Imbsweiler 1 Regina Imbsweiler ASTR 1020 H Dr.

Skelton April 17, 2010

Empirical Evidence for Stellar Black Holes

Imbsweiler 2 The first indication for black holes was not empirical, but theoretical. It grew out of an implication of Einsteins theory of general relativity developed by the German astronomer Karl Schwarzschild in 1916. His hypothesis was that for stars compressed below a critical mass/radius ratio, gravity would be strong enough to capture everything, including light, that got as close as the so-called event-horizon. The actual existence of dark or frozen stars, as they were called at the time, was doubted by physicists for a long period because of the required extreme compression of ordinary matter. Stephen Hawking, in The Universe in a Nutshell, remembers going to Paris to give a seminar on my discovery that quantum theory means that black holes arent completely black. My seminar fell rather flat because at that time almost no one in Paris believed in black holes. 1 While they are by definition unobservable, there is evidence for stellar-sized black holes from the observation of so-called binary systems in which a large visible star and a small, visually dark object, either black hole or a neutron star rotate around each other. The images of radiation generated by these objects show x-ray outbursts with specific patterns, such as those observed by NASAs Chandra X-ray observatory, specific to stellar black holes. There is also support for the existence of intermediate-sized black holes in stellar clusters and of supermassive black holes in the centers of galaxies and inside of quasars.2 The first strong observational evidence was discovered by Tom Bolton at the University of Torontos David Dunlap Observatory in Ontario in 1971. Bolton was researching binary star systems, composed of two stars orbiting each other. When he first observed the system containing HDE 226868 and an invisible X-ray source, Cygnus X-1, he assumed that the invisible partner was a neutron star. Unusual emission lines led to further observation. From HDE226868s estimated speed of rotation around Cygnus X-1, ca. 70km/s, it followed that Cygnus X-1 was much too dense and its gravitational pull was much too strong for a neutron star. The only feasible conclusion was that the invisible source of X-rays was a black hole. The findings suggested that gas from the visible star was pulled into Cygnus X-1, and that the X-rays were produced by the gas becoming super-hot while swirled at extreme speeds before

Imbsweiler 3 entering the so-called event horizon of the black hole, beyond which they could no longer be observed.3 Bolton published his findings in February 1972 in Nature.4

Model of the binary system containing Cygnus X-1. Source: NASA

In July 1999 NASA launched the Chandra X-ray Observatory, a telescope designed for the specific detection of X-ray emissions from extremely hot regions, including matter heated by black holes. Chandra orbits the earth at ca. 139,000km altitude on a satellite; therefore, it has direct access to X-ray radiation from the universe which is mostly absorbed in the Earths atmosphere and is hardly observable from the ground. It is operated by the Smithsonians Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge, MA which also maintains a public website.5 With Chandras findings and observations from other sources, including the Japanese ASCA satellite, the European XMM-Newton Observatory and NASAs Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer (RXTE), there is now evidence of ca. 20 stellar-size black holes. The supporting images of radiation generated by black holes show strong x-ray outbursts, such as those observed by NASAs Chandra X-ray observatory, which are theoretically characteristic of black holes. The findings suggest a strong similarity between stellar and super-massive black holes in the centers of galaxies.6 Ironically, NASA now reports that the evidence for Cygnus x-1 is not as strong as it was earlier, while other exemplars are better confirmed. Some astronomers argue that Cygnus rotating company star might have less mass than the assumed 30 solar masses, which in turn would lessen the minimum

Imbsweiler 4 mass required of the central object, presumed at 7 solar masses, to 3 solar masses, opening the way for the possibility that Cygnus-X is indeed a neutron star. From this example we can see how not only the directly observed phenomena, but also assumed circumstances, here the mass of the accompanying star, play a role in the interpretation of evidence. One of the premises in the case of Cygnus X-1 is that the unknown center object is either a neutron star or a black hole. Another underlying assumption here is that the maximum possible mass for a neutron star is ca. 3 solar masses (on average 1.4 solar masses), while black holes have a mass of more than 3, in the range of 4-15 solar masses, stemming from stars that had 25 or more solar masses before collapsing. This critical mass is supposed to be the threshold at which a collapsing star remnant is subject to so much gravity that the collapse does not end at the neutron level but continues beyond, compressing the remnant matter much further. The difference in size between neutron stars and black holes means that neutron stars are in principle visible, while black holes are not. While a neutron star of close to 3 solar masses and a density of 1014 to 1015 g/cm3 has a radius of 20km, a black hole is in theory collapsed to a singularity, a point, with infinite density. Whether this point of zero volume is actually reached is beyond confirmation: the volume of the black hole is within its so-called Schwarzschild radius, or event horizon, within which the escape speed to get away from the black holes gravity is higher than the speed of light. For an object of 3 solar masses this would be ca. 9km. For a neutron star of this mass, the Schwarzschild radius would be inside of its own boundaries. However, in this case the difference in visibility is not useful in observation because of the long distances, small sizes and the fact that neutron stars dont give off light. Instead, the evidence for both neutron stars and black holes comes from the radiation of interacting materials. Central in all observations of neutron stars and stellar black holes is the X-ray radiation from binary systems, indicating temperatures of a few million Kelvin. Since it s launch in 1995 Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer (RXTE) has yielded information pointing towards different patterns of radiation.

Imbsweiler 5 Managed by NASA, its features include high time resolution in combination with spectral resolution to explore the variability of X-ray sources. 7 X-rays outbursts on neutron stars are explained by the production of a thermonuclear flash by exploding accumulated gas around the solid surface of a neutron star. This specific observation seems to distinguish neutron stars from black holes, since this type of explosion would not occur around black holes. Ten years after RXTEs start of operations astronomers compared RXTEs X-ray data with the respective lists of candidates, according to their differences in estimated masses and found a perfect match between new data and previous hypotheses.8 The X-ray outbursts that are characteristic for neutron stars would not happen around black holes in the same pattern because they dont have a solid surface and would not accumulate gases or electrons in the same manner; for before reaching the required amount of accumulation, the matter would have been pulled inside the event horizon. 9 So-called type I X-ray bursts are indicative of brief thermonuclear eruptions and lasts about one minute, with a frequency of several hours. 10 The radiation obtained from black holes is explained as the emission from material, either interstellar matter like gas and dust, or from parts of the companion star that are pulled towards the black hole. Now it is believed that these materials enter an orbit around the black hole and are accumulated in an accretion disc, and are heated to extreme temperatures of tens of millions degrees by the motion and friction of being swirled around before spiraling inside the event horizon.11 A sign for the identification black holes is the randomness of X-rays, due to the variation of material falling in. Cygnus X1, for example, has variations and flickering in the range of 1/1000sec. 12 From the variations of so-called hard and soft spectral states, conclusions can be drawn about the disc of accreted material and the rotation speed.13 In 1992 images from Cygnus C-1 were taken in which flashes of ultraviolet light sputtered and disappeared. The image illustrates different stages of gas according to data assembled

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by Joseph Dolan of NASAs Goddard Space Flight Center, and a rendering that demonstrates the different stages of matter falling beyond the event horizon.
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Dolan observed sequences of pulses of six or seven, lasting 0.2 seconds each and getting smaller with each repetition, called dying pulse trains. These preliminary data strongly point toward the existence of an event horizon. 15 As of early 2009 there were ca. 20 binary systems for which there was stronger evidence that they contain black holes than there was for Cygnus X-1. Two of them are A0620-00 and V404 Cygni.16 A-062000, in the constellation Monoceros, is ca. 2,800 to 3,400 light years away and has 3 to 13 solar masses. It had bright flare-ups in 1917 and in 1975, when the strength was measured at 100,000 times the normal radiation and has been classified as an X-ray nova. The flare-ups are explained by sudden dumping of large amounts of gas coming from the accompanying star that accumulated on the black holes accretion disk. Its companion star has only one half solar mass, which makes this binary system different from most others whose accompanying stars are large and bright. V 404 Cygni, with an estimated 12 solar masses, also has had flare-ups of gas, last observed in 1938 and 1989, when the accreted gass density reached a tipping point and suddenly fell in the hole.17

Imbsweiler 7 Another black hole candidate, XTE J1550-564, discovered by the Rossi X-Ray Timing Explore (RXTE) satellite, had two powerful outbursts of X-rays in 1998 and several smaller ones since. In 2000, it was classified as a microquasar18 when Chandra observed jets of high-energy particles ejected from the accretion disk. In the illustration on the right the jets are visualized as vertical lines; in the three photographs on the left, first the jet on the left and then also the one on the right are seen as they move away from the center at ca. half the speed of light. While the jet on the left disappeared in the third image, the one on the right grew brighter, possibly because of interacting with gas, as indicated by its comet-like shape. 19

Credit: Left: X-ray (NASA/CXC); Right: Illustration (CXC/M.Weiss)

It should be noted that these jet outbursts seem to be common features of all types of objects that accrete gas, including neutron stars, supermassive black holes and possibly dwarf novae. However, there seem to be distinct patterns, such as an order of accretion states for black hole X-ray binaries. The following diagram shows the difference between the three types of systems. It is a so-called Hardness intensity diagram (HID), comparing measurements from a

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black hole (left), a neutron star (middle) and the dwarf nova SS Cyg (right). The hardness of Xrays is defined by their higher energy level, while soft X-rays have a lower energy level.

Credit: Krding, et.al.

The vertical scale notes all X-ray counts between 3.8 and 21.2 keV, while the X-ray hardness ratio, on the horizontal scale, represents the ration of the hard counts (6.3-10.5 keV) to the soft counts (3.8-6.3keV).20 Other observations allow inferences regarding different spinning speeds of black holes. Results from the X-ray spectra from iron atoms indicate that they can have different orbits, depending on the spinning velocity of the black hole. Data from 2003 show that around Cygnus X-1 the iron atoms were not closer than 100 miles to the event radius which would indicate that it is not spinning (see the image on the left of the illustration below). In contrast, a black hole that is spinning has atoms orbiting closer. Data from XTE J1650-500 (image on the right), observes more X-rays with low energy, indicating that they come from as close as 20 miles from the event horizon, from what is called the gravitational well. The conclusion from this observation is that XTE J1650-500 is spinning.

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Credit: Illustration: NASA/CXC/M.Weiss; Spectra: NASA/CXC/SAO/J.Miller et al.

It has also been concluded from observation that GX 339-4, a third black hole which also has warm gas clouds flowing away from it at high speeds, is spinning rapidly. These findings are relevant as they point towards the similarity between stellar black holes and supermassive black holes which show some of the same characteristics they also spin rapidly, have massive gas flows and produce high-energy jets.21 While there is well-established evidence for both stellar black holes and supermassive black holes (which are not discussed here), the newest research is directed towards intermediate-sized black holes.22 According to Richard Talcotts May 2010 article in Astronomy, an intermediate-sized black hole has been caught in the act of shredding a star. It is supposed to be located in a globular cluster in the elliptical galaxy NGC1399, ca. 65 million light-years from Earth. These intermediate sized objects are estimated to have 100 to 10,000 solar masses, compared with less than 25 for stellar sized and over 100,000 for supermassive black holes. Observations from the globular cluster in NGC 1399 have yielded radiation patterns indicating

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emissions from an accretion disk and radiation presumed to be from the shredded stars remnants.23 Future research will include data from the planned SIM Lite Astrometric Observatory which will be able to position objects in space within two microarcseconds. The comparison between X-ray luminosities of neutron stars and black holes will be further advanced through SIM Lites exact distance measurements. Astronomers also predict to be able to determine the exact binary inclination of systems like Cygnus X-1, allowing conclusions regarding the inclination of the accretion disk, which then would contribute towards finding the shape of the innermost stable circular orbit (ISCO), the determination of which has previously been attempted by measuring the iron emissions.24 The story of Cygnus X-1 illuminates the process of scientific research. As Kip Thorne reminds us in his book Black Holes and Time Warps, the evidence that this is the nature of Cyg X-1 was not developed easily. It required a cooperative, massive, worldwide effort carried out in the 1960s and 1970s by hundreds of experimental physicists, theoretical astrophysicists, and observational astronomers,25 According to his estimate, the confidence level of identifying Cygnus X-1 as a black hole rose from 80% in 1974 to 95% in 1994. While the examples of evidence discussed above have been gathered since then, with the use of advancing technology, there is no absolute certainty as long as the latest findings are preliminary, such as Joseph Dolans data. Confirmation by further research is necessary. According to Dolan, if we were trying to convict Cygnus XR-1 of being a black hole in court, wed win a civil case that only needs a preponderance of the evidence, but not a criminal case, that requires beyond a reasonable doubt. Finding an event horizon would put the evidence beyond a reasonable doubt.26

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1
2

Hawking, Stephen. The Universe in a Nutshell. New York: Bantam, 2001.

Greene, Brian. The Elegant Universe. New York: Vintage, 2000. p.80. Culp, Kristine. The Proof is Out There. University of Toronto Magazine. Autumn 2002. http://www.magazine.utoronto.ca/feature/astrophysics-tom-bolton-black-holes-research/

Bolton, C.T. Identification of Cygnus X-1 with HDE 226868. Nature 245, 271-273. http://chandra.harvard.edu/about/ Iron-Clad evidence for spinning black hole. NASA, Sept. 2003. http://chandra.harvard.edu/press/03_releases/press_091703.html

Guest Observer Facility, Rossi X-Ray Timing Explorer (RXTE): December 1995 -.NASA.

http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/xte/XTE.html
8

Thompson, Dave. RXTE neutron stars and black holes.NASA, 2005. http://www.gsfc.nasa.gov/sciencesqust2005/20060120.html

Ibid. Vanishing gas confirms black hole event horizons. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/060109_event_horizon.html

10

11

Britt, Robert. Possible First Direct Evidence That Black Holes Exist. http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/astronomy/death_spiral_010111.html

12

Black Holes. NASA. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_12/black_holes.html Axelsson, Magnus. Rapid X-ray Variability in Cygnus X-1 in Cool Discs, Hot Flows: The Varying Faces of Accreting Compact Objects. Ed. Axelsson. American Institute of Physics 2008.

13

14

Space. com. http://www.space.com/php/multimedia/imagedisplay/img_display.php?pic=h_death_spiral_explainer_02. jpg&cap=Dolan%27s+data%2C+and+an+artist%27s+rendering+of+the+matter+falling+beyond+the+event+ horizon.

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15

Britt, R. Possible first evidence. Black Holes. NASA University of Texas McDonal Observatory, Black Hole Encyclopedia. 2009. http://blackholes.stardate.org/directory/factsheet.php?p=A0620-00 http://blackholes.stardate.org/directory/factsheet.pho?p=V404-Cygni

16

17

18

Ibid. http://blackholes.stardate.org/directory/factsheet.php?p=XTE-J1550-564 XTE J1550-564: Chandra tracks evolution of X-ray jets. NASA 2002. http://chandra.harvard.edu/photo/2002/xtej1550/

19

20

Krding, Elmar, et.al. A transient radio jet in an erupting dwarf nova. arXiv.org. Cornell University Library, 2008. http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0806/0806.1002.pdf

21

Iron-Clad evidence for spinning black hole. NASA, 2003. http://chandra.harvard.edu/press/03_releases/press_091703.html

22

Safonova, Margarita et.al. Extrapolating SMBH correlations down the mass scale: the case for IMBHs in globular clusters. Astrophysics & Space Science; Jan. 2010, 325,1. P.47-58. EBSCO. GPC Library, Dunwoody (abstract only).

23

Talcott, Richard. A black hole caught in the act. Astronomy, May 2010: 38.5. EBSCO. GPC Library Dunwoody. Accessed 17 April 2010.

24

Tomsick, John et.al. Black Holes and Neutron Stars. SIM Lite Book. NASA, California Institute of Technology, 2009. http://sim.jpl.nasa.gov/keyPubPapers/simBook2009/

25

Thorpe, Kip. Black Holes and Time Warps. New York: Norton, 1994. Britt, R. Possible first evidence

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