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2/GLQQU
[
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[
6ROX LHD)LH[∈5−4DVWIHOvQFkW [\$WXQFL[\−\−[ GHXQGHUH]XO
\
± + [
W \= $U W PF \∈5−4
[
± + [ P
3UHVXSXQHPF \∈4DGLF ∃PQ∈=Q≠DVWIHOvQFkW = GHXQGHUH
[ Q
P[ P [ P[
]XOW ± + [ = − + [ = − + P−Q[ PQ
Q Q Q
'DF |P| |Q|UH]XOW ⋅[ ±QIDOVGHRDUHFHQ≠
PQ
'DF |P|≠|Q|UH]XOW [ = ∈4GHDVHPHQHDIDOVGHRDUHFH[∈5−4
P − Q
'HFLSHQWUX∀[∈5−4UH]XOW ∃\∈5−4DGLF SURSR]L LDHVWHDGHY UDW
+ [
E)LH \ = [\

∈5−4DVWIHOvQFkW
\
+ +
$WXQFL [ =
\
= = ∉5−4DGLF SURSR]L LDHVWHIDOV
\ −  +  +
 −


 
 

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)LHDEF∈5 FXSURSULHWDWHDF H[LVW IXQF LLOHIJKXY5→5FXSURSULHWDWHD
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EIW−DIWF
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,;GLQQU
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17
6ROX LH 'HPRQVWU P vQWkL XUP WRDUHD SURSULHWDWH 'DF 7 ∈ 15 N DWXQFL
75
N
∀0DYHP 07 = 01 + 05
N + N +
17
= N ⇒17 N75⇒ 17 = N 75 ⇔ 10 + 07 = N 70 + N 05 ⇔
75
⇔ − 01 + 07 = − N 07 + N 05 ⇔N 07 = 01 + N 05
)LHD %&E $&F $%úL,FHQWUXOFHUFXOXLvQVFULVvQ∆$%&, LQWHUVHF LDELVHFWRDUH
%$ F
ORU 'DF $ ∈ %& DVWIHO vQFkW $$ HVWH ELVHFWRDUH DWXQFL VH FXQRDúWH F = úL
$& E
$, E + F E+F F
= $WXQFLIRORVLQGSHQWUXN UHVSHFWLYN SHQWUXRULFHSXQFW0
,$ D D E
D E+F E F
RE LQHP 0, = 0$ + 0$ úL 0$ = 0% + 0& úL LPHGLDW
D+E+F D+E+F E+F E+F
D E F
0, = 0$ + 0% + 0& GHFL 0, = ∑ D 0$ ∀
D+E+F D+E+F D+E+F D+E+F
D E F
0∈3'DF ,HVWHFHQWUXOFHUFXOXLvQVFULVvQ∆$%&GHODWXUL DQDORJFX

VH RE LQH 0, =
D + E + F
D 0$ =∑ D+E+F
D 0$ &XP 0$ = 0$ + 0%
∑
( )
D E+F
DYHP 0, =
D+E+F
0% + 0& =
∑ ( D+E+F
)
∑ 0$
6FULHPúLSHQWUX0 *FHQWUXOGHJUHXWDWHDOWULXQJKLXOXL$%&FDUHDXSURSULHWD
WHD *$ + *% + *& = úLRE LQHP

D + E + F *, = ∑ D*$ = D*$ + E*% + F−*$ − *% = D − F*$ + E − F*%

E+F E+F D+F D+E
D + E + F*, = ∑ *$ = *$ + *% + −*$ − *% =

F−D F−E
*$ + *% $WXQFL, ,⇔ *, = *, ⇔

=
F−D F−E
⇔ D − F*$ + E − F*% = *$ + *% ⇔ D − F*$ + E − F *% =

*$% QHFROLQLDUH
⇔ D−F E−F ⇔D E F

;GLQQU
6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF SHQWUXRULFHP≥P∈1DUHORFLGHQWLWDWHD
L −
P Q +
∑∑
(& ) &
Q
Q
Q ⋅ &PP++ P +
=

+
Q = L = Q L + &QL − ⋅ P +
6ROX LH3RUQLPGHODGHVFRPSXQHUHDvQIUDF LLVLPSOHDH[SUHVLHL
[ + [ + [ + Q $ $Q $Q +
(= = + +
[ + [ + [ + Q − [ + Q + [ + [ + Q − [ + Q +
+
$GXFHPODDFHODúLQXPLWRUúLIDFHP[ −LL Q + ⇒$L−L−L«L−−

±LL−L«Q−L −L−L«L−−L⋅
⋅L−LL−L«Q−L⇒$LQ−LL−Q−L
−L−L«−⋅⋅⋅«Q−L
α + ⋅ ⋅ α + α
3ULQLQGXF LHVHDUDW F ⋅⋅⋅«⋅α−
α
L ⋅ L − L −
/X Pα L−⇒⋅⋅«⋅L− =
L −
L − L −
Q − L + ⋅ ⋅ Q − L +
/X P α Q − L ⇒ ⋅ ⋅ « ⋅Q − L =
Q − L +
Q − L +
=
Q − L + ⋅ Q − L +
$WXQFL$LQ−LL−Q−L −L−⋅⋅⋅«⋅L−⋅⋅⋅«⋅Q−L
L − Q − L + L − Q − L +
= − L − L − ⇒ $L = − Q Q =
L − Q − L + ⋅ Q − L + ⋅ ⋅ [L − Q − L + ]

