < b, uprqei h akolouja x + bx sto [a, b] \ {x} me rio to x kai, an x = b, uprqei h akolouja n b ba sto [a, b] \ {b} me rio to b. n 'Estw, tra, to [a, b] {c} ston R me a < b < c. Kje x [a, b] {c} enai shmeo epafc tou [a, b] {c}. Epshc, me thn aitiolghsh tou prohgomenou paradegmatoc, kje x [a, b] enai shmeo sussreushc tou [a, b] {c}. 'Omwc,
diti uprqei h stajer akolouja sto me rio 2. 'Estw to 112

A,

A X. (x)

Kje

xA

enai shmeo epafc

[a, b] {c}, diti den uprqei kama ako(xn ) sto [a, b] {c} \ {c} me rio to c ston R. An uprqe, ja eqame a xn b gia kje n kai, parnontac rio kajc n +, ja katalgame sthn a c b.
to

den enai shmeo sussreushc tou

louja

Prtash

4.21

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

A X.

Ta paraktw enai

isodnama. 1. To

enai kleist uposnolo tou

X. A
me rio

2. Kje sto

x,

gia to opoo uprqei akolouja sto

ston

(X, d),

ankei

A.

Apdeixh: ston

[1 2]. 'Estw tuqn x gia to opoo uprqei (xn ) sto A ste xn x (X, d). Bsei thc Prtashc 4.19, to x enai shmeo epafc tou A, opte x A. Epeid to A enai kleist uposnolo tou X , isqei A = A kai, epomnwc, x A. [2 1]. 'Estw tuqn shmeo epafc x tou A. Tte, ap thn Prtash 4.19, uprqei akolouja sto A me ri to x ston (X, d) kai, epomnwc, to x ankei sto A. Apodexame ti kje shmeo epafc tou A , isodnama, kje stoiqeo tou A ankei sto A, opte A A. Epeid h A A isqei gia kje A, sunepgetai A = A kai, epomnwc, to A enai kleist uposnolo tou X . O.E.D.
Paradegmata:

[a, b] ston R kai opoiodpote x to opoo enai rio akoloujac (xn ) sto [a, b]. Dhlad, a xn b gia kje n N kai xn x. Parnontac rio kajc n +, brskoume a x b, dhlad, x [a, b]. 'Ara to A enai kleist uposnolo tou R. Omowc, kje kleist disthma [a, +), (, b] kai (, +) enai kleist uposnolo tou R. Gia to (a, b) uprqei na toulqiston x, sugkekrimna to x = a to x = b, to opoo enai rio akoloujac sto (a, b), sugkekrimna thc xn = a + (b a)/2n thc xn = b (b a)/2n, antistoqwc, all den ankei sto (a, b). 'Ara to (a, b) den enai kleist uposnolo tou R. Omowc apodeiknetai ti ta (a, +), (, b), [a, b) kai (a, b] den enai kleist uposnola tou R.
1. 'Estw
' Askhsh 94:

Apodexte ti to

en to

{0} Rn

1 {n

: n N}

1 { n : n N}

den enai kleist uposnolo tou

enai kleist uposnolo tou

R.

2.

Ston

jewrome thn kleist mpla

Upojtoume ti to

x Rn enai (1) (n) (x , . . . , x ), a = (a(1) , . . . , a(n) ) Na (r) gnetai

to me

rio kpoiac kai

Na (r) = {x Rn : dn,2 (x, a) r}. (xm ) sto Na (r). An x = (1) (n) xm = (xm , . . . , xm ), h sqsh xm
gia kje

(1) (xm

a(1) )2

+ + (xm a(n) )2 r
kje

(n)

m 1 kai ap
Sumperanou-

(k) (k) ti xm x sunepgetai xm x gia (x(1) a(1) )2 + + (x(n) a(n) )2 r,

k = 1, . . . , n.

parnontac rio kajc

m +

sthn teleutaa anisthta. 'Ara, 'Ara h

x Na (r). Rn .

Na (r)

enai kleist uposnolo tou

113

'Estw a1 , . . . , an R na toulqiston ek twn opown enai = 0 kai a R. Ston Rn jewrome to upereppedo = {x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) : a1 x(1) + + an x(n) = a}. Upojtoume ti to x Rn enai rio kpoiac (xm ) sto . (1) (n) (1) An x = (x , . . . , x(n) ) kai xm = (xm , . . . , xm ), h sqsh xm grfetai (1) (n) a1 xm + + an xm = a gia kje m 1 kai ap to ti xm x sunepgetai (k) (k) xm x gia kje k = 1, . . . , n. Parnontac rio kajc m + sthn (1) teleutaa isthta, sumperanoume a1 x + +an x(n) = a kai, epomnwc, x . n 'Ara to enai kleist uposnolo tou R . 3.

' Askhsh 95:

Apodexte ti kje kleistc hmiqroc kai kje kleist orjog-

nio parallhleppedo ston kleist uposnola tou

Rn
n
.

me akmc parllhlec stouc kriouc xonec enai

' Askhsh 96:

'Estw o metrikc qroc

(X, X ).

Apodexte ti kje

AX

enai

kleist uposnolo tou

(X, X ). (X, d), A X kai x X . To x enai uprqei (xn ) sto A kai (xn ) sto X \ A

Prtash

4.22

'Estw metrikc qroc

sunoriak shmeo tou ste

xn x

kai

A an kai mnon an xn x ston (X, d). x A

kai tou

Apdeixh: To ti to to

enai sunoriak shmeo tou

enai shmeo epafc tou

to ti uprqei

xn x

ston

(xn ) sto A (X, d).

ste

A enai isodnamo me to ti X \ A. Aut, mwc, enai isodnamo me xn x ston (X, d) kai (xn ) sto X \ A ste

O.E.D.

' Askhsh

97:

H Prtash 4.19 mac epitrpei na qrhsimopoisoume nan diafo-

retik, all isodnamo me ton prohgomeno, orism tou shmeou epafc enc

AX

se metrik qro

akolouja

(xn )

sto

ste

(X, d): to x X enai shmeo epafc tou A, an uprqei xn x ston (X, d). Me anlogo trpo, ap thn
to

Prtash 4.20 prorqetai o isodnamoc orismc tou shmeou sussreushc:

x X enai shmeo sussreushc tou A, an uprqei akolouja (xn ) sto A \ {x} ste xn x ston (X, d). Akmh, ap thn Prtash 4.22 qoume ton isodnamo orism tou sunoriako shmeou: to x X enai sunoriak shmeo tou A, an uprqoun akoloujec (xn ) sto A kai (xn ) sto X \ A ste xn x kai xn x ston (X, d). Tloc, h Prtash 4.21 mac epitrpei na qrhsimopoisoume ton isodnamo orism tou kleisto uposunlou: to A enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d), an kje x, gia to opoo uprqei akolouja sto A me rio x ston (X, d), ankei sto A.
Qrhsimopointac touc tssereic autoc orismoc, apodexte me diaforetik trpo ta paraktw dh gnwst mac apotelsmata: thn Prtash 4.5, thn Prtash 4.6.2 kai 4.6.4, to Jerhma 4.1.3 kai 4.1.4, thn Prtash 4.9, thn Prtash 4.10, thn Prtash 4.11 kai thn Prtash 4.12. 44, 45, 49, 51, 57, 58, 66, 74, 75 kai 76. 'Estw metriko qroi kai Epshc, lste tic askseic 27,

Prtash

4.23

sreushc tou 1.

A, y0 Y limxx0 f (x) = y0 .

(X, d) kai (Y, ), A X , x0 shmeo f : A Y . Ta paraktw enai isodnama.

sus-

114

2. Gia kje

(xn )

sto

A \ {x0 }

me

xn x0

ston

(X, d)

isqei

f (xn ) y0

ston

(Y, ). [1 2]. 'Estw (xn ) sto A \ {x0 } me xn x0 ston (X, d). Par> 0 kai brskoume > 0 ste: x A, 0 < d(x, x0 ) < d(f (x), f (x0 )) < . Katpin, brskoume n0 ste: n n0 d(xn , x0 ) < . Epeid xn A \ {x0 } gia kje n N, qoume: n n0 xn A, 0 < d(xn , x0 ) < d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < . 'Ara, f (xn ) f (x0 ) ston (Y, ). [2 1]. 'Estw ti h f den enai suneqc sto x0 . Tte uprqei kpoio 0 ste gia kje > 0 uprqei x A me d(x, x0 ) < kai (f (x), f (x0 )) 0 . 'Ara, gia 1 kje n N uprqei xn A me d(xn , x0 ) < n kai (f (xn ), f (x0 )) 0 . Tra, h akolouja (xn ) enai sto A kai isqei xn x0 ston (X, d), afo d(xn , x0 ) 0 ston R. 'Omwc, den isqei (f (xn ), f (x0 )) 0 ston R kai, epomnwc, den isqei f (xn ) f (x0 ) ston (Y, ). O.E.D.
Apdeixh: noume tuqn H apdeixh thc epmenhc Prtashc 4.24 enai sqedn kat lxh epanlhyh thc apdeixhc thc Prtashc 4.23. 'Estw metriko qroi (X, d) kai (Y, ), A X , x0 A kai f : A Y . Ta paraktw enai isodnama. 1. H f enai suneqc sto x0 . 2. Gia kje (xn ) sto A me xn x0 ston (X, d) isqei f (xn ) f (x0 ) ston (Y, ).
4.24

Prtash

(xn ) sto A me xn x0 ston (X, d). Parnoume tuqn > 0 ste: x A, d(x, x0 ) < d(f (x), f (x0 )) < . Katpin, brskoume n0 ste: n n0 d(xn , x0 ) < . Epeid xn A gia kje n N, qoume: n n0 xn A, d(xn , x0 ) < d(f (xn ), f (x0 )) < . 'Ara, f (xn ) f (x0 ) ston (Y, ). [2 1]. 'Estw ti h f den enai suneqc sto x0 . Tte uprqei kpoio 0 ste gia kje > 0 uprqei x A me d(x, x0 ) < kai (f (x), f (x0 )) 0 . 'Ara, gia 1 kje n N uprqei xn A me d(xn , x0 ) < n kai (f (xn ), f (x0 )) 0 . Tra, h akolouja (xn ) enai sto A kai isqei xn x0 ston (X, d), afo d(xn , x0 ) 0 ston R. 'Omwc, den isqei (f (xn ), f (x0 )) 0 ston R kai, epomnwc, den isqei f (xn ) f (x0 ) ston (Y, ). O.E.D.
Apdeixh: 'Estw

[1 2].

>0

kai brskoume

' Askhsh 98:

Sto dio pnema me thn skhsh 97, bsei twn Protsewn 4.23 kai

4.24, mporome na diatupsoume enallaktikoc, isodnamouc me touc prohgomenouc, orismoc tou orou sunrthshc kai thc sunqeiac sunrthshc. Dhlad, orzoume

(X, d) x0 , an (Y, ).

limxx0 f (x) = y0 , an gia kje (xn ) sto A \ {x0 } me xn x0 ston f (xn ) y0 ston (Y, ). Epshc, lme ti h f enai suneqc sto gia kje (xn ) sto A me xn x0 ston (X, d) isqei f (xn ) f (x0 ) ston
isqei

Qrhsimopointac autoc touc orismoc kajc kai touc orismoc sthn skhsh, apodexte me diaforetik trpo thn Prtash 4.13, thn isodunama

[1 3]

tou Jewrmatoc 4.3, thn Prtash 4.14 kai thn Prtash 4.15. Epshc, lste tic askseic 79, 80, 81, 82, 83 kai 88.

115

116

Keflaio 5
Sumpgeia.

5.1

Genik.

'Estw tou

X opoiodpote mh ken snolo, M X kai ma oikogneia uposunlwn X . Dhlad, kje A enai na uposnolo tou X .
H

Orismc 5.1

onomzetai

kluyh tou

M , an M M.

A
tou

enai peperasmnh, onomzetai 'Estw kai

peperasmnh

kluyh

A. An, epiplon, M.
lme ti
h

Orismc 5.2

do kalyeic tou

An

enai megalterh

sh

thc

kai ti

enai mikrterh

sh thc

Orismc 5.3

'Estw

luyh tou
anoikt

kai la ta
tou

kluyh

(X, d) nac metrikc qroc kai M X . An h enai kA enai anoikt uposnola tou (X, d), h onomzetai M. kai
enai kalyeic tou

Enai apoltwc profanc ti, an oi kai h

kai

enai anoikt kluyh tou

M,

tte kai h

enai anoikt kluyh tou

M.
tte h

Enai, epshc, profanc ti, an h

enai kluyh tou

kai

N M,

enai kluyh kai tou

N.

Paradegmata:

1. 'Estw X = R kai M = [0, 1]. Jewrome la ta diastmata thc morfc 1 1 Ax = x 100 , x + 100 (x R) kai th sullog = {Ax : x R}. H enai, profanc, anoikt kluyh tou [0, 1]. An xeqwrsoume kai kra1 1 tsoume monqa ta diastmata thc morfc Axk = xk 100 , xk + 100 , pou 1 k 99 x0 = 0, x1 = 100 ,. . . ,xk = 100 ,. . . ,x99 = 100 , x100 = 1, tte h sullog = {Axk : 0 k 100} enai ma peperasmnh kluyh tou [0, 1] mikrterh sh ap thn . 'Ara, gia th sugkekrimnh anoikt kluyh tou [0, 1] uprqei mia peperasmnh kluyh tou [0, 1] mikrterh sh ap autn. 1 1 2. 'Estw X = R kai M = R. Parnoume ta dia Ax = x 100 , x + 100 (x R) pwc sto prohgomeno pardeigma, kai thn = {Ax : x R}, h opoa

117

 enai peirh oikogneia kai tjetai to erthma R mikrterh sh ap th . 'Oqi, diti an proume opoiadpote peperasmnou pljouc diastmata Ax1 = 1 1 1 1 x1 100 , x1 + 100 ,. . . ,Axn = xn 100 , xn + 100 kai jewrsoume thn = {Axk : 1 k n}, tte h den enai kluyh tou R. Prgmati, an diatxoume 1 1 ta x1 , . . . , xn ste x1 < x2 < < xn , tte A A x1 100 , xn + 100 . 'Ara, gia th sugkekrimnh anoikt kluyh tou R den uprqei kama peperasmnh kluyh tou R mikrterh sh ap autn. 3. 'Estw X = R kai M = R. Parnoume la ta diastmata thc morfc (n, +) kai (, n) (n N) kai stw = {(n, +), (, n) : n N}. Profanc, h enai anoikt kluyh tou R kai h = {(1, +), (, 1)} enai, epshc, kluyh tou R. 'Ara, gia th sugkekrimnh anoikt kluyh tou R uprqei ma peperasmnh kluyh tou R mikrterh sh ap autn. 4. 'Estw X = R kai M = (0, 1). Jewrome thn dia sullog = {Ax : x R} 1 1 tou paradegmatoc 1, pou Ax = x (x R). H enai anoikt 100 , x + 100 kluyh tou (0, 1). H = {Axk : 0 k 100} enai, pwc kai sto pardeigma 1, peperasmnh kluyh tou (0, 1) mikrterh sh ap thn . 'Ara, gia th sugkekrimnh anoikt kluyh tou (0, 1) uprqei ma peperasmnh kluyh tou (0, 1) mikrterh sh ap autn. 1 5. 'Estw X = R kai M = (0, 1). Jewrome ta anoikt diastmata An = n, 1 (n = 2, 3, . . .) kai thn = {An : n = 2, 3, . . .}. H enai anoikt kluyh tou (0, 1), diti kje x sto (0, 1) periqetai sto 1 1 , 1 , arke to n na enai arket meglo ste n < x < 1. An proume n opoiadpote peperasmnou pljouc ap ta diastmata aut, dhlad, An1 = 1 1 n1 , 1 ,. . . ,AnN = nN , 1 kai jewrsoume thn = {Ank : 1 k N }, tte h den enai kluyh tou (0, 1). Prgmati, an diatxoume n1 < n2 < < nN , 1 tte A A = nN , 1 . 'Ara, gia th sugkekrimnh anoikt kluyh tou (0, 1) den uprqei kama peperasmnh kluyh tou (0, 1) mikrterh sh ap autn.
enai anoikt kluyh tou H an uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou Sta prohgomena paradegmata:

R.

(i)

M = (0, 1) kai M = R edame sugkekrimnec anoiktc ka tou M gia tic opoec uprqoun peperasmnec kalyeic tou M ste kai sugkekrimnec anoiktc kalyeic tou M gia tic opoec den uprqei kama peperasmnh kluyh tou M ste . (ii) Sthn perptwsh M = [0, 1] edame sugkekrimnh anoikt kluyh tou M gia thn opoa uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou M ste . Enai dunatn na brome anoikt kluyh tou [0, 1] gia thn opoa den uprqei kama peperasmnh kluyh tou M ste ? Lgo paraktw ja apodexoume
Stic periptseic lyeic ti aut enai adnaton! H erthsh pou diatupjhke sthn prohgomenh pargrafo gia to disthma

[0, 1], mpore, fusik, na diatupwje gia opoiodpote uposnolo qi mnon tou R all kai opoioudpote metriko qrou: dojntoc metriko qrou (X, d) kai uposunlou M tou X , enai dunatn na brome anoikt kluyh tou M gia thn opoa den uprqei kama peperasmnh kluyh tou M ste ?
118

'Oso perergo ki an fanetai na ttoio erthma, h aljeia enai ti h dunatthta apnthshc s' aut pazei idiatera shmantik rlo sth Majhmatik Anlush. Sto keflaio aut ja meletsoume orismnec ekfnseic auto tou

rlou, afo kwdikopoisoume to erthma me ton epmeno Orism 5.4.

' Askhsh

(0, 1) ston R kai ta Ax = ( x , 1+x ) (0 < x < 1). 2 2 Apodexte ti h = {Ax : 0 < x < 1} enai anoikt kluyh tou (0, 1) kai ti den uprqei kama peperasmnh kluyh tou (0, 1) ste .
1:

Jewrste to

Ax = ( x , 1+x ) (0 < x < 1). 2 2 'Estw I kai J do anoikt diastmata me 0 I kai 1 J . Apodexte ti h = {I, J} {Ax : 0 < x < 1} enai anoikt kluyh tou [0, 1] kai ti uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou [0, 1] ste .
' Askhsh 2:

Jewrste to

[0, 1]

ston

kai ta

Orismc 5.4
sumpa gc

'Estw metrikc qroc

tou

(X, d) M

kai

M X.

To

onomzetai

uposnolo

(X, d),

an gia kje anoikt kluyh tou

uprqei

toulqiston ma peperasmnh kluyh tou

Paradegmata:

mikrterh sh ap autn.

