Ch 5.

Wireless ATM
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Introduction to Broadband ISDN and ATM What is wireless ATM? Protocol Reference Model What is mobile ATM? Protocol extensions to support mobility

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5.1 Broadband ISDN (BISDN) and ATM What is an Integrated Network - Broadband ISDN Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) ATM and BISDN ATM Transport AAL ATM Layer Traffic Management, Admission and Congestion Control

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5.1.1 What is an Integrated Network?

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It is a network that can support a wide variety of services via a single interface: video, audio, voice, images, data, etc. Integration can be performed at different levels in a network:

Level 1 - User to Network Interface (UNI) and the Access Loop (NISDN) Level 2 - Network Trunks or transmission facilities Level 3 - Network switches (BISDN).

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5.1.2 Asynchronous Transfer Mode

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It is a time slotted system but none of the time slots are reserved and there is no framing structure. At connection set-up time, a contract is signed for bandwidth usage (i.e., no. of slots that may be used per unit of time by the connection). User data is packetized and transmitted in the slots on a slot by slot basis. As slots are not specifically assigned to user connections, access control schemes must be used to provide for a fair system. They are used to guarantee that users do not use more than their share (i.e., as agreed upon in the connections contract). The slots are of a fixed size to simplify switch design and increase processing speed. Deciding on the appropriate slot/packet size was quite controversial:

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For low volume real-time services such as voice, packets had to be small. For data, small packet sizes meant high overhead.

Packet sizes that were considered (or put forward by the different interest groups): 32, 64, 128 bytes -> compromised solution: 48 bytes!
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Pros of ATM: 1) Very versatile, can support all bit rates and also bursty or variable bit streams, 2) one switch and one interface design. Cons of ATM: 1) No timing structure, 2) variable delays as congestion can occur (simultaneous user peaks), 3) requires sophisticated access control schemes and call admission control, 4) higher overhead as each slot must carry the connection information (addressing!).

Slot ........... Full Empty Full Full Empty Empty .........

Transmission Trunk

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5.1.3 BISDN and ATM

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Despite its disadvantages it was decided to go with ATM because of its versatility and the fact that most services are variable bit rate (data, compressed voice, video, images, etc) The BISDN reference model based on ATM has deviated slightly from the OSI model. There are now 3 planes: 1) user, 2) control, and 3) management. The user plane is responsible for the data of user connections. The control plane is responsible for setting up and tearing down of connections, i.e., all network signaling functions. The management plane is used for maintenance and network operations. The data link layer is now the ATM layer. It carries data from all three planes. A new sub-layer was introduced, called the ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL). Its sole purpose being to adapt the data streams to the ATM packet structure. The AAL and ATM layers constitute the ATM transport network.

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No network layer has been defined for the user plane. Some argue that no network layer is needed, others argue that IP should be used (i.e., IP over ATM). The control plane uses a signaling protocol Q.93B as layer 3. The management plane uses one of many protocols such as Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). An ATM network, unlike Frame Relay, provides on demand switched services and so routing and connection management functions are required. These functions are the responsibility of the control plane. Control Q.93B AAL User IP (?) AAL ATM Physical Management SNMP, etc. AAL

3 2 1

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5.1.4 ATM Transport

Upper Layers AAL Upper Layers AAL

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ATM ATM ATM ATM

ATM

PHY

PHY

PHY

PHY

PHY

ATM Subnetwork

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5.1.4.1 AAL
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It serves as the interface between the user and the ATM based network Four classes of service have been defined based upon the following 3 basic service requirements:

Timing relationship between source and destination: synchronous or asynchronous Bit rate: constant (CBR) or variable (VBR) Connection mode: connection oriented or connectionless
Requirement/Class Timing Class A Class B Class C Class D

Required

Not required

Bit rate

Constant

Variable Connection less

Connection mode

Connection Oriented

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Five AAL layers have been defined so far (AAL 1 - 5). Most common and widely used are AAL1 and AAL5. The AAL consists of two sublayers:

Segmentation and Reassembly Sublayer (SAR) - segments and encapsulates the user data. Identifies beginning, end or middle of user data message Convergence Sublayer (CS) - error control, multiplexing, timing

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5.1.4.2 ATM Layer

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ATM was defined to provide a connection oriented service. A virtual connection is used to transport user data. An identifier is used to uniquely identify a virtual connection. The cell consists of a header and a payload. The header was meant to be service independent, and it is for all AAL types except AAL 5.
8 bits Generic Flow Control VPI VCI Payload C Type (PT) Header Error Control (Detection and 1 bit FEC) VCI

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Header (5bytes)

Payload (48 bytes)

VPI

ATM Cell C: Cell discard bit PT: 1) 1 bit to indicate Control or Data, 2) Congestion indication bit, 3) EOM indication bit for AAL5 Header Format

VCI

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5.1.4.2.1 Virtual Paths (VPs) and Virtual Circuits (VCs)

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Virtual paths (VP) are used in ATM to facilitate traffic management. A virtual path provides a conduit for several virtual connections (VC). Some switches will only switch VPs and others will switch VCs. Virtual paths are defined over single hops, whereas virtual connections are defined end to end.

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5.1.4.3 Features of an ATM network:

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High bit rate transmission trunks (155Mbps) and small cell size: -> very small transmission times: 53 bytes/155M = 2.8microsecs. Propagation delays have not changed (laws of physics): on the order of millisecs (e.g.: NY - SF: 20ms). This means that several thousand cells are in transit on long haul trunks: From NY - SF: 155Mx20ms/53bytes=7K Because of this phenomenom ATM uses neither error control nor flow control on user data streams! Error control introduces too many delays and with the low error rates on fiber optic trunks it is not worth it. Flow control is totally useless as too many packets are in transit between source and destination for a feedback mechanism to have any effect.

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5.1.4.4 Traffic Management

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In an ATM network, a traffic source descriptor is used to describe an end user service to the network. In the ITU these user services have been classified based upon their Quality of Service (QoS) requirements.The following parameters have been identified as being important to service provisioning:

End-to-end delay Delay variation (jitter) Cell loss ratio

Given those three parameters the following QoS classes of service have been defined by the ITU:

Class 1 corresponding to Class A - CBR traffic Class 2 corresponding to Class B - VBR traffic with timing Class 3 corresponding to Class C - connection oriented data Class 4 corresponding to Class D - connectionless data

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The ATM Forum has specified a different set of classes of service:

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Constant Bit Rate (CBR) - continuous bit stream with timing Real-time Variable Bit Rate (rt-VBR) - low transit delay with guaranteed delivery service (i.e. low losses) and timing. Non-real-time Variable Bit Rate (nrt-VBR) - guaranteed delivery service but with less stringent delay requirements. Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) - for best effort delivery of data traffic, no guarantees whatsoever. Available Bit Rate (ABR) - guaranteed delivery service for a minimum bandwidth requirement. If more bandwidth is available the service can use it.

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5.1.4.5 Admission and Congestion Control in ATM Networks

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Traffic control incorporates two functions: Connection Admission Control (CAC) and Usage Parameter Control (UPC).

CAC is implemented during the call setup procedure to ensure that the admission of a call will not jeopardize the existing connections and also that enough network resources are available for this call. If the connection is admitted, a certain amount of bandwidth (BW) and buffer will be reserved according to the source traffic descriptor and the required quality of service (QoS). A service contract is also specified stating the traffic behavior the input bit stream should conform to in order to achieve the desired QoS. UPC is performed during a connections lifetime to monitor and control the input traffic. Its main purpose is to protect network resources from malicious as well as unintentional misbehavior which can affect the QoS of other established connections by detecting violations of negotiated parameter values. If excessive traffic is detected, it can be either immediately discarded or tagged for selective discarding if congestion is encountered in the network.