 Q  Q ( )
&QL − ⋅ &QQ

= − = −
Q⋅ Q &QL − ⋅ Q
L Q L 
 − − +  Q
L − Q − L +

'HFL ( = ∑
Q +
$L Q +
= −∑ Q LQ−
( )
& L − &QQ

L = [ + L − L = ⋅ & Q [ + L −

'DU − ( =
− [ + [ + Q [ + [ + Q + Q +
& L − &QQ
⇒ ∑ Q L −Q
( ) =
[ + [ + Q − [ + [ + Q +
−
L = & Q [ + L −


[ + [ + Q [ + [ + Q + P Q +
&QL − &QQ
∑∑
[+ ( )
−
[ + [ + Q − [ + [ + Q + [ +
= − ⇒ =
Q = L = Q L −
& Q [ + L −
[ + [ + [ + [ + [ + [ + P − [ + [ + P
+ + +
[ + [ + [ + [ + [ + [ + P − [ + [ + P −
− + −
[ + [ + P [ + [ + P + [ + [ + [ + P +

[ + [ + P − [ + [ + P + [ + [ + [ + P +
+ − = −
L − Q
/X P[ ⇒ ∑∑
P Q +
Q (& ) &
Q ⋅ P +
⇒
⋅ P +
= −
Q = L = & Q L +
Q L −

P Q +
∑∑
( )
&QL − &QQ ⋅ ⋅ P +
'DU⋅⋅⋅«⋅α−
⋅ P +
⇒ = −
Q = L = Q L −
& Q L +
P + P +
±α⋅α«α αúLOX Pα P⇒⋅⋅⋅«⋅P
P +
P +
⇒⋅⋅«⋅P 'HDVHPHQHD
P + ⋅ P +
P +
⋅⋅«⋅P ⋅⋅⋅⋅«⋅⋅P P PP⇒

L −
⇒ ∑∑
(& ) & = −
P Q +
Q P +
Q
Q
−
P + P +

& L +
Q = L =
Q
⋅
L −
Q P + P + [P + ] ⋅ ⋅
P+ P P+
L − Q
& P + P+
P + (& ) & + & P + =
P Q +
Q Q
P+
P +
= −

⇒
⋅ P +
∑∑ Q L −
& L + ⋅ P +
Q = L = Q

2/GLQQU
6HFRQVLGHU PXO LPHD$ {QQ«Q}Q∈1
D$IOD LS∈1 SHQWUXFDUHH[LVW %LL S + FXSURSULHW LOH
S +
L%L∩%M ∅∀LM S + L≠MúL %L $
L =
S
LL ∑ ∑ [ = ∑ [
N = [∈% `
[∈% a
+
b
E'HWHUPLQD LT∈1 SHQWUXFDUHH[LVW &LL T + DVWIHOvQFkW

T +
L&L∩&M ∅∀LM T + L≠MúL &L $
L =
T
LL ∑ ∑ [ = ⋅ ∑ [
N = [∈& c
[∈& d
+
e

6ROX LHD3UHVXSXQHPF H[LVW S∈1 FXSURSULHW LOHFHUXWH'LQFRQGL LDLGHGX

S S
FHP ∑ = ∑ ∑ [ + ∑ [ ⇒∑ ∑ [ = ∑ [ − ∑ [
[∈ $ N = [∈% [∈% N = [∈% [∈ $ [∈%
'HRDUHFH[ ≡[PRG∀[∈1DYHP

+ +

g g
f h f h
 S S
∑ ∑ [ ≡∑ ∑ [ PRG

úLGLQFRQGL LDLLGHGXFHPF

N = [∈% N = [∈%

 ∑ [ ≡ ∑ [ PRG
k k
 [∈% + [∈% +j
i
j
i
S
∑ ∑ [ ≡ ∑ [PRG ⇒ ∑ − ∑ [ ≡ ∑ [PRG ⇒ ∑ ≡ ⋅ ∑ [ ≡ PRG
N = [∈% n
[∈% m
+
l
[∈ $ [∈% m
+
l
[∈% m
+
l
[∈ $ [∈% p
+
o
+
− +
∑ N + Q QQ−Q«Q−Q
q
r r
∑[=
[∈ $ N =
Q + − Q + Q + − Q +

QQ−Q

'DU≡PRG⇒Q−QQ−Q≡−−≡
Q + − Q + Q + − Q +

≡PRG⇒ ≡PRG
&XPQQ−Q≡PRGGLQ⇒ [ ≡PRG ∑

[∈$
5HOD LLOHúLVXQWFRQWUDGLFWRULLGHFLQXH[LVW S∈1
E 6 SUHVXSXQHP F H[LVW T ∈ 1 FX SURSULHW LOH FHUXWH 'LQ L DYHP F
T T
∑ =∑ ∑[+ ∑ ⇒∑ ∑[ = ∑[− ∑[ 'DU[ ≡ [PRG ∀ [ ∈ 1 úL

[∈ $ N = [∈& t
[∈& s
+ u N = [∈& t
[∈ $ [∈& s
+ u
 T T
 ∑ ∑ [ ≡∑ ∑ [ PRG

T
DWXQFL  N = [∈& úLFXPGLQLLDYHP ∑ ∑[ ≡ ⋅ ∑[ GHGXFHPF
 N = [∈&
 ⋅ ∑ [ ≡ ⋅ ∑ [ PRG
x x
N = [∈& {
[∈& z
+
y
 [∈& + [∈& + w
v
w
v
T
∑ ∑[ ≡ ⋅ ∑ [PRG ⇒ ∑ [ − ∑ [ ≡ ⋅ ∑ [PRG ⇒
N = [∈& ~
[∈& +
|
[∈ $ [∈& +

[∈& +

∑ [ ≡ ⋅ ∑ [PRG ⇒ ∑ [ ≡ PRG

⇒
[∈ $ [∈&
+

[∈ $
Q + − Q + Q + − Q +

'DU ∑ [ = Q Q + − Q + +

[∈ $
&XP≡PRG⇒N≡PRG∀N∈1⇒QQ−Q≡
≡⋅−≡PRG

'HDVHPHQHDQ−QQ−Q≡−−≡

Q + − Q + Q + − Q +

≡PRG⇒ ≡PRG
'LQ⇒ ∑ [ ≡ PRG

[∈$
'LQúL⇒≡PRGDEVXUG
'HFLQXH[LVW T∈1 FDUHV VDWLVIDF FHULQ HOHSUREOHPHL

;GLQQU
)LH' {]∈&||]|≤}úL3 D[D[D[D[D∈& >[@6 VHGHPRQVWUH]HF
GDF 3]∈'∀]∈'DWXQFLDN∈' ∀N
'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX
6ROX LH)LH ε ∈& −{}DVWIHOvQFkW ε = GHFL ε ∈'úL + ε + ε + ε + ε
 3 = D + D + D + D + D
 3 ε = D ε + D ε + D ε + D ε + D

$WXQFL  3 ε
= D ε
+ D ε + D ε
+ D ε
+ D
 3 ε = D ε + D ε + D ε + D ε + D

 3 ε = D ε + D ε + D ε + D ε + D
 3 + 3 ε + 3ε + 3 ε + 3 ε = D
 3 + ε3ε + ε 3 ε + ε 3ε + ε 3 ε = D

'LQGHGXFHPF  3 + ε 3ε + ε 3ε + ε 3 ε + ε 3ε = D


 3 + ε 3ε + ε 3 ε + ε 3 ε + ε 3ε = D

 3 + ε 3ε + ε 3ε + ε 3ε + ε 3ε = D
'LQSULPDUHOD LHRE LQHP⋅|D| 3 + 3 ε + 3 ε + 3 ε + 3 ε ≤
≤ 3 + 3ε + 3 ε + 3 ε + 3 ε ≤ úLGHFL|D|≤⇒
⇒D∈'$QDORJUH]XOW DDD∈'

;GLQQU
Q
N
)LHQ≥QXP UQDWXUDO6 VHDUDWHF DQ ∑ & QN QXHVWHQXP UvQWUHJ
N = N +
0DUFHO&KLUL
N N Q N
6ROX LH &QN = &QN++
N + N + NQ − N Q +
=
Q
N Q
 Q Q
∑ N + &QN = Q + ∑ N&QN++ = Q +  ∑ N + &QN++ − ∑ &QN++  =

N = N =  N = N = 

Q Q − + Q
N Q
N +− N
[
Q + Q − Q + − = ] VDX ∑
&QN =∑ &Q =
Q + Q + N = N +
=
N = N +
Q
Q Q
Q + − Q Q − +

 N N N N Q
∑ & & & ∑ & ∑
N +  N = N = N + Q + Q +
=  Q − Q  = Q − Q = − =
N =
Q Q − + Q + − S −
2EVHUY PF = Q − 7UHEXLHV DU W PF SHQWUXS≥DYHP
Q + Q + S
QXHVWHvQWUHJ'DF SHVWHSDUDWXQFLS−HVWHLPSDUúLGHFLS3S−

;GLQQU
6 VHDUDWHF vQRULFHWULXQJKLHVWHDGHY UDW LQHJDOLWDWHD
$ % &
E + FWJ + F + DWJ + D + EWJ ≥ U

1LFRDH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
$ S − E S − F S S − D S − E S − F 6
6ROX LH&XP WJ = =
S S − D S S − D S S − D
= =
SU U $ E+F
DWXQFL( ∑ E + FWJ = U ∑ )RORVLQGLQHJDOLWDWHDPHGLLORU
S S − D S − D
=
S−D
EF EF DEF
DYHP E + F ≥ EF úL ∑ ≥ π = úLDWXQFL
S−D S−D S − D S − E S − F
$ EF DEF
( = ∑ E + FWJ ≥ U ∑ ≥ U
S−D S − D S − E S − F
F − D − E F D E
'DU S − D S − E = úLDQDORJS−ES−F≤ S−DS−F≤

≤

 DEF 
3ULQvQPXO LUHRE LQHP ( S − D S − E S − F ) ≤   DGLF DEF≥S−DS−ES−F
 
$ DEF
$WXQFL ∑ E + FWJ ≥ U ≥ U = U
S − D S − E S − F

;GLQQU
6 VHGHWHUPLQHSURJUHVLLOHDULWPHWLFHDQQ≥GHQXPHUHvQWUHJLFXSURSULHWDWHDF H[LV
W N∈1 DVWIHOvQFkW∀Q≥ND«DQHVWHS WUDWSHUIHFW
6ROX LH)LHDQ DQ−U∀Q≥FXDU∈=
Q Q − Q −
QQ −
( )
$WXQFL ∑ DN = ∑ D + UN = ∑ D + D UN + DU N + N U = QD + D U