1.

To

(0, 1)

kai to

den enai sumpag uposnola tou

R,

smfwna me ta

paradegmata 2 kai 5 met ap ton Orism 5.3.

X kai M X . Ja dome ti: to M (X, X ) an kai mnon an to M enai peperasmno. 'Estw ti M = {x1 , . . . , xn } gia kpoia x1 , . . . , xn X . Jewrome tuqosa anoikt kluyh tou M . Tte kje xk M periqetai se kpoio Ak . Enai, tra, profanc ti M = {x1 , . . . , xn } A1 An kai, epomnwc, h = {A1 , . . . , An } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou M me . Antistrfwc, stw ti to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, X ). Gia kje x M jewrome to snolo Ax = {x}, to opoo enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, X ), kai qoume thn anoikt kluyh = {Ax : x M } tou M . Epeid to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, X ), uprqei kpoia peperasmnh kluyh tou M me . Aut shmanei ti = {Ax1 , . . . , Axn } gia kpoia x1 , . . . , xn M kai ti M Ax1 Axn = {x1 } {xn } = {x1 , . . . , xn }. Epeid, mlista, x1 , . . . , xn M , sunepgetai M = {x1 , . . . , xn } kai, epomnwc, to M enai peperasmno. 3. 'Estw a, b R me a < b. Ja apodexoume ti to [a, b] enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R. Ja dome argtera ti aut enai apl efarmog tou (dskolou)
2. 'Estw mh ken

me th diakrit metrik

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

Jewrmatoc 5.5 kai apl eidik perptwsh thc (epshc, dskolhc) Prtashc 5.4, all ja dsoume ed apdeixh eidik gia to sugkekrimno snolo kai ja fane ti to na apodexei kanec ti kpoio sugkekrimno snolo enai sumpagc uposnolo enc metriko qrou en gnei den enai ekolh upjesh! Jewrome tuqosa anoikt kluyh anoikt uposnolo tou

tou

kai

[a, b]

[a, b]. Dhlad, kje A A. Orzoume to snolo

tou

enai

K = {x [a, b] : uprqei
Dhlad, to

peperasmnh kluyh

[a, x]

me

} . [a, x].

x [a, b]

enai stoiqeo tou

an kai mnon uprqoun peperasmnou

pljouc snola-stoiqea thc

stwn opown thn nwsh periqetai to

119

To

enai stoiqeo tou

blpoume wc exc.

Epeid h

A0 .
fusik,

Epomnwc, h

K kai, epomnwc, to K den enai ken. Aut to enai kluyh tou [a, b], to a ankei se kpoio = {A0 } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou [a, a] = {a} kai,

. Epshc, to K enai nw fragmno, afo K [a, b]. ' ra, to K qei supremum A kai jtoume c = sup(K). Profanc, a c b. Epeid c [a, b], uprqei kpoio A1 ste c A1 . To A1 enai anoikt uposnolo tou R, opte uprqei > 0 ste (c , c + ) A1 . Epeid c = sup(K), uprqei x K me c < x c. Epeid x K , uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou [a, x] me . Sqhmatzoume thn peperasmnh sullog = {A1 }. Tra, [a, x] A A kai [x, c] (c , c + ) A1 . 'Ara, [a, c] = [a, x] [x, c] A A A1 = A A kai, epomnwc, uprqei peperasmnh kluyh, h , tou [a, c] me . Sumperanoume ti c K . Upojtoume, tra, ti c < b. Qrhsimopoiome ta sugkekrimna A1 , , x, kai pou emfansthkan sthn prohgomenh pargrafo. Parnoume opoiondpote arijm c1 ste c < c1 < min(b, c + ). Ap thn prohgomenh pargrafo, [a, x] A A kai parathrome ti [x, c1 ] (c , c + ) A1 . Epomnwc, [a, c1 ] = [a, x] [x, c1 ] A A A1 = A A kai, epomnwc, uprqei peperasmnh kluyh, h , tou [a, c1 ] me . Epshc, epeid c1 b, qoume c1 [a, b], opte c1 K . Aut, mwc, enai topo, diti sup(K) = c < c1 . Katalgoume sto ti c = b kai, epomnwc, uprqei peperasmnh kluyh, h , tou [a, b] me .
' Askhsh 3:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d).

Apodexte ti to

enai sumpagc

uposnolo tou

(X, d). (X, d) kai M opoiodpote peperasmno uM enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d).

' Askhsh

4:

'Estw metrikc qroc

posnolo tou (Updeixh:

X.

Apodexte ti to

Mimhjete to prto skloc thc apdeixhc sto pardeigma 2 met

ap ton Orism 5.4.)

(X, d) kai xn x ston (X, d). Apodexte ti (X, d). (Updeixh: Jewrste tuqosa anoikt kluyh tou {x} {xn : n N}. Uprqei kpoio A0 ste x A0 kai uprqei 0 > 0 ste Nx ( 0 ) A0 . Katpin, uprqei n0 ste xn Nx ( 0 ) gia kje n n0 . Gia kje k = 1, . . . , n0 1 uprqei Ak ste xk Ak . Jewrste thn = {A0 , A1 , . . . , An0 1 }.)
' Askhsh 5:

'Estw metrikc qroc

to snolo

{x} {xn : n N}

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

1 { n : n N} den enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R. 1 (Updeixh: Brete katllhlh anoikt kluyh tou { n : n N} gia thn opoa na 1 mhn uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou { n : n N} pou na periqetai s' autn. Mporete, gia pardeigma, na jewrsete mikr anoikt diastmata In (n N)
' Askhsh 6:

Apodexte ti to

xna an do kajna ek twn opown periqei na ap ta

1 n

. Brete, pntwc, kai

ma deterh ttoia anoikt kluyh diaforetikc fshc ap thn prth.)

' Askhsh

7:

Genikeste thn prohgomenh skhsh wc exc. 'Estw metrikc q-

120

roc

gia kje tou

(X, d), akolouja (xn ) sto X , x X kai xn x ston (X, d). An xn = x n N, apodexte ti to {xn : n N} den enai sumpagc uposnolo 1 (X, d). (Updeixh: Jewrste ta {y X : d(y, x) > n }.)
8:

' Askhsh

'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d) kai M, M1 , . . . , Mn X . M1 , . . . , Mn enai sumpag uposnola tou (X, d), apodexte ti to M1 Mn enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d). (Updeixh: Jewrste tuqosa anoikt kluyh tou M1 Mn kai parathrste ti h enai kluyh kajenc ap ta M1 , . . . , Mn .) + 2. Brete sumpag uposnola M1 , M2 , . . . tou R ste to n=1 Mn na mhn enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R. 1. An ta

(X, d) kai M X . An to M enai sumpagc (X, d), apodexte ti uprqei arijmsimo A M ste M A. 1 (Updeixh: Gia kje n N jewrste thn anoikt kluyh {Nx ( ) : x M } tou n kn M . Uprqei {Nxn,1 , . . . , Nxn,kn ) me xn,1 , . . . , xn,kn M kai M k=1 Nxn,k . Tloc, jewrste to A = {xn,k : n N, 1 k kn }.)
' Askhsh 9:

'Estw metrikc qroc

uposnolo tou

(X, d) kai mh ken M X . Apodexte ti: (X, d) an kai mnon an to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (M, d). (Updeixh: 'Estw ti to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d). Prte tuqosa anoikt kluyh tou M ston (M, d). Dhlad, kje B enai anoikt uposnolo tou (M, d) kai M B B . Gia kje B uprqei anoikt uposnolo AB tou (X, d) ste B = AB M (opte B AB ). Jewrste thn 1 = {AB : B } pou enai anoikt kluyh tou M ston (X, d), diti M B B B AB AB 1 AB . Uprqoun AB1 , . . . , ABn ste n M k=1 ABk . Apodexte ti h {B1 , . . . , Bn } apotele anoikt kluyh tou M ston (M, d). H apdeixh gia to antstrofo enai parmoia.)
' Askhsh 10:

'Estw metrikc qroc

to

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

(X1 , d1 ) kai (X2 , d2 ) kai M X1 X2 . Ud1 , d2 tautzontai sto M , dhlad, d1 (x, y) = d2 (x, y) gia kje x, y M . Aut epitrpei na sumbolsoume d = d1 = d2 ton (koin) periorism twn d1 , d2 sto M M . Apodexte ti: to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X1 , d1 ) an kai mnon an to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X2 , d2 ). (Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste to
' Askhsh 11:

'Estw metriko qroi

pojtoume, epshc, ti oi metrikc

apotlesma thc skhshc.) Sumpernate ti h sumpgeia tou

enai idithta tou

kajeauto (kai

thc metrikc tou) kai den exarttai ap ton metrik qro ston opoo periqetai to

M.
Met ap tic teleutaec do askseic, dikaiologetai o paraktw orismc. O metrikc qroc

Orismc 5.5
roc,

(X, d)

onomzetai

sumpa gc

metrikc

q-

an to

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

(X, d). M
enai sumpagc upos-

Epomnwc, h skhsh 10 diatupnetai wc exc: to nolo tou

(X, d)

an kai mnon an o

(M, d)
121

enai sumpagc metrikc qroc.

Orismc 5.6
fra gmno

Nx0 (R)

(X, d) kai M X . To M onomzetai (X, d), an uprqei x0 X kai jetikc arijmc R ste: M isodnama, d(x, x0 ) < R gia kje x M .
'Estw metrikc qroc
ston

' Askhsh

12:

'Estw metrikc qroc

1. Apodexte ti to 2. An

enai fragmno ston

(X, d). (X, d).

kai to M enai fragmno ston (X, d), apodexte ti to N (X, d). 3. An M, N X kai ta M kai N enai fragmna ston (X, d), apodexte ti to M N enai fragmno ston (X, d). enai fragmno ston

N M X

To apotlesma thc epmenhc skhshc shmanei ti to kntro

x0

thc perioqc

Nx0 (R)

den pazei ousiastik rlo ston orism tou fragmnou uposunlou.

' Askhsh

13:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d), M X

kai

ti:

uprqei

ste

Nx0 (R ).
Paradegmata:

M Nx0 (R )

an kai mnon an uprqei

x0 , x0 X . Apodexte R ste M

1. Sto

disthma

R na uposnolo M enai fragmno an kai mnon an periqetai se kpoio (a, b). Genik, ston Rn na uposnolo M enai fragmno an kai mnon

an periqetai se kpoio orjognio parallhleppedo me akmc parllhlec stouc kriouc xonec. Prgmati, an to

enai fragmno ston

Rn , dhlad, uprqoun R < + kai

(1) (n) (k)

x0 = (x0 , . . . , x0 ) ste dn,2 (x, x0 ) =

(1)

(n)

(x(1) x0 )2 + + (x(n) x0 )2 <

R gia kje x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) M , tte |x(k) x0 | < R gia kje k = 1, . . . , n (1) (1) (n) (n) (1) kai x = (x , . . . , x(n) ) M . 'Ara, x [x0 R, x0 + R] [x0 R, x0 + R] gia kje x M kai, epomnwc, to M periqetai sto orjognio parallhleppedo (1) (1) (n) (n) [x0 R, x0 + R] [x0 R, x0 + R]. Antistrfwc, stw ti to M periqetai sto [a1 , b1 ] [an , bn ]. Jtoume (k) x0 = ak +bk gia kje k = 1, . . . , n kai R = n max1kn bk ak . Tte gia kje 2 2 (k) R x = (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) M qoume |x(k) x0 | n gia kje k = 1, . . . , n kai,
epomnwc,

(x(1) x0 )2 + + (x(n) x0 )2 n R = R. n n 'Ara to M enai fragmno ston R . 2. 'Estw opoiodpote mh ken X kai h diakrit metrik X . Kje M X enai fragmno ston (X, X ). Eidiktera, to dio to X enai fragmno ston (X, X ). Aut ofeletai sto ti h X qei do mnon timc, 0 kai 1. An, loipn, epilxoume opoiodpote x0 X , isqei X (x, x0 ) 1 gia kje x X . dn,2 (x, x0 ) =
Parathrome ti to an na uposnolo

(1)

(n)

enc metriko qrou enai frag-

mno qi exarttai ap th sugkekrimnh metrik tou qrou. Gia pardeigma, to

den enai fragmno ston

(me thn eukledia metrik) en enai fragmno

ston

me th diakrit metrik.

' Askhsh 14:

Sto

jewrome th metrik

pou orzetai me ton tpo

d(x, y) =

122

|xy| |xy|+1

tou kefalaou 4, h

enai

x, y R. Wc efarmog tou apotelsmatoc thc skhshc 17 d kai h eukledia metrik enai isodnamec. Apodexte ti to fragmno ston (R, d) en den enai fragmno ston R (me thn eukledia
gia kje

metrik).

' Askhsh 15:

'Estw peperasmno mh ken

kai opoiadpote metrik

Apodexte ti to

X
n

(kai kje uposnol tou) enai fragmno ston

d sto X . (X, d).

enai

' Askhsh

16:

'Estw

fragmno sto
Orismc 5.7
dimetro tou

1 p < q + (R , dn,p ) an kai mnon

'Estw metrikc qroc

kai

M Rn .

Apodexte ti: to

an enai fragmno ston ken

M (Rn , dn,q ).

M,

kai sumbolzoume

(X, d) kai mh diam(M ), to

M X.

Onomzoume

diam(M ) = sup{d(x, y) : x, y M } .
To snolo

{d(x, y) : x, y M } enai mh ken, diti to M enai mh ken kai, an x M , to d(x, x) = 0 enai stoiqeo tou sunlou auto. Epshc, to snolo aut enai uposnolo tou R kai ta stoiqea tou enai mh arnhtiko arijmo. An to snolo aut enai nw fragmno, to supremum uprqei kai enai mh arnhtikc arijmc 0 en, an to snolo aut den enai nw fragmno, to supremum enai to +. 'Ara, h dimetroc tou M enai kalc orismnh kai 0 diam(M ) + .
'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d). = N M X , apodexte ti diam(N ) diam(M ). 2. An = M, N X kai M N = , apodexte ti diam(M N ) diam(M ) + diam(N ).
' Askhsh 17:

1. An

' Askhsh 18:

Upologste th dimetro tou

kai th dimetro tou

sto

me th metrik

R sto R (me thn eukledia d thc skhshc 14. Rn

metrik)

' Askhsh

19:

Upologste th dimetro ston

kje anoiktc kai kje klei-

stc mplac kai kje anoikto kai kje kleisto parallhlepipdou me akmc parllhlec stouc kriouc xonec.

' Askhsh

20:

Upologste th dimetro tou to

periptseic: na stoiqea.

(i)

enai monosnolo kai

X ston (X, X ), diakrnontac (ii) to X periqei perisstera x0 X

do ap

Sth deterh perptwsh prte opoiodpote metro thc kleistc perioqc dimetroc
Prtash

kai upologste th di-

Nx0 (1).

Sumfwne to apotlesma me ton kanna

do forc h aktna? 'Estw metrikc qroc

5.1

fragmno ston

(X, d)

an kai mnon an

(X, d) kai mh ken M X . diam(M ) < +.

To

enai

Apdeixh: 'Estw ti to kai arijmc

M enai fragmno ston (X, d). Dhlad, uprqei x0 X R > 0 ste M Nx0 (R). Gia kje x, y M isqei d(x, y) d(x, x0 ) + d(y, x0 ) < R + R = 2R. 'Ara, diam(M ) 2R < +.
123

kratme stajer.

diam(M ) < +. Jewrome tuqn x0 M kai to x M qoume d(x0 , x) diam(M ). An jsoume R = diam(M ) + 1, tte gia kje x M isqei d(x0 , x) < R kai, epomnwc, x Nx0 (R). 'Ara, M Nx0 (R) kai, epomnwc, to M enai fragmno ston (X, d). O.E.D.
Antistrfwc, stw ti Tte gia kje 'Estw metrikc qroc (X, d) kai mh ken M X . Apodexte ti diam(M ) = diam(M ). (Updeixh: H diam(M ) diam(M ) enai apl. Gia thn diam(M ) diam(M ) jewrste x, y M kai prte (xn ) kai (yn ) sto M ste xn x kai yn y . Qrhsimopoiste to apotlesma thc skhshc 92 tou
' Askhsh 21:

kefalaou 4.)
Prtash 5.2

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d) kai M X .

An to

enai sumpa-

gc uposnolo tou

(X, d),

tte to

enai fragmno kai kleist uposnolo tou

(X, d).
Parnoume opoiodpote x0 X kai jewrome th sullog = {Nx0 (n) : n N}. H enai anoikt kluyh tou M , opte uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou M h opoa enai mikrterh sh ap thn . Dhlad, uprqoun n1 , . . . , nN ste M Nx0 (n1 ) Nx0 (nN ). An jsoume R = max(n1 , . . . , nN ), sunepgetai M Nx0 (R) kai, epomnwc, to M enai fragmno ston (X, d). 1 Parnoume tuqn x0 X \ M . Jewrome An = {x X : d(x, x0 ) > n } kai th sullog = {An : n N}. H enai anoikt kluyh tou M , opte uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou M mikrterh sh ap thn . Dhlad, uprqoun n1 , . . . , nN ste M An1 AnN . An jsoume n = max(n1 , . . . , nN ), 1 sunepgetai M An kai, epomnwc, Nx0 ( ) X \ M . Apodexame ti gia n kje x0 X \ M uprqei perioq tou h opoa periqetai sto X \ M . 'Ara, to X \ M enai anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) kai, epomnwc, to M enai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d). O.E.D. Apdeixh:
Prtash 5.3

'Estw metrikc qroc

sumpagc kai to tou

kleist uposnolo tou

(X, d) kai N M X . An to M enai (X, d), to N enai sumpagc uposnolo

(X, d). M.
Prgmati,

Apdeixh: 'Estw tuqosa anoikt kluyh enai anoikt kluyh tou

N (X \ N )
uprqoun

A.

Epeid to

uprqei peperasmnh kluyh

1 tou A1 , . . . , An 1 (mporome na ta proume diaforetik an do) ste h M A1 An . Diakrnoume, tra, periptseic se sqsh me to an to X \ N enai na ap ta A1 , . . . , An qi. Sthn prth perptwsh, stw X \ N = An . Tte h M A1 An grfetai M A1 An1 (X \ N ), opte N A1 An1 . Aut shmanei ti h = {A1 , . . . , An1 } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou N mikrterh sh ap thn . Sth deterh perptwsh, la ta A1 , . . . , An ankoun sthn , opte h = {A1 , . . . , An } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou N mikrterh sh ap thn . 'Ara, se kje perptwsh, uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou N mikrterh sh ap thn . O.E.D.
124

tou N . Tte h 1 = {X \ N } M = (M \ N ) N (X \ N ) M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d), M mikrterh sh ap thn 1 . Dhlad,

Pardeigma:

To snolo

tou

Cantor

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

R,

afo enai kleist

uposnolo tou tou

kai periqetai sto

[0, 1]

to opoo enai sumpagc uposnolo

R.
22:

' Askhsh

'Estw metrikc qroc

sumpagc kai to

kleist uposnolo tou

(X, d) kai A, B X . An to A (X, d), apodexte ti to A B

enai enai

sumpagc uposnolo tou 5.3.)