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User Terminal

CAC

BISDN NETWORK
UPC

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Operation of CAC and UPC

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If a connection is admitted, a certain amount of BW and buffer space will be reserved in accordance to the source traffic descriptor and the required Quality of Service of a source. The resultant service contract also specifies the traffic behavior that the input bit stream should conform to. UPC is performed during a connections lifetime to check if the source traffic characteristics adhere to the service contract specification. If violating traffic is detected, it can be either immediately discarded or tagged for selective discarding if congestion is encountered in the network. The Leaky Bucket (LB) scheme is a widely accepted implementation of a UPC function.

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Input Traffic

Fn

Sn

Policed Traffic

BI Input Buffer B = BI+BL BL Token Buffer R (token generation rate)

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Operation of Leaky Bucket

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The choice of R, token generation rate is crucial and so is the size of the token buffer BL The higher R the smaller BL. For network, smaller BL is better, less bursty source. However, for a fixed R, a larger BL means a smaller BI, i.e., lower delays. The user specifies: Peak Cell Rate (PCR) (minimum spacing between cells when coming from the source), Sustainable Cell Rate (SCR) and Maximum Burst Size (MBS). The token generation rate R = SCR. (Note SCR is not necessarily the sources average rate) The burst tolerance is defined by: BT = BL = (MBS - 1) (1/SCR + 1/PCR)

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5.2 What is wireless ATM (WATM)?

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WATM consists of ATM service that rides on top of an air interface between a terminal and an access point. The ATM switch serving the access point is mobility enhanced (it includes the radio resource management functions). The air interface consists of the Radio Access Layers (RAL) that include:

The radio physical layer - frequency bands, cell radii, power levels, modulation scheme, bit rate, diversity, line coding, data format (burst preamble, sync., etc.), signal spectrum, equalization, etc.. The Medium Access Control (MAC) - that is QoS aware - data format, framing, algorithms for QoS, etc. The Data Link Control (DLC) - hides the characteristics of the wireless channel from ATM - frame format, headers, control messages, error recovery, etc., and interface to ATM layer. The wireless control protocol for radio resource management - has to interface to ATM control plane.

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5.2.1 Protocol Architecture

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WATM Terminal

WATM Access Pt.

WATM

Mobility Enhanced ATM switch

ATM

ATM Network
ATM

ATM Host

WATM User appl AAL ATM RAL ATM RAL PHY

User appl U - Plane ATM PHY ATM PHY AAL ATM PHY

UNI +M AAL ATM RAL

W - Control

UNI +M SAAL ATM RAL PHY

NNI +M SAAL ATM PHY C - Plane

NNI SAAL ATM PHY

UNI SAAL ATM PHY

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5.3 Mobile ATM

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Mobile ATM has two major components:

Location Management: the ability to determine, topologically, the current location of the mobile terminal. Mobility Management: the ability of the network, to maintain an active connection as the mobile terminal moves through the infrastructure.

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5.3.1 Location Management

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To support location management, a network must maintain several databases that contain subscriber information and their current location. Location of a subscriber can only be maintained via registration. Registration updates inform the sytsem of the new location of the terminal. To support mobility, two addresses will be used: 1) end system address that never changes, and 2) routing address that changes by location. The databases will carry both, and registration updates will result in changes to the routing ID.

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5.3.2 Mobility Management

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Consists of 2 major components:

Hand-offs -> maintaining QoS Routing -> based on routing IDs

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5.3.2.1 Hand-Offs
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When a call is set-up across a network, the user and switch negotiate a set of QoS parameters. In a wireless environment, a BS (access point) will be involved in the negotiations (radio resource management) When a mobile moves to another location whilst still connected, it will want to maintain the same levels of service. That may not be possible given the load at the new location. Renegotiation of the QoS parameters will most likely have to occur. Reservation of bandwidth for hand-offs is very wasteful of resources, however connection dropping rates should be low. During hand-off, no cells should be lost, some form of buffering and re-routing of packets in transit during a hand-off procedure must be done. The network will need special signaling/control to handle hand-offs.

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5.3.2.2 Routing
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There are two considerations that arise in mobile ATM:

mapping of mobile routing IDs to a path in the network route indentification, re-routing and optimization for hand-offs (route extensions -> removal of loops, crossover switch discovery, new path set-up, etc.)

The NNI will have to be upgraded to support the signaling changes necessary to handle hand-offs.

