NondestructiveTesting

TableofContents
Chapter No: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 NameoftheChapter Page No 1 2 311 1220 2130 3148 4960 6177 7880 81

Coursedailyschedule CourseContents IntroductionNDTprocesses&theirUses IdentificationofweldDiscontinuities PenetrantTesting MagneticParticleTesting UltrasonicTesting RadiographicTesting EddyCurrentTesting ComparisonandSelectionofNDT Methods

ChapterI

INTRODUCTION

NondestructiveTesting The field of Nondestructive Testing (NDT) is a very broad, that plays a critical role in assuringthatstructuralcomponentsandsystemsperformtheirfunctioninareliableand costeffectivefashion.NDTtechniciansandengineersdefineandimplementteststhat locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise cause seriousaccidentssuchas,planestocrash,reactorstofail,trainstoderail,pipelinesto burst,andavarietyoftroublingevents. Thesetestsareperformedinamannerthatdoesnotaffectthefutureusefulnessofthe objectormaterial.Inotherwords,NDTallowspartsandmaterialstobeinspectedand evaluatedwithoutdamagingthem.Becauseitallowsinspectionwithoutinterferingwith a product's final use, NDT provides an excellent balance between quality control and costeffectiveness. NondestructiveEvaluation NondestructiveEvaluation(NDE)isatermthatisoftenusedinterchangeablywithNDT. However,technically,NDEisusedtodescribemeasurementsthataremorequantitative innature.Forexample,aNDEmethodwouldnotonlylocateadefect,butitwouldalso be used to measure something about that defect such as its size, shape, and orientation. NDE may be used to determine material properties such as fracture toughness,ductility,conductivityandotherphysicalcharacteristics. UsesofNDE FlawDetectionandEvaluation LeakDetection,LocationDetermination DimensionalMeasurements StructureandMicrostructureCharacterization EstimationofMechanicalandPhysicalProperties Stress(Strain)andDynamicResponseMeasurements MaterialSortingandChemicalCompositionDetermination

BackgroundonNondestructiveTesting(NDT) Nondestructive testing has been practiced for many decades. One of the earliest applicationswasthedetectionofsurfacecracksinrailcarwheelsandaxles.Theparts weredippedinoil,thencleanedanddustedwithapowder.Whenacrackwaspresent, theoilwouldseepfromthedefectandwettheoilprovidingvisualindicationindicating that the component was flawed. This eventually led to oils that were specifically formulatedforperformingtheseandotherinspectionsandtheseinspectiontechniques arenowcalledpenetranttesting. Xrayswerediscoveredin1895byWilhelmConradRoentgen(18451923)whowasa Professor at Wuerzburg University in Germany. Soon after his discovery, Roentgen produced the first industrial radiograph when he imaged a set of weights in a box to show his colleagues. Other electronic inspection techniques such as ultrasonic and eddy current testing started with the initial rapid developments in instrumentation spurredbytechnologicaladvancesandsubsequentdefenseandspaceeffortsfollowing World War II. In the early days, the primary purpose was the detection of defects. Critical parts were produced with a "safe life" design, and were intended to be defect free during their useful life. The detection of defects was automatically a cause for removalofthecomponentfromservice. The continued improvement of inspection technology, in particular the ability to detect smaller and smaller flaws, led to more andmore parts being rejected. At this time the disciplineoffracturemechanicsemerged,whichenabledonetopredictwhetheracrack of a given size would fail under a particular load if a particular material property or fracture toughness, were known. Other laws were developed to predict the rate of growthofcracksundercyclicloading(fatigue).Withtheadventofthesetools,itbecame possible to accept structures containing defects if the sizes of those defects were known. This formed the basis for a new design philosophy called "damage tolerant designs." Components having known defects could continue to be used as long as it couldbeestablishedthatthosedefectswouldnotgrowtoacriticalsizethatwouldresult in catastrophic failure. A new challenge was thus presented to the nondestructive testingcommunity. Mere detection of flaws was not enough. One needed to also obtain quantitative information about flaw size to serve as an input to fracture mechanics calculations to predicttheremaininglifeofacomponent.Theseneeds,ledtothecreationofanumber ofresearchprogramsaroundtheworldandtheemergenceofnondestructiveevaluation (NDE)asanewdiscipline.

NDT/NDEMethods The list of NDT methods that can be used to inspect components and make measurementsislargeandcontinuestogrow.Researcherscontinuetofindnewways of applying physics and other scientific disciplines to develop better NDT methods. However, there are six NDT methods that are used most often. These methods are Visual Inspection, Penetrant Testing, Magnetic Particle Testing, Electromagnetic or EddyCurrentTesting,Radiography,andUltrasonicTesting. VisualandOpticalTesting(VT) Visual inspectioninvolves using an inspector's eyes to look for defects. The inspector mayalsousespecialtoolssuchasmagnifyingglasses,mirrors,orborescopestogain accessandmorecloselyinspectthesubjectarea.Visualexaminersfollowprocedures thatrangefmsimpletoverycomplex.

PenetrantTesting(PT) Test objects are coated with visible or fluorescent dye solution. Excess dye is then removed from the surface, and a developer is applied. The developer acts as blotter, drawing trapped penetrantout ofimperfections open to the surface.With visible dyes, vividcolorcontrastsbetweenthepenetrantanddevelopermake"bleedout"easytosee. With fluorescent dyes, ultraviolet light is used to make the bleedout fluoresce brightly, thusallowingimperfectionstobereadilyseen.

MagneticParticleTesting(MT) This method is accomplished by inducing a magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material and then dusting the surface with iron particles (either dry or suspended in liquid). Surface and nearsurfaceimperfections distort the magnetic field and concentrateiron particlesnearimperfections,previewingavisualindicationoftheflaw.

ElectromagneticTesting(ET)orEddyCurrentTesting Electrical currents are generated in a conductive material by an induced alternating magnetic field This electrical currents is called eddy currents because they flow in circles at and just below the surface of the material. Interruptions in the flow of eddy currents, caused by imperfections, dimensional changes, or changes in the material's conductiveandpermeabilityproperties,aredetected.

Radiography(RT) Radiography involves the use of penetrating gamma or Xradiation to examine parts andproductsforimperfections.AnXraygeneratororradioactiveisotopeisusedasa sourceofradiation.Radiationisdirectedthroughapartandontofilmorotherimaging media. The resulting radiograph shows the dimensional features of the part. Possible imperfections are indicated as density changes on the film in the same manner as a medicalXrayshowsbrokenbones.