+
N = N = N =
QQ − Q − U Q Q −

+ DU 'HFL H[LVW \QQ≥N ∈ = FX QD DUQQ −

+

DUQQ−Q−UQQ− \Q)LHS S «úLUXOQXPHUHORUSULPH([LV

W Q FX SQ ≥ N ∀ Q ≥ Q 'HFL ∀ Q ≥ Q SQ>D DUSQ − DUSQ − SQ −
USQSQ−@ \Q⇒ \Q SQ∀Q ≥Q⇒\Q SQ]Q⇒ DDUSQ −DUSQ−
±SQ−USQSQ− SQ]Q/XkQGDFHDVW UHOD LHPRGXORSQGHGXFHPSQ|D±
±DUDU∀Q≥QDGLF D−DUDU ⇒DD−UD−U
Q
Q Q −
,'DF D ⇒ ∑ DN = U úLGHGXFHPF UHS WUDWSHUIHFW'HFLDQ Q[YHULILF
N =
,,D U⇒QDQ−Q−QQQ−QHS WUDWSHUIHFW∀Q≥N⇒
>QQ@DHS WUDWSHUIHFW∀Q≥N⇒DHS WUDWSHUIHFWGHFLDQ Q[
Q
,,,D U⇒ ∑ DN = Q D Q − úLRE LQHPF H[LVW WQ]Q⊂1LQILQLWHFXD]Q−
N =
WQ'HDLFLH[LVW [Q⊂1FXD]Q− [Q'HFLH[LVW NDVWIHOvQFkW∀Q≥NDQ−
HS WUDWSHUIHFWLPSRVLELOSHQWUXD≠
$úDGDUSURJUHVLLOHFHUXWHVXQWDQ Q[FX[∈=

;,GLQQU
)LH$%∈0Q5úLQ≥DVWIHOvQFkW$% %$6 VHDUDWHF GDF $HQHVLQJXODU
DWXQFL$% %$
6ROX LH&D]XO%VLQJXODU )LHUDQJ% U∈{«Q−}
'DF U≤Q−DWXQFLPLQRULLGHRUGLQQ−DLOXL%VXQWQXOLGHFL% Q⇒%$ Q$
⇒% QúLHYLGHQW$% %$
'DF U Q−DYHP%⋅% QúLGLQLQHJDOLWDWHDOXL6\OYHVWHU UDQJ%% ≥UDQJ%
UDQJ% −Q⇒UDQJ% ≤'HFL≥UDQJ% ≥UDQJ$% UDQJ%$≥UDQJ$UDQJ%−Q⇒
Q≥QQ−⇒Q≤DEVXUG
&D]XO%QHVLQJXODU
)LH% E⋅%FXE GHW%∈5 'LQ$% %$⇒EQ−GHW$ EGHW$⇒EQ− ⇒E∈
{−}'HFL$% ±%$%⇒$ ±%$%⇒$ ±%$%$úL$ ±$%$%⇒±%$
±$%⇒$% %$

;,GLQQU
Q

6 VHDUDWHF úLUXO[QQ≥ [Q = ∑ VLQ HVWHFRQYHUJHQW
N = N
'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX
6ROX LH$YHP

[Q + − [Q = VLQ !∀Q∈1 FHHDFHDUDW F úLUXO[QQ≥HVWHVWULFWFUHVF
Q +
Q
π
WRU6HPDLúWLHF úLUXODQ ∑ HVWHFRQYHUJHQWOD úLGHFLHVWHP UJLQLW
N = N

 π
'HRDUHFH ∈   UH]XOW F VLQ ∀ N ∈ 1 GH XQGH GHGXFHP F [Q
N   N N

Q
Q

∑ VLQ < ∑ = DQ ∀Q∈1 GHXQGHUH]XOW F úLUXO[QQ≥HVWHP UJLQLWVXSHULRU
N = N N = N
'HRDUHFH[QQ≥HVWHVWULFWFUHVF WRUúLP UJLQLWVXSHULRUUH]XOW F HOHVWHFRQYHUJHQW

;,GLQQU
)LHDQQ≥EQQ≥GRX úLUXULGHQXPHUHVWULFWSR]LWLYHFRQYHUJHQWHODúLI5→5R
IXQF LHFRQWLQX DVWIHOvQFkWI[DQI[EQ≥I[∀[∈5∀Q≥6 VHDUDWHF I
HVWHFUHVF WRDUH
6ROX LH3UHVXSXQHPF IQXHFUHVF WRDUHGHFLH[LVW DE∈5FXDEúLID!IE
)LH ε ! FX I D ≥ I E ε úL λ ∈ D E 1RW P $ {[ ∈ >D λ @| I[ ≥ IE ε }
$WXQFL$≠∅D∈$$HVWHP UJLQLW GHFLH[LVW α VXS$&XP λ HPDMRUDQWDYHP
α≤ λ 'LQGHILQL LDOXLαH[LVW [QQ≥⊂$FX OLP [Q = α 'DUI[Q≥IE ε úLIFRQWL
Q →∞
QX ⇒Iα≥≥IE ε 'HFL α∈$3UHVXSXQHPF α λ 'LQ OLP DQ = OLP EQ =
Q →∞ Q →∞
RE LQHPF H[LVW Q∈1 FXα λ −DQα λ −EQ$WXQFLIαDQIαEQ≥Iα
I α + DQ + I α + EQ
'LQSURSULHWDWHDOXL'DUERX[H[LVW FvQWUH αDQúL αEQFX

IFGHFLIF≥Iα≥IE ε 'DUF≤PD[{αDQ αEQ} λ GHFLF∈> λ @úL
F!α VXS$úLF∈$IF≥IE ε GHFLFRQWUDGLF LH$úDGDUα λ GHFLI λ ≥IE ε
$úDGDU∀[∈>DEI[≥IE ε /X PXQúLU[QQ≥FX[Q∈>DE[Q→EúLGLQ
FRQWLQXLWDWHDYHPIE≥IE ε ⇒ ε ≤DEVXUG
'HFLIHVWHFUHVF WRDUH

;,GLQQU
6 VHFDOFXOH]H
FRV [ VLQ FRV [ VLQ [
(
OLP  Q + Q +

)
⋅ Q + Q + ( ) [
( Q − ) ( Q)  XQGH[∈5


Q Q
− ⋅
Q → ∞ 
'0% WLQH X*LXUJLX
FRV [ VLQ [ FRV [ VLQ [
6ROX LH % Q [ = (
Q + Q + ) (
Q + Q + ) ( Q − ) ( Q) =

Q Q
⋅ − ⋅
FRV [ VLQ [
( Q − ) ( Q) ⋅ X Q [ − =

Q Q
= ⋅
FRV [ VLQ [ X Q [ −
( Q − ) ⋅ ( Q ) OQ X Q [

Q Q
OQ X Q [
⋅
FRV [ VLQ [
 Q Q −   Q Q  X Q [ −
OQ X Q [ =

=  ⋅  ⋅ Q FRV [ + VLQ [
OQ XQ [
⋅


 Q 

 Q 
 
FRV [ VLQ [
 Q Q −   Q Q  XQ [ −

=  ⋅  ⋅Q ⋅ OQ XQ [ =

 Q 

 Q 
  OQ XQ [

FRV [ VLQ [
 Q Q −   Q Q  XQ [ −

  ⋅  OQ(X Q [ )Q ∀Q≥∀[∈5

OQ X Q [
⋅

 Q 

 Q 
 
FRV [ VLQ [
 Q + Q +   Q + Q + 

$PPDLQRWDW X Q [ =   ⋅  ∀Q≥∀[∈5
 Q Q −   Q
Q 
   
Q Q H X [ −
'HRDUHFH OLP = H úL OLP = ⇒ OLP X Q [ = úL OLP Q
Q → ∞ Q Q Q → ∞ Q Q − Q →∞ Q → ∞ OQ X Q [
∀[∈5'HDVHPHQHDDYHP
FRV [ VLQ [
 Q +  Q +

 
OLP (X Q [ )Q = OLP    
Q → ∞ Q − Q + Q +   Q
⋅ ⋅
Q →∞ Q + Q + 
   
FRV [ VLQ [
Q +   Q + 


= OLP    = H FRV [ ⋅ H VLQ [ = H

Q → ∞ Q + Q +   Q + Q + 
   
7UHFkQGODOLPLW vQFXQ→∞úL LQkQGVHDPDGHUHOD LLOH−GHGXFHPF
FRV [ VLQ [
 

OLP %Q [ =   ⋅  = FRV [ ⋅
Q →∞ H H H

;,GLQQU
6HG RSURJUHVLHDULWPHWLF ENN Q Q≥FXDMXWRUXOF UHLDVHIRUPHD] PDWULFHD
 E M L − LPSDU
$ DLMLM Q XQGHDLM  6 VHDUDWHF GDF QHVWHLPSDUDWXQFLGHW$
EQL − M + L − SDU
6 VHDUDWHLQL LDOSHQWUXQ
SURI7UDLDQ3UHGD
E E E E − U E E + U E E E + U
6ROX LH E E E = E + U E E − U = E E E − U = DUH GRX FRORDQH
E E E E − U E E + U E E E + U
SURSRU LRQDOH$FHHDúLLGHHRYRLIRORVLvQFD]XOJHQHUDO
E E EQ − EQ
E Q E Q − EQ + EQ +
GHW$ E Q + E Q + EQ − EQ

EQ − Q + EQ − Q + EQ − EQ

'DF Q N⇒EEQ EEQ− «««««« ENEN ⋅EN

EQEQ EQ−EQ «««« EQNEQN ⋅EQN
««««««««««««««««««««««««
EQ − Q + + EQ = EQ − Q + + EQ − = = EQ − Q + N + EQ − Q + N + = EQ

− Q + N +

'DF DGXQ PWRDWHFRORDQHOHODFRORDQD⇒

N + EN + EN +
N + EN ++ Q EN ++ Q
GHW$ GHRDUHFHFRORDQDOHúLNVXQW

N + EN ++ Q − Q EN ++ Q − Q
SURSRU LRQDOH

;,,GLQQU
3HQWUXPDWULFHD$∈05VHGHILQHúWHIXQF LD ϕ $ 05→5 ϕ $ [ GHW$[−
±GHW$−[∀[∈056 VHDUDWHF
ϕ $ HVWHXQPRUILVPGHOD05OD5
{ ϕ $ |$∈05}HVWHXQJUXSDEHOLDQL]RPRUIFX05
1LFRODH3DSDFX6ORER]LD
D E   [ \ D+[ E+ \ D−[ E− \
6ROX LH)LH$   ;   $WXQFL ϕ $ [ −
F G ] W  F+ ] G +W F− ] G −W
DG[WDW[G−EF−\]−E]−F\−DG[W−DW−[G−EF−\]E]−F\ DWG[−E]−F\
[ \  [ \  [ + [ \ + \ 
)LH;   ;   $WXQFL;<   úL ϕ $ [[
 ] W   ] W   ] + ] W + W 
DWWG[ [−E]]−F\\ DWG[−E]−F\DWG[−
±E]−F\ ϕ $ [ ϕ $ [úLGHFL ϕ $ HVWHPRUILVP
'HPRQVWU PvQWkLF ∀ ϕ $ ϕ % ∈* { ϕ $ |$∈05}DYHP ϕ $ ϕ % ϕ $+ % ∈*
D E   [ \
)LH$   %   úL;   $YHP ϕ $ ϕ % DWG[ −E] −F\
α β 
 F G   γ δ  ] W 
αW δ [ − β] − γ\ D αWG δ [ −E β] −F γ\ ϕ $+ % ['HFL
ϕ $ ϕ % ϕ $+ % $WXQFLLPHGLDW*HVWHJUXSDEHOLDQFXHOHPHQWXOQHXWUX ϕ úLVLPH
WULFXOILHF UXLHOHPHQW ϕ $ HVWH ϕ − $ IRORVLQGSURSULHWDWHD ϕ $ ϕ % ⇔$ %SHFDUHRGH

PRQVWU P vQ FRQWLQXDUH (YLGHQW $ % ⇒ ϕ $ ϕ % )LH ϕ $ ϕ % ⇒ ϕ $ [ ϕ % [

D E     
∀[∈05$OHJkQG$   %   úLOXkQG;   ;   ;
α β
F G γ δ     
   
 ;   VHRE LQHG δ F γE βD α)LHI*→05I ϕ $ $
   

$YHPI ϕ $ ϕ % I ϕ $+ % $% I ϕ $ I ϕ % GHFLIHVWHPRUILVP

)LHJ05→*J$ ϕ $ $YHPI$J$ I ϕ$ úLI$J 0 5
J$I ϕ$ J$ ϕ$ úLJ$I *⇒IHVWHLQYHUVDELO ⇒IELMHFWLY

'HFLIHVWHL]RPRUILVPGHOD*OD05

;,,GLQQU
FRV [ FRV [ FRV [

2UGRQD LFUHVF WRUQXPHUHOH D = ∫ − [ + G[ E = ∫ − [ + G[F = ∫ − [ + G[
− − −
,OLH'LDFRQX
6ROX LHÌQUH]ROYDUHDSUREOHPHLIRORVLPXUP WRDUHDSURSULHWDWH
'DF I>±EE@→5E!HVWHRIXQF LHSDU úLFRQWLQX SH>±EE@úLGDF D!
I [
E E
D≠DWXQFL ∫ D [ + G[ = ∫ I [G[ &XPIXQF LDI5→>@I[ FRV[HVWHSDU úL
−E

FRV [

FRQWLQX SH 5 UH]XOW F F = ∫ G[ = FRV [G[ = VLQ [ = VLQ $QDORJ RE LQHP
∫
−  
[

  +
 
E VLQ úL F VLQ &XP F −D VLQ − VLQ VLQFRV úLD −E VLQ −VLQ

−VLQ FRV UH]XOW XUP WRDUHDRUGLQHFUHVF WRDUHFDE

2/GLQQU
)LHEE«EQ∈1 úLDD«DN∈56HFRQVLGHU IXQF LDI1→1
N
IQ ∑ EL [DL Q] 6 VHDUDWHF GDF PXO LPHD$ {Q∈1|IQQ }HVWHILQLW DWXQFL
L =
DL∈=∀L N
6ROX LH )LH S S S « úLUXO QXPHUHORU SULPH &XP $ H ILQLW H[LVW
Q∈1 DVWIHOvQFkW∀Q≥QIQQ≠'DUSQQ≥HLQILQLWGHFLH[LVW Q∈1 FXSQ≥Q
∀Q≥Q$WXQFLISQSQ≠∀Q≥QúLSQSULP⇒ISQSQ∀Q≥Q'HGXFHPH[LV
WHQ DXQXLúLUGHQXPHUHvQWUHJL [Q Q ≥ Q FXISQ SQ[Q∀Q≥Q
N N
∑ EL [DL SQ ] N ∑ EL DL SQ − N
'HFL [Q = L =
FHHD FH LPSOLF [Q ≤ ∑ DL EL úL [Q > L =
= ∑ DLEL −
SQ L = SQ L =
N
∑ EL N
− L =
GHFL OLP [Q = ∑ DL EL DGLF [Q Q ≥ Q HFRQYHUJHQW$úDGDU[QQ≥QHVWD LRQDU
SQ Q→∞
L =

N N
DGLF H[LVW Q∈1 FX [Q = ∑ DL EL ∀Q≥Q⇒ ∑ EL {DL SQ }= ∀Q≥QúLEL{DLSQ}≥
L = L =
∀Q≥Q'HFLEL{DLSQ} ∀Q≥QLDUGLQEL≠GHGXFHPDLSQ∈=∀Q≥Q∀L N
)LHMIL[DW'LQDMSQ∈=⇒DM∈4)LHDM α β∈= β≠ β!α β 'LQ
α
β

SQα
∈=∀Q≥Q⇒β| SQ SQ
( + )= ⇒β ±⇒DM α∈=
β

'HFLDM∈=∀L N

2/GLQQU
)LHDEN∈1 −{}FXED6 VHGHWHUPLQHFHOPDLPLFQXP UUHDOFúLFHOPDLPDUH
{ }
QXP UUHDOGFXSURSULHWDWHDF G Q D N − EN + < F ∀Q≥SXQGHSHXQQXP UIL[DW
Q
6ROX LH $YHP DN − D N − E N + < ⇒  DN − D N − EN +  ∀

 
Q≥S &X ELQRPXO OXL 1HZWRQ VH GHGXFH F
Q Q
 DN + D N − EN +  +  DN − D N − EN +  ∈
    = GHFL
   
Q Q Q
 DN + D N − EN +   =  DN + D N − EN +  +  DN − D N − EN +  −
      
      
Q Q
$WXQFL  DN + D N − EN +   = −  DN − D N − EN +  ⇒
 
    
{ ( ) ( (
⇒ (DN )Q + &Q (DN )Q − D N − EN + + + &Q (DN )Q − + &Q (DN )Q − D N − EN + + ⋅ ) )
Q
⋅ D N − EN +  = −  DN − D N − EN +  1RWkQG EQ = ∑ &QL + (DN )Q − L − D N − EN +
  