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5.4 Current WATM Implementations

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The focus of this section is on the data link layer used by WATM. The data link layer consists of a link controller that is responsible for flow and error control and a media access control scheme. Because of the high bit error rates in wireless environments, error control is a must. Two major classes of error control are:

Forward Error Correction (FEC) Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)

Different Types of Media Access Control (MAC) schemes are used to support QoS over a WATM link. We shall look at some of those and discuss their abilities and how they meet their goals.

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5.4.1. Error Control Techniques Forward error correction (FEC)

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Low constant delay

an important feature for real-time services capability of the error correction code - depends on error patterns - high overhead if designed for worst case!

Stationary

Automatic repeat request (ARQ)

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Adaptive

only retransmit data that was received with errors not appropriate for real-time services

Variable delay

Hybrid ARQ - Combination of FEC and ARQ

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5.4.1.1. Hybrid ARQ

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The combination of the above two basic classes of error control FEC is used to combat bit errors for reasonable channel quality. When channel is very poor FEC overhead would be too high and so ARQ is used. Two types exist: Type I and Type II

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Type-I Hybrid ARQ:

T im eout

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Transm itter

I1

I2

I2

ACK

R eceiver
C: FEC co de

I1

I2

I2

Advantages:
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Information can be recovered from each transmitted packet. Error correction code in the transmitted packet can correct errors.

reducing the frequency of retransmissions higher throughput than pure ARQ for poor channel conditions

Disadvantages:
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Packets with errors are discarded even if they might contain some useful information.
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Type-II Hybrid ARQ:

T im eou t T im eou t C2

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T ran sm itter
I I C1 C2 I C1

R eceiv er In fo rm atio n R eco v ery

I I I

C1 C1 I

C2 C1 C2

Advantages:
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Erroneous packet is kept for future use rather than discarded. Redundancy increased incrementally

provides the ability to adapt to channel conditions

Disadvantages:
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Cannot recover information from the retransmitted packet alone. Requires more retransmissions to get a high error correction capability.
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Concatenated Hybrid ARQ (CH-ARQ) Scheme Combine type-I and type-II hybrid ARQ Use the Strengths of both schemes
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Recover information from each transmission or retransmission alone. Error correction capability is provided in each (re)transmitted packet.

reduces the frequency of retransmissions enhances the throughput forms a more powerful code when combined with the previous transmission to recover information if error correction has failed for the individual transmissions. information in errored packets is not discarded

Retransmitted packet consists of parity bits.

Very flexible and effective against both random and bursty errors.

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Operation of CH-ARQ Scheme

Timeout Transmitter J I P(I) I C Q P(I) C J I C Q P(I) C Timeout Timeout

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Receiver Error Correction

J I C

Q P(I) C

J I C

Q P(I) C

Information Recovery

P(I)

P(I)

I C: FEC bits (RCPC)

P(I)

P(I)

P(I)

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Flow of Data
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D1 D

P1(D) P(D)

Symbol Interleaver I P(I) type-I

CRC

FEC bits J I C: FEC bits

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Q C Bit Interleaver
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P(I)

5.4.2 Media Access Control (MAC) Schemes

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There are different ways in which we can classify media access techniques, e.g.:

By the method in which the resource is acquired: random access, fixed assignment, and demand assignment (centralised and decentralised). By the duplexing methodology used, i.e., FDD or TDD. By the multiplexing methodology: FDMA, CDMA, and TDMA.

We shall use the duplexing method for access scheme classification as most of the MACs used over a wireless link that require QoS guarantees use a mix of the other approaches, e.g., both random access and demand assignment can be used by a scheme to provide service. And so far all of those proposed use narrowband TDMA as the multiplexing scheme.

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5.4.2.1 FDD MAC Schemes

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We shall look at two schemes:

DQRUMA: proposed by researchers at Bell Labs. PRMA/DA: an enhancement to the original proposal by the team at WINLAB (Rutgers Univ.)

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DQRUMA (Karol et al.)