Source

Rays

Objectwithdefect
Film

Xrayfilm
DefectImage Filmwithimage

UltrasonicTesting(UT) Ultrasonics use transmission of highfrequency sound waves into a material to detect imperfections or to locate changes in material properties. The most commonly used ultrasonictestingtechniqueispulseecho,whereinsoundisintroducedintoatestobject and reflections (echoes) are returned to a receiver from internal imperfections or from thepart'sgeometricalsurfaces
Initial pulse Backsurface echo Crack echo

Probe

Couplant Sound waves

crack

. Screen

1 0

Plate

AcousticEmissionTesting(AE) Whenasolidmaterialisstressed,imperfectionswithinthematerialemitshortburstsof acousticenergycalled"emissions."Asinultrasonictesting,acousticemissionscanbe detectedbyspecialreceivers.Emissionsourcescanbeevaluatedthroughthestudyof theirintensity,rate,andlocation.

LeakTesting(LT) Severaltechniquesareusedtodetectandlocateleaksinpressurecontainmentparts, pressure vessels, and structures. Leaks can be detected by using electronic listening devices,pressuregaugemeasurements,liquidandgaspenetranttechniques,and/ora simplesoapbubbletest.

The Relative Uses and Merits of Various NDT Methods

Test Method
Capitalcost

UT
Mediumto high

Xray
High

Eddy Current
Lowto medium Low

MPI
Medium

LPT
Low

Consumable Verylow cost Timeof results Effectof geometry Access problems Typeof defect Immediate

High

Medium

Medium

Delayed

Immediate

Short delay Nottoo Important Important

Short delay Nottoo Important Important

Important

Important

Important

Important

Important

Important

Internal

Most

External

External Near Surface Low

Surface breaking

Relative sensitivity Operator skill Operator training Training needs

High

Medium

High

Low

High

High

Medium

Low

Low

Important

Important

Important

Important

Not Important Low

High

High

Medium

Low

Portabilityof High equipment Capabilities

Low

Highto medium Thickness gauging, grade sorting

Highto medium Defects only

High

Thickness Thickness gauging, gauging composition testing

Defects only

Table1ReferenceGuidetoMajorMethodsfortheNondestructive ExaminationofWelds
Inspection Method Visual Equipment Enables Advantages Limitations Remarks Required Detectiortof Magnifying glass Weldsizing gauge Pocketrule Straightedge Workmanship standards Surfaceflaws cracks, porosity, unfilled craters,slag inclusions Warpage, underwelding, overwelding, poorlyformed beads, misalignments, improperfitup Lowcost. Canbeapplied whileworkis inprocess, permitting correctionof faults. Gives indicationof incorrect procedures. Applicable tosurface defectsonly. Providesno permanent record. Should alwaysbethe primary methodof inspection,no matterwhat other techniquesare required. Istheonly "productive" typeof inspection. Isthe necessary functionof everyonewho inanyway contributesto themakingof theweld. Xray inspectionis requiredby manycodes and specifications. Usefulin qualification ofwelders andwelding processes. Becauseof cost,itsuse shouldbe limitedto thoseareas whereother methodswill notprovide theassurance required.

Radiographic Commercial Xrayor gammaunits made especiallyfor inspecting welds, castingsand forgings. Filmand processing facilities. Fluoroscopic viewing equipment.

Interior macroscopic flawscracks, porosity,blow holes, nonmetallic inclusions, incomplete root penetration, undercutting, icicles,and burnthrough.

Whenthe indicationsare recordedon film,givesa permanent record. Whenviewed ona fluoroscopic screen,alow costmethodof internal inspection

Requires skillin choosing anglesof exposure, operating equipment, and interpreting indications. Requires safety precautions. Not generally suitablefor filletweld inspection.

Magnetic Special Particle commercial equipment. Magnetic powders dry orwetform maybe fluorescent forviewing under ultraviolet light.

Excellentfor detecting surface discontinuities especially surfacecracks.

Simplerto usethan radiographic inspection. Permits controlled sensitivity. Relatively lowcost method.

Applicableto ferromagnetic materialsonly. Requiresskill in interpretation ofindications and recognitionof irrelevant patterns. Difficulttouse onrough surfaces. Onlysurface defectsare detectable. Cannotbe used effectivelyon hotassemblies.

Elongated defectsparallel tothemagnetic fieldmaynot givepattern forthisreason thefieldshould beapplied fromtwo directionsator nearright anglestoeach other. Inthinwalled vesselswill revealleaksnot ordinarily locatedby usualairtests. irrelevant surface conditions (smoke,slag) maygive misleading indications.

Commercial Liquid Penetrant kits containing fluorescentor dyepenetrants and developers. Application equipmentfor thedeveloper. Asourceof ultraviolet light if fluorescent methodis used. Ultrasonic Special commercial equipment, eitherofthe pulseechoor transmission type. Standard reference patternsfor interpretation ofRFor video patterns.

Surfacecracks notreadily visibletothe unaidedeye. Excellentfor locatingleaks inweldments.

Applicableto magneticand nonmagnetic materials. Easytouse. Lowcost.

Surfaceand subsurface flawsincluding thosetoosmall tobedetected byother methods. Especiallyfor detecting subsurface laminationlike defects.

Very sensitive. Permits probingof joints inaccessible to radiography.

Requireshigh degreeofskill ininterpreting pulseecho patterns. Permanent recordisnot readily obtained.

Pulseecho equipmentis highly developedfor weldinspection purposes. The transmission typeequipment simplifies pattern interpretation whereitis applicable.

10

ChapterII

IDENTIFICATIONOFWELDDISCONTINUITIES
Discontinuities are interruptions in the typical structure of a material. These interruptions may occur in the base metal, weld material or "heat affected" zones. Discontinuities, which do not meet the requirements of the codes or specification used to invoke and control an inspection, are referred to as defects. General Welding Discontinuities The following discontinuities are typical of all types of welding. Cracks: Crack is tight linear separations of metal that can be very short to very long indications. Cracks are grouped as hot or cold cracks. Hot cracks usually occur as the metal solidifies at elevated temperatures. Cold cracks occur after the metal has cooled to ambient temperatures ( delayed cracks). Cracks can be detected in a radiograph only when they are propagating in a direction that produces a change in thickness that is parallel to the x-ray beam. Cracks will appear as jagged and often very faint irregular lines. Cracks can sometimes appear as "tails" on inclusions or porosity.