(X, d).

(Updeixh:

Sunduste tic Protseic 5.2 kai

To epmeno Jerhma 5.1 enai genkeush tou gnwsto apotelsmatoc gia akoloujec egkibwtismnwn kleistn kai fragmnwn diasthmtwn sto

R:

an

[a1 , b1 ] [a2 , b2 ] . . . [an , bn ] . . ., tte uprqei x to opoo ankei [an , bn ] kai, an, epiplon, bn an 0, to x aut enai monadik.
Jerhma 5.1

se la ta

'Estw {egkibwtismnh} akolouja mh kenn sumpagn uposu-

K1 K2 . . . Kn . . . enc metriko qrou (X, d). Tte h tom + touc, n=1 Kn , den enai ken. Dhlad, uprqei stoiqeo to opoo ankei se la ta Kn . An, epiplon, diam(Kn ) 0, to koin stoiqeo enai monadik.
nlwn Apdeixh: Upojtoume

+ n=1

Kn = .

Jewrome thn

= {X \ Kn : n N} kai
' ra, uprqei peperasmnh A

parathrome ti aut enai anoikt kluyh tou kluyh tou

K1 .

K1 mikrterh sh ap th , dhlad, uprqoun n1 , . . . , nN ste K1 (X \ Kn1 ) (X \ KnN ). Jtoume n = max(n1 , . . . , nN ), opte sunepgetai K1 X \ Kn , to opoo enai topo. 'Estw diam(Kn ) 0. An ta x, y ankoun kai ta do se la ta Kn , tte 0 d(x, y) diam(Kn ) gia kje n. 'Ara, d(x, y) = 0 kai, epomnwc, x = y .
O.E.D.

5.2

Sumpgeia

kai

akoloujec.

Jerhma 5.2

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d)

kai

M X.

Ta paraktw enai

isodnama. 1. To

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

(X, d).

2. Kje akolouja sto se stoiqeo tou Apdeixh:

qei toulqiston mia upoakolouja h opoa sugklnei

M.

'Estw tuqosa (xn ) sto M . Ac upojsoume ti gia kje x Nx ( (x)) tou x (to (x) exarttai ap to x), h opoa periqei peperasmnou pljouc rouc thc (xn ). H = {Nx ( (x)) : x M } enai anoikt kluyh tou M . 'Ara, uprqei peperasmnh kluyh tou M mikrterh sh ap thn . Dhlad, uprqoun x1 , . . . , xn ste M Nx1 ( (x1 )) Nxn ( (xn )).

[1 2].

uprqei perioq

Afo kajema ap autc tic perioqc periqei peperasmnou pljouc rouc thc

(xn ),
sto

h nws touc kai, epomnwc, kai to

M,

periqei peperasmnou pljouc

rouc thc

(xn ).

Aut, mwc, antifskei me to ti olklhrh h

(xn )

periqetai

M.
125

x0 M ste > 0 h Nx0 ( ) periqei peirouc rouc thc (xn ). 'Ara, h Nx0 (1) periqei 1 peirouc rouc thc (xn ) kai stw n1 1 ste xn1 Nx0 (1). Omowc, h Nx0 ( ) 2 1 periqei peirouc rouc thc (xn ) kai stw n2 > n1 ste xn2 Nx0 ( ). Omowc, 2 1 1 h Nx0 ( ) periqei peirouc rouc thc (xn ) kai stw n3 > n2 ste xn3 Nx0 ( ). 3 3 Suneqzontac epagwgik, brskoume upoakolouja (afo n1 < n2 < n3 < . . .) 1 1 (xnk ) thc (xn ) me thn idithta: xnk Nx0 ( k ) , isodnama, d(xnk , x0 ) < k gia kje k N. 'Ara, xnk x0 ston (X, d). [2 1]. Bma 1. 'Estw > 0. Ja apodexoume ti uprqoun peperasmnou pljouc stoiqea x1 , . . . , xn tou M ste: M Nx1 ( ) Nxn ( ). 'Estw ti aut den isqei. Dialgoume tuqn x1 M . Tte M Nx1 ( ). 'Ara, uprqei x2 M me x2 Nx1 ( ). Tte M Nx1 ( ) Nx2 ( ). 'Ara, uprqei x3 M me x3 Nx1 ( ) Nx2 ( ). Tte M Nx1 ( ) Nx2 ( ) Nx3 ( ). 'Ara, uprqei x4 M me x4 Nx1 ( ) Nx2 ( ) Nx3 ( ). Suneqzontac epagwgik blpoume ti uprqoun x1 , . . . , xn , . . . sto M ste: n > m 1 d(xn , xm ) . Aut, mwc, apokleei th dunatthta na uprqei upoakolouja thc (xn ) h opoa na
Epomnwc, h arqik upjesh den isqei, opte uprqei kpoio gia kje sugklnei kai katalgoume se topo. Bma 2. 'Estw tuqosa anoikt kluyh

tou

> 0 me A . besgue
uprqei

thn idithta:

gia kje

xM

to

M. Nx ( )

Ja apodexoume ti uprqei periqetai se kpoio ap ta

Orismc 5.8

O arijmc

thc anoiktc kluyhc

> 0 me thn idithta tou M .

aut onomzetai

arijmc

Le-

> 0 me thn idithta aut. Dhlad, gia kje > 0 x = x( ) M ste to Nx ( ) den periqetai se kanna ap ta A . E1 farmzoume gia = 1, 2 , 1 , . . . . 'Ara, gia kje n N uprqei xn M ste to 3 1 Nxn ( n ) den periqetai se kanna ap ta A . Uprqei, mwc, upoakolouja (xnk ) thc (xn ) h opoa sugklnei se kpoio x0 M : xnk x0 . To x0 ankei se kpoio apo ta A . 'Estw x0 A0 . Afo to A0 enai anoikt, uprqei > 0 ste Nx0 () A0 . Epilgoume arket meglo nk ste: d(xnk , x0 ) < 2 1 1 kai nk < 2 . Tte Nxnk ( nk ) Nx0 () A0 kai katalgoume se topo. Bma 3. 'Estw tuqosa anoikt kluyh tou M . Tte uprqei arijmc Lebesgue thc kluyhc autc, smfwna me to bma 2. Lgw tou bmatoc 1, uprqoun peperasmnou pljouc stoiqea x1 , . . . , xn tou M ste M Nx1 ( ) . . . Nxn ( ). Kajna, mwc, ap ta Nxk ( ) periqetai se kpoio ap ta A . 'Estw Nxk ( ) Ak . Tte M Nx1 ( ) Nxn ( ) A1 An . Epomnwc, h = {A1 , . . . , An } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou M mikrterh sh ap thn . O.E.D.
'Estw ti den uprqei
Paradegmata:

R. M = (a, b]. Ac jewrsoume thn akolouja xn = a + ba (n N). Epeid n xn a, kje upoakolouja thc sugklnei sto a. 'Ara, h (xn ) periqetai sto (a, b] kai den qei kama upoakolouja h opoa na sugklnei se stoiqeo tou (a, b]. 'Ara, to (a, b] den enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R. 2. M = [a, b]. Jewrome tuqosa akolouja (xn ) h opoa periqetai sto [a, b].
Sta paradegmata aut o metrikc qroc enai o 1. 126

(xn ) enai fragmnh. 'Ara, smfwna me to Jerhma Bolzano-Weierstrass sto R, h (xn ) qei toulqiston mia upoakolouja (xnk ) h opoa sugklnei, dhlad xnk x gia kpoio x R. Epeid to [a, b] enai kleist kai h (xnk ) periqetai sto [a, b], sunepgetai x [a, b]. Apodexame, loipn, ti kje akolouja sto [a, b] qei upoakolouja h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou [a, b] kai, epomnwc, to [a, b] enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R. 3. M = [a, +). Jewrome thn akolouja xn = a + n (n N). Epeid xn +, kje upoakolouja thc apoklnei sto +. 'Ara, h (xn ) periqetai sto [a, +) kai den qei kama upoakolouja h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou [a, +). 'Ara, to [a, +) den enai sumpagc.
H En gnei, to na apodexoume ti na sugkekrimno snolo

den enai sumpa-

gc enai sqetik apl prblhma: arke na brome ma sugkekrimnh akolouja sto

ste kama upoakolouja thc na mh sugklnei se stoiqeo tou

M.

En

to na apodexoume ti na snolo

enai sumpagc enai pio dskolo prblhma:

prpei na jewrsoume tuqosa akolouja sto upoakolouja h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou

M M.

kai na apodexoume ti qei H duskola enai faner sto

pardeigma 2 prohgoumnwc, pou qreisthke na qrhsimopoisoume to dskolo Jerhma

Bolzano-Weierstrass

sto

R.

Pntwc, to Jerhma 5.2 enai poltimo, afo parqei nan enallaktik orism thc nnoiac thc sumpgeiac.

Orismc
sumpa gc

5.4'

'Estw metrikc qroc

tou

(X, d)

kai

uposnolo

(X, d),

an kje akolouja sto

ma upoakolouja h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo

M X . To M onomzetai M qei toulqiston tou M .

Paratrhsh:

'Iswc o deteroc orismc thc nnoiac thc sumpgeiac fanetai

pio elhptoc ap ton prto, afo sto stdio aut o anagnsthc enai sunjwc pio exoikeiwmnoc me thn nnoia thc akoloujac (kai thc upoakoloujac) par me thn nnoia thc anoiktc kluyhc. Epilgoume, mwc, ton prto orism diti sto plasio twn topologikn qrwn, to opoo enai eurtero ap to plasio twn metrikn qrwn, den isqei to Jerhma 5.2 kai, gia lgouc pou de ja mac apasqolsoun tra (afo de ja asqolhjome me touc topologikoc qrouc), o katllhloc orismc enai o prtoc, autc me tic anoiktc kalyeic. Otwc llwc, h nnoia thc anoiktc kluyhc, se sqsh me thn nnoia thc sumpgeiac, enai arket qrsimh sth Majhmatik Anlush (gia pardeigma, sth jewra twn migadikn sunartsewn) kai, epomnwc, poion orism ki an epilxoume, to Jerhma 5.2 pou exasfalzei thn isodunama twn do orismn enai anapfeukto. Sunisttai idiatera na lsete thn skhsh 23, diti ja dete ti kpoiec apodexeic enai arket eukolterec an basisjon sto Orism 5.4' thc nnoiac thc sumpgeiac.

' Askhsh

23:

Qrhsimopointac ton Orism 5.4', apodexte me detero trpo Epshc, lste kai tic

thn Prtash 5.2, thn Prtash 5.3 kai to Jerhma 5.1.

askseic 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 kai 11. Tloc, xanadete to pardeigma 2 met ap

127

ton Orism 5.4.

' Askhsh

24:

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d), x0 X
ste ste

kai mh ken

kai

(X, d). 1. Apodexte ti uprqoun x , y M Jewrste gia kje n N xn , yn M

sumpag uposnola tou uprqoun aut?) 2. Apodexte ti uprqei 3.

d(x , y ) = diam(M ). (Updeixh: 1 d(xn , yn ) > diam(M ) + n . Giat

x M ste d(x0 , x ) = inf{d(x0 , x) : x M }. x M kai y N me thn idithta: d(x , y ) = inf{d(x, y) : x M, y N }.

Apodexte ti uprqoun

' Askhsh

uposnola tou idithta:

(X, d) kai mh ken M kai N sumpag (X, d). An M N = , apodexte ti uprqei 0 > 0 me thn d(x, y) 0 gia kje x M kai y N . (Updeixh: Qrhsimopoiste
25:

'Estw metrikc qroc

to trto apotlesma thc skhshc 24.)

5.3

Sumpgeia

ston

eukledio

qro.

Prtash

5.4

Kje kleist orjognio parallhleppedo ston

rllhlec stouc kriouc xonec enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

Rn Rn .

me akmc pa-

M = [a1 , b1 ] [an , bn ]. Jewrome tuqosa akolou(1) (n) xm = (xm , . . . , xm ) (m N) sto M . Qwrzontac kje akm [ak , bk ] sta [ak , ak +bk ] kai [ ak +bk , bk ], qwrzoume to M se 2n orjognia parallhleppeda. 2 2 Kajna ap aut periqetai, fusik, sto M kai qei dimetro upodiplsia thc diamtrou tou M kai mkh akmn upodiplsia twn mhkn twn antstoiqwn akmn tou M . Tra, epeid olklhrh h (xm ) periqetai sto M , toulqiston na n ap ta 2 aut orjognia parallhleppeda prpei na periqei peirouc rouc thc (xm ). Parnoume na ttoio orjognio parallhleppedo kai to sumbolzoume M1 = [a1,1 , b1,1 ] [a1,n , b1,n ]. Qwrzontac kje akm [a1,k , b1,k ] sta a +b a +b [a1,k , 1,k 2 1,k ] kai [ 1,k 2 1,k , b1,k ], qwrzoume to M1 se 2n orjognia parallhleppeda. Kajna ap aut periqetai sto M1 kai qei dimetro upodiplsia thc diamtrou tou M1 kai mkh akmn upodiplsia twn mhkn twn antstoiqwn akmn tou M1 kai, epeid peiroi roi thc (xm ) periqontai sto M1 , toun lqiston na ap ta 2 aut orjognia parallhleppeda ja periqei, epshc, peirouc rouc thc (xm ). Parnoume na ttoio orjognio parallhleppedo kai to sumbolzoume M2 = [a2,1 , b2,1 ] [a2,n , b2,n ]. Suneqzontac autn th
Prth apdeixh: 'Estw ja diadikasa epagwgik, dhmiourgome akolouja orjogniwn parallhlepipdwn

Ml = [al,1 , bl,1 ] [al,n , bl,n ] (l N) me tic idithtec: (i) kje Ml periqei peirouc rouc thc (xm ), (ii) M M1 Ml1 Ml , (iii) gia kje k = 1, . . . , n isqei ak a1,k al1,k al,k bl,k bl1,k b1,k bk , b a (iv) gia kje k = 1, . . . , n kai kje l 2 isqei bl,k al,k = l1,k 2 l1,k = b1,k a1,k bk ak = 2l1 = 2l , opte liml+ (bl,k al,k ) = 0 kai
128

(v)

gia kje

opte

l 2 isqei diam(Ml ) = liml+ diam(Ml ) = 0. M1

diam(Ml1 ) 2

= =

diam(M1 ) 2l1

diam(M ) 2l

(xm ) uprqei xm1 M1 . Epeid to (xm ) uprqei xm2 M2 me m2 > m1 . Epeid to periqei peirouc rouc thc (xm ) uprqei xm3 M3 me m3 > m2 . Suneqzontac epagwgik, brskoume upoakolouja (xml ) thc (xm ) ste xml Ml gia (k) kje l 1. Aut grfetai: al,k xml bl,k gia kje k = 1, . . . , n kai l 1. Ap thn (iii) sunepgetai gia kje k = 1, . . . , n ti: h (al,k ) enai axousa kai fragmnh, h (bl,k ) enai fjnousa kai fragmnh kai, epomnwc, oi do akoloujec sugklnoun se do antstoiqa ria, ta opoa, lgw thc (iv), enai o dioc (k) (k) arijmc. Jtoume x = liml+ al,k = liml+ bl,k . Afo al,k xml bl,k , (k) (k) sunepgetai xml x kai, epeid aut isqei gia kje k = 1, . . . , n, sunep(1) getai ti xml x = (x , . . . , x(n) ). Blpoume, epshc, ti x Ml gia kje (k) l 1, diti al,k x bl,k gia kje l 1 kai k = 1, . . . , n. Dhlad, to x ankei se kajna ap ta Ml (kai, fusik, kai sto M to opoo periqei la ta Ml ). Enai, epshc, ekolo na dome ti to x enai to monadik stoiqeo me autn thn idithta. Prgmati, an uprqei, ektc tou x, to y se la ta Ml , tte, lgw thc (v), 0 dn,2 (x, y) diam(Ml ) 0 kai, epomnwc, dn,2 (x, y) = 0 , isodnama, y = x.
Epeid to periqei peirouc rouc thc

M2 M3

periqei peirouc rouc thc

Apodexame, loipn, ti opoiadpote

akolouja h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou

(xm ) sto M M.

qei toulqiston ma upo-

Deterh apdeixh: Jewrome tuqosa anoikt kluyh

tou

kai upojtou-

me, gia na katalxoume se topo, ti den uprqei peperasmnh kluyh

tou

M M
thn

mikrterh sh ap thn sta dia

'Opwc kai sthn prth apdeixh, qwrzoume to

2n

orjognia parallhleppeda kai parathrome ti gia toulqi-

ston na ap aut den uprqei peperasmnh kluy tou mikrterh sh ap

. M

Se antjeth perptwsh, ja eqame gia kajna upo-parallhleppedo ma

peperasmnh kluyh tou kai

opte h nws touc ja tan peperasmnh kluyh

Epilgoume na ttoio parallhleppedo kai to sumbolzoume

M1 . .

'Opwc prin, qwrzoume to

M1

se

2n

upo-parallhleppeda ap ta opoa gia

na toulqiston den uprqei peperasmnh kluy tou mikrterh sh ap thn Epilgoume na ttoio kai to sumbolzoume

M2 .

Suneqzontac epagwgik,

kataskeuzoume akolouja diec idithtec kai me thn

(Ml )

orjogniwn parallhlepipdwn me akribc tic

(ii) (v)

pwc kai h antstoiqh akolouja sthn prth apdeixh gia kje

(i)

na qei antikatastaje ap thn:

den uprqei kama

peperasmnh kluyh tou

Ml

mikrterh sh ap thn

Ml . A0 ste x A0 . Epeid to A0 enai anoikt uposnolo tou Rn , uprqei 0 > 0 ste Nx ( 0 ) A0 . Epeid diam(Ml ) 0, uprqei l0 arket meglo ste diam(Ml0 ) < 0 . Tte gia kje y Ml0 qoume dn,2 (y, x) diam(Ml0 ) < 0 kai, epomnwc, y Nx ( 0 ). 'Ara, Ml0 Nx ( 0 ) A0 . Aut shmanei ti h = {A0 } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou Ml0 mikrterh sh ap thn kai katalgoume se topo. O.E.D.
'Opwc prin, uprqei monadik to opoo periqetai se la ta Epeid h

x M

enai kluyh tou M ,

uprqei kpoio

129

Ja apodexoume, tra, to jerhma

Bolzano-Weierstrass ston eukledio qro, Rn

to opoo diatupnetai me do (isodnamec) morfc.

