STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM :

1. CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Brain Spinal Cord 2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Spinal Nerves Cranial Nerves

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM :

1. SENSORY or AFFERENT DIVISION Conveys impulses to the CNS Consists of : Somatic Sensory Fibers delivers impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles and joints Visceral Sensory Fibers or Visceral Afferents delivers impulses from the visceral organs

2. MOTOR or EFFERENT DIVISION Carries impulses from the CNS to the effector organs Consists of: Somatic Nervous System or Voluntary Nervous System allows us to consciously or voluntarily control our skeletal muscles Autonomic Nervous System or Involuntary Nervous System regulates events that are automatic or involuntary Sympathetic Nervous System Parasympathetic Nervous System

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM :

3. Interneurons/ Association connect

the motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways. Cell bodies are always in the CNS

Nervous Tissue Structure and Function :

Two types of Cells Supporting Cells : Neuroglia or Glia or Glial Cells which do not transmit nerve imulses Neurons

SUPPORTING CELLS NEUROGLIA of the CNS:

1. Astrocytes star-shaped cells responsible for anchoring neurons to the blood capilliaries bringing nutrients to the cells Forms a living barrier between the neurons and capilliaries protecting them from harmful substances that may be in the blood Contributes to the Blood Brain Barrier Helps control the chemical environment in the brain by picking up excess ions and recapturing released neurotransmitters

2. Microglia Spider-like phagocytes that dispose including dead brain cells and bacteria

of

debris,

3. Ependymal Cells Lines the cavities of the brain and spinal cord Beating of their cilia helps to circulate the CSF 4. Oligodendrocytes Wraps their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibers in the CNS forming myelin sheaths

SUPPORTING CELLS NEUROGLIA of the PNS:

1. Schwann Cells Forms myelin sheaths around nerve fibers in the PNS 2. Satellite Cells Act as protective, cushioning cells

NEURONS :
Also called Nerve Cells are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of the body to another. Parts: a. cell body metabolic center of the neuron. Have abundant rough ER ( Nissl substance and neurofibrils but does not have centrioles (confirms the amitotic nature of most neurons. b. processes the armlike/fibers ( length of 3-4 feet or from lumbar spine to great toe) b.1. dendrites transmit impulses toward the cell body b.2. axon transmit impulses away from the cell body At the end of the axon are hundreds to thousands axon terminals which contain hundreds of tiny vesicles that contain chemicals called neurotransmitters.

NEURONS :
Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap called synaptic cleft, such functional junction is called synapse. Myelin sheath - are whitish, waxy fatty material that protects and insulates the nerve fibers and increases the transmission rate of nerve impulses. Axons outside CNS are myelinated by Schwann Cells Nodes of Ranvier are gaps or indentations located at regular intervals between the many individual Schwann Cells forming the myelin Sheath, and contain neurilemma that plays an important role in fiber degeneration if ever being damaged. CNS axon is myelinated by Oligodendrocytes, but it lacks neurilemma.

 Bundle of nerve fibers running through the CNS are called TRACTS while nerve fibers running thru the PNS are called NERVES. WHITE MATTER consists of myelinated tracts while the GRAY MATTER consists of unmyelinated fibers

Structural Classification
1. Multipolar with several cell processes extending from the cell body (motor neurons) 2. Bipolar - with two processes, an axon and a dendrite ( rare in adults eye and nose) 3. Unipolar has a single process emerging from the cell body ( sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia)

Physiology (electrochemical)
1. Irritability the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve impulse (electrical) Polarized resting/inactive neuron (K is the major positive ions inside the cell and positive ions Na outside the cell. (the cell is more negative than the outside)

Physiology
Depolarized - the inside of the cell is more positive than the outside. When neuron is adequately stimulated the gates of sodium channels in the membrane open. Because Na is much higher concentration outside the cell, Na will diffuse quickly into the neuron. This inward rush of Na changes the polarity of the neurons membrane

Physiology
Action potential/ nerve impulse happens if the stimulus is strong enough and the Na influx is great, the local depolarization (graded potential) activates the neuron to initiate and transmit a long distance signal. The nerve impulse is an all-or none response, like firing a gun. It is either propagated over the entire axon, or it doesnt happen at all.

Physiology
Repolarized almost immediately after Na ions rush into the neuron, the membrane permeability changes again, becoming impermeable to sodium ions but permeable to potassium ions, so K ions are allowed to diffuse out of the neuron into the tissue fluid very rapidly, restoring the electrical conditions of the membrane.

Physiology
2. Conductivity ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles or glands (chemical) As the action potential reach the axon terminal, the tiny vesicles containing the neurotransmitter chemical fuse with the axonal membrane, causing porelike thus releasing the neurotransmitter, which diffuse across the synapse and bind to receptors on the membrane of the next neuron. This happens very brief because the neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the synapse, either by reuptake into the axonal terminal or by enzymatic breakdown.

Reflexes
Are rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to stimuli Much like one-way streets- once a reflex begins, it always goes in the same direction. Occurs over neural pathways called reflex arcs and involve both CNS and PNS

Classification of reflexes
Somatic include all reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles ( quickly pulling the hand away from the hot object) Autonomic - regulate the activity of the smooth muscles, heart, glands (secretion of saliva and changes in the size of eye pupils)

Elements of Reflex Arcs

1. Sensory receptor reacts to stimulus 2. Effector organ stimulated muscle or gland 3. Sensory neurons to connect the two 4. Motor neurons - to connect the two 5. CNS integration the synapse between sensory and motor neurons

Example of Reflexes
Two-neuron reflex arc patellar reflex stretch receptors in the quadriceps muscle Three-neuron reflex arc flexor or withdrawal reflex

NEUROTRANSMITTERS :
Acetylcholine used by somatic motor action is inhibited by neurotransmitter inactivated by acetylcholinesterase Catecholamine Neurotransmitters EPINEPHRINE, NOREPINEPHRINE & neurons and its reuptake and is : DOPAMINE, SEROTONIN

these are categorized as MONOAMINES The stimulatory effect of catecholamines are inhibited by: Neurotransmitter reuptake Presynaptic degradation Monoamine Oxidase (MAO) Postsynaptic degradation Catecholamine OMethyltransferase (COMT) Drugs like MAO inhibitors & SSRIs enhance the effect of these neurotransmitters and are thus often used to treat people with depression

NEUROTRANSMITTERS :
Glycine and Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
An inhibitory neurotransmitter, and inhibits the activity of spinal motor neurons thus helping in the control of skeletal movements Acts as a general inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain, and is often used as a tranquilizer (e.g. the drug : Benzodiazepine Valium ), for mood and emotion disorders

Endorphines & Enkephalins

Helps to block the transmission of pain and also provide pleasant sensations endogenously produced morphine-like substances

FUNCTIONAL ANATOMY OF THE BRAIN

Four Major Regions : 1. Cerebral Hemispheres 2. Diencephalon 3. Brain Stem 4. Cerebellum

CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES
Has a FRONTAL LOBE, PARIETAL LOBE, TEMPORAL LOBE, OCCIPITAL LOBE & INSULA CORPUS CALLOSUM connects the two hemispheres together

FUNCTIONS OF THE LOBES

LOBE FUNCTION

Frontal Lobe

Voluntary control of skeletal muscles, higher intellectual processes (e.g. concentration, planning and decision making); verbal communication
Somasthetic Interpretation (e.g. cutaneous & muscular sensations), understanding speech and formulating words to express thoughts & emotions, interpretaion of textures & shapes

Parietal Lobe

FUNCTIONS OF THE LOBES

LOBE Temporal Lobe FUNCTION Interpretation of auditory sensations, storage (memory) of auditory and visual experiences Integration of movements in focusing the eye, correlation of visual images with previous visual experiences and other sensory stimuli, conscious perception of vision Memory, integration of other cerebral activities

Occipital Lobe

Insula

Longitudinal Fissure Frontal Lobe

Central Sulcus

Parietal Lobe

Temporal Lobe

Occipital Lobe

Frontal Lobe

Central Sulcus

Parietal Lobe

Fissure of Rolando

Parieto Occipital Sulcus

Fissure of Sylvius

Lateral Sulcus

Temporal Lobe

Occipital Lobe

INSULA

Secondary Motor Region

Primary Motor Region

Primary Sensory Region

Secondary Sensory Region

Acoustic Region

Primary Optic Region

Secondary Optic Region

Brocas Area for Speech

Generation of articulatory sequences so that thoughts can be turned into statements with correct phonology and syntax. Dysfunction leads to impaired articulation, word order, grammar. Phonology= sound structure Syntax= sentence order and structure

Wernickes area
Gateway for linking the sensory patterns of words to the distributed associations that encode their meaning.

DIENCEPHALON or INTERBRAIN- sits atop the brain stem Consists of the HYPOTHALAMUS, THALAMUS and the EPITHALAMUS and the PITUITARY Gland THALAMUS- encloses shallow 3rd ventricle of the brain Acts as a relay station for all sensory impulses upward to sensory cortex, except smell, to the cerebral cortex Also performs sensory interpretation EPITHALAMUS- forms the roof of 3rd ventricle Consists of the following : Choroid Plexus which produces CSF Pineal Body which secretes melatonin, associated with sleep & wakefulness, as well as memory. PITUITARY GLAND-hangs from anterior hypothalamus by a slender stalk Master Gland of the Body Will be discussed at the Endocrine System floor of

HYPOTHALAMUS Influences Heartbeat via the medulla oblongata Thermoregulation Water & Electrolyte Balance ADH/Vasopressin production and initiation of thirst Hunger & GIT Activity Appetite, Feeding Center & Satiety Center are located in the Hypothalamus Sleep & Wakefulness Regulation Sleep center & Wakefulness center are also located here Sexual Response sexual center located, responds to tactile stimulation of the genitals & orgasm involves activity of the hypothalamus Emotions part of the limbic system; parts of the hypothalamus are associated with emotional responses like anger, fear, pain and pleasure Endocrine functions secretes Oxytocin & ADH MAMMILIARY BODIES Reflex centers for OLFACTION located posterior to the pituitary gland

Brain Stem
Diencephalon

Mesencephalon Or Midbrain

PONS

Medulla Oblongata Cerebellum

BRAIN STEM
Consists of the MIDBRAIN, PONS, OBLONGATA & RETICULAR FORMATION MEDULLA

MIDBRAIN or MESENCEPHALON Contains the CORPORA QUADRIGEMINA 2 superior reflex center for vision 2 inferior responsible for auditory reflexes Contains CEREBRAL PEDUNCLES connects the cerebrum to the other regions of the brain
PONS Together with the medulla oblongata, these constitutes the respiratory center of the body

MEDULLA OBLONGATA FUNCTIONS : Cardiac Center Inhibitory and accelerator fibers influence the heartrate. Vasomotor Center regulates BP and blood flow by influencing Blood vessels to constrict or dilate Respiratory Center together with the PONS, regulates the rate & depth of breathing Also functions as centers for sneezing, coughing, swallowing and vomiting RETICULAR FORMATION Functions as the Reticular Activating System (RAS) in arousing the cerebrum It keeps the cerebrum in a state of alert consciousness Helps the cerebellum to maintain muscle tone and produce smooth, coordinated contractions of the skeletal muscles.

CEREBELLUM
Consists of two hemispheres Falx Cerebelli portion of the meninges that extends between the meninges Tentorium Cerebelli part of the meninges that separates the Temporal and Occipital Lobes from the Cerebellum FUNCTION: Coordinating skeletal muscle contractions Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our balance and equilibrium Makes body movements smooth and coordinated

CEREBELLUM

MENINGES- protects the CNS

Consists of the DURA MATER, ARACHNOID MATER & PIA MATER
DURA MATER Attached to the skull and is double-layered : Periosteal Layer and the Meningeal Layer ARACHNOID MATER Middle of the three meninges Subarachnoid space located between the Arachnoid and the Pia mater, is filled with CSF PIA MATER Innermost membrane Clings to the surfaces of the brain and the spinal cord

CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF)

A clear, lymph-like fluid the forms a protective cushion around and within the CNS formed by the choroid plexus It also buoys the brain Circulates thru the ventricles of the brain, the central canal of the spinal cord & subarachnoid space around the entire CNS Returns to the circulation by draining thru the arachnoid villi, which are venous capillaries Normal volume : 150ml (140-200ml)

VENTRICLES OF THE BRAIN

Lateral ventricles (First & Second) in the cerebral hemisphere Third Ventricle in the Diencephalon Fourth Ventricle in the brain stem

LATERAL VENTRICLE

THIRD VENTRICLE

FOURTH VENTRICLE

CENTRAL CANAL OF THE SPINAL CORD

LATERAL VENTRICLE

THIRD VENTRICLE

FOURTH VENTRICLE

CENTRAL CANAL OF THE SPINAL CORD

Blood brain barrier

The least permeable capillaries in the whole body Only glucose, water, and essential amino acids pass easily through the walls of these capillaries. Metabolic wastes such as urea, toxins, proteins and most drugs are prevented from entering the brain tissue. Fats, respiratory gases and other fat-soluble molecules diffuse easily through this membrane.

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

SPINAL CORD 17 inches (42 cm long)

31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord The cord extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra most ascending and descending tracts decussate within the medulla oblongata Two Principal Functions: 1. Impulse Conduction via the ascending tracts and descending tracts 2. Reflex Integration movements like the cardiac and smooth muscles that control the heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure and digestive activities. Also involved in the nerve pathways for swallowing, coughing, sneezing and vomiting Plexus network of nerve fibers Ganglion - a group of nerve cell bodies, located outside the central nervous system; occasionally applied to certain nuclear groups within the brain or spinal cord.

Cervical Spinal Nerves 1-8

Thoracic Spinal Nerves 1 - 12

Lumbar Spinal Nerves 1-5

Sacral Spinal Nerves 1-5

Coccygeal Spinal Nerves 1-3

Cauda Equina

Decussation of nerve tracts

SPINAL NERVE PLEXUSES

Plexus Cervical Important Nerves Phrenic Body Areas Served Diaphragm and muscles of the shoulder & neck Deltoid muscle Result if Damaged Respiratory paralysis Paralysis and atrophy of the deltoids Wristdrop inability to extend hand at the wrist Inability to pick up small objects Clawhand inability to spread fingers apart

Brachial

Axillary

Radial

Triceps & extensor muscles of the forearm Flexor muscles of the forearm Wrist & hand muscles

Median

Ulnar

Plexus Lumbar

Important Nerves Femoral

Body Areas Served Lower abdomen, buttocks, anterior thighs and skin of leg and thigh Adductor muscles of thigh and small hip muscles, skin of thigh and the hip joint Lower trunk and posterior surface of the thigh and leg Lateral aspect of leg & foot Posterior aspect of leg & foot

Result if Damaged Inability to extend the leg and flex hip, loss of cutaneous sensation Inability to adduct the thigh

Obturator

Sacral

Sciatic

Inability to extend hip and flex knee Footdrop inability to dorsiflex the foot Inability to plantar flex & invert the foot, shuffling gait

Fibular

Tibial

Plexus Sacral

Important Nerves Superior & Inferior Gluteal

Body Areas Served Gluteus muscles

Result if Damaged Inability to extend the hip (maximus) or abduct and medially rotate the thigh (medius)

Olfactory bulb Olfactory tract

Olfactory (I)

Optic Chiasma Optic Tract Abducens (VI) Facial (VII) Hypoglossal (XII)

Optic (II)

Oculomotor (III) Trochlear (IV) Trigeminal (V)

Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Glossopharyngeal (IX)

Accessory (XI) Vagus (X)

CRANIAL NERVES
Name / Number I - Olfactory Composition & Function Sensory - Olfaction

II - Optic
III - Oculomotor

Sensory - Vision
Motor - innervation to the inferior oblique, superior, inferior & medial rectus muscles of the eye Motor eyelid Motor muscles that regulate the lens shape and pupil size Motor superior oblique muscle of the eyeball

IV - Trochlear

CRANIAL NERVES- 12 pairs

Name / Number V Trigeminal Opthalmic Nerve Maxillary Nerve Mandibular Nerve VI - Abducens Composition & Function Sensory impulses from cornea, skin of nose, forehead and scalp Sensory impulses from nasal mucosa, upper teeth and gums, palate, upper lip and skin of cheek Sensory muscles of mastication Motor muscles of mastication Motor lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball

CRANIAL NERVES
Motor muscles of facial expression, lacrimal and salivary glands Sensory taste buds of anterior tongue, nasal and palatal sensation VIII - Vestibulocochlear Sensory impulses associated with equilibrium and hearing
IX - Glossopharyngeal Name / Number VII - Facial Composition & Function

Motor muscles of the pharynx that promote swallowing, salivation of parotid gland Sensory taste buds of posterior tongue and carotid artery

Name / Number X - Vagus

Composition & Function

Motor muscles of pharynx (swallowing) and larynx (Phonation) Motor visceral activity: digestive tract and regulates heart rate Sensory taste buds of rear tongue, auricle of the ear and general visceral sensations Motor Laryngeal movement, soft palate Motor & sensory sternocleidomastoid & trapezius muscles

XI - Accessory

XII - Hypoglossal Motor tongue movement Sensory muscles of the tongue

AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

(THORACOLUMBAR) (ADRENERGIC SYSTEM FIGHTor FLIGHT system Four Main Adrenergic receptors: Alpha located in vascular tissues (vessels) of smooth muscles Stimulated: increases force of heart contraction. Vasoconstriction increasing BP. Mydriasis dilates the pupils. Glandular decreases salivary secretion Alpha Inhibits release of norepinephrine dilates blood vessels thus decreasing BP, producing Hypotension

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Four Main Adrenergic receptors: Beta located primarily in the heart Stimulated: increases heart rate and force of contraction / myocardial contractility Beta Mostly in the smooth muscles of the lungs, arterioles of skeletal muscles and the uterine muscles Stimulation: bronchodilation, increased blood flow to skeletal muscles and uterine relaxation Other Adrenergic receptors: Dopaminergic Located in renal, mesenteric, coronary and cerebral arteries Stimulated: vessels dilate & blood flow increases

SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM Neurotransmitters used: Epinephrine Norepinephrine Dopamine Serotonin collectively, these are called Catecholamines PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM (CRANIOSACRAL) CHOLINERGIC SYSTEM) RESTING SYSTEM Neurotransmitter used: Acetylcholine Two Main Adrenergic receptors: Muscarinic Receptors Stimulate smooth muscles and slows down the heart rate Nicotinic Receptors Affects skeletal muscles

EFFECTS OF THE ANS

Organ Eye (iris) Eye (Ciliary muscle) Lacrimal Glands Salivary Glands Sweat Glands Digestive System PSNS Constricts pupils Contraction for vision Production of tears Production of saliva No effect Increased peristalsis and amount of secretion, relaxation of sphincters SNS Dilates Pupils Relaxation for vision Inhibits : dry eyes Decreased : dry mouth Perspiration

near

far

Decreased activity and amount of secretion, constriction of sphincters Hormone secretion Release of Glucose Bronchodilation Increased HR & force of contraction

Adrenals Liver Lungs Heart

No effect No effect Bronchoconstriction Dereased HR, slows and steadies

Organ

PSNS

SNS

Urinary bladder
Kidneys Blood vessels

Relaxes sphincters (allowing voiding) No effect

No effect on most, dilation on a few (penis)

Arrector Pili Muscles

Cellular Metabolism

No effect
No effect

Constricts sphincters (Prevents voiding) Decreased urine production Constricts in viscera and skin / dilates those in skeletal muscles and heart, increased BP Hair erection goosebumps
Increased metabolic rate, increased blood sugar and stimulates fat breakdown Ejaculation Contraction pregnant women in

Penis Uterus

Erection No effect