11

Lack of Fusion: Lack of fusion (Cold Lap) is a condition where the weld filler metal does not properly fuse with the base metal or the previous weld pass material (inter pass cold lap). The arc does not melt the base metal sufficiently and causes the slightly molten puddle to flow into base material without bonding.

12

Porosity: Porosity is the result of gas entrapment in the solidifying metal. Porosity can take many shapes on a radiograph but often appears as dark round or irregular spots or specks appearing singularly, in clusters or rows. Sometimes porosity is elongated and may have the appearance of having a tail This is the result of gas attempting to escape while the metal is still in a liquid state and is called wormhole porosity. All porosity is a void in the material it will have a radiographic density more than the surrounding area.

Cluster porosity: Cluster porosity is caused when flux coated electrodes are contaminated with moisture. The moisture turns into gases when heated and becomes trapped in the weld during the welding process. Cluster porosity appear just like regular porosity in the radiograph but the together. indications will be grouped close

13

Slag inclusions: Slag inclusions are nonmetallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or between weld and base metal. In a radiograph, dark, jagged asymmetrical shapes within the weld or along the weld joint areas are indicative of slag inclusions.

Incomplete penetration (IP): Incomplete penetration (IP) or lack of penetration (LOP) occurs when the weld metal fails to penetrate the joint. It is one of the most objectionable weld discontinuities. Lack of penetration allows a natural stress riser from which a crack may propagate. The appearance on a radiograph is a dark area with well-defined, straight edges that follows the land or root face down the center of the weldment.

Root concavity: 14

Root or Internal concavity or suck back is condition where the weld metal has contracted as it cools and has been drawn up into the root of the weld. On a radiograph it looks similar to lack of penetration but the line has irregular edges and it is often quite wide in the center of the weld image.

Internal or root undercut: Internal or root undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the root of the weld. In the radiographic image it appears as a dark irregular line offset from the centerline of the weldment. Undercutting is not as straight edged as LOP because it does not follow a ground edge.

External or crown undercut: 15

External or crown undercut is an erosion of the base metal next to the crown of the weld. In the radiograph, it appears as a dark irregular line along the outside edge of the weld area.

Offset or mismatch: Offset or mismatch are terms associated with a condition where two pieces being welded together are not properly aligned. The radiographic image is a noticeable difference in density between the two pieces. The difference in density is caused by the difference in material thickness. The dark, straight line is caused by failure of the weld metal to fuse with the land area.

Inadequate weld reinforcement:

16

Inadequate weld reinforcement is an area of a weld where the thickness of weld metal deposited is less than the thickness of the base material. It is very easy to determine by radiograph if the weld has inadequate reinforcement, because the image density in the area of suspected inadequacy will be more (darker) than the image density of the surrounding base material.

Excess weld reinforcement : Excess weld reinforcement is an area of a weld that has weld metal added in excess of that specified by engineering drawings and codes. The appearance on a radiograph is a localized, lighter area in the weld. A visual inspection will easily determine if the weld reinforcement is in excess of that specified by the engineering requirements.

Discontinuities in TIG welds 17

The following discontinuities are peculiar to the TIG welding process. These discontinuities occur in most metals welded by the process including aluminum and stainless steels. The TIG method of welding produces a clean homogeneous weld which when radiographed is easily interpreted.

Tungsten inclusions. Tungsten is a brittle and inherently dense material used in the electrode in tungsten inert gas ( TIG ) welding. If improper welding procedures are used, tungsten may be entrapped in the weld. Radiographically, tungsten is denser than aluminum or steel; therefore, it shows as a lighter area with a distinct outline on the radiograph.

Oxide inclusions: Oxide inclusions are usually visible on the surface of material being welded (especially aluminum). Oxide inclusions are less dense than the surrounding materials and, therefore, radiograph. appear as dark irregularly shaped discontinuities in the

Discontinuities in Gas Metal Arc Welds (GMAW) The following discontinuities are most commonly found in GMAW welds. 18

Whiskers: Whiskers are short lengths of weld electrode wire, visible on the top or bottom surface of the weld or contained within the weld. On a radiograph they appear as light, "wire like" indications.

Burn-Through: Burn-Through results when too much heat causes excessive weld metal to penetrate the weld zone. Often lumps of metal sag through the weld creating a thick globular condition on the back of the weld. These globs of metal are referred to as icicles. On a radiograph, burn through appears as dark spots, which are often surrounded by light globular areas (icicles).

19

ChapterIII

PENETRANTINSPECTION
Introduction Liquidpenetrationinspectionisamethodthatisusedtorevealsurfacebreakingflaws bybleedoutofacoloredorfluorescentdyefromtheflaw.Thetechniqueisbasedonthe abilityofaliquidtobedrawnintoa"clean"surfacebreakingflawby capillaryaction. After a period of time called the "dwell," excess surface penetrant is removed and a developer is applied. This acts as a "blotter." It draws the penetrant from the flaw to revealitspresence. Colored(contrast)penetrantsrequiregoodwhitelightwhilefluorescentpenetrantsneed tobeviwedindarkenedconditionswithanultraviolet"blacklight". A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on glazedpottery,wherebythecarbonblackwouldsettleinsurfacecracksrenderingthem visible. Later it became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel components by the "oil and whiting" method. In this method, heavy oil commonly available in railway workshops was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that locomotive parts such as wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful cleaning,thesurfacewasthencoatedwithafinesuspensionofchalkinalcoholsothat awhitesurfacelayerwasformedoncethealcoholhadevaporated.Theobjectwasthen vibrated and stroked with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks to seepoutandstainthewhitecoating. Thismethodwasinusefromthelatterpartofthe19thcenturythroughtoapproximately 1940, when the magnetic particle method was introduced and found to be more sensitive for the ferromagnetic iron and steels. Penetrant Inspection Improves the DetectabilityofFlaws The advantage that a liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) offers over an unaided visual inspection is that it makes defects easier to see for the inspector. There are basically twowaysthatapenetrantinspectionprocessmakesflawsmoreeasilyseen.First,LPI producesaflawindicationthatismuchlargerandeasierfortheeyetodetectthanthe flawitself.Manyflawsaresosmallornarrowthattheyareundetectablebytheunaided eye. ThesecondwaythatLPIimprovesthedetectabilityofaflawisthatitproducesaflaw indicationwithahighlevelofcontrastbetweentheindicationandthebackgroundwhich alsohelpstomaketheindicationmoreeasilyseen.Whena

visible dye penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrant materials are formulated usingabrightreddyethatprovidesforahighlevelofcontrast 20

betweenthewhitedeveloperthatservesasabackgroundaswellastopullthetrapped penetrant from the flaw. When a fluorescent penetrant inspection is performed, the penetrantmaterialsareformulatedtoglowbrightlyandtogiveofflightatawavelength thattheeyeismostsensitivetounderdimlightingconditions. BasicProcessingStepsofaLiquidPenetrantInspection