Jerhma 5.3

Bolzano-Weierstrass.

Kje fragmnh akolouja ston

qei sugklnousa upoakolouja.

(xm ) fragmnh akolouja ston Rn . Tte uprqei kpoio kleist orjognio parallhleppedo M me akmc parllhlec stouc kriouc xonec ste xm M gia kje m 1. An deqjome ton orism thc nnoiac thc sumpApdeixh: 'Estw geiac msw akoloujin, tte h sunqeia thc apdeixhc enai akribc h prth apdeixh thc Prtashc 5.4. An deqjome ton orism thc nnoiac thc sumpgeiac msw kalyewn, tte, smfwna me thn Prtash 5.4, to posnolo tou

enai sumpagc u-

Rn ,

opte uprqei, bsei tou Jewrmatoc 5.2, upoakolouja thc

(xm )

h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou

M.

O.E.D.

x0 Rn , mh ken kleist uposnolo M tou Rn kai mh n ken sumpagc uposnolo N tou R . 1. Apodexte ti uprqei x M ste dn,2 (x0 , x ) = inf{dn,2 (x0 , x) : x M }. 2. Apodexte ti uprqoun x M kai y N ste dn,2 (x , y ) = inf{dn,2 (x, y) : x M, y N }. 3. An, epiplon, M N = , apodexte ti uprqei 0 > 0 ste dn,2 (x, y) 0 gia kje x M kai y N .
' Askhsh 26:

'Estw

Na antiparablete me tic askseic 24 kai 25.

Jerhma 5.4

Bolzano-Weierstrass. K

Kje fragmno peiro uposnolo tou

Rn K

qei toulqiston na shmeo sussreushc. 'Estw tuqn peiro kai fragmno uposnolo tou

Apdeixh:

Rn .

Epeid to

(xm ) sto K me rouc diaforetikoc an do. To K enai fragmno, opte h (xm ) enai fragmnh kai, bsei tou Jewrmatoc n 5.3, uprqei upoakolouja (xmk ) thc (xm ) h opoa sugklnei se kpoio x R . Epeid oi roi thc (xmk ) enai diaforetiko an do, to pol nac ap autoc enai = x. 'Ara, h akolouja (xmk ) ap kpoion dekth kai pra qei louc touc rouc thc = x kai sugklnei sto x. Ap thn Prtash 4.20 sunepgetai ti to x enai shmeo sussreushc tou K . O.E.D.
enai peiro, uprqei akolouja Erqmaste, tra, se na pol shmantik apotlesma to opoo qarakthrzei la ta sumpag uposnola tou euklediou qrou. 'Estw

Jerhma 5.5

M Rn .

To

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

Rn

an kai

mnon an enai fragmno kai kleist uposnolo tou

Prth apdeixh: H Prtash 5.2 apodeiknei th ma katejunsh.

tuqosa

M enai kleist kai fragmno uposnolo tou Rn . Jewrome M . Epeid to M enai fragmno uposnolo tou Rn , h (xm ) enai fragmnh kai, smfwna me to Jerhma 5.3, qei upoakolouja (xmk ) h n opoa sugklnei, dhlad, xmk x gia kpoio x R . Epeid to M enai n kleist uposnolo tou R kai h (xmk ) periqetai sto M , sunepgetai x M .
'Estw ti to

(xm )

sto

130

'Ara, kje akolouja sto tou

kai, epomnwc, to

M qei upoakolouja M enai sumpagc.

h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo

Deterh apdeixh: Pli h Prtash 5.2 apodeiknei th ma katejunsh. Epeid to

enai fragmno uposnolo tou

Rn ,

uprqei kleist orjognio

parallhleppedo

me akmc parllhlec stouc kriouc xonec ste

Ap thn Prtash 5.4 sunepgetai ti to kai, epeid to

N
n
.

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

M N. Rn

enai kleist uposnolo tou

Rn ,

to

enai, smfwna me thn

Prtash 5.3, sumpagc uposnolo tou

O.E.D.

Paradegmata:

1. Opoiadpote kleist mpla 2. To snolo

Nx0 (R) R.

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

Rn .

tou

Cantor

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

R,

diti enai frag-

mno kai kleist uposnolo tou

' Askhsh

27:

Apodexte ti to

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

x(3) 1}

enai sumpagc

{(x(1) , x(2) ) : x(1) 0, x(2) 0, x(1) + x(2) 1} R2 kai ti to {(x(1) , x(2) , x(3) ) : (x(1) )2 +(x(2) )2 3 uposnolo tou R . M
tou

' Askhsh 28:

'Estw fragmno uposnolo

Rn .

Apodexte ti ta

M, M

kai

enai sumpag uposnola tou

snola enai fragmna uposnola

R . (Updeixh: n tou R .)

Apodexte ti kai ta tra

' Askhsh 29:

Ftixte sumpagc uposnolo tou

R me peirou arijmsimou pl-

jouc shmea sussreushc.

Paratrhsh:

To Jerhma 5.5 lei ti to antstrofo thc Prtashc 5.2 isqDen enai, mwc, swst ti isqei se kje metrik qro.

ei ston qro

Rn . X

Prgmati, smfwna me to Pardeigma 2 met ap ton Orism 5.4, kje peiro uposnolo tou den enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

(X, X ) R

en enai kleist

kai fragmno uposnol tou.

Prtash

5.5

Kje mh ken sumpagc uposnolo tou

qei mgisto kai el-

qisto stoiqeo.

M tou R. Afo to M enai mh supremum. Jtoume = sup M , opte uprqei akolouja (xn ) sto M ste xn . Afo to M enai kleist, M kai, epomnwc, to enai to mgisto stoiqeo tou M .
Apdeixh: 'Estw mh ken sumpagc uposnolo ken kai fragmno, to

qei

H apdeixh enai dia gia thn parxh elaqstou stoiqeou.

O.E.D.

(X, d). Jewrome to snolo Zb = {A : X} . Gia kje A, B Zb orzoume to d(A, B) = inf{ R : gia kje a A uprqei b B ste d(a, b) kai gia kje b B uprqei a A ste d(a, b) }. 1. Apodexte ti to snolo tou opoou to inmum orzei to d(A, B) enai mh ken me ktw frgma to 0 kai, epomnwc, 0 d(A, B) < +.
' Askhsh 30:

'Estw metrikc qroc

mh ken kai fragmno uposnolo tou

131

2. Apodexte ti h

enai

yeudometrik

sto

Zb .

Dhlad, ti ikanopoie lec

(ii), h opoa gnetai: gia d(A, A) = 0. 3. Apodexte ti gia kje A, B Zb isqei: d(A, B) = 0 A = B . 'Estw Zbc = {A : A mh ken, fragmno kai kleist uposnolo tou (X, d)}. Gia kje A, B Zbc orzoume me ton dio tpo to d(A, B). Me lla lgia, o (Zbc , d) enai upqwroc tou (Zb , d). 4. Apodexte ti h d enai metrik sto Zbc . H d onomzetai Hausdor ston qro Zbc twn mh kenn, kleistn kai fragmnwn uposunlwn enc metriko qrou (X, d). n 5. Wc (X, d) jewrome ton R me thn eukledia metrik. 'Estw akolouja (An ) n mh kenn, kleistn kai fragmnwn uposunlwn tou R kai stw d(An , A) 0, n pou to A enai, epshc, mh ken, kleist kai fragmno uposnolo tou R . Apodexte ti, an la ta An enai kurt, tte kai to A enai kurt. 6. Prospajste na dete ti shmanei gewmetrik h sqsh d(A, B) anmesa 2 3 se do kleist kai fragmna (dhlad, sumpag) uposnola tou R tou R .
tic idithtec mac metrikc (Orismc 4.3) ektc thc kje

A Zb

isqei

metrik

5.4

Sumpgeia

kai

suneqec

sunartseic.

Jerhma 5.6

'Estw metriko qroi

An h

enai suneqc sto

kai to

f (M )

enai sumpagc uposnolo

(X, d) M enai tou (Y, ).

kai

(Y, ), M X

kai

sumpagc uposnolo tou

f :M Y. (X, d), to

(yn ) opoiadpote akolouja sto f (M ). Arke na apo(yn ) qei upoakolouja h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou f (M ). Gia kje n N uprqei xn M ste f (xn ) = yn . Afo to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqei upoakolouja (xnk ) h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou M , dhlad, xnk x gia kpoio x M . Afo h f enai suneqc sto M , ynk = f (xnk ) f (x) f (M ).
Prth apdeixh: 'Estw dexoume ti h Deterh apdeixh: 'Estw tuqosa anoikt kluyh T tou f (M ). Gia kje B T to f 1 (B) enai anoikt uposnolo tou (M, d) kai, epomnwc, upr1 qei AB anoikt uposnolo tou (X, d) ste f (B) = AB M . Epshc, epeid f (M ) B , sunepgetai M BT f 1 (B) BT AB . EpoBT mnwc, h sullog = {AB : B T } enai anoikt kluyh tou M . Epeid to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqoun B1 , . . . , Bn T ste M AB1 ABn . Sunepgetai ekola ti M f 1 (B1 ) f 1 (Bn ), opte f (M ) B1 Bn . 'Ara, h {B1 , . . . , Bn } enai peperasmnh kluyh tou f (M ) mikrterh sh ap thn T . O.E.D. 'Estw metriko qroi (X, d) kai (Y, ), M X , N Y kai f : M N h opoa enai na-proc-na kai ep. An h f enai suneqc sto M kai to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d), apodexte ti h antstrofh f 1 : N M enai suneqc sto N .
' Askhsh 31:

132

' Askhsh

32:

'Estw

onomzetai

grfhma

A R kai f : A R. thc f .

To

Gf = {(x, f (x)) : x A} R2

1. 'Estw ti h nolo tou

f enai fragmnh. Apodexte ti, an to Gf enai kleist uposf enai suneqc sto A. 2. 'Estw ti to A enai kleist uposnolo tou R. Apodexte ti, an h f enai 2 suneqc sto A, to Gf enai kleist uposnolo tou R . 3. 'Estw ti to A enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R. Apodexte ti h f enai 2 suneqc sto A an kai mnon an to Gf enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R . R2 ,
h
Jerhma 5.7

'Estw metrikc qroc

(X, d), M X

kai

enai suneqc sto

kai to

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

f : M R. An h f (X, d), h f enai

fragmnh kai qei mgisth tim kai elqisth tim. Apdeixh: Ap to Jerhma 5.6 sunepgetai ti to

snolo tou

R.

'Ara, smfwna me thn Prtash 5.5, to O.E.D.

(1)

f (M ) enai sumpagc upof (M ) enai fragmno kai

(2)

qei mgisto kai elqisto stoiqeo.

f (x(1) , x(2) ) = ex +x , orismnh sto snolo {(x(1) , x(2) ) R2 : (x(1) )2 + (x(2) )2 1} qei, smfwna me to Jerhma 5.7,
' Askhsh 33:

H sunrthsh

mgisth kai elqisth tim. Mporete na tic upologsete?

f : Rn R me f (x) = f (x(1) , . . . , x(n) ) 0 kajc dn,2 (x, 0) = + + (x(n) )2 +. Aut shmanei, ex orismo, ti: gia kje > 0 uprqei R = R( ) > 0 ste |f (x)| < gia kje x Rn me dn,2 (x, 0) > R. n 1. An uprqei x0 R ste f (x0 ) > 0, apodexte ti h f qei mgisth tim. (Updeixh: Prte = f (x0 ) kai to antstoiqo R. Efarmste to Jerhma 5.7 sto snolo N0 (R).) n 2. An uprqei x0 R ste f (x0 ) < 0, apodexte ti h f qei elqisth tim.
' Askhsh 34:

'Estw

(x(1) )2

' Askhsh

35:

Efarmste to apotlesma thc skhshc 34 gia na apodexete me tpo

ti h

f : R2 R

f (x(1) , x(2) ) = x(1) e(x

(1) 2

) (x(2) )2

qei mgisth kai

elqisth tim sto antstoiqa

R2 kai, (1) x = (x , x(2) ).

katpin, upologste tic timc autc kajc kai ta

Tloc, ja dome thn genkeush tou orismo thc omoimorfhc sunqeiac.

Orismc 5.9

'Estw metriko qroi

omoimorfa

(X, d)
sto

kai

f onomzetai ( ) > 0 ste:

suneqc

A,

an gia kje

(Y, ), A X kai f : A Y . > 0 uprqei =

x, y A, d(x, y) <
' Askhsh 36:

(f (x), f (y)) < .

'Estw metriko qroi

An h

enai omoimorfa suneqc sto

(X, d) kai (Y, ), B A X kai f : A Y . A, apodexte ti enai omoimorfa suneqc (Z, ), A X , B Y ,

kai sto

B.
37:

' Askhsh

'Estw metriko qroi

(X, d), (Y, )

133

kai

f :AB
suneqc sto

kai

omoimorfa suneqhc sto

g : B Z. B,

An h

enai omoimorfa suneqc sto

kai h

apodexte ti h

gf : A Z

enai omoimorfa

A.
'Estw metriko qroi

Jerhma 5.8

An h

enai suneqc sto

kai to

(X, d) kai (Y, ), M X kai f : M Y . M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d), h
enai omoimorfa suneqc sto

enai omoimorfa suneqc sto 'Estw ti h

M.
uprqoun

M . Tte x, y sto M gia ta opoa isqei d(x, y) < kai (f (x), f (y)) 0 . 'Ara, gia kje n N uprqoun xn , yn M 1 ste d(xn , yn ) < n kai (f (xn ), f (yn )) 0 . To M enai sumpagc, opte h (xn ) qei upoakolouja (xnk ) h opoa sugklnei se stoiqeo tou M , dhlad, xnk x0 gia kpoio x0 M . Tte, mwc, d(ynk , x0 ) d(ynk , xnk ) + d(xnk , x0 ) < 1 nk + d(xnk , x0 ) 0 kai, epomnwc, ynk x0 . Lgw sunqeiac thc f sto x0 , sunepgetai f (xnk ) f (x0 ) kai f (ynk ) f (x0 ). 'Ara f (xnk ), f (ynk ) f (xnk ), f (x0 ) + f (x0 ), f (ynk ) 0. To teleutao antifskei me to ti f (xnk ), f (ynk ) 0 gia kje k .
Prth apdeixh: uprqei

>0

ste gia kje

f den >0

'Estw > 0. Epeid h f enai suneqc sto M , gia kje (x) > 0 ste: x M , d(x , x) < (x) (f (x ), f (x)) < 2 . (x) Tra, h sullog {Nx ( 2 ) : x M } enai anoikt kluyh tou M kai, epeid to M enai sumpagc uposnolo tou (X, d), uprqoun x1 , . . . , xn M ste M Nx1 ( (x1 ) ) Nxn ( (xn ) ). Jtoume = min( (x1 ) , . . . , (xn ) ) kai 2 2 2 2 parnoume opoiadpote x, y M me d(x, y) < . To x ankei sto M , opte (xk ) uprqei kpoio k = 1, . . . , n ste x Nxk ( 2 ) kai, epomnwc, d(x, xk ) < (xk ) < (xk ). Epshc, d(y, xk ) d(y, x) + d(x, xk ) < + (xk ) (xk ). Ap tic 2 2 do autc anisthtec sunepgetai d(f (x), f (xk )) < 2 kai d(f (y), f (xk )) < 2 . 'Ara, d(f (x), f (y)) d(f (x), f (xk )) + d(f (y), f (xk )) < . O.E.D. Deterh apdeixh: uprqei

xM

Ta do Jewrmata 5.7 kai 5.8 genikeoun gnwst apotelsmata tou Apeirostiko Logismo, pou qoume sunartseic

f : [a, b] R

suneqec sto

[a, b].

' Askhsh 38:

'Estw metrikc qroc

ti to

enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

(X, d), A X kai f : A R. Upojtoume (X, d) kai ti h f enai suneqc sto A.

Apodexte ti ta paraktw enai isodnama:

f sto A, dhlad F : A R suneqc sto A F (x) = f (x) gia kje x A. 2. H f enai omoimorfa suneqc sto A. (Updeixh: Gia to [1 2] efarmzoume to Jerhma 5.8 kai to apotlesma thc skhshc 36. Gia to [2 1] jewrste tuqn x A kai opoiadpote (xn ) sto A me xn x ston (X, d). Apodexte ti h (f (xn )) enai akolouja Cauchy sto R, opte sugklnei sto R. Apodexte ti to rio thc (f (xn )) den exarttai ap thn (xn ) all monqa ap to x kai orsate F (x) = limn+ f (xn ). Aut gnetai gia kje x A kai apodexte ti F (x) = f (x) gia kje x A kai ti h orizmenh F : A R enai suneqc sto A.)
1. Uprqei suneqc epktash thc ste 134

Keflaio 6
Genikeumna oloklhrmata.

6.1

Genik.

Sta prta majmata thc Majhmatikc Anlushc exetzoume pte ma fragmnh sunrthsh

f : [a, b] R ,
orismnh se na fragmno kleist disthma, enai mmaste ti do ttoiec kathgorec

Riemann oloklhrsimh. JuRiemann oloklhrsimwn sunartsewn enai oi kat tmmata suneqec sunartseic sto [a, b] kai oi kat tmmata montonec sunartseic sto [a, b]. Ap ton orism twn Riemann oloklhrsimwn sunart-

sewn den kalptontai do shmantikc kathgorec sunartsewn: 1. sunartseic pou den enai fragmnec kai 2. kai sunartseic pou orzontai sta mh fragmna diastmata sta mh kleist diastmata

(, +) (, b).

[a, +), (, b] (a, b), (a, b], [a, b), (a, +) kai

Perptwsh 1. 'Estw pragmatik sunrthsh f orismnh se disthma [a, b), pou a R kai b R b = +. Epiplon, upojtoume ti gia kje c me c a c < b h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, c]. An to rio tou a f (x) dx kajc c b uprqei, lme ti h f qei c [a, b). H tim tou genikeumnou oloklhrmatoc enai to limcb a f (x) dx kai b sumbolzetai f (x) dx. Dhlad, a
genikeumno oloklrwma sto

f (x) dx = lim
a

cb

f (x) dx .
a
to genikeumno olo-

An to rio aut enai pragmatikc arijmc, lme ti

klrwma

b a

f (x) dx

sugklnei.