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Distributed Queueing Request Update Multiple Access (DQRUMA) It is based on TDMA, it uses a time slotted system (similar to ATM) with no frame structure. Time slots are of two types:

Carry data traffic with a small time alotted to either access request (uplink) or ACK of access request (downlink). Carry only access requests or ACK of access requests.

In addition each uplink time slot includes a transmit permit that indicates to a waiting mobile that it can use the next time slot for transmission. The downlink data carrying time slots also include a piggybacked access request. These requests are contention free. Whereas the access request minislot contained in each time slot uses a random access technique. This allows registered mobiles that become active (have a data packet to transmit) to demand a time slot for transmission.

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Each mobile wanting to set-up a connection must register with the base station (BS). The BS then assigns a local ID to the mobile which is used from then on to identify the mobile, either for access requests or transmit permits. The BS queues all access requests and gives out transmit permits based upon the status of the queues and the QoS demanded by a mobile for a particular session. The random access mechanism can be Aloha based or some other form of alg. that does allow for backoff schemes. DQRUMA is an elegant MAC that gives quick feedback to the mobile (FDD!). However because of FDD the mobile design is slightly more complex than a TDD system.

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PRMA/DA (Kim et al)

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Packet Reservation Multiple Access with Dynamic Allocation (PRMA/DA) PRMA was first proposed by Goodman, since then many variants have been proposed that are better able to handle mixed traffic classes. It is a time slotted system with a frame structure. Fully under the control of the BS it provides a contention free environment. Each frame consists of 4 sub frames. Each sub frame is dedicated to at traffic class (CBR, VBR, data and available slots (open slots)). When a mobile has registered with the BS but is not active it does not use up any of the resource. When a mobile becomes active because it has received packets in its buffer, it tries to use one of the available slots for a packet transmission. If its attempt is successful the BS will let it know and at the same time reserve some slots for the mobile in the appropriate sub frame. The number of available slots in a frame is broadcast by the BS. If a collision occurs in these slots then the BS assumes that two or more stations were trying to gain access and it can then increase the number of available slots.
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Like DQRUMA, because it uses FDD, mobiles get a quick response to their access attempt. Using large time slots for access requests has its drawbacks and advantages. A mobile sends data long with its access request. So if successful, there is a gain in efficiency. However if there is a collision, then one long time slot is wasted.

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5.4.2.2. TDD MAC schemes

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We shall look at two different multiple access schemes:

MASCARA - the MAC for the European Magic WAND system DTDMA/TDD - the NEC proposal

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MASCARA (Bauchot et al.)

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Mobile Access Scheme based on Contention and Reservation for ATM Consists of a variable length frame. Each frame consists of 2 subframes: uplink (UL) and down link (UL) The DL subframe consists of the frame header and the down traffic channels. The UL subframe consists of up traffic channels and a contention period. Frame header is used by BS to broadcast to all mobiles the status of the current time frame, the results from the contention period and the slot allocation for each mobile. A traffic channel can consist of several data packet transmissions (i.e., a train of cells can be sent consecutively). A QoS scheduler is used to determine which mobiles get slots when. Cell delay bounds are used to determine the scheduling of transmissions. Token buffers are used to determine how many cells a transmission can consist of. The contention period is used by mobiles to request a connection. With every connection is associated a SCR, a PCR and a cell delay time. The token buffers are filled with tokens with a rate R=SCR. Connections with full token buffers
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get priority and the cell delay time determines the position of the transmission time slot. The contention slots are large and can be wasteful if collisions occur frequently.

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DTDMA/TDD (Raychaudhuri et al.)

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Dynamic TDMA with Time Division Duplex Protocol Uses a fixed length frame. The down link consists of two parts: 1) ACKs and control and 2) data traffic. The uplink consists of two parts too: 1) a group of mini slots for requests and 2) the data traffic part which consists of 3 parts. One part for ABR and UBR traffic, one part for VBR and one part for CBR. CAC schemes must be used to determine the allocation of slots across the different classes of traffic. Using mini slots for requests is more efficient but the drawback is that you have to wait awhile to get feedback for your transmission. Does ATM header compression.

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