1. Surface Preparation: One of the most critical steps of a liquid penetrant inspection is the surface preparation. The surface must be free of oil, grease, water,orothercontaminantsthatmaypreventpenetrantfromenteringflaws.The sample may also require etching if mechanical operations such as machining, sanding, or grit blasting have been performed. These and other mechanical operationscansmearthesurfaceofthesample,thusclosingthedefects. 2. PenetrantApplication:Oncethesurfacehasbeenthoroughlycleanedanddried, the penetrant material is applied on the surface by spraying, brushing, or immersingthepartsinapenetrantbath. 3. PenetrantDwell:Thepenetrantisleftonthesurfaceforasufficienttimetoallow as much penetrant as possible to be drawn from or to seep into a defect. Penetrantdwelltimeisthetotaltimethatthepenetrantisincontactwiththepart surface.Dwelltimesareusuallyrecommendedbythe

penetrant producers or required by the specification being followed. The times vary dependingon the application, penetrant materials used, the material being inspected,andthetypeofdefectbeinginspected.Minimumdwelltimestypically range from 5 to 60 minutes. Generally, there is no harm in using a longer 21

penetrant dwell time as long as the penetrant is not allowed to dry. The ideal dwelltimeisoftendeterminedbyexperimentationandisoftenveryspecifictoa particularapplication. 4 Excess Penetrant Removal: This is a most delicate part of the inspection procedure because the excess penetrant must be removed from the surface of the sample while removing as little penetrant as possible from defects. Dependingonthepenetrantsystemused,thisstepmayinvolvecleaningwitha solvent, direct rinsing with water, or first treated with an emulsifier and then rinsingwithwater. 5 DeveloperApplication:Athinlayerofdeveloperisthenappliedtothesample to draw penetrant trapped in flaws back to the surface where it will be visible. Developers come in a variety of forms that may be applied by dusting (dry powdered),dipping,orspraying(wetdevelopers). 6 IndicationDevelopment:Thedeveloperisallowedtostandonthepartsurface foraperiodoftimesufficienttopermittheextractionofthetrappedpenetrantout ofanysurfaceflaws.Thisdevelopmenttimeisusuallyaminimumof10minutes andsignificantlylongertimesmaybenecessaryfortightcracks. 7 Inspection: Inspection is then performed under appropriate lighting to detect indicationsfromanyflawsthatmaybepresent. 8 Clean Surface: The final step in the process is to thoroughly clean the part surfacetoremovethedeveloperfromthepartsthatwerefoundtobeacceptable. PenetrantTestingMaterials The penetrant materials used today are much more sophisticated than the kerosene andwhitingfirstusedbyrailroadinspectorsneartheturnofthe20thcentury.Today's penetrants are carefully formulated to produce the level of sensitivity desired by the inspector. 1 Penetrant: Penetrant materials are classified in the various industry and governmentspecificationsbytheirphysicalcharacteristicsandtheirperformance Penetrant materials come in two basic types. These types are listed below: Type 1 - Fluorescent Penetrants Type2VisiblePenetrants

Fluorescent penetrants contain a dye or several dyes that fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Visible penetrants contain a red dye that provides high contrast against the white developer background. Fluorescent penetrant systems are more sensitive than visible penetrant systems because the eye is drawn to the glow of the fluorescingindication.However,visiblepenetrantsdonotrequireadarkenedareaand an ultraviolet light in order to make an inspection. Visible penetrants are also less vulnerable to contamination from things such as cleaning fluid that can significantly reducethestrengthofafluorescentindication. 22

Penetrantsarethenclassifiedbythemethodusedtoremovetheexcesspenetrantfrom thepart.Thefourmethodsarelistedbelow:

MethodAWaterWashable MethodBPostEmulsifiable,Lipophilic MethodCSolventRemovable MethodDPostEmulsifiable,Hydrophilic

Waterwashable(MethodA)penetrantscanberemovedfromthepartbyrinsingwith wateralone.Thesepenetrantscontainsomeemulsifyingagent(detergent)thatmakesit possibletowashthepenetrantfromthepartsurfacewithwateralone.Waterwashable penetrantsaresometimesreferredtoasselfemulsifyingsystems. Post emulsifiable penetrants come in two varieties, lipophilic and hydrophilic. In post emulsifiers,lipophilicsystems(MethodB),thepenetrantisoilsolubleandinteractswith the oilbased emulsifier to make removal possible. Post emulsifiable, hydrophilic systems(MethodD),useanemulsifierthatisawatersolubledetergentwhichliftsthe excess penetrant from the surface of the part with a water wash. Solvent removable penetrantsrequiretheuseofasolventtoremovethepenetrantfromthepart. PropertiesofgoodPenetrant Toperformwell,apenetrantmustpossessfollowingimportantcharacteristics. spread easily over the surface of the material being inspected to provide completeandevencoverage. bedrawnintosurfacebreakingdefectsbycapillaryaction. remaininthedefectbutremoveeasilyfromthesurfaceofthepart. remainfluidsoitcanbedrawnbacktothesurfaceofthepartthroughthedrying anddevelopingsteps. behighlyvisibleorfluorescebrightlytoproduceeasytoseeindications. mustnotbeharmfultothematerialbeingtestedortheinspector.