L
( )
L ≥
RE LQHP EQ D N − EN +  = − (DN − D N − EN + )Q

 
Q
&XPQ≥S⇒EQ≥SDYHP −  DN − D N − EN +  < F ∀Q≥SúLGLQ
 
Q
OLP  DN − D N − EN +  = RE LQHP F ≥ &XP Q D N − EN +  ∀ Q ≥ S
 
Q → ∞   
Q +
DYHPF 'DU − < DN − − D N − EN + < GHFL − <  DN − − D N − EN +  <
 
$QDORJVHGHGXFHF
Q +  Q +
 DN − + D N − EN +   = − DN − − D N − EN +  ⇒
   
    
Q +
 D N − EN + − DN + 




(

)
=  &Q + (DN − ) + D N − EN +  GHFLSHQWUXQ≥S

Q +
 D N − EN + − DN + 
  > G 3ULQWUHFHUHODOLPLW DYHPG≤&XP
 
Q D N − EN +  ≥ úL Q D N − EN +  ≠ DOWIHO Q D N − EN + ∈=⇒
   
   

D N − EN + ∈4úL D N − EN + ∈=⇒ D N − EN + ∈=úLDN± D N − EN +

DNDEVXUGGHGXFHPF G $úDGDUG F

2/GLQQU
'HWHUPLQD LQ∈1úWLLQGF VXPDFLIUHORUQXP UXOXLQHVWH
0DULXV*KHUX6ODWLQD2OW
6ROX LH 2EVHUYD LH 8Q QXP U QDWXUDO VH GLYLGH FX P GDF úL QXPDL GDF QXP UXO
IRUPDWFXXOWLPHOHVDOHPFLIUHS VWUkQGRUGLQHDVHGLYLGHFXP
)LHQ DN DN −DD D 'HRDUHFHD 8Q∈{}DYHPFD]XULOH
&D]XO,D
)RORVLQG2EVHUYD LDGHPDLVXVDYHP D D = D ⇒DLPSDU'HRDUHFHVQ
GLQUHOD LDDQWHULRDU YRPDYHDD GHFLQ ⇒Q
&D]XO,,D
$WXQFL D D = D ⇒DSDU&XPVQ GHGXFHPD∈{}
'DF D GLQ 2EVHUYD LD GH PDL VXV DYHP D D D = D ⇒ DHVWHSDU úL
FXPD≤GHRDUHFHVQ DYHPD $WXQFL D DD D = D úLD∈{}
GHRDUHFHVQ GHXQGHUH]XOW D úLQ ⇒Q
'DF D DQDORJFDPDLVXVDYHP D D D = D ⇒DLPSDUúLFXPD∈{
}GHRDUHFHVQ YDUH]XOWDF D∈{}
'DF D FXPXOWLPHOHWUHLFLIUHDOHOXLQDXVXPDYRPGHGXFHF Q ⋅
LPSRVLELOGHFLD )RORVLQG2EVHUYD LDGHPDLVXV D D D D = D úLD∈{
}&D]XULOHD úLD VXQWLPSRVLELOHGHRDUHFHQXPHUHOHúLQXVHGLYLG
FXU PkQHGHFLD
$WXQFL D D D D D = D úLD∈{}&D]XOD HVWHLPSRVLELOGHRDUHFH
⋅QXVHGLYLGHFXU PkQHGHFLD $WXQFLQ úLFXPVXPD
FLIUHORUOXLQHVWHYDUH]XOWDQ ⋅LPSRVLELO
ÌQFRQFOX]LHVLQJXUHOHVROX LLDOHSUREOHPHLVXQWQ úLQ

2/GLQQU
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SHUIHFW
0DULXV*KHUJX6ODWLQD2OW
6ROX LH9RPIRORVLPDLvQWkLXUP WRDUHD
2EVHUYD LH'DF Q∈1úLQQXHVWHGLYL]LELOFXDWXQFLQ 0OXFUXFDUHVH
SRDWHSUREDXúRUSULQFDOFXOFRQVLGHUkQGQGHIRUPDQ NQ NFXN∈1
3HQWUXQ QXP UXO1 QXHVWHSULPLDUSHQWUXQ DYHP1
FDUHHVWHSULP9RPDU WDF DFHDVWDHVWHVLQJXUDYDORDUHSRVLELO SHQWUXQ

6 DU W PF 1 QQQXHVWHSULPQ≥'DF QHVWHSDUúLQ≥DWXQFL1HVWH

SDUúL1!GHFL1QXSRDWHILSULP
'DF QHVWHPXOWLSOXGHQ NDWXQFL
1 QQ NQ NQN−N⋅QQ⋅FDUHHVWHFRPSXV
$úDGDUGDF QHVWHPXOWLSOXGHVDXGHDWXQFL1 QQHVWHFRPSXV&RQVLGH

UkQGUHVWXULOHvPS U LULLOXLQODPDLU PkQGHVWXGLDWFD]XULOHQ NúLQ N

'DF Q N DWXQFL FRQIRUP REVHUYD LHL GH PDL VXV Q 0 GHFL Q
Q

0 0LDUQ ⋅N 0 0GHFL1 QQ
00 0úL1!GHFL1QXHVWHSULP
'DF Q NFRQIRUPREVHUYD LHLGHPDLVXVQ 0úLQ 0LDU
Q ⋅N 0 0úLDQDORJFDPDLVXVUH]XOW F 1HVWHPXOWLSOXGHúL
1!GHFL1QXHVWHSULPÌQFRQFOX]LH1 QQQXHVWHSULPGDF Q≥
E6 FRQVLGHU PQ∈1Q≥úLV SUHVXSXQHPF QQ $$∈15H]XOW
$−Q $−Q⋅$QGHFLH[LVW XY∈1DVWIHOvQFkW
Q
 $ + Q = X
 (YLGHQWYX6F ]kQGUHOD LLOHDYHPQ X−YGHXQGH
 $ − Q = Y
UH]XOW Y≥úLQ YXY−)LHP X −Y∈1P≥'HRDUHFHQXPHUHOHYúL
P−VXQWSULPHvQWUHHOHúLYP− Q QGHGXFHPF H[LVW [∈1[≥[|Q
DVWIHOvQFkWP− [$WXQFLP [ [[−[úLIRORVLQGIDSWXOF HVWH
SULPH[LVW ST∈1ST P≥DVWIHOvQFkW
 [ + = S

 [ − [ + = T
'HRDUHFH[≥GLQGHGXFHPS≥úL[ S−ÌQORFXLQGvQDGRXDUHOD LHGLQ
VHRE LQHS−−S− T⇒S−S−S TVDX
SS − T3H GHDOW SDUWHS ≥⇒SS− ≥S− SGHFL
PHPEUXO VWkQJ DO HJDOLW LL GLQ HVWH XQ QXP U LPSDU ≥ LDU PHPEUXO GUHSW DO DFHVWHL
HJDOLW LLHVWHTSDUVDXHJDOFXGHFLUHOD LDHVWHLPSRVLELO
$úDGDU1 QQQXSRDWHILS WUDWSHUIHFW

2/GLQQU
'DF 0HVWHXQSXQFWvQWULXQJKLXO$%&DWXQFL
$0 %0 &0
+ + ≥
$% %& &$
9DVLOH&vUWRDMH3ORLHúWL
6ROX LH,QWURGXFHPQRWD LLOH$0 [%0 \&0 ]úL%& D&$ E$% F

3ULQvQPXO LUHFX + + LQHJDOLWDWHDGHYLQHVXFFHFLVYDVWIHO
D E F
 [ \ ]  
 F + D + E  D + E + F  ≥ D + E + F
 
 
\ ] [ \ + ] − D ] + [ − E [ + \ − F
+ + + + + ≥
D E F D E F E F D
\ ] [ \] FRV %0& ][ FRV &0$ [\ FRV $0%
+ + + + + ≥
D E F D E F E F D

 \ ] [   ] [
 + FRV %0& + FRV $0%  +  VLQ %0& − VLQ $0%  ≥ ILLQG

D E F  E F 

HYLGHQWDGHY UDW $YHPHJDOLWDWHDWXQFLFkQGD6&0$ E6$0% F6%0& $

5HPDUF 3ULQWUXQDUWLILFLXDVHP Q WRUSRDWHILGHPRQVWUDW HOHJDQWD
[\ \] ][ DEF F [ E
LQHJDOLWDWH + + ≥ 3ULQvQPXO LUHFX D[ + E\ + F] 0
DE EF FD [\] \
]
D E F  D E F  % D &
LQHJDOLWDWHDGHYLQH D[ + E\ + F] + +  ≥ DEF + + 
[ \ ]  \] ][ [\ 
EF FD DE

D +E +F +
\]
(
\ + ] −D + )

][
(
] + [ −E +
) [\
( )
[ + \ − F ≥
D + E + F + EF FRV %0& + FD FRV &0$ + DE FRV $0% ≥

(D + E FRV $0% + F FRV &0$) + (E VLQ $0% − F VLQ &0$) ≥
(JDOLWDWHDDUHORFDWXQFLFkQG0FRLQFLGHFXRUWRFHQWUXOWULXQJKLXOXL$%&
352%/(0(352386(
&/$6(/(,,9

3 8Q UDQ DUH GH RUL PDL PXOWH J LQL GHFkW UD H 'DF YLQGH J LQL úL
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&kWHJ LQLúLFkWHUD HDDYXW"
vQY7XGRUL D6W QFXOHVFX%U LOD
3ÌQWUXQFRúVXQWFXPHUHPDLPXOWGHFkWvQDOWFRú'DF PHUHVXQW

WUHFXWHGLQSULPXOFRúvQDOGRLOHDvQDFHVWDYRUILGHRULPDLPXOWHFDvQSULPXO
&kWHPHUHHUDXvQILHFDUHFRú"
vQY7XGRUL D6W QFXOHVFX%U LOD
36 VHGHWHUPLQHXQQXP UQDWXUDOGHSDWUXFLIUHFDUHvQGHSOLQHúWHVLPXO

WDQFRQGL LLOH
DFLIUHOHVDOHVXQWFRQVHFXWLYHGHVFUHVF WRDUH
EVXPDFLIUHORUVDOHVHvPSDUWHH[DFWOD
vQY&ULVWLQD*UDIX%XFXUHúWL
3 6H FRQVLGHU XQ QXP U GH FLIUH DVXSUD F UXLD VH HIHFWXHD] UHSHWDW

XUP WRDUHD RSHUD LH VH vQORFXLHúWH QXP UXO FX R VHFYHQ WRW GH FLIUH ILHFDUH
JUXSGHFkWHGRX UHSUH]HQWkQGPHGLDDULWPHWLF DJUXSXOXLFRUHVSXQ] WRUGLQVHF
YHQ DSUHFHGHQW H[→→→6723
'D LH[HPSOXGHXQQXP USHQWUXFDUHV SXWHPHIHFWXDRSHUD LDGHFkWPDLPXOWH
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