M.

Vable

Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress and Strain

The learning objectives in this chapter are:

Understanding the concept of stress and the use of double subscripts in

determining the direction of stress components on a surface.

Understanding the concept of strain and the use of small strain and finite
difference approximation.

Understanding the stress and strain transformation in three dimension.

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Internally Distributed Force System

The intensity of internal distributed forces on an imaginary cut surface of a

body is called the stress on a surface. The intensity of internal distributed force that is normal to the surface of an imaginary cut is called the normal stress on a surface. The intensity of internal distributed force that is parallel to the surface of an imaginary cut surface is called the shear stress on the surface. Relating stresses to external forces and moments is a two step process.
Stresses Static Equivalency Internal Forces and Moments Equilibrium External Forces and Moments

Static equivalency
Uniform Normal Stress avg Uniform Shear Stress avg Normal stress x linear in y y z Normal stress linear in z x y z T Uniform shear stress in tangential direction.

x N = avg A V = avg A y z Mz y z My

Axial

Bending

Bending

Torsion

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress at a Point
Outward normal i Ai Fj Internal Force F j ij = lim -------- A i A i 0
direction of outward normal to the imaginary cut surface. direction of the internal force component.

Ai will be considered positive if the outward normal to the surface is in

the positive i direction.

A stress component is positive if numerator and denominator have the

same sign. Thus ij is positive if: (1) Fj and Ai are both positive. (2) Fj and Ai are both negative.

xx Stress Matrix in 3-D: yx zx

xy yy zy

xz yz zz

Table 1.1. Comparison of number of components Quantity Scaler Vector Stress 1-D 1=10 1=11 1=12 2-D 1=20 2=21 4=22 3-D 1=30 3=31 9=32

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress Element
Stress element is an imaginary object that helps us visualize stress at a
point by constructing surfaces that have outward normal in the coordinate directions. Stress cube showing all positive stress components

xx yx zx

xy yy zy

xz yz zz

Plane Stress: All stress components on a plane are zero. xx yx 0 xy yy 0 0 0 0

Symmetric Shear Stresses: xy = yx yz = zy zx = xz A pair of symmetric shear stress points towards the corner or away from the corner.

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.3 Show the non-zero stress components on the A,B, and C faces of the cube shown in Figure P1.3 and Figure P1.4. xx = 0 yx = 15 ksi zx = 0 xy = 15 ksi yy = 10ksi ( C ) zy = 25ksi xz = 0 yz = 25ksi zz = 20ksi ( T )

Fig. P1.3 1.4

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress transformation in two dimension

(a) t
In ne cli

Vertical Plane

Outward normal to the inclined plane.

(c) y t n

Horizontal Plane

Matrix Notation n x = cos nx {n} = ny n y = sin {t} = t x = cos ty = nx [] =

T

True only in 2D: = 90 + t x = n y

The symmetry of shear stresses

T

dP

lan e

nn = xx cos + yy sin + 2 xy sin cos

2 nt = xx cos sin + yy sin cos + xy cos 2 sin

tt = xx sin + yy cos 2 xy cos sin

t y = sin

tx ty []

xx xy yx yy

= []

nn = { n } [ ] { n } nt = { t } [ ] { n } tt = { t } [ ] { t }
T T

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M. Vable

Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Traction or Stress vector

Mathematically the stress vector {S} is defined as:

{S} = [ ]{n} S x = xx n x + xy n y S y = yx n x + yy n y pressure is a scaler quantity. traction is a vector quantity., stress is a second order tensor. Statically equivalent force wedge.
nt (dA) nn(dA) xx ( nx dA) xx( nx dA) Sy (dA) Sx (dA)

xy (nx dA) yx (ny dA) yy (ny dA)

xy (nx dA) yx (n dA) y yy (n dA) y

{ S } = nn { n } + nt { t } Stress vector in different coordinate systems.

y Sy

nt{t} {S} nn{n} Sx x

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Principal Stresses and Directions

{ S } = [ ]{ p } = p { p }
OR

xx xy p x {S} = yx yy p y
OR

p 0 px = 0 p py

( xx p ) yx Characteristic equation

px = 0 ( yy p ) p y xy

p p ( xx + yy ) + ( xx yy xy ) = 0
Roots: 1, 2 =

( xx + yy ) ( xx + yy ) 4 ( xx yy xy ) 2
OR

xx + yy xx yy 2 ----------------------- ---------------------- + 2 1, 2 = xy 2 2 The eigenvalues of the stress matrix are the principal stresses. The eigenvectors of the stress matrix are the principal directions.

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Stress Transformation in 3-D

nx { n } = ny nz

Sx { S } = Sy Sz
T

xx [] = yx zx

xy yy zy

xz yz zz

nn = { n } [ ] { n } nt = { t } [ ] { n } tt = { t } [ ] { t }
Equilibrium condition:
T T

{S} = [ ]{n} { S } = nn { n } + nt { t E }

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M. Vable

Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Principal Stresses and Directions

{ S } = [ ]{ p } = p { p }
OR

xx yx zx

xy yy zy

p 0 0 px xz p x yz p y = 0 p 0 p y zz p z 0 0 p pz
OR

( xx p ) yx zx

xy ( yy p ) zy

px yz py = 0 ( zz p ) p z xz

The eigenvalues of the stress matrix are the principal stresses. The eigenvectors of the stress matrix are the principal directions. px + py + pz = 1 Principal stress convention
Ordered principal stresses in 3-D: Ordered principal stresses in 2-D: Principal Angles
2 2 2

1 > 2 > 3 1 > 2 0 x, y, z 180

o o

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Characteristic equation
3 2 p I1 p + I2 p I3 = 0

Stress Invariants I 1 = xx + yy + zz I2 = xx xy yy yz xx xz + + yx yy zy zz zx zz xx I3 =
3 2

xy yy zy

xz yz zz

yx zx

x I1 x + I2 x I3 = 0
Roots:

x 1 = 2A cos + I 1 3 A = ( I1 3 ) I2 3
3 2

x 2, 3 = 2 A cos ( 60 ) + I 1 3

cos 3 = [ 2 ( I 1 3 ) ( I 1 3 )I 2 + I 3 ] ( 2A ) 1 Principal Stress Matrix [] = 2 3 I1 = 1 + 2 + 3 I2 = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1 I3 = 1 2 3

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Maximum Shear Stress

1 2 2 3 3 1 ------------------, ------------------, ------------------ max = max 2 2 2

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Octahedral stresses
A plane that makes equal angles with the principal planes is called an octahedral plane.

2 2 2 nn = 1 n 1 + 2 n 2 + 3 n 3

nt =

2 2 2 2 2 2 ( 1 n 1 + 2 n 2 + 3 n 3 ) nn

n1 = n2 = n3 = 1 3 oct = ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) 3
2 2 2 1 oct = -- ( 1 2 ) + ( 2 3 ) + ( 3 1 ) 3

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.35 The stress at a point is given by the stress matrix shown. Determine: (a) the normal and shear stress on a plane that has an outward normal at 37o, 120o, and 70.43o, to x, y, and z direction respectively. (b) the principal stresses (c) the second principal direction and (d) the magnitude of the octahedral shear stress. (e) maximum shear stress 18 12 9 12 12 6 ksi 9 6 6

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M. Vable

Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain
The total movement of a point with respect to a fixed reference coordinates
is called displacement.

The relative movement of a point with respect to another point on the body
is called deformation.

Lagrangian strain is computed from deformation by using the original

undeformed geometry as the reference geometry.

Eulerian strain is computed from deformation by using the final deformed

geometry as the reference geometry.

Relating strains to displacements is a problem in geometry.

Kinematics Displacements Strains

Average normal strain Lf Lo av = ---------------- = ----Lo Lo

Elongations (Lf > Lo) result in positive normal strains. Contractions (Lf
< Lo) result in negative normal strains.

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Average shear strain

Undeformed grid Wooden Bar with Masking Tape A Deformed grid

Wooden Bar with Masking Tape A A1 B

C

B /2

Wooden Bar with Masking Tape

Wooden Bar with Masking Tape

Decreases in the angle ( < / 2) result in positive shear strain.

Increase in the angle ( > / 2) result in negative shear strain

av = -- 2

Units of average strain To differentiate average strain from strain at a point. in/in, or cm/cm, or m/m (for normal strains) rads (for shear strains) percentage. prefix: = 10-6.
0.5% is equal to a strain of 0.005 1000 in / in is equal to a strain 0.001 in /

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M. Vable

Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Small Strain Approximation

Small-strain approximation may be used for strains less than 0.01

Small normal strains are calculated by using the deformation component in

the original direction of the line element regardless of the orientation of the deformed line element. In small shear strain () calculations the following approximation may be used for the trigonometric functions: tan sin cos 1 Small-strain calculations result in linear deformation analysis. Drawing approximate deformed shape is very important in analysis of small strains.

1.41 Determine the deformation in bars AP and BP in Fig. P1.41 using small strain approximation.

Fig. P1.41

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M. Vable

Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain at a point

Engineering Strain
u xx = lim ------ x x 0 = u x v yy = lim ----- y y 0 = v y w zz = lim ------- z- z 0 = w z

u v u v xy = yx = lim ------ + ----- = + y x y x x 0

y 0

v w v w yz = zy = lim ----- + ------- = + z y z y y 0

z 0

w u w u zx = xz = lim ------- + ------ = + z x z x 0 x

z 0

The partial derivative with respect to a coordinate implies that during the
process of differentiation the other coordinates are held constant. If a displacement is only a function of one coordinate, then the partial derivative with respect to that coordinate will be same as ordinary derivative. xx = du (x) dx
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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Finite Difference Approximation

Forward difference approximates the slope of the tangent using the point
ahead of point i as:

ui + 1 ui ( xx ) = ---------------------i xi + 1 xi Backward difference approximates the slope of the tangent using the point
behind i as:

ui ui 1 ( xx ) = ---------------------i xi xi 1 Central difference takes the average value using the point ahead and behind
as:

1 ui + 1 ui ui ui 1 ( xx ) = -- ---------------------- + ---------------------i 2 xi + 1 xi xi xi 1

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

1.58 The displacements u and v in the x and y directions respectively were measured by Moire' interferometry. Displacements of 16 points on the body and are as given below.

Point 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

u (mm) 0.000 -0.112 -0.128 -0.048 0.112 -0.032 -0.080 -0.032

v (mm) 0.000 0.144 0.256 0.336 0.176 0.224 0.240 0.224

Point 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

u (mm) 0.128 -0.048 -0.128 -0.112 0.048 -0.160 -0.272 -0.288

v (mm) 0.384 0.336 0.256 0.144 0.624 0.480 0.304 0.096

Determine the strains xx , yy , and xy at points 1 and 4 shown in Figure P1.58.

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Strain Transformation
Strain transformation equations in 2-D nn = xx cos + yy sin + xy sin cos tt = xx sin + yy cos xy sin cos nt = 2 xx sin cos + 2 yy sin cos + xy ( cos sin ) Stress transformation equations in 2-D nn = xx cos + yy sin + 2 xy sin cos tt = xx sin + yy cos 2 xy cos sin
2 nt = xx cos sin + yy sin cos + xy cos 2 sin 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2

tensor normal strains = engineering normal strains tensor shear strains = (engineering shear strains)/ 2 Tensor strain matrix from engineering strains xx [ ] = yx = yx 2 zx = zx 2 xy = xy 2 yy zy = zy 2
T

xz = xz 2 yz = yz 2 zz

nn = { n } [ ] { n } nt = { t } [ ] { n }
T T

nt = 2 nt

tt = { t } [ ] { t }

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Intermediate Mechanics of Materials: Chapter 1

Characteristic equation
3 2 p I1 p + I2 p I3 = 0

Strain invariants I 1 = xx + yy + zz = 1 + 2 + 3 I2 = xx xy + yy yz + xx yx yy zy zz zx xx I3 = yx zx Maximum shear strain 1 2 2 3 3 1 max ----------------, ----------------, ---------------- ----------- = max 2 2 2 2 xy yy zy xz zz = 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1

xz yz zz = 1 2 3

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