2Emulsifiers: Whenremovalofthepenetrantfromthedefectduetooverwashing
of the part is a concern, a post emulsifiable penetrant system can be used. Post emulsifiable penetrants require a separate emulsifier to break thepenetrant down and make it water washable. Most penetrant inspection specifications classify penetrant systemsintofourmethodsofexcesspenetrantremoval.Thesearelistedbelow: 1. MethodA:WaterWashable 2. MethodB:PostEmulsifiable,Lipophilic 23

3. MethodC:SolventRemovable 4. MethodD:PostEmulsifiable,Hydrophilic Method C relies on a solvent cleaner to remove the penetrant from the part being inspected.MethodAhasemulsifiersbuiltintothepenetrantliquidthatmakesitpossible toremovetheexcesspenetrantwithasimplewaterwash.MethodBandDpenetrants require an additional processing step wherea separateemulsification agentis applied to make the excess penetrant more removable with a water wash. Lipophilic emulsification systems are oilbased materials that are supplied in readytouse form. Hydrophilic systems are waterbased and supplied as a concentrate that must be dilutedwithwaterpriortouse .Lipophilicemulsifiers(MethodB)wereintroducedinthe late 1950's and work with both a chemical and mechanical action. After the emulsifier has coated the surface of the object, mechanical action starts to remove some of the excesspenetrantasthemixturedrainsfromthepart.Duringtheemulsificationtime,the emulsifier diffuses into the remaining penetrant and the resulting mixture is easily removedwithawaterspray. Hydrophilic emulsifiers (Method D)also remove the excess penetrant with mechanical and chemical action but the action is different because no diffusion takes place. Hydrophilic emulsifiers are basically detergents that contain solvents and surfactants. The hydrophilic emulsifier breaks up the penetrant into small quantities and prevents thesepiecesfromrecombiningorreattachingtothesurfaceofthepart.Themechanical action of the rinse water removes the displaced penetrant from the part and causes freshremovertocontactandliftnewlyexposedpenetrantfromthesurface. Thehydrophilicpostemulsifiablemethod(MethodD)wasintroducedinthemid1970's and sinceitis more sensitive than thelipophilic post emulsifiable method it has made the later method virtually obsolete. The major advantage of hydrophilic emulsifiers is that they are less sensitive to variation in the contact and removal time. While emulsificationtimeshouldbecontrolledascloselyaspossible,avariationofoneminute ormoreinthecontacttimewillhavelittleeffectonflawdetectabilitywhenahydrophilic emulsifier is used. However, a variation of as little as 15 to 30 seconds can have a significanteffectwhenalipophilicsystemisused.

3Developers Theroleofthedeveloperistopullthetrappedpenetrantmaterialoutofdefectsandto spreadthedeveloperoutonthesurfaceofthepartsoitcanbeseenbyaninspector. Thefinedeveloperparticlesbothreflectandrefracttheincidentultravioletlight,allowing more of it to interact with the penetrant, causing more efficient fluorescence. The developer also allows more light to be emitted through the same mechanism. This is why indications are brighter than the penetrant itself under UV light. Another function that some developers performs is to create a white background so there is a greater degreeofcontrastbetweentheindicationandthesurroundingbackground. DeveloperForms 24

The AMS 2644 and MilI25135 classify developers into six standard forms. These formsarelistedbelow: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. FormaDryPowder FormbWaterSoluble FormcWaterSuspendible FormdNonaqueousType1Fluorescent(SolventBased) FormeNonaqueousType2VisibleDye(SolventBased)

The developer classifications are based on the method that the developer is applied. The developer can be applied as a dry powder, or dissolved or suspended in a liquid carrier.Eachofthedeveloperformshasadvantagesanddisadvantages. A)DryPowder Dry powder developer is generally considered to be the least sensitive but it is inexpensivetouseandeasytoapply.Drydevelopersarewhite,fluffypowdersthatcan be applied to a thoroughly dry surface in a number of ways. The developer can be applied by dipping parts in a container of developer, or byusinga puffer to dust parts with the developer. Parts can also be placed ina dust cabinet where the developeris blown around and allowed to settle on the part. Electrostatic powder spray guns are also available to apply the developer. The goal is to allow the developer to come in contactwiththewholeinspectionarea. Unlessthepartiselectrostaticallycharged,thepowderwillonlyadheretoareaswhere trapped penetrant has wet the surface of the part. The penetrant will try to wet the surface of the penetrant particle and fill the voids between the particles, which brings more penetrant to the surface of the part where it can be seen. Since dry powder developersonlysticktothepartwherepenetrantispresent,thedrydeveloperdoesnot provide a uniform white background as the other forms of developers do. Having a uniform light background is very important for a visible inspection to be effective and sincedrydevelopersdonotprovideone,theyareseldomusedforvisibleinspections. When a dry developer is used, indications tend to stay bright and sharp since the penetranthasalimitedamountofroomtospread. B) - Water Soluble Asthenameimplies,watersolubledevelopersconsistofagroupofchemicalsthatare dissolvedinwaterandformadeveloperlayerwhenthewaterisevaporatedaway.The bestmethodforapplyingwatersolubledevelopersisbysprayingitonthepart.Thepart can be wet or dry. Dipping, pouring, or brushing the solution on to the surface is sometimes used but these methods are less desirable. Aqueous developers contain wettingagentsthatcausethesolutiontofunctionmuchlikedilutehydrophilicemulsifier and can lead to additional removal of entrapped penetrant. Drying is achieved by placingthewetbutwelldrained

partinarecalculatingwarmairdryerwiththetemperatureheldbetween70and75F.If thepartsarenotdriedquickly,theindicationswillwillbeblurredandindistinct.Properly developedpartswillhaveaneven,palewhitecoatingovertheentiresurface. 25

C)WaterSuspendible Water suspendible developers consist of insoluble developer particles suspended in water. Water suspendible developers require frequent stirring or agitation to keep the particles from settling out of suspension.Water suspendible developers are applied to parts in the same manner as water soluble developers. Parts coated with a water suspendible developer must be forced dried just as parts coated with a water soluble developer are forced dried. The surface of a part coated with a water suspendible developerwillhaveaslightlytranslucentwhitecoating. B)Nonaqueous Nonaqueous developers suspend the developer in a volatile solvent and are typically appliedwithaspraygun.Nonaqueousdevelopersarecommonlydistributedinaerosol spray cans for portability. The solvent tends to pull penetrant from the indications by solvent action. Since the solvent is highly volatile, forced drying is not required. A nonaqueous developer should be applied to a thoroughly dried part to form a slightly translucentwhitecoating. PreparationofPart Oneofthemostcriticalstepsinthepenetrantinspectionprocessispreparingthepart for inspection. All coatings, such as paints, varnishes, plating, and heavy oxides must be removed to ensure that defects are open the surface of the part. If the parts have beenmachined,sanded,orblastedpriortothepenetrantinspection,itispossiblethata thin layer of metal may have smeared across the surface and closed off defects. It is evenpossibleformetalsmearingtooccurasaresultofcleaningoperationssuchasgrit orvaporblasting.Thislayerofmetalsmearingmustberemovedbeforeinspection.

Contaminants Coatings, such as paint, are much more elastic than metal and will not fracture even though a large defect may be present just below the coating. The part must be thoroughlycleanedassurfacecontaminatescanpreventthepenetrantfromenteringa defect.Surfacecontaminantscanalsoleadtoahigherlevelofbackgroundnoisesince theexcesspenetrantmaybemoredifficulttoremove. Common coatings and contaminates that must be removed include: paint, dirt, flux, scale, varnish, oil, etchant, smut, plating, grease, oxide, wax, decals, machining fluid, rust,andresiduefrompreviouspenetrantinspections. Some of these contaminants would obviously prevent penetrant from entering defects and it is, therefore, clear that they must be removed. However, the impact of other contaminantssuchastheresiduefrompreviouspenetrantinspectionsislessclear,but theycanhaveadisastrousaffectontheinspection.Takethelinkbelowtoreviewsome 26

of the research that has been done to evaluate the effects of contaminants on LPI sensitivity. A good cleaning procedure will remove all contamination from the part and not leave anyresiduethatmayinterferewiththeinspectionprocess.Ithasbeenfoundthatsome alkaline cleaners can be detrimental to the penetrant inspection process if they have silicatesinconcentrationsabove0.5percent.Sodiummetasilicate,sodiumsilicate,and relatedcompoundscanadheretothesurfaceofpartsandformacoatingthatprevents penetrantentryintocracks.ResearchersinRussiahavealsofoundthatsomedomestic soaps and commercial detergents can clog flaw cavities and reduce the wettability of the metal surface, thus, reducing the sensitivity of the penetrant. Conrad and Caudill found that media from plastic media blasting was partially responsible for loss of LPI indication strength. Microphotographs of cracks after plastic media blasting showed mediaentrapmentinadditiontometalsmearing. It is veryimportant that the material beinginspected has notbeen smeared acrossits own surface during machining or cleaning operations. It is well recognized that machining, honing, lapping, hand sanding, hand scraping, shot peening, grit blasting, tumbledeburring,andpeeningoperationscancauseasmallamountofthematerialto smear on the surface of some materials. It is perhaps less recognized that some cleaning operations, such as steam cleaning, can also cause metal smearing in the softermaterials.Takethelinkbelowtolearnmoreaboutmetalsmearinganditsaffects onLPI.

CommonUsesofLiquidPenetrantInspection Liquid penetrant inspection (LPI) is one of the most widely used nondestructive evaluation (NDE) methods. Its popularity can be attributed to two main factors, which are its relative ease of use and its flexibility. LPI can be used to inspect almost any material provided that its surface is not extremely rough or porous. Materials that are commonlyinspectedusingLPIincludethefollowing:

Metals(aluminum,copper,steel,titanium,etc.) Glass Manyceramicmaterials Rubber Plastics

LPIoffersflexibilityinperforminginspectionsbecauseitcanbeappliedinalargevariety of applications ranging from automotive spark plugs to critical aircraft components. 27

Penetrantmaterialcanbeappliedwithaspraycanoracottonswabtoinspectforflaws knowntooccurinaspecificareaoritcanbeappliedbydippingorsprayingtoquickly inspect large areas. At right, visible dye penetrant being locally applied to a highly loadedconnectingpointtocheckforfatiguecracking. Penetrant inspection systems have been developed to inspect some very large components. In this picture, DC10 banjo fittings are being moved into a penetrant inspection system at what used to be the Douglas Aircraft Company's Long Beach, California facility. These large machined aluminum forgings are used to support the number3engineinthetailofaDC10aircraft. Liquid penetrant inspection is used to inspect of flaws that break the surface of the sample.Someoftheseflawsarelistedbelow:

Fatiguecracks Quenchcracks Grindingcracks Overloadandimpactfractures Porosity Laps Seams Pinholesinwelds Lackoffusionorbraisingalongtheedgeofthebondline

Asmentionedabove,oneofthemajorlimitationsofapenetrantinspectionisthatflaws mustbeopentothesurface.

AdvantagesandDisadvantagesofPenetrantTesting Likeallnondestructiveinspectionmethods,liquidpenetrantinspectionhasboth advantagesanddisadvantages.Theprimaryadvantagesanddisadvantageswhen comparedtootherNDEmethodsaresummarizedbelow. PrimaryAdvantages Themethodhashighsensitivetosmallsurfacediscontinuities. The method has few materiallimitations, i.e.metallic and nonmetallic, magnetic and nonmagnetic, and conductive and nonconductive materials may be inspected. Largeareasandlargevolumesofparts/materialscanbeinspectedrapidlyandat lowcost. Partswithcomplexgeometricshapesareroutinelyinspected. Indicationsareproduceddirectlyonthesurfaceofthepartandconstituteavisual representationoftheflaw. Penetrantmaterialsandassociatedequipmentarerelativelyinexpensive. 28

PrimaryDisadvantages

Onlysurfacebreakingdefectscanbedetected. Onlymaterialswitharelativenonporoussurfacecanbeinspected. Precleaningiscriticalascontaminantscanmaskdefects. Metal smearing from machining, grinding, and grit or vapor blasting must be removedpriortoLPI. Theinspectormusthavedirectaccesstothesurfacebeinginspected. Surfacefinishandroughnesscanaffectinspectionsensitivity. Multipleprocessoperationsmustbeperformedandcontrolled. Postcleaningofacceptablepartsormaterialsisrequired. Chemicalhandlingandproperdisposalisrequire

ChapterIV

MagneticParticleInspection
Introduction: Magnetic particle inspection is a nondestructive testing method used for surface and near surface defect detection. MPI is a fast and relatively easy to apply and surface preparationisnotascriticalasitisforsomeotherNDTmethods.Thesecharacteristics makeMPIoneofthemostwidelyutilizednondestructivetestingmethods. 29

MPI uses magnetic fields and small magnetic particles, such as iron filings to detect flawsincomponents.Theonlyrequirementisthatthecomponentbeinginspectedmust bemadeofaferromagneticmaterialsuchiron,nickel,cobalt,orsomeoftheiralloys. Ferromagneticmaterialsarematerialsthatcanbemagnetizedtoalevelthatwillallow theinspectiontobeeffective. Themethodisusedtoinspectavarietyofproductformssuchascastings,forgings,and weldments.Manydifferentindustriesusemagneticparticleinspectionfordetermininga component's fitnessforuse. Some examples of industries that use magnetic particle inspection are the structural steel, automotive, petrochemical, power generation, and aerospace industries. Underwater inspection is another area where magnetic particle inspection may be used to test items such as offshore structures and underwater pipelines. BasicPrinciples Intheory,magneticparticleinspection(MPI) isarelativelysimpleconcept.Considera bar magnet. It has a magnetic field in and around the magnet. Any place that a magnetic line of force exits or enters the magnet is called a pole. A pole where a magneticlineofforceexitsthemagnetiscalledanorthpoleandapolewherealineof forceentersthemagnetiscalledasouthpole.

Whenabarmagnetisbrokeninthecenterofitslength,twocompletebarmagnetswith magneticpolesoneachendofeachpiecewillresult.Ifthemagnetisjustcrackedbut notbrokencompletelyintwo,anorthandsouthpolewillformateachedgeofthecrack. Themagneticfieldexitsthenorthpoleandreenterstheatthesouthpole.Themagnetic fieldspreadsoutwhenitencounterthesmallairgapcreatedbythecrackbecausethe aircannotsupportasmuchmagneticfieldperunitvolumeasthemagnetcan.Whenthe field spreads out, it appears to leak out of the material and, thus, it is called a flux leakagefield.

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Ifironparticlesaresprinkledonacrackedmagnet,theparticleswillbeattractedtoand clusternotonlyatthepolesattheendsofthemagnetbutalsoatthepolesattheedges ofthecrack.Thisclusterofparticlesismucheasiertoseethantheactualcrackandthis isthebasisformagneticparticleinspection.

Thefirststepinamagneticparticleinspectionistomagnetizethecomponentthatisto beinspected.Ifanydefectsonornearthesurfacearepresent,thedefectswillcreatea leakagefield.Afterthecomponenthasbeenmagnetized,ironparticles,eitherinadry orwetsuspendedform,areappliedtothesurfaceofthemagnetizedpart.Theparticles will be attracted and cluster at the flux leakage fields, thus forming a visibleindication thattheinspectorcandetect.

HistoryofMagneticParticleInspection Magnetismistheabilityofmattertoattractothermatter.TheancientGreekswerethe first to discover this phenomenon in a mineral they named magnetite. Later on Bergmann, Becquerel, and Faraday discovered that all matter including liquids and gasseswereaffectedbymagnetism,butonlyafewrespondedtoanoticeableextent. Theearliestknownmagneticinspectionanobjecttookplaceasearlyas1868.Cannon barrels were checked for defects by magnetizing the barrel then sliding a magnetic compassalongthebarrel'slength.Theseearlyinspectorswereabletolocateflawsin thebarrelsbymonitoringtheneedleofthecompass. In the early 1920s, William Hoke realized that magnetic particles could be used with magnetism as a means of locating defects. Hoke discovered that a surface or subsurface flaw in a magnetized material caused the magnetic field to distort and extend beyond the part. This discovery was brought to his attention in the machine shop. He noticed that the metallic grindings from hard steel parts, which were being heldbyamagneticchuckwhilebeingground,formedpatternsonthefaceoftheparts 31

whichcorrespondedtothecracksinthesurface.Applyingafineferromagneticpowder tothepartscausedabuildupofpowderoverflawsandformedavisibleindication. Today, the MPI inspection method is used extensively to check for flaws in a large varietyofmanufacturedmaterialsandcomponents.MPIisusedtocheckmaterialssuch assteelbarstockforseamsandotherflawspriortoinvestingmachiningtimeduringthe manufacturingofacomponent.Criticalautomotivecomponentsareinspectedforflaws afterfabricationtoensurethatdefectivepartsarenotplacedintoservice.MPIisusedto inspectsomehighlyloadedcomponentsthathavebeeninserviceforaperiodoftime. Forexample,manycomponentsofhighperformanceracecarsareinspectedwhenever theengine,drivetrainandothersystemsareoverhauled.MPIisalsousedtoevaluate the integrity of structural welds on bridges, storage tanks, pipelines and other critical structures. Magnetism Magnets are very common items in the workplace and household. Uses of magnets rangefromholdingpicturesontherefrigeratortocausingtorqueinelectricmotors.The term"magneticfield"simplydescribesavolumeofspace wherethereisachangein energywithinthatvolume.Thischangeinenergycanbedetectedandmeasured.The locationwhereamagneticfieldcanbedetectedexitingorenteringamaterialiscalleda magneticpole.Magneticpoleshaveneverbeendetectedinisolationbutalwaysoccur inpairsand,thus,thenamedipole.

AbarmagnetcanbeconsideredadipolewithanorthpoleatoneendandSouthPole attheother.AmagneticfieldcanbemeasuredleavingthedipoleattheNorthPoleand returning the magnet at the South Pole. If a magnet is cut in two, two magnets or dipolesarecreatedoutofone.Thissectioningandcreationofdipolescancontinueto theatomiclevel.Therefore,thesourceofmagnetismliesinthebasicbuildingblockof allmatter...theatom. TheSourceofMagnetism All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.Theprotonsandneutronsarelocatedintheatom'snucleusandtheelectrons areinconstantmotionaroundthenucleus.Electronscarryanegativeelectricalcharge andproduceamagneticfieldastheymovethroughspace.Amagneticfieldisproduced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The strength of this field is called the magneticmoment. consider electric current flowing through a conductor. When the electrons (electric current)areflowingthroughtheconductor,amagneticfieldformsaroundtheconductor.

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The magnetic field can be detected using a compass. The magnetic field will place a forceonthecompassneedle. Since all matter is comprised of atoms, all materials are affected in some way by a magneticfield.However,notallmaterialsreactthesameway. Diamagnetic,Paramagnetic,andFerromagneticMaterials In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. Each electron in a pair spins in the opposite direction. So when electrons are paired together, there opposite spins cause their magnetic fields to cancel each other. Therefore, no net magnetic field exists. Alternately, materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic field and will react more to an external field. Most materials can be classified as ferromagnetic, diamagneticorparamagnetic. Diamagnetic metals have a very weak and negative susceptibility to magnetic fields. Diamagneticmaterialsareslightlyrepelledbyamagneticfieldandthematerialdoesnot retainthemagneticpropertieswhentheexternalfieldisremoved.Mostelementsinthe periodictable,includingcopper,silver,andgold,arediamagnetic.

Paramagneticmetalshaveasmallandpositivesusceptibilitytomagneticfields.These materialsareslightlyattractedbyamagneticfieldandthematerialdoesnotretainthe magneticpropertieswhentheexternalfieldisremoved.Paramagneticmaterialsinclude magnesium,molybdenum,lithium,andtantalum.

Ferromagnetic materials have a large and positive susceptibility to an external magneticfield.Theyexhibitastrongattractiontomagneticfieldsandareabletoretain their magnetic properties after the external field has been removed. They get their strongmagneticpropertiesduetothepresenceofmagneticdomains.Inthesedomains, 12 15 largenumbersofatomsmoments(10 to10 )arealignedparallelsothatthemagnetic forcewithinthedomainisstrong.Whenaferromagneticmaterialisintheunmagnitized state,thedomainsarenearlyrandomlyorganizedandthenetmagneticfieldforthepart asawholeiszero.Whenamagnetizingforceisapplied,thedomainsbecomealigned toproduceastrongmagneticfieldwithinthepart.Iron,nickel,andcobaltareexamples offerromagneticmaterials. MagneticDomains Ferromagneticmaterialsgettheirmagneticpropertiesbecausethematerialismadeup ofsmallregionsknownasmagneticdomains.Ineachdomain,alloftheatomicdipoles arecoupledtogetherinapreferentialdirection.Thisalignmentdevelopsasthematerial developsitscrystallinestructureduringsolidificationfromthemoltenstate.

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During solidification a trillion or more atom moments are aligned parallel so that the magnetic force within the domain is strongin one direction. Even though the domains are magnetically saturated, the bulk material may not show any signs of magnetism becausethedomainsdevelopthemselvesarerandomlyorientedrelativetoeachother. Ferromagnetic materials become magnetized when the magnetic domains within the material are aligned. This can be done by placing the material in a strong external magnetic fieldor by passing electrical current through the material. Some or allof the domains can become aligned. The more domains are aligned, the stronger the magnetic field in the material. When all of the domains are aligned, the material is magnetically saturated and additional amount of external magnetization force will not causeanyincreaseinitsinternallevelofmagnetization.

UnmagnetizedMaterial

MagnetizedMaterial

MagneticFieldCharacteristics Magneticlinesofforcehaveanumberofimportantproperties,whichinclude:

Theyseekthepathofleastresistancebetweenoppositemagneticpoles.Ina singlebarmagnetasshowntotheright,theyattempttoformclosedloopfrom poletopole. Theynevercrossoneanother. Theyallhavethesamestrength. Theirdensitydecreases(theyspreadout)whentheymovefromanareaof higherpermeabilitytoanareaoflowerpermeability. Theirdensitydecreaseswithincreasingdistancefromthepoles. Theyareconsideredtohavedirectionasifflowing,thoughnoactualmovement occurs.Theyflowfromthesouthpoletothenorthpolewithinthematerialand northpoletosouthpoleinair.

ElectromagneticFields

34

Inmostconductors,themagneticfieldexistsonlyaslongasthecurrentisflowing

thedirectionofthemagneticfieldisdependentonthedirectionoftheelectricalcurrent in the wire. A threedimensional representation of the magnetic field is shown above. There is a simple rule for remembering the direction of the magnetic field around a conductor.Itiscalledtherighthandrule.Ifapersongraspsaconductorinonesright hand with the thumb pointing in the direction of the current, the fingers will circle the conductorinthedirectionofthemagneticfield.

MagneticFieldProducedbyaCoil Whenacurrentcarryingconductorisformedintoalooporseveralloopstoformacoil, a magnetic field develops that flows through the center of the loop or coil along longitudinal axis and circles back around the outside of the loop or coil.The magnetic fieldcirclingeachloopofwirecombineswiththefieldsfromtheotherloopstoproducea concentratedfielddownthecenterofthecoil.Alooselywoundcoilisillustratedbelow to show the interaction of the magnetic field. The magnetic field is essentially uniform downthelengthofthecoilwhenitiswoundtighter.

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Thestrengthofacoil'smagneticfieldincreasesnotonlywithincreasingcurrentbutalso witheachloopthatisaddedtothecoil.Alongstraightcoilofwireiscalledasolenoid and can be used to generate a nearly uniform magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. The concentrated magnetic field inside a coil is very useful in magnetizing ferromagnetic materials for inspection using the magnetic particle testing method. Pleasebeawarethatthefieldoutsidethecoilisweakandisnotsuitableformagnetize ferromagneticmaterials.

TheHysteresisLoopandMagneticProperties Agreatdealofinformationcanbelearnedaboutthemagneticpropertiesofamaterial by studying its hysteresis loop. A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the inducedmagneticfluxdensityBandthemagnetizingforceH.Itisoftenreferredtoas theBHloop.Anexamplehysteresisloopisshownbelow.

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Plotting the change in magnetic flux B induced a ferromagnetic material while the magnetizingforceHischangedgeneratesthehysteresisloop.Aferromagneticmaterial that has never been previously magnetized or has been thoroughly demagnetized will follow the dashed line as H is increased. As the line demonstrates, the greater the amountofcurrentapplied(H+),thestrongerthemagneticfieldinthecomponent(B+). Atpoint"a"almostallofthemagneticdomainsarealignedandanadditionalincreasein themagnetizingforcewillproduceverylittleincreaseinmagneticflux.Thematerialhas reachedthepointofmagneticsaturation.

WhenHisreducedbackdowntozero,thecurvewillmovefrompoint"a"topoint"b."At thispoint,itcanbeseenthatsome magneticfluxremainsinthematerialeventhough themagnetizingforceiszero,thisisreferredtoasthepointofretentivityonthegraph and indicates the remanence or level of residual magnetism in the material. (Some of the magnetic domains remain aligned but some have lost there alignment.) As the magnetizingforceisreversed,thecurve

movestopoint"c",wherethefluxhasbeenreduced to zero.Thisiscalledthepointof coercivity on the curve. (The reversed magnetizing force has flipped enough of the domains so that the net flux within the materialis zero.)The force required toremove theresidualmagnetismfromthematerial,iscalledthecoerciveforceorcoercivityofthe material. As the magnetizing forceis increasedin thenegative direction, the material will again become magneticallysaturatedbutintheoppositedirection(point"d").ReducingHto 37

zerobringsthecurvetopoint"e."Itwillhavealevelofresidualmagnetismequaltothat achievedintheotherdirection.IncreasingHbackinthