Biology Express Notes

SPM 2010

uploaded- ts notes- pn rozita

1. MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

Facilitated Diffusion o

Lipid soluble substances such as fatty acids cannot pass through the protein pores. Instead, they move across the membrane through the phospholipids bilayer. o The movement of substances across the plasma membrane facilitated by either specific channels or carrier proteins is known as facilitated diffusion. o No energy is required. The functions of pore proteins and carrier proteins: o Pore proteins (channel proteins) o Charged ions ( such as Na+, K+ Ca2+ and Cl- )cannot diffuse across the non-polar centre of the phospholipids bilayer. o Pore proteins open up pores or channels across the membrane to allow entry or exit o Each pore or channel is specific and will only allow one particular type of ion through o Pores can open or close, acting as gates, to cater to the needs of the cells. Carrier proteins i. They allow larger polar molecules (such as sugars and amino acids) to cross. ii. A particular protein

1.

(a) How the lock and key model functions According to the lock and key hypothesis only one enzyme can fit only one type of substrate enzyme The enzyme will not change shape before and after the enzymatic reaction. (b) characteristics of enzymes specific, it has active sites which fits into the substrate speed up the rate of biochemical reaction it acts only on the a certain substrate/ fixed to only one substrate required in small amounts catalyst reversible reaction not destroyed at the end of reaction need coenzyme to function affected by changes in temperature and pH the structure remains the same after the enzymatic reaction. (c) Examples of enzymes :- pepsin , rennin, tripsin, erepsin (d) Application of enzymes in industry - Biological detergent enzyme action in biodegradable detergent - Making of bread - Brewing industry- Production of alcoholic drinks Cell Division

Mitosis Mitosis involves one nuclear division,. Mitosis produces two daughter cells, The number of chromosome in the daughter cells after mitosis is 2n/diploid/same as in parent cell. Mitosis will produce new cells/repair damaged cells.

Meiosis meiosis/R involves two nuclear division meiosis/R produces four daughter cells. The number of chromosome in the daughter cells is half/haploid/n after meiosis/R. Meiosis/R produces gametes Meiosis II Prophase II

The importance of mitosis in the development of orchid industry in term of Name the process Advantages of the cloning Cloning/ tissue culture (The process of producing clones/genetically identical organisms through asexual reproduction.) A large number of cloned young plants which are identical to parent plant can be propagated will increase the production/yield of plant which genetically identical to parent plant. maintain the good quality of parent plant

Metaphase II

Anaphase II

Telophase II

3. Functions of liver a. secretes bile juice which provides an alkaline medium for enzymes to function in the small intestine and also to neutralize the acidic chime from the stomach. Bile salts produced by the liver emulsify lipids into small droplets which provide a larger surface area for the pancreatic lipase to act on. Regulation of blood glucose levels. Production of plasma proteins for example fibrinogen and prothromb The hepatic portal vein contain the highest concentration of glucose Glucose is absorbed by the blood capillaries in the ileum and transported by the hepatic portal vein to the liver. Blood vessel R contains the highest concentration of urea Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver and converted to urea before the urea is transported by the hepatic vein to the inferior vena cava.

Excessive fat soluble vitamins are not easily eliminated from the body. will be stored in the liver cells and over a long period of time may cause side effects Cirrhosis of the liver Detoxification of many chemicals occur in the liver excessive intake of alcohol will damage the liver, preventing it from functioning normally may subsequently lead to death. 4. The kingdom Monera consists of some microorganisms which are useful to human beings. The uses of these microorganisms in various fields of biotechnology 1. Production of antibiotics Streptomycin is an antibiotic produced by Streptomyces sp or penicillin is an antibiotics produced by Penicillium notatum. 2. Clearing of oil spills Genetically engineered / modified bacteria (which can produce fat digesting enzyme) are used / sprayed onto oil spill breaking it down to less harmlful substances 3. Waste treatment Sewage / industrial waste are treated in waste treatment plants using aerobic and anaerobic bacteria to decompose the organic matter. 4. Food processing Examples Alcohol fermentation using yeast in alcoholic drink / bread making industry Lactic acid fermentation using Lactobacillus sp. / Streptococcus sp. in the production yoghurt Production of Cheese / tempe / soya sauce / vinegar uses various microorganisms 5. Bacteria is used to produce bioplastics / biodegradable plastics Bacteria cultured in medium lacking in nitrogen synthesise natural plastic in their cells 6. Production of energy from biomass Anaerobic bacteria is used to break down organic waste to produce biogas / gasohol 7. Production of vaccines Vaccines (eg BCG / Triple antigen / Hepatitis / Rubella) contain dead / weakened microorganisms/virus/bacteria which is used to immunize a person against a certain disease (eg. Tuberculosis / whooping cough /polio / hepatitis / rubella). 8.Production of insulin / pharmaceutical products Genetically modified/engineered E coli is used to produce insulin to treat diabetes. 5(b) The thinning of the ozone layer / ozone depletion Causes: CFCs found in air-conditioners / aerosol products rise to the stratosphere when it is release into the air The bond in the CFC molecule is broken by the ultraviolet rays of the sun to release the chlorine atoms. The chlorine atoms react with the ozone to produce chlorine monoxide and oxygen molecules Cl + O3 ClO + O2

When the chlorine monoxide combines with a free oxygen atom, an oxygen molecule and a chlorine atom is reproduced. ClO + O Cl + O2 A chain reaction occurs, where each chlorine atom breaks up between 10,000 and 100,000 ozone molecules. The thinning of ozone layer occurs when the rate of ozone break up is faster than its formation. Measures to take to prevent thinning of ozone layer o Inactivate CFC before it is released o Stop / minimize the use of CFC. o Find a safer substitute for CFC. o Create awareness / educate and o Obtain cooperation from multiple nations to address the issue // implementing the Montreal Protocol

6. Heart Structure Sino- atrial node (SAN) - pacemaker - initiates the heartbeat. - produces impulse - cause atria to contract - blood enter ventricle Valves control the direction of flow in one direction Septum - separates right chambers from the left. - No mixing of blood in ventricle. Blood vessels

the importance of having thick wall o withstand the high pressure of blood o (thick wall) have muscles that can contracts and relax o control blood flow (to cell according to the the bodys need) the role of nearby muscles nearby muscles contract and relax//nearby musles squeeze the vein push blood back towards the heart the adaptation of blood capillaries o the walls of capillaries are only one cell thick o substances do not have very far to diffuse through them o increase TSA for diffusion to occur o

o Impaired Blood Clotting Mechanism / Circulation - haemophilia - when local blood clot ( thrombus ) block the artery causing thrombosis - when thrombus dislodges embolus- enters circulation blocks blood flow embolism. - Partial blockage of coronary artery angina. - Total blockage which cuts off supply of oxygen and nutrient heart attack (myocardial infarction). - Stroke occurs blockage of blood to the brain cells. Cardiovascular disease prevention - take food low in cholesterol // balanced diet - practice healthy lifestyle // exercise regularly // reduce stress 7. Immunity 1. First Line of Defence - skin produces sweat & sebum - Mucous membrane in 1. nasal cavity & respiratory tract 2. stomach hydrochloric acid 2. Second line of Defence - phagocytes such as neutrofils move towards pathogens - pathogens engulfed by phagocytosis - phagocytic vacuoles secretes digestive enzymes - pathogens (such as bacteria )are destroyed and digested. - number of white cells( phagocytes) increase during infection 3. Third line of defence - the lymphocytes - T-lymphocytes attack cells infected by pathogens/ produce certain chemicals - B-lymphocytes produce antibodies 8. Locomotion & Support 1. IN PLANTS

Aquatic // hydrophytes plant Woody // perennial plant Adaptations in aquatic plant o Aerenchyma / air sac o Aerenchyma tissues have o abundant air spaces o which gives buoyancy thus o keeping the plant afloat Adaptations in woody plant o Xylem o Lignified xylem vessels gives strength and rigidity o supporting the weight of plant

2. Movement in animals Aquatic animal o Pectoral fins - control pitching / upward downward movements - enable fish to slow down o Dorsal fins - to control yawing and rolling movements o Forward movement produced by o Antagonistic contraction of myotome muscles causes side by side o movement lashing of the tail o caudal fin produces a forward thrust Adaptations to reduce body weight in birds o Hollow bones o Paired organs occurring as a single organ o Small brain / head o Absence of teeth o Absence of sweat glands o No storing of fat Other adaptations Wings acting as aerofoils Large powerful muscles (pectoralis major and minor) attaches wings to the sternum gives flapping movement of wings Streamlined body overcomes air resistance during flight 9. Nervous system (efferent) motor neurone - to carry messages from the central nervous system to effectors, such as muscle fibre and glands. (afferent) sensory neurone- to carry messages from sensory reseptor to the central nervous system Function of axon transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body. Synapse the location where two neurones meet. How nerve impulses are transmitted along one neurone to nextWhen an electrical impulse reaches the presynaptic membrane, it triggers the synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor. The binding of the neurotransmitters to the receptors leads to the generation of a new electrical signal in the next neurone

10. Factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis When the concentration of carbon dioxide increases from 0.03% to 0.13% the rate of photosynthesis increases. The rate of photosynthesis is limited by o The low temperature o Low concentration of carbon dioxide limits the rate of photosynthesis o This is when the plateau stage is reached(in a graph )

(c)The rate of photosynthesis increases The carbon dioxide concentration An increase in temperature of 10 0 C increases the rate of photosynthesis by a small amount only, whereas an increase in carbon dioxide concentratrion causes a greater increase in the rate of photosynthesis. (d)The rate of photosynthesis decreases At very high temperature becuse o The enzymes involved in photosynthesis would be denatured by high temperature. o The substrate can no longer occupy the active site