An to parapnw rio den uprqei den enai pragmatikc arijmc, lme ti to to

b a b a

f (x) dx f (x) dx

apoklnei. apoklnei

Eidiktera, an to rio enai

sto

apoklnei

sto

+ , lme , antistoqwc,

ti kai

135

grfoume:

b a

f (x) dx = +

b a

f (x) dx = ,

antistoqwc.

Paradegmata

1 f : [1, +) R me tpo f (x) = x2 . H f enai Riemann oloklhc 1 + 1 rsimh sto [1, c] gia kje c 1, kai dx = 1 1 . 'Ara, 1 c x2 dx = 1 x2 1 limc+ (1 c ) = 1. 1 2. 'Estw f : [1, +) R me tpo f (x) = x . H f enai Riemann oloklhc 1 + 1 rsimh sto [1, c] gia kje c 1 kai dx = log c. 'Ara, 1 x dx = 1 x limc+ log c = +. 1 3. 'Estw f : [0, 1) R me tpo f (x) = x1 . H f enai Riemann oloklhc 1 rsimh sto [0, c] gia kje c me 0 c < 1 kai dx = log(1 c). 'Ara, 0 x1
1. 'Estw

1 1 x1 0

4.

dx = limc1 log(1 c) = . 'Estw f : [0, 1) R me tpo f (x) = [0, c]

gia kje

simh sto

1 1 0 1x

dx = limc1

0c<1 2 2 1 c = 2.
me

1 . H f 1x c 1 kai 0 1x

enai

Riemann oloklhr dx = 2 2 1 c . 'Ara,

H epmenh Prtash 6.1 apodeiknei ti to genikeumno oloklrwma enai genkeush tou oloklhrmatoc

Riemann.
mia

Prtash

6.1

'Estw h

f : [a, b] R

Riemann

oloklhrsimh sunrthsh

sto

[a, b]. Tte b f (x) dx. a

qei genikeumno oloklrwma sto

[a, b)

kai

b a

f (x) dx =

Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, b], enai kai fragmnh. M R ste |f (x)| M gia kje x [a, b]. Akmh, h f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh se kje upodisthma tou [a, b] kai, epomnwc, c se kje [a, c] me a c < b. Mnei na apodexoume ti limcb f (x) dx = a b b b c f (x) dx. Afo a f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + c f (x) dx, arke na apodexoume a b f (x) dx = 0. 'Omwc, ti limcb c
Apdeixh: Afo h enai Dhlad, uprqei kpoio

f (x) dx
c
opte

|f (x)| dx M (b c) ,
c
O.E.D.

limcb

b c

f (x) dx = 0.

Perptwsh 2.
pou

Akribc ta anloga, pwc sthn perptwsh 1, isqoun sqetik me

to arister kro tou diastmatoc oloklrwshc. Dhlad, stw

a R
wc to

oloklhrsimh

a = , kai gia kje c sto [c, b]. Orzoume to

b

me

a < c b

genikeumno

oloklrwma

f : (a, b] R, enai Riemann f

thc sto

(a, b]

f (x) dx = lim
a
an uprqei to rio aut klp. klp.

ca+

f (x) dx ,
c

136

Paradegmata:

1.

2 2 2 c.
2. 'Estw

'Estw

f (0, 2] R
'Ara,

2 0

f (x) = 1 dx = 2 2 . x
me tpo tpo

1 x

An

0 < c 2, 0 < c 2,
. An

tte

2 1 c x

dx =
2 c

f : (0, 2] R me 2 1 'Ara, dx = +. 0 x 3. 'Estw f : (, 0] R 1

1 1c
. 'Ara,

f (x) =

1 x

'An

2 1 c x

dx = log
0 1 c (x1)2

me tpo

f (x) =

1 (x1)2

c 0,

dx =

0 1 (x1)2

dx = 1.

Isqei, epshc, h Prtash 6.1 prosarmosmnh katllhla.

Prtash

6.2

'Estw h

f : [a, b] R

mia

Riemann

oloklhrsimh sunrthsh

sto

[a, b]. Tte b f (x) dx. a

qei genikeumno oloklrwma sto

(a, b]

kai

b a

f (x) dx =

Apdeixh:

H apdeixh enai parmoia me thn apdeixh thc Prtashc 6.1.

simopointac thn

limca+

c a

c a

f (x) dx

c a

Qrh-

|f (x)| dx M (c a),
b b

apodeiknoume ti

parnontac

f (x) dx = 0. Tloc, ap thn c f (x) dx = a f (x) dx b b ria kajc c a+, brskoume f (x) dx = a f (x) dx. a

c a

f (x) dx,
O.E.D.

Perptwsh 3.
qwrzoume to

keumno oloklrwma

An f : (a, b) R, pou a R a = kai b R b = +, (a, b) me opoiodpote endimeso shmeo d (a < d < b). An to b d f (x) dx sugklnei kai to a f (x) dx sugklnei, lme ti h f d (a, b)
qei sto

geni-

f (x) dx =
a
ti
to

f (x) dx +
a d

f (x) dx
d a

f (x) dx kai f (x) dx . An kai ta do ria b uprqoun kai toulqiston na enai + , lme ti to f (x) dx apoklnei a sto + , antistoqwc, arke na mhn qoume tic periptseic (+) + () () + (+). Ekola blpei kanec ti h epilog tou endimesou d den b ephrezei th sgklish thn apklish thn tim tou f (x) dx. a
sugklnei.

b d

b a

f (x) dx

An toulqiston na ap ta

f (x) dx

apoklnei, lme ti

to

b a

apoklnei

Lmma 6.1

'Estw

f : (a, b) R,
An uprqei to

pou

kai to

a < d < d < b.

d a

d a

a R a = kai b R b = +, b f (x) dx + d f (x) dx, tte uprqei kai

f (x) dx +

b d

f (x) dx

kai qoun tic diec timc.

Apdeixh: uprqei to

'Eqoume

limcb
b d

c d

f (x) dx = d f (x) dx + d f (x) dx. Epomnwc, epeid c f (x) dx, uprqei kai to limcb d f (x) dx kai isqei c d b f (x) dx = limcb d f (x) dx + d f (x) dx. Dhlad, d f (x) dx =
d d

c d c limcb d

f (x) dx +

f (x) dx.
137

Omowc, qoume uprqei to

d f (x) dx c d limca+ c f (x) dx,

d c

f (x) dx
d d

d d

f (x) dx.

Epomnwc, epeid

uprqei kai to

d limca+ c

f (x) dx
d a

kai isqei

d limca+ c d f (x) dx a
Epeid

f (x) dx = d d f (x) dx. d to f (x) dx enai d

d a

d limca+ c

f (x) dx

f (x) dx.

Dhlad,

f (x) dx =

pragmatikc arijmc, prosjtontac tic do i-

sthtec, parnoume O.E.D.

f (x) dx +

b d

f (x) dx =

d a

f (x) dx +

b d

f (x) dx.

H epmenh enai anlogh twn Protsewn 6.1 kai 6.2.

Prtash 6.3

'Estw h

f : [a, b] R

mia

Riemann

oloklhrsimh sunrthsh

sto

[a, b]. Tte b f (x) dx. a

qei genikeumno oloklrwma sto

(a, b)

kai

b a

f (x) dx =

Apdeixh: Parnoume sto

d (a, b).

enai

[d, b]. Ap tic Protseic 6.1 kai b b f (x) dx = d f (x) dx kai, kai d b f (x) dx. O.E.D a
Paradegmata:

[a, d] kai f (x) dx f (x) dx = 6.2 sunepgetai b prosjtontac, parnoume f (x) dx = a

oloklhrsimh sto

Riemann

d a

d a

1.

'Estw

f : (, +) R dx =

me tpo

f (x) =

x x2 +1

Tte kai 'Ara

limc+

c x 0 x2 +1 0 limc c x2x +1
'Estw

dx = limc+

1 2 2 log(c + 1) limc 1 log(c2 + 1) 2

me tpo

= + = .
1 x2 +1
.

+ x x2 +1 dx = 0 0 x dx = x2 +1 + x to dx x2 +1

apoklnei kai den orzetai tim tou. 2.

f : (, +) R

f (x) =
2 2

c limc+ 0 x21 +1 0 limc c x21 +1

dx = limc+ arctan c = dx = limc arctan c =

+ 1 x2 +1 dx 0 0 1 kai, epshc, dx x2 +1 + 1 . 'Ara, dx = . x2 +1

Tte

= =

Perptwsh 4. Jewrome f h
na uprqoun

H perptwsh aut sunduzei lec tic prohgomenec periptseic. opoa enai orismnh se disthma

(a, b)

(pou ta

a, b

mporon na

enai peira) ektc, swc, ap peperasmnou pljouc shmea.

Dhlad, mpore

1 , . . . , n

ste

f : (a, 1 ) (1 , 2 ) (n1 , n ) (n , b) R.
An la ta

1 a

f (x) dx,

2 1

f (x) dx,. . . ,

n n1

gklnoun, lme ti

to genikeumno oloklrwma thc

f (x) dx f
b

kai
sto

b n

f (x) dx

su-

(a, b)

sugklnei

kai h tim tou enai

n1

k+1

f (x) dx +
a k=1 k

f (x) dx +
n

f (x) dx.

An la ta oloklhrmata uprqoun kai na toulqiston ap ta oloklhrmata apoklnei sto

+ kai kanna den apoklnei sto , lme ti

138

to genikeumno

oloklrwma

thc

sto

(a, b)

apoklnei

sto

+.

Omowc, an la ta olo-

klhrmata uprqoun kai na toulqiston ap ta oloklhrmata apoklnei sto

kai kanna den apoklnei sto +, lme ti f (a, b) . Se kje oloklrwma thc f sto (a, b) den uprqei.
thc sto apoklnei sto Sumbolismc:

to genikeumno oloklrwma

llh perptwsh to genikeumno

Sto exc ta genikeumna oloklhrmata

b a

f (x) dx,

kajc kai to genikeumno oloklrwma me ta difora tou

b b f (x) dx, a f (x) dx a 1 , . . . , n sto eswterik

(a, b)

ja ta sumbolzoume

b a

f (x) dx. Riemann

b a

Den uprqei kndunoc sgqushc me to oloklrwma ti, an to oloklrwma

f (x) dx, di-

Riemann

thc

sto

[a, b]

uprqei, uprqei kai to genikeu-

mno oloklrwma kai oi timc touc sumpptoun. Upotjetai, bebawc, ti, analgwc thc sugkekrimnhc kje for

f , mporo-

me na diakrnoume an prkeitai gia genikeumno gia sunhjismno oloklrwma

Riemann.
' Askhsh 1:

Diakrnate ta kai

x log x1 dx oloklhrmata Riemann.

+ 1 x

dx,

7 2

3 2 + 1 7 3 1 1 dx, dx, 1 x2 dx, 1 dx, 1 x 1 x2 3x+2 x + log x dx se genikeumna kai se sunhjismna 0

' Askhsh

2:

Giat ta

1 0

x log x dx,

5 sin x x 0

dx,

1 1cos x x2 1

dx,

5 log x 1 x1

dx

kai

1 0

log x log(1 + x) dx
3:

jewrontai sunhjismna oloklhrmata

Riemann?
+ 1 sin x

' Askhsh

Mporon ta paraktw oloklhrmata na jewrhjon sunhjism-

na oloklhrmata

Riemann
kai

, stw, genikeumna oloklhrmata?

dx,

+ 0

log(cos2 x) dx

1 1 1 0 sin( x )

dx.

Sth jewrhtik mac suzthsh ap ed kai pra ja perioristome sthn perptwsh 1. Dhlad, to genikeumno oloklrwma b b f (x) dx ja enai to a f (x) dx. Aut shmanei ti h f ja enai a b Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, c] gia kje c (a c < b) kai a f (x) dx b c = a f (x) dx = limcb a f (x) dx. Se kje llh perptwsh ta apotelsmata enai anloga kai apodeiknontai me anlogo trpo.
PARADOQH: Prtash 6.4
Prosjetikthta wc proc upodiastmata.

'Estw

a<d<b
Tte: to an ta do

kai h

f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, c] gia kje c [a, b). b b f (x) dx uprqei an kai mnon an to d f (x) dx uprqei. Epshc, a
b d b

aut oloklhrmata uprqoun,

f (x) dx =
a
Apdeixh 'Estw

f (x) dx +
a d

f (x) dx .

a < d < c < b.

Ap thn prosjetikthta tou oloklhrma-

139

toc

Riemann:
c d

c a

f (x) dx =

d a

nai pragmatikc arijmc, to

f (x) dx + d f (x) dx. Epeid c limcb a f (x) dx uprqei an

to

d a

f (x) dx

e-

kai mnon an to

limcb

f (x) dx

uprqei. Aut, fusik, shmanei ti: to

an kai mnon an to

b d

b a c d

f (x) dx f (x) dx,

uprqei

f (x) dx

uprqei.

f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + b d b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx + d f (x) dx. O.E.D. a

Tloc, parnontac rio sthn
Prtash 6.5

c a

qoume

d, gia kje

f (x) dx sugklnei, tte limcb > 0 uprqei c0 = c0 ( ) [a, b) ste:

An to

b a

b c

f (x) dx = 0.

Dhla-

c0 c < b
An to

f (x) dx < .
b

b c

f (x) dx sugklnei, tte, smfwna me thn Prtash 6.4, ta a f (x) dx kai b f (x) dx enai pragmatiko arijmo gia kje c (a, b) kai limcb c f (x) dx =
b a

b a

limcb
Prtash

f (x) dx

c a

f (x) dx =
wc

b a

f (x) dx
th

b a

f (x) dx = 0.
1. An ta kai

O.E.D.

6.6

Grammikthta

proc

sunrthsh.

kai

b (f (x) a

b a

b a

f (x) dx
tte to

g(x) dx uprqoun kai den + g(x)) dx uprqei kai

b

enai

kai

+,

(f (x) + g(x)) dx =
a
2. An

f (x) dx +
a a
to

g(x) dx .
b (f (x)) dx a
uprqei kai

R, = 0,

kai uprqei to

b a

f (x) dx,
b

(f (x)) dx =
a
An

f (x) dx .
a b

= 0, h isthta isqei kat profan trpo ektc an a f (x) dx = + , opte h arister pleur enai sh me 0 kai h dexi enai aprosdiristh
c (f (x) + g(x)) dx a c (f (x)) dx a

morf. Apdeixh: 1. Sthn kajc 2.

c b .

c a

f (x) dx +

c a

g(x) dx

parnoume rio

Omowc, sthn

=
1 x2

c a

f (x) dx
1 x2 +1

parnoume rio kajc

c b .

O.E.D.

' Askhsh

4:

Upologste ta

+ 1

dx
I.

kai

+ 1

1 x

b a

1 x+1

dx.
kai to

Prtash

6.7

Sgkrish

oloklhrwmtwn,

'Estw ti to Tte

f (x) dx

b a

g(x) dx

uprqoun kai

f (x) g(x)
b

gia kje

x [a, b).

f (x) dx
a a

g(x) dx .

140

Apdeixh: opte ti

Gia opoiodpote c [a, b) qoume f (x) g(x) gia kje x [a, c], c f (x) dx a g(x) dx. Parnontac ria kajc c b , sumperanoume b b f (x) dx a g(x) dx. a

c a

Prtash

6.8

Sgkrish

oloklhrwmtwn,

II.

'Estw

f (x) g(x)

gia kje

x [a, b). b 1. An f (x) dx = + kai h g enai Riemann a b c [a, b), tte a g(x) dx = +. b 2. An g(x) dx = kai h f enai Riemann a b c [a, b), tte a f (x) dx = .
Apdeixh: 1.

oloklhrsimh sto

[a, c] gia kje [a, c] gia kje

oloklhrsimh sto

[a, c],

opte

sunepgetai

c [a, b) qoume f (x) g(x) gia kje x c c f (x) dx a g(x) dx. Epeid a f (x) dx + kajc c b , c g(x) dx + kajc c b . ti a
c a
Gia opoiodpote
Kritrio tou

2. 'Opwc sto mroc 1.

Cauchy. 'Estw ti h f b f (x) dx rsimh sto [a, c] gia kje c [a, b). Tte to a an gia kje > 0 uprqei c0 = c0 ( ) [a, b) ste:
Jerhma 6.1

enai

Riemann

oloklh-

sugklnei an kai mnon

c2

c0 c1 < c2 < b
Apdeixh: 'Estw ti to ste:

c1

f (x) dx < .

f (x) dx sugklnei. Tte, gia > 0 uprqei c0 = c0 ( ) c b c0 c < b f (x) dx a f (x) dx < 2 . 'Omwc, tte: c0 a c2 c2 c c c1 < c2 < b f (x) dx = a f (x) dx a 1 f (x) dx a 2 f (x) dx c1
b a

b a

f (x) dx +

sto [a, b) ste cn b. > 0, opte uprqei to c0 = c0 ( ) me tic idithtec thc upjeshc. Afo cn b, uprqei n0 N ste: n n0 c0 cn < b. 'Ara: n0 cn c c m<n f (x) dx < , isodnama, a n f (x) dx a m f (x) dx < . cm cn 'Ara, h f (x) dx enai akolouja Cauchy. 'Ara, uprqei arijmc s ste a cn f (x) dx s. 'An proume ma llh akolouja (cn ) me cn b, tte h mikt a akolouja c1 , c1 , c2 , c2 , c3 , c3 , . . . sugklnei kai aut sto b kai, smfwna me ta c c1 c c parapnw, h f (x) dx, a 1 f (x) dx, a 2 f (x) dx, a 2 f (x) dx,. . . sugklnei se a cn kpoio rio. Afo, mwc, f (x) dx s, to rio aut enai, opwsdpote, to a Antistrfwc, stw opoiadpote akolouja Parnoume

c1 a

f (x) dx

b a

f (x) dx <

= . (cn )

s.

'Ara

cn a

f (x) dx s.
loipn, akribc nac arijmc na isqei

Uprqei, sto

[a, b)

me

cn b

limcb

c a

cn a

s ste gia kje akolouja (cn ) f (x) dx s. Aut, mwc, shmanei ti

b a

f (x) dx = s

kai, epomnwc, to

f (x) dx

sugklnei.

O.E.D.

Ta do apotelsmata thc epmenhc Prtashc 6.9 enai pol qrsima.

rloc touc enai o dioc me ton rlo twn anlogwn apotelesmtwn gia ta sunjh oloklhrmata

Riemann:

qrhsimeoun gia upologismoc oloklhrwmtwn.

141

Prtash

6.9

1.

Oloklrwsh kat mrh.

'Estw ti oi

kai

qoun suneq

pargwgo sto to

[a, b) kai ti b f (x)g(x) dx uprqei a

b

to

limcb f (c)g(c)

enai pragmatikc arijmc. Tte

an kai mnon an to

b a

f (x)g (x) dx
b

uprqei. Epshc,

sthn perptwsh pou ta do oloklhrmata uprqoun,

f (x)g(x) dx = lim f (c)g(c) f (a)g(a)

a
2.
Alla g metablhtc.

cb

f (x)g (x) dx .
a
gnhswc axousa kai

An h

ep tou

[a, b)

kai qei suneq pargwgo sto

: [A, B) [a, b) enai [A, B), tte

B

f (x) dx =
a A

f ((X)) (X) dX .

Ennoetai ti h parxh enc ap ta do oloklhrmata sunepgetai thn parxh kai tou llou.

c [a, b), isqei a f (x)g(x) dx = f (c)g(c) f (a)g(a) f (x)g (x) dx. Epeid to limcb f (c)g(c) enai pragmatikc arijmc, h parxh b b f (x)g(x) dx kai limcb a f (x)g (x) dx sunepgetou enc ap ta limcb a
Apdeixh: 1. Gia kje

c a

tai thn parxh kai tou llou. parnontac rio sthn

f (x)g(x) dx = f (c)g(c)f (a)g(a) a f (x)g (x) dx, kab b talgoume sthn f (x)g(x) dx = limcb f (c)g(c)f (a)g(a) a f (x)g (x) dx. a 2. Epeid h : [A, B) [a, b) enai gnhswc axousa, suneqc sto [A, B) kai ep tou [a, b), sunepgetai ti limCB (C) = b. Epshc, uprqei h antstrofh sunrthsh : [a, b) [A, B) kai enai ki aut gnhswc axousa, suneqc sto [a, b) kai ep tou [A, B). 'Ara, limcb (c) = B . Jtoume, tra, c = (C) , isodnama, C = (c). Isqei, epomnwc, h isodunama: c b C B . c C Ap th gnwst sqsh f (x) dx = A f ((X)) (X) dX , parnontac rio kaa b jc c b , isodnama, kajc C B , sumperanoume ti f (x) dx = a B f ((X)) (X) dX . O.E.D. A
' Askhsh 5:

c a

Sthn perptwsh parxhc twn do autn orwn,

'Estw

a > 0.

Upologste ta

+ x x2 +a2 0

dx

kai

+ 1 x2 +a2 0

dx.

' Askhsh 6:

Apodexte ti

1 0

1 xp log x dx = (p+1)2

gia kje

p > 1. p < 1. n, m N.

' Askhsh

7:

Apodexte ti

+ 1

xp log x dx =

1 (p+1)2

gia kje

' Askhsh 8:

Apodexte ti

+ xn1 (1+x)n+m 0

dx =

(n1)!(m1)! (n+m1)!

gia kje

' Askhsh

9:

Qrhsimopoiste thn

1. Apodexte ti 2. Apodexte ti

+ sin x x dx = 2 qwrc apdeixh. 0 + sin x cos x dx = . (Updeixh: sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x.) x 4 0 + sin2 x x2 dx = 2 . (Updeixh: Oloklrwsh kat mrh sthn 0

isthta tou mrouc 1.)

142

3. Apodexte ti 4. Apodexte ti

+ sin4 x x2 0 + sin4 x x4 0

dx = dx =
enai

4 3

. (Updeixh: .

sin2 x = 1 cos2 x.)

Riemann oloklhrsimh se kje disthma [a, b] 0 < A B < +, 1 x 1. Orzoume th sunrthsh me tpo g(x) = x 1 f (t) dt gia kje x (0, +) kai stw ti to rio L = limx+ g(x) uprqei kai enai pragmatikc arijmc.
' Askhsh 10:

'Estw ti h

me

0<ab<

kai stw

Apodexte ti

(i) A f (x) dx = g(B) g(A) + A g(x) dx , x x BT (ii) limT + AT f (x) dx = L log B kai x A + f (Ax)f (Bx) B (iii) 1 dx = L log B + A f (x) dx . x A x 1 f (t) 2. Orzoume th sunrthsh h(x) = x 2 dt gia kje x (0, +) kai stw x t ti to rio l = limx0+ h(x) uprqei kai enai pragmatikc arijmc. Apodexte
ti

(i) A f (x) dx = h(A) h(B) + A h(x) dx , x x Bt (ii) limt0+ At f (x) dx = l log B kai x A B 1 (iii) 0 f (Ax)f (Bx) dx = l log B A f (x) dx . x A x
3. Me tic upojseic twn 1 kai 2: 4. Apodexte ti

log

B A

+ f (Ax)f (Bx) A dx = (L l) log B . x 0 + cos(Ax)cos(Bx) + eAx eBx B dx = log A kai 0 x x 0

dx =

Orismc 6.1

'Estw sunrthsh

oloklhrsimh se kje disthma

f : [a, b) (b, d] R, h opoa enai Riemann [a, c] (a c < b) kai se kje disthma [c, d] lim
0+ b a

(b < c d). Onomzoume d f (x) dx to rio (an a

toc

prwteousa tim tou genikeumnou oloklhrma-

uprqei)

f (x) dx +

d b+

f (x) dx

kai

th sumbolzoume

P.V.
d

d a

f (x) dx.

Dhlad,

P.V.
a

f (x) dx = lim

0+

f (x) dx +
a b+

f (x) dx .

Uprqoun paradegmata, pou den uprqei to genikeumno oloklrwma en uprqei h prwteousa tim tou.

Pardeigma:

'Estw

f (x) =

1 x

gia kje

To genikeumno

x [1, 0) (0, 1]. 1 1 oloklrwma dx den 1 x dx + = lim

1 1 0 x 0+ 1 1 x

uprqei, diti

1 1 0 x

dx = +, 0 = 0.

0 1 1 x

dx =

kai

morf. 'Omwc,

P.V.

0 1 to 1 x 1 1 dx 1 x

dx = () + (+) dx +
1 1 x

enai aprosdiristh

dx = lim

0+

Prtash

6.10

'Estw

mh se kje disthma An to genikeumno

f : [a, b)(b, d] R, h opoa enai Riemann oloklhrsi[a, c] (a c < b) kai se kje disthma [c, d] (b < c d). d oloklrwma f (x) dx uprqei, tte uprqei kai h prwtea

ousa tim tou kai enai sa.

143

b d uprqei, ta f (x) dx kai b f (x) dx uprqoun ex a b b d orismo. 'Ara, lim 0+ f (x) dx = a f (x) dx kai lim 0+ b+ f (x) dx = a d b d f (x) dx. Epshc, ta a f (x) dx kai b f (x) dx den enai + kai b b d d kai +. 'Ara, P.V. a f (x) dx = lim 0+ a f (x) dx + b+ f (x) dx = b d d f (x) dx + b f (x) = a f (x) dx. O.E.D. a
Apdeixh: An to

d a

f (x) dx

6.2

Mh arnhtikc

sunartseic.

f enai Riemann oloklhrsimh sto [a, c] gia kje f (x) 0 gia kje x [a, b). c 1. An to f (x) dx enai fragmno wc sunrthsh tou c sto [a, b), dhlad, an a b c uprqei M R ste 0 f (x) dx M gia kje c [a, b), tte to a f (x) dx a
Jerhma 6.2

'Estw ti h

c [a, b)

kai ti

sugklnei. 2. An to

b a

f (x) dx f (x) dx = +.

c a

den enai fragmno wc sunrthsh tou

sto

[a, b),

tte

f (x) dx enai axousa sunrthsh tou c, afo, c c c a c1 < c2 < b, sunepgetai a 2 f (x) dx = a 1 f (x) dx + c12 f (x) dx c1 c f (x) dx. Epomnwc, an to a f (x) dx enai nw fragmno wc sunrthsh tou c a c sto [a, b), tte to limcb f (x) dx uprqei kai enai pragmatikc arijmc en, a b b an to f (x) dx den enai nw fragmno, tte to limcb a f (x) dx uprqei, a all enai +. O.E.D.
Apdeixh: Parathrome ti to an Enai mesh sunpeia thc prohgomenhc prtashc ti to genikeumno oloklrwma mh arnhtikn sunartsewn pntote uprqei kai enai ete pragmatikc arijmc ete

c a

b a

f (x) dx

+. Mlista, epeid f (x) 0 b 0 dx = 0. 'Ara, a

b

gia kje

x [a, b),

sunepgetai

0
a

f (x) dx + .

Mporome, loipn, na pome ti h sgklish tou genikeumnou oloklhrmatoc isoduname me th sunjkh th sunjkh

b a

f (x) dx < + f (x) dx = +.

b a

en h apklis tou isoduname me

f , h anisthta a f (x) dx + b isqei kat profan trpo, arke, mwc, to f (x) dx na uprqei, dhlad, na a qei upstash wc stoiqeo tou R {, +}. An h sunrthsh qei lec tic timc thc mh arnhtikc, h proupjesh aut enai egguhmnh ap to Jerhma 6.2.
Axzei na tonisje ti, gia genik sunrthsh
Prtash 6.11
Sgkrish oloklhrwmtwn, III.

'Estw ti oi kai ti

Riemann
gia kje

oloklhrsimec sto

[a, c]

gia kje

c [a, b)

f kai g enai 0 f (x) g(x)

x [a, b).

Tte

144

1.

b a

2. an to

f (x) dx a g(x) dx kai b g(x) dx sugklnei, tte a f

kai

kai to

b a

f (x) dx

sugklnei.

Apdeixh: 1. Epeid oi

enai mh arnhtikc, ta

uprqoun. Ap thn Prtash 6.7 sunepgetai 2. Epeid

b a

g(x) dx < +,

sunepgetai

b a

f (x) dx kai a g(x) dx b b 0 a f (x) dx a g(x) dx.

b a

f (x) dx < +.

Ac dome, tra, merik paradegmata sunartsewn oi opoec qrhsimopoiontai suqntata wc sunartseic sgkrishc efarmzontac ete thn Prtash 6.11 ete, argtera, to Jerhma 6.3.

Paradegmata:

1. 'Estw Tte

g(x) =
c 1 a xp

(a x < +), pou a > 0 kai p R. log c log a , p = 1, kai, epomnwc, dx = c1p a1p , p=1 1p
+ a

1 xp

1 dx = xp

+,
a1p p1

p 1, , 1 < p.

2. 'Estw Tte

g(x) =
a 1 c xp

(0 < x a), pou a > 0 kai p R. log a log c , p = 1, 'Ara, dx = a1p c1p , p = 1. 1p
a 0
b

1 xp

1 dx = xp

+,
a1p 1p

1 p, , p < 1.

3. 'Estw

g(x) = xr eAx (a x < +), pou a > 0, r R, A > 0 kai b > 0. r+1 xm x Dialgoume m N, ste m > b . Gia kje x 0 qoume e m! m b b Axb kai, antikajistntac to x me to Ax , e A xbm . 'Ara, g(x) = xr eAx m! + m! 1 1 dx sugklnei. To Am xbmr gia kje x > 0. Epeid bm r > 1, to a xbmr + r Axb x e dx uprqei, epeid enai genikeumno oloklrwma mh arnhtikc a + r Axb sunrthshc. Smfwna me thn Prtash 6.11, to x e dx sugklnei se a
mh arnhtik pragmatik arijm:

0
a
' Askhsh 11:

xr eAx dx < + .
+ 1

Apodexte ti

sin2

1 x

dx 1. dx 2.

(Updeixh:

| sin t| |t|.) sin x x

gia

' Askhsh

12:

Apodexte ti

0x1

kai

| sin x| 1

gia

x 1.)
1 0

+ sin2 x x2 0

(Updeixh:

' Askhsh 13:

Apodexte ti to

xp (1x)q dx sugklnei an kai mnon an p > 1

kai

q > 1.

145

' Askhsh

14:

Apodexte ti to

+ xp 1+xq 0

dx

sugklnei an kai mnon an

0 <

p + 1 < q.
' Askhsh 15:

Apodexte ti ta

+ (x+x1 ) e 0

dx

kai

+ log x 1 x x2 1

dx

sugkl-

noun.

' Askhsh 16:

Apodexte ti to

+ 0

xx ex dx sugklnei an kai mnon an p > 0. xp logq x dt

8

' Askhsh

17:

Apodexte ti to kai

p < 1

p = 1
18:

q < 1.

+ 2

sugklnei an kai mnon an

(Updeixh: Allag metablhtc

x = eX .) dx <

' Askhsh

Apodexte ti

+,

+ 0

+ 0

x2 ex

sin2 x

dx < +,

x e

3 x8 sin2 x

dx = +

kai

+ 1 1 1+x2 sin2 x

+ 1 1 1+x4 sin2 x

dx = +.

To epmeno apotlesma enai, ousiastik, to dio me to apotlesma thc Prtashc 1.9, afo to to sumbolzoume tra
Prtash 6.12

limx+ 1 f (t) dt + f (x) dx. 1

pou emfanzetai sthn Prtash 1.9

Oloklhrwtik kritrio sgklishc seirc.

Upojtoume ti

f : [1, +) R enai fjnousa proc to 0. Dhlad, (i) f (x1 ) f (x2 ) gia kje x1 , x2 me 1 x1 < x2 < + (ii) limx+ f (x) = 0.
h To sumprasma enai: 1. an to 2. an

kai

+ f (x) dx sugklnei, 1 + f (x) dx = +, tte 1

h seir

+ k=1

f (k) f (k) = +.

+ k=1

sugklnei kai

Epshc, se kje perptwsh

f (x) dx
1
Apdeixh: Kat' arqn, epeid h se kje disthma

f (k) f (1) +
k=1 1

f (x) dx .

f enai montonh, enai Riemann oloklhrsimh [a, b] [1, +). m+1 Afo h f enai fjnousa, f (m + 1) f (x) dx f (m) gia kje m N. m Prosjtontac tic aristerc anisthtec gia m = 1, . . . , n 1 parnoume f (2) + n + f (n) 1 f (x) dx. Prosjtontac tic dexic anisthtec gia m = 1, . . . , n n+1 parnoume f (x) dx f (1) + + f (n). 'Ara 1
n+1 n

f (x) dx f (1) + + f (n) f (1) +

1 c 1 1

f (x) dx . f (1) + +
+ 1

Ap autc tic anisthtec enai faner ti ta merik ajrosmata

f (n)

enai nw fragmna an kai mnon an to

f (x) dx

enai nw fragmno wc

sunrthsh tou

c.

'Ara, smfwna me ta Jewrmata 1.2 kai 6.2, to

f (x) dx

sugklnei an kai mnon an h seir

+ k=1

f (k)

sugklnei.

Epiplon, ap thn dia sqsh, parnontac rio kajc

n +,

brskoume

+ 1

f (x) dx

+ k=1

f (k) f (1) +

+ 1
146

f (x) dx.

O.E.D.

Paratrhsh:

H Prtash 6.12 qrhsimopoietai perisstero gia na exetasje h

sgklish mac seirc par h sgklish enc genikeumnou oloklhrmatoc. Aut sumbanei diti, sunjwc, enai pio dskoloc o qeirismc seirn kai pio ekoloc o qeirismc oloklhrwmtwn.

Pardeigma:

Jummaste to pardeigma thc armonikc seirc

+ 1 k=1 k

Enai ekolo na a-

podeiqje h apklish tou antstoiqou oloklhrmatoc

limc+
loc o

dx. Prgmati: dx = limc+ log c = +. Parathrste ti enai pol ekoc 1 n 1 upologismc tou dx en o upologismc tou antstoiqou k=1 k 1 x
c 1 1 x
Aut qei wc apotlesma thn duskola ereshc tou orou .

+ 1 x 1

enai adnatoc.

limn+

n 1 k=1 k

6.3

Apluth

sgklish.

f enai Riemann c [a, b). Lme ti to f (x) dx b sugklnei. Lme ti to f (x) dx a

Orismc 6.2

'Estw ti h

oloklhrsimh sto
apoltwc,

[a, c]
b a

gia kje

b a

sugklnei

an to an to

sugklnei

up

sunjkh,

b a

|f (x)| dx f (x) dx

sugklnei all de sugklnei apoltwc.

Prtash

6.13

'Estw ti h

enai

Riemann

oloklhrsimh sto

[a, c]

gia kje

c [a, b).

An to

b a

f (x) dx

sugklnei apoltwc, tte sugklnei. Epshc,

f (x) dx
a
Apdeixh: Efarmzoume to kritrio

|f (x)| dx .
a b

Cauchy. 'Estw > 0. Afo to a |f (x)| dx sugklnei, uprqei c0 = c0 ( ) me a c0 < b ste: c0 c1 < c2 < b c2 c2 c |f (x)| dx < f (x) dx c12 |f (x)| dx < . 'Ara, smfwna me to c1 c1 f (x) dx sugklnei. Tloc, epeid gia kje c [a, b) isqei nontac ria kajc c b , katalgoume
kritrio

Cauchy,

to

b a

f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx, parb b sthn f (x) dx a |f (x)| dx. a

c a

O.E.D.

Parathrseic:

1. O rloc thc Prtashc 6.13 enai ti exasfalzei thn parxh

tou 2.

b a

f (x) dx

sthn perptwsh pou

b a

An gnwrzoume ek twn protrwn ti to

|f (x)| dx < +, h anisthta enai apotlesma thc Prtashc 6.13. An |f (x)| dx = +, h arib ster pleur thc anisthtac enai stoiqeo tou [0, +], diti to f (x) dx enai a stoiqeo tou R {, +}, kai h anisthta isqei kat profan trpo diti h dexi pleur enai +.
Prgmati, an

b a

f (x) dx

b a

|f (x)| dx < +. b f (x) dx a

b a

uprqei,

h anisthta

|f (x)| dx isqei automtwc.

b a

147

Paradegmata:

1. To

cos x 1 'Eqoume ti x2 gia kje x 1. Ap thn Prtash 6.11 sunepgetai x2 + cos x + 1 + cos x dx sugklnei. dx 1 x2 x2 dx = 1. 'Ara, to 1 x2 1 + sin x 2. To x dx sugklnei up sunjkhn. c sin x c 1 Gia kje c , oloklhrnontac kat mrh, dx = x (cos x) dx = x c cos x c cos x cos cos c cos c c x2 dx. Profanc, limc+ c = 0. To limc+ x2 dx
uprqei sto

+ cos x x2 1

dx

sugklnei apoltwc.

R,

smfwna me to prohgomeno pardeigma. 'Ara, uprqei kai to

c limc+ sin x x

dx

sto

kai, epomnwc, to

tra, na apodexoume ti

+ sin x dx = +. x n sin x n1 (k+1) | sin x| n1 'Eqoume dx = k=1 k dx = k=1 0 | sin(x+k)| dx = x x x+k sin x n1 n1 n1 1 1 dx = 0 sin x dx 0 sin x k=1 +k dx = k=1 0 x+k k=1 x+k c 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 sin x dx = 2 + 3 + + n +. 'Ara, to sin x dx 2 + 3 + + n x 0 + sin x dx = +. den enai fragmno wc sunrthsh tou c kai, epomnwc, x
' Askhsh

+ sin x x

dx

sugklnei. Apomnei,

kai gia

f : [0, +) R me tpo f (t) = (1) n + n N. Apodexte ti to 0 f (t) dt sugklnei up

19:

'Estw

gia

n1 t < n

sunjkh.

IV. 'Estw ti oi f kai g enai Riemann oloklhrsimec sto [a, c] gia kje c [a, b), ti g(x) 0 gia kje x [a, b) kai ti uprqei M R ste |f (x)| M g(x) gia kje x [a, b). An b b to g(x) dx sugklnei, to a f (x) dx sugklnei apoltwc. a
Jerhma 6.3
Sgkrish oloklhrwmtwn,

Apdeixh:

To

b (M g(x)) dx a

sugklnei diti

+.

Ap thn Prtash 6.11 sunepgetai ti to

b b (M g(x)) dx = M a g(x) dx < a b |f (x)| dx sugklnei. O.E.D. a

Pardeigma:

To kai

+ sin x x2 dx sugklnei apoltwc, 1 + 1 to x2 dx sugklnei. 1

20:

epeid

sin x x2

1 x2

gia kje

x [1, +)

' Askhsh

Apodexte ti ta oloklhrmata

kai

+ 1 x 1

+ cos x 1+x2 0

dx,

+ x e 0

cos x dx

sin

1 x

dx

sugklnoun apoltwc.

' Askhsh 21:

an to

dx sugklnei apoltwc en, 0 < p 1, to dio oloklrwma sugklnei up sunjkh. (Updeixh: Mimhjete pardeigma 2 prin ap to Jerhma 6.3 me r = 1.)
Apodexte ti, an to
22:

p > 1,

+ sin x xp

' Askhsh

Gia

1 < x < +
+

orzoume

(x) =

+ 1 k=1 kx

. (Dete thn skhsh

14 sto keflaio 3 kai thn skhsh 17 sto keflaio 1.) 1. Apodexte ti

1 x1

+ 1

[t] (x) = x 1 tx+1 dt gia kje x > 1. Epshc, apodexte [t] x tx+1 dt x1 gia kje x > 1, brskontac me detero trpo

ti tic

anisthtec thc skhshc 17 sto keflaio 1. 2. Apodexte ti

(x) =

x x1

+ t[t] tx+1 1
148

dt

gia kje

x > 1.

Apodexte ti to

oloklrwma sugklnei gia kje

x > 0.

Epomnwc, h sunrthsh

epektenetai,

msw tou tpou auto, kai sto disthma

(0, 1).

'Estw ti h f : [0, 1] R enai suneqc sto [0, 1] kai ti f (0) = 0 kai h f (0) uprqei kai enai pragmatikc arijmc. Apodexte ti 3 1 to f (x)x 2 dx sugklnei apoltwc. (Updeixh: limx0+ f (x) = f (0). 'Ara, x 0 f (x) h x orzetai sto [0, 1] kai enai suneqc sto [0, 1]. 'Ara enai fragmnh. Su1 1 gkrnate me to x 2 dx.) 0
' Askhsh 23: ' Askhsh 24:

Brete tic timc twn

sugklnoun ete apoltwc ete up sunjkh:

p, q gia tic opoec ta paraktw oloklhrmata + xp1 xq1 + sin(xp ) dx, 0 dx. x1 xq 0

6.4

Sgklish

up sunjkh.

'Ola ta apotelsmata stic do teleutaec enthtec kai, fusik, to Jerhma 6.3 apodeiknoun (me tic katllhlec upojseic) thn apluth sgklish genikeumnwn oloklhrwmtwn. Me lla lgia, den enai dunatn na qrhsimopoihjon

aut ta apotelsmata gia na apodeiqje sgklish up sunjkh. Ja dome, tra, na shmantik apotlesma to opoo (me tic katllhlec upojseic) apodeiknei sgklish oloklhrwmtwn qwrc na qreizetai aut na sugklnoun apoltwc. 'Estw f, g : [a, b) R me tic exc idithtec: (i) h g qei suneq pargwgo sto [a, b) kai enai fjnousa proc to 0, dhlad, g (x) 0 gia kje x [a, b) kai limxb g(x) = 0, c (ii) h f enai suneqc sto [a, b) kai uprqei arijmc M ste a f (x) dx M gia kje c [a, b). b Tte to f (x)g(x) dx sugklnei. a
Jerhma 6.4

f (t) dt gia kje x [a, b), opte |F (x)| M x [a, b). Epeid h f enai suneqc, sunepgetai F (x) = f (x) gia kje x [a, b). c c c Tra, f (x)g(x) dx = a F (x)g(x) dx = F (c)g(c) a F (x)g (x) dx gia a kje c [a, b). b b To F (x)g (x) dx sugklnei apoltwc, afo qoume a |F (x)g (x)| dx a b b M a |g (x)| dx = M a g (x) dx = M g(a) < +. H teleutaa isthta isqei b c diti g (x) dx = limcb a g (x) dx = limcb (g(c)g(a)) = g(a). 'Ara, to a b c F (x)g (x) dx sugklnei, opte to limcb a F (x)g (x) dx enai pragmatikc a
Apdeixh: Orzoume

F (x) =

x a

gia kje

arijmc.

|F (c)g(c)| M g(c) kai, epomnwc, limcb F (c)g(c) = 0. c c f (x)g(x) dx = F (c)g(c) a F (x)g (x) dx sunepgetai, loipn, a c b ti to limcb f (x)g(x) dx enai pragmatikc arijmc, opte to a f (x)g(x) dx a
Epshc, Ap thn sugklnei.

Pardeigma:

Ja xanadome to

+ sin x x

dx,

efarmzontac to Jerhma 6.4.

149

H sunrthsh me tpo kai

1 x

enai fjnousa kai qei suneq pargwgo sto gia kje

[, +)

sin x dx = | cos cos c| 2

c .

'Ara, to oloklrwma su-

gklnei.

' Askhsh

25:

'Estw

gklnoun gia kje

a > 0. p > 0.

Apodexte ti ta

+ sin x xp a

dx

kai

+ cos x xp a

dx

su-

' Askhsh

26:

Apodexte ti to

+ x[x] 1 2 xp 1

dx

sugklnei gia kje

p > 0.

6.5

Oloklhrmata

me parmetro.

Jewrome na disthma disthma

[a, b),

pou

aR

kai

bR

b = +

kai na llo

kajc kai ma sunrthsh

f : [a, b) I R .
Sthn enthta aut ja meletsoume to genikeumno oloklrwma thc proc th metablht

wc

x [a, b)

en to

tI

ja pazei to rlo miac paramtrou:

f (x, t) dx ,
a
An gia kje nrthsh

tI.

t I to genikeumno g : I R me tpo
b

oloklrwma sugklnei, orzetai ma su-

g(t) =
a

f (x, t) dx , g

tI.
enai suneqc paragwgsimh sto

Skopeoume na dome up poiec upojseic h disthma

I.

Paradegmata:

1.

+ tx e 0
Gia kje

dx (t R). c 0
qoume

c tx e 0

dx =

e c,

ct

, t = 0, t=0

kai, epomnwc,

+ tx e 0

dx = t

+, t 0, 1 0 < t. t , I = (0, +), g(t) = paragwgsimh sto I .

tte

'Ara, an to

enai sto disthma

+ tx e 0

dx =

1 t

g enai suneqc kai + sin(tx) 2. dx (t R). x 0 Kat' arqn, an t = 0, to oloklrwma qei thn tim 0. 'Estw, tra, ti t > 0. H sunrthsh : [0, +) [0, +) me tpo x = (X) = X et nai gnhswc axousa, ep tou [0, +) kai qei suneq pargwgo sto [0, +). + sin(tx) + sin X 1 + sin X 'Ara, dx = 0 X x t dX = 0 X dX . 'Eqoume apodexei 0
Parathrome ti h ti to

+ sin X X 0

dX

sugklnei kai stw

h tim tou.

'Ara,

+ sin(tx) x 0

dx =

150

gia kje

+ sin(x|t|) x 0
'Ara,

t > 0. An t < 0, dx = A.
+ sin(tx) x 0

tte

+ sin(tx) x 0

dx =

+ sin(x|t|) x 0

dx =

g(t) =

dx =

A, t > 0, 0, t = 0, A, t < 0.

Ja dome ti o arijmc

enai suneqc kai paragwgsimh sto rh,

4

+ 0 7 7 + 1cos x dx + 4 1cos x dx + 7 1cos x dx 0 + 4 1cos x dx + 0 x2 x2 x2 x2 0 4 4 4 12(2 2) 2 2 > 0 diti 1 cos x 1 cos( 4 ) = 2 gia kje x [ , 7 ] kai 7 4 4 7 1 24 4 H tim tou A enai sh me all aut enai dskolo na 2 dx = 7 . x 2 4

A=

A enai jetikc, opte h g den enai suneqc sto 0 en (, 0)(0, +). Me oloklrwsh kat m+ (1cos x) + 1cos x sin x dx = 0 dx = limc+ 1cos c + 0 dx = x x c x2

apodeiqje.

Orismc 6.3
sto

f (x, t) dx g(t) t I h tim tou genikeumnou oloklhrmatoc b enai g(t), dhlad, f (x, t) dx = g(t) , isodnama, an gia kje > 0 uprqei a c0 = c0 ( , t) sto [a, b) ste:
Lme ti to
sugklnei sthn kat disthma

b a

shmeo

I,

an gia kje

c0 c < b
Orismc 6.4
disthma

b a

g(t)
a

f (x, t) dx . g(t) [a, b) ste:

omoimorfa sto

Lme ti to

I,

an gia kje

f (x, t) dx > 0 uprqei c0 = c0 ( )

c

sugklnei sthn

sto

c0 c < b

g(t)
a

f (x, t) dx

gia kje

tI.
to

O Orismc 6.4 diatupnetai me isodnamo trpo wc exc: sugklnei sthn

b a

f (x, t) dx

g(t)

omoimorfa sto disthma

I,

an

c cb tI
Aut isqei diti:

lim sup g(t)

a c a

f (x, t) dx = 0 .
gia kje

g(t)

f (x, t) dx

c a

t I suptI g(t) c0

f (x, t) dx

Paratrhsh:

Ston orism thc omoimorfhc sgklishc h epilog tou kai qi ap to

exar-

ttai mnon ap to

t.

Ston orism thc kat shmeo sgklishc

aut den isqei, dhlad, gia to dio epilog tou

, allzontac to

t,

allzei, pijann, kai h

c0 .
An to

Prtash

6.14

b a

ma

I,

tte sugklnei sthn 'Estw tuqn

f (x, t) dx sugklnei sthn g(t) g(t) kai kat shmeo sto I .

omoimorfa sto disth-

Apdeixh:

b a

f (x, t) dx

sugklnei sthn

t0 I . Parnoume opoiodpote > 0 kai, epeid to g(t) omoimorfa sto disthma I , brskoume c0
151

[a, b)

c0 c < b g(t) a f (x, t) dx < gia c sunepgetai: c0 c < b g(t0 ) a f (x, t0 ) dx <
ste:

kje .

t I.

Ap aut

Epeid aut isqei

gia opoiodpote gia tuqn

> 0,

qoume

g(t0 ) =

b a

shmeo sto

t0 I , I.

sumperanoume ti to O.E.D.

f (x, t0 ) dx. Tloc, epeid aut isqei b f (x, t) dx sugklnei sthn g(t) kat a

Pardeigma:

'Eqoume dh apodexei ti to

+ tx e 0

dx

sugklnei sthn

1 t

kat shmeo sto

(0, +). (0, +). Prglog 1t < c. 'Ara, h epilog tou 1 log 1t , an t 1, c0 = c0 ( , t) sto [0, +) enai c0 ( , t) = t Parathro0, an t > 1. me, loipn, ti, limt0+ c0 ( , t) = +, opte h epilog tou c0 den enai dunatn na mhn exarttai ap to t (0, +). Ap thn llh meri, jewrntac opoiodpote a > 0, ja apodexoume ti to + tx e dx sugklnei sthn 1 omoimorfa sto [a, +). Kat' arqn qoume ti t 0 c tx 1 1 dx = 1 ect a eca gia kje t [a, +). Tra, gia kje > 0 t 0 e t 1 1 1 1 a log a , an a log a a, Me thn epilog aut epilgoume c0 = c0 ( ) = 1 log 1 < a. a, an a a c tx 1 1 tou c0 qoume: c0 < c < + dx a eca < gia kje t 0 e t [a, +). Epeid to c0 den exarttai ap to t [a, +), sunepgetai h omoimorfh sgklish sto [a, +). c tx 1 dx = H dia apdeixh mpore na gnei pio komy: supt[a,+) t 0 e 1 ct 1 ca supt[a,+) t e = ae 0 kajc c +. 'Omwc, an ant gia to disthma [a, +) jewrsoume to (0, +), tte qoume: c supt(0,+) 1 0 etx dx = supt(0,+) 1 ect = + 0 kajc c +. t t
Ja dome, tra, ti h sgklish den enai omoimorfh sto mati:

1 t

c tx e 0

dx <

1 ct te

<

1 t

Ac jewrsoume ma akolouja kje

nN

th sunrthsh

(cn ) sto [a, b) gn : I R me tpo

cn

ste

cn b.

Orzoume gia

gn (t) =
a

f (x, t) dx ,

tI.
b a

Parathrome ti, smfwna me touc orismoc, an to sthn

g(t)

kat shmeo omoimorfa sto

I,

tte

gn g

k.sv.

f (x, t) dx sugklnei om gn g , antisto-

qwc, sto

I.

Aut h paratrhsh ja mac bohjsei na meletsoume tic idithtec

sunqeiac paragwgisimthtac thc

g,

diti ja mac epitryei na qrhsimopoi-

soume ta sqetik apotelsmata gia akoloujec sunartsewn. Ja qreiastome ta aklouja do Lmmata.

Lmma 6.2

An h

'Estw a, c R me a < c, disthma I kai f : [a, c] I R. f enai suneqc sto [a, c] I , h sunrthsh g : I R me tpo g(t) = c f (x, t) dx (t I) enai suneqc sto I . a

Apdeixh: Jewrome tuqn (qi monosnolo)

t0 I

kai parnoume kleist kai fragmno disthma

J I

tsi ste: an to

t0

enai dexi arister kro tou

I,

152

to

t0

na enai, omowc, dexi arister kro tou

kai, an to

shmeo tou

I,

to

t0

na enai, omowc, eswterik shmeo tou

t0 J.

enai eswterik Epomnwc, gia

na apodexoume th sunqeia thc thc

sto

t0

arke na apodexoume ti o periorismc

sto

enai suneqc sto

t0 . [a, c]J
enai sumpagc uposnolo tou

To orjognio parallhlgrammo

R2 ,

R . Tra, h f enai suneqc [a, c] J , opte enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, c] J . 'Estw > 0, opte uprqei > 0 ste: x1 , x2 [a, c], t1 , t2 J , (x1 x2 )2 + (t1 t2 )2 < |f (x1 , t1 ) f (x2 , t2 )| < ca+1 . Sunepgetai ti: x [a, c], t J , |t t0 | < |f (x, t) f (x, t0 )| < ca+1 . Epomnwc: t J , |t t0 | < |g(t) g(t0 )| =
afo enai kleist kai fragmno uposnolo tou sto

c (f (x, t)f (x, t0 )) dx a

c a

Sumperanoume, loipn, ti h

|f (x, t)f (x, t0 )| dx a ca+1 dx = g enai suneqc sto tuqn t0 I .

me

(ca) ca+1

<

a < c, disthma I kai f : [a, c] I R. [a, c] I kai h ft enai, epshc, suneqc d sto [a, c]I , pou h ft orzetai me ton tpo ft (x, t) = dt f (x, t) (x [a, c], t I). c c Tte h g(t) = f (x, t) dx enai paragwgsimh sto I kai g (t) = a ft (x, t) dx a gia kje t I . Dhlad,
Lmma 6.3

'Estw

a, c R

Upojtoume ti h

enai suneqc sto

d dt

f (x, t) dx =
a a

d f (x, t) dx , dt

(x, t) [a, b] I .

Apdeixh: Jewrome tuqn

t0 I

kai, pwc sthn apdeixh tou Lmmatoc 6.2,

jewrome to kleist kai fragmno disthma na apodexoume ti o periorismc thc

J I

pou periqei to

t0

kai arke

g (t0 ) = ft (x, t0 ) dx. 2 Epeid to [a, c] J enai sumpagc uposnolo tou R kai h ft enai suneqc sto [a, c] J , h ft enai omoimorfa suneqc sto [a, c] J . 'Estw > 0, opte (x1 x2 )2 + (t1 t2 )2 < uprqei > 0 ste: x1 , x2 [a, c], t1 , t2 J , |ft (x1 , t1 ) ft (x2 , t2 )| < ca+1 . 'Estw, tra, x [a, c] kai t J me |t t0 | < .
c a
sto qei pargwgo sto me Uprqei epeid

t0

t = t (x, t, t0 )

|t

ft (x, t0 )| <
c a

f (x,t)f (x,t0 ) = ft (x, t ) kai, tt0 t0 | |t t0 | < , qoume f (x,t)f0(x,t0 ) ft (x, t0 ) = |ft (x, t ) tt c g(t)g(t0 ) a ft (x, t0 ) dx = ca+1 . 'Ara: t J , |t t0 | < tt0
anmesa sta

kai

t0

ste

f (x,t)f (x,t0 ) tt0

ft (x, t0 ) dx g (t0 ) =

Ap aut sunepgetai ti

c f (x,t)f (x,t0 ) tt0 a c ft (x, t0 ) dx. a

ft (x, t0 ) dx

(ca) ca+1

<

Paratrhsh:

To nhma tou teleutaou lmmatoc enai ti, me tic katllhlec

propojseic, h pargwgoc xw ap to oloklrwma pernei msa sto oloklrwma.

Ta lmmata 6.2 kai 6.3 anafrontai se sunhjismno oloklrwma se kleist kai fragmno disthma

[a, c].

Mnei na proume rio kajc

Riemann c b

gia na apodexoume anloga apotelsmata gia genikeumna oloklhrmata se disthma

[a, b).
153

Jerhma 6.5

'Estw

An h

enai suneqc sto

omoimorfa sto

I,

a R kai a < b +, disthma I kai f : [a, b)I R. b [a, b) I kai to a f (x, t) dx sugklnei sthn g(t) g : I R enai suneqc sto I . (cn )
sto

Apdeixh: Parnoume opoiadpote akolouja tpin, orzoume tic sunartseic

gn : I R

me tpouc

(t I).

f (x, t) dx sugklnei omoimorfa sthn g(t) sto I , sunepgetai ti gn g sto I . 'Omwc, h f enai suneqc sto [a, cn ] I , afo aut enai uposnolo tou [a, b) I , opte, smfwna me to Lmma 6.2, kje gn enai suneqc sto I . ' ra, lgw omoimorfhc sgklishc, h g enai suneqc sto I . A
Epeid to
om

b a

[a, b) ste cn b. Kac gn (t) = a n f (x, t)dx

O.E.D.

' Askhsh 27:

Sthn skhsh 22 apodexte ti to oloklrwma

nei omoimorfa se kje disthma thc morfc Epshc, apodexte ti to

[A, B],

pou

dt sugkl1 < A B < +.

+ [t] tx+1 1

thc morfc

dt sugklnei omoimorfa se kje disthma 0 < A B < +. Apodexte th sunqeia thc sto (1, +) kajc kai th sunqeia thc sunrthshc me tpo (x1)(x) sto (0, +). [A, B],
pou 'Estw a R kai a < b +, kleist kai fragmno disthma f : [a, b) I R. Upojtoume ti oi f kai ft enai suneqec sto [a, b) I

+ t[t] tx+1 1

Jerhma 6.6

kai

kai ti

(i) to (ii) to
Tte

b f (x, t) dx sugklnei se ma sunrthsh h(t) omoimorfa sto I kai a t b f (x, t0 ) dx sugklnei gia toulqiston na t0 I . a b to f (x, t) dx sugklnei se ma sunrthsh g(t) omoimorfa sto I kai a

enai paragwgsimh sto

kai

g (t) = h(t)
b

gia kje

t I.

Dhlad,

d dt

f (x, t) dx =
a a

d f (x, t) dx , dt

tI.

Apdeixh: Parnoume opoiadpote akolouja zoume tic sunartseic

(cn ) sto [a, b) ste cn b kai orc gn : I R me tpouc gn (t) = a n f (x, t) dx (t I). Smcn fwna me to Lmma 6.3, gn (t) = ft (x, t) dx gia kje t I . Lgw thc upjeshc a om (i), qoume gn h sto I . Epshc, lgw thc upjeshc (ii), h (gn (t0 )) sugklnei. Ap to Jerhma 2.4 sunepgetai ti h (gn ) sugklnei se kpoia sunrthsh c g omoimorfa sto I , ti g(t0 ) = limn+ gn (t0 ) = limn+ a n f (x, t0 ) dx = f (x, t0 ) dx, t I.
b a
ti h

enai paragwgsimh sto

kai ti

g (t) = h(t)

gia kje

g exarttai (cn ) me thn opoa xekinme. Ac jewrsoume ma deterh akolouja (cn ) sto [a, b) ste cn b kai ac proume th mikt akolouja c1 , c1 , c2 , c2 , . . . h opoa qei, epshc, rio b. Me thn dia diadikasa, c1 c c c sunepgetai ti h f (x, t) dx, a 1 f (x, t) dx, a 2 f (x, t) dx, a 2 f (x, t) dx,. . . a sugklnei se kpoia sunrthsh, h opoa enai, anagkastik, h g(t) lgw thc
Prokptei, tra, to erthma kat pson h oriak sunrthsh ap th sugkekrimnh akolouja upoakoloujac twn rwn perittc txhc. rtiac txhc sugklnei sthn ' ra, kai h upoakolouja twn rwn A

g(t).
154

g : I R ste gia kje t I c (cn ) sto [a, b) me cn b na isqei a n f (x, t) dx g(t). Aut c sunepgetai ti limcb f (x, t) dx = g(t) gia kje t I , isodnama, ti a b f (x, t) dx = g(t) gia kje t I . Tra, h sqsh g (t) = h(t) gia kje t I a b b d d grfetai dt a f (x, t) dx = g (t) = h(t) = a dt f (x, t) dx gia kje t I . b Apomnei na apodexoume ti to f (x, t) dx sugklnei sthn g(t) omoimorfa a sto I . 'Estw ti aut den isqei, opte uprqei 0 > 0 ste gia kje c0 c [a, b) uprqoun c me c0 c < b kai t I ste a f (x, t) dx g(t) 0 . 1 Epomnwc, gia kje n N uprqoun cn me b n cn < b, an b < +, cn n < cn , an b = +, kai tn I ste a f (x, tn ) dx g(tn ) 0 . Sunepc, c c suptI a n f (x, t) dx g(t) a n f (x, tn ) dx g(tn ) 0 . Aut sunepgetai cn ti oi sunartseic f (x, t) dx (t I) den sugklnoun sthn g(t) omoimorfa a b sto I . Epeid cn b, to teleutao enai topo, opte to f (x, t) dx sugklnei a sthn g(t) omoimorfa sto I . O.E.D.
'Eqoume, loipn, apodexei ti uprqei kpoia kai gia kje Enai safc ti gia thn efarmog twn Jewrhmtwn 6.5 kai 6.6 qreiazmaste na kritrio omoimorfhc sgklishc genikeumnwn oloklhrwmtwn. Ja dome, tra, na pol shmantik kritrio omoimorfhc sgklishc genikeumnwn oloklhrwmtwn, to opoo moizei pol me to kritrio sgklish seirn sunartsewn.
Jerhma 6.7

Weierstrass
ste

gia omoimorfh

'Estw

f : [a, b) I

kai

F : [a, b) R

|f (x, t)| F (x) , F (x) dx sugklnei, tte to sunrthsh sto I .

An to

x [a, b), t I . f (x, t) dx sugklnei omoimorfa se kpoia

b a

b a

b a

Apdeixh: Ap to Jerhma 6.3 sumperanoume ti to kje

f (x, t) dx sugklnei gia

t I.

Orzetai, epomnwc h sunrthsh

g:IR

me tpo

g(t) =
a
Mnei na dome an to Afo to

f (x, t) dx ,

tI. g(t)
omoimorfa sto

F (x) dx sugklnei, gia kje > 0 uprqei c0 = c0 ( ) sto [a, b) ste: b c c0 c < b 0 c F (x) dx < . 'Ara: c0 c < b g(t) a f (x, t) dx = b c b b b f (x, t) dx a f (x, t) dx = c f (x, t) dx c |f (x, t)| dx c F (x) dx < a gia kje t I. O.E.D.
Pardeigma:

b a

b a

f (x, t) dx

sugklnei sthn

I.

Ja meletsoume to genikeumno oloklrwma Parathrome ti

sin(tx) dx. |ex sin(tx)| ex gia kje x [0, +) kai gia k+ x je t R. To e dx sugklnei, opte, smfwna to Jerhma 6.7, to 0 + x e sin(tx) dx sugklnei se kpoia sunrthsh g(t) omoimorfa sto R. H 0
155

+ x e 0

ex sin(tx) enai suneqc sto [0, +) R. 'Ara, smfwna me to Jerhma 6.5, h g enai suneqc sto R. d x Upologzoume sin(tx)) = xex cos(tx) kai h sunrthsh aut enai dt (e x suneqc sto [0, +) R. Epshc, |xe cos(tx)| xex gia kje x [0, +) + x kai kje t R kai to xe dx sugklnei. 0 Ja apodexoume, tra, ti h g enai paragwgsimh sto R kai oti g (t) = + xex cos(tx) dx gia kje t R. To Jerhma 6.6 apaite to I na e0
sunrthsh nai kleist kai fragmno disthma. H apathsh aut, an kai apagoreei thn

I = R, den apotele ousiat0 sto R kai met dialgoume opoiodpote kleist fragmno disthma I to opoo periqei to t0 wc esw+ + terik tou shmeo. Afo to xex dx sugklnei, to 0 xex cos(tx) dx 0 sugklnei se ma sunrthsh h(t) omoimorfa sto I . 'Eqoume, epshc, dh a+ x podexei ti to e sin(tx) dx sugklnei sthn g(t) sto I . 'Ara, ap to 0 + xex cos(tx) dx gia kje t I . 'Ara, Jerhma 6.6, g (t) = h(t) = 0 + g (t0 ) = 0 xex cos(xt0 ) dx, afo to t0 enai eswterik shmeo tou diastmatoc I . To t0 tan aujareta epilegmno ap to R, opte
efarmog tou Jewrmatoc 6.6 me to disthma stik prblhma. Prgmati, dialgoume tuqn

d dt
' Askhsh 28:

ex sin(tx) dx =
0
'Estw

xex cos(tx) dx ,
0
2

x R.

f (t) = 0 ex dx kai g(t) = 0 e x2 +1 dx. 1. Apodexte ti f (t) + g (t) = 0 gia kje t kai ti f (t) + g(t) = 4 gia kje t. (Updeixh: Upologste to g(0). Efarmste sthn g to Lmma 6.3.) + x2 2. Qrhsimopointac to 1, apodexte ti e dx = 2 . (Updeixh: 0 0 g(t)
1 et2 0 1+x2

t2 (x2 +1)

dx =

t2 4e

kajc

t +.)

cos(2tx) dx gia kje t R. Apodexte ti 2 F (t) + 2tF (t) = 0 gia kje t. Katpin, apodexte ti F (t) = 2 et gia kje 2 2 d t. (Updeixh: F (t) + 2tF (t) = 0 dt (et F (t)) = 0 et F (t) =stajerc arijmc. Jsate t = 0 kai qrhsimopoiste to apotlesma thc skhshc 28.)
' Askhsh 29:

'Estw

F (t) =

+ x2 e 0

' Askhsh

30:

'Estw

F (t) = arctan t gia

ti

1 1+t2
kje

dx gia kje t (0, +). Apodexte t (0, +). Ap ed prokptei ti F (t) = 2 t (0, +). Met apodexte ti F (t) =
gia kje

+ tx sin x e x 0

+ 0

sin x dx = lim t0+ x F (t)

etx
0

sin x dx = lim arctan t = . t0+ 2 x 2 F (t) F (a) = lima+ F (a) = 0, qrhsimokajc kai

(Updeixh: Gia to

efarmste to Jerhma 6.6 kai upologste to olokl-

rwma pou prokptei me dipl oloklrwsh kat mrh. Katpin:

t 1 a 1+x2

dx = arctan t + arctan a.

Apodexte ti

pointac to ti to

+ xa + xa sin x e e x dx 0 0 + limt0+ 0 etx sin x dx efarmste kritrio x

156

dx 0 Cauchy

a +. Gia d sin x = dx cos x

gia oloklhrsh kat mrh gia na apodexete ti to genikeumno oloklrwma sugklnei omoimorfa sto suneqc sto

[0, +).

Afo kje

Fn (t) =

n tx sin x e x 0

dx

enai

[0, +),

ja enai kai h

F (t).)

6.6

H sunrthsh

Jewrome th sunrthsh

f : (0, +) (0, +) R

me tpo

f (x, t) = xt1 ex

0 < x < + , 0 < t < + .

kai sqhmatzoume to antstoiqo genikeumno oloklrwma

xt1 ex dx .
0
Prtash 6.15

Ta

+ 0

xt1 ex dx

kai

+ 0

xt1 (log x)n ex dx (n N) I

su-

gklnoun gia kje

t > 0.

Ep plon, ta genikeumna aut oloklhrmata sugklthc morfc

noun se antstoiqec sunartseic omoimorfa se kje disthma

I = [A, B],
Apdeixh:

pou

0 < A B < +.
+ 0

To prto oloklrwma mpore na jewrhje wc eidik perptwsh tou

deutrou me

n = 0.
1

To

xt1 (log x)n ex dx

+

qwrzetai se do genikeumna

oloklhrmata

xt1 (log x)n ex dx ,

0
Jewrome

xt1 (log x)n ex dx .

1

A, B ste 0 < A B < + kai t [A, B]. An x 1, tte + |x (log x) e | xn+t1 ex xn+B1 ex . Epeid to 1 xn+B1 ex dx + t1 sugklnei, to x (log x)n ex dx sugklnei omoimorfa sto [A, B]. 'An 1 1 t1 0 < x 1, tte |x (log x)n ex | xA1 | log x|n . Afo to 0 xA1 | log x|n dx 1 t1 sugklnei (giat?), to x (log x)n ex dx sugklnei omoimorfa sto [A, B]. 0 + t1 n x 'Ara, to x (log x) e dx sugklnei omoimorfa sto [A, B]. 0 Gia na apodexoume, tra, ti to oloklrwma sugklnei gia kje t > 0, efarmzoume th gnwst diadikasa. Dhlad, parnoume tuqn t > 0 kai, katpin, dialgoume disthma [A, B] ste 0 < A < t < B < +. Afo qoume apodexei ti to oloklrwma sugklnei (omoimorfa) sto [A, B], sumperanoume ti sugklnei kai sto t. O.E.D.
t1 n x
Orismc 6.5

H sunrthsh pou orzetai ap to kai onomzetai

sunrthsh

: (0, +) R

+ 0

xt1 ex dx

sumbolzetai

Dhlad,

(t) =
0
H sunrthsh

xt1 ex dx ,

0 < t < + .

enai exairetik shmantik gia th Majhmatik Anlush.

157

Jerhma 6.8

H sunrthsh

enai peirec forc paragwgsimh sto

(0, +)

kai

(n) (t) =
0
Apdeixh: 'Estw tuqn

xt1 (log x)n ex dx ,

0 < t < + , n N .

t (0, +). Parnoume A, B R ste 0 < A < t < d xt1 ex kai h dt (xt1 ex ) = xt1 log x ex + t1 x enai suneqec sto (0, +) [A, B] kai h sgklish twn x e dx kai 0 + t1 x log x ex dx enai omoimorfh sto [A, B]. Smfwna me to Jerhma 0 B < +
kai parathrome ti h 6.6, qoume

(t) =

d dt

xt1 ex dx =
0 0

xt1 log x ex dx .

d xt1 log x ex kai dt (xt1 log x ex ) = xt1 (log x)2 ex , oi opoec enai suneqec sto (0, +) [A, B], kai me ta oloklh+ t1 + rmata x log x ex dx kai 0 xt1 (log x)2 ex dx, ta opoa sugklnoun 0 omoimorfa sto [A, B]. Smfwna me to Jerhma 6.6,
Epanalambnoume me tic sunartseic

(t) =

d dt

xt1 log x ex dx =
0 0

xt1 (log x)2 ex dx .

H epagwgik genkeush gia paraggouc anterhc txhc enai, tra, profanc. O.E.D. idithtec:

Jerhma 6.9

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

H sunrthsh qei tic paraktw (t) > 0 gia kje t (0, +). limt+ (t) = + kai limt0+ (t) = +. (t + 1) = t(t) gia kje t (0, +). (1) = 1 kai (n) = (n 1)! gia kje n N. H enai kurt sunrthsh sto (0, +). 1. Afo

xt1 ex > 0 gia kje x (0, +), sunepgetai ti (t) dx 0. Gia th gnsia anisthta, parathrome ti h tim 1 thc x e gia x = 1 enai e > 0, opte, lgw sunqeiac, uprqoun a, b me 1 0 < a < 1 < b < + ste xt1 ex 2e gia kje x [a, b]. Sunepgetai + t1 x a t1 x b + (t) = 0 x e dx = 0 x e dx + a xt1 ex dx + b xt1 ex dx b 1 0 + a 2e dx + 0 = ba > 0. 2e 1 1 1 2. (t) 0 xt1 ex dx e1 0 xt1 dx = et . 'Ara, (t) + ka+ t1 x jc t 0+ . Epshc, gia kje t 1 isqei (t) x e dx 2 + x t1 t1 2 2 e dx = 2 e . 'Ara, (t) + kajc t +. 2 3. Me oloklrwsh kat mrh, qoume gia kje t (0, +) ti (t + 1) = + t x + d t x + + d x e dx = 0 xt dx ex dx = 0 dx = t 0 xt1 ex dx = dx x e 0 t(t). + x 4. (1) = e dx = 1. Ap thn (t + 1) = t(t), me epagwg, sumperanou0 me ti (2) = 1 (1) = 1, (3) = 2(2) = 2 1 = 2!, (4) = 3(3) = 3 2! = 3!
Apdeixh:

+ = 0 xt1 ex t1 x

158

kai, geniktera, 5. Gia kje

(n) = (n 1)!. t (0, +) qoume (t) =

+ 0

xt1 (log x)2 ex dx 0.

O.E.D.

Enai qarakthristik idithta thc sunrthshc klhrh thn hmieujea

ti enai orismnh se ol-

(0, +)

kai sta diakrit shmea tou

tautzetai me th

sunrthsh paragontik.

' Askhsh 31:

Qrhsimopointac ti

allag metablhtc apodexte ti

+ x2 e dx = 2 kai knontac 0 1 . Apodexte ti 2 =

katllhlh

n+
' Askhsh 32:

1 = (2n)! n , 4 n! 2

n N0 .

Jumhjete thn sunrthsh

: (1, +) R h opoa orsjhke sthn t > 1.

sugklnei omoimor-

skhsh 14 tou kefalaou 3 kai thn opoa xanaedame sthn skhsh 22 auto tou kefalaou. Se la ta paraktw upojtoume ti 1. Apodexte ti gia kje

a>0

h seir

[a, +). (Updeixh: An n t1 , h a xt1 enx enai fjnousa sunrthsh tou x sto [a, +). 'Ara, an n t1 , isqei a t1 nx t1 na n xt1 e e kx t1 x ex 1 = x ex 1 a ea 1 gia kje x [a, +). Epomk=1 e
fa sth sunrthsh sto disthma nwc, 2.

xt1 ex 1

+ kx t1 x k=1 e

limn+ supx[a,+)

n kx t1 x k=1 e

xt1 ex 1

= limn+
isqei

Apodexte ti gia kje

a, b

me

0 < a < b < +

at1 ena ea 1 b xt1 a ex 1

= 0.) dx =

+ + dx k=1 0 ekx xt1 dx . + xt1 + + kx t1 e x dx . 3. Apodexte ti k=1 0 ex 1 dx 0 + kx t1 n 4. Apodexte ti gia kje n N isqei e x k=1 0 n xt1 kx t1 (Updeixh: x ex 1 .) k=1 e + xt1 + + kx t1 5. Apodexte ti e x dx 0 k=1 0 ex 1 dx .
Ap ta 3 kai 5 sunepgetai amswc ti

+ b kx t1 x k=1 a e

dx

+ xt1 ex 1 0

dx .

+ 0

ekx xt1 dx =
k=1
7. Gia kje

xt1 dx ex 1 dx =
(t) kt
.

(t > 1).

kN

apodexte ti

+ kx t1 e x 0

8. Apodexte ti

(t)(t) =
0

xt1 dx ex 1

(t > 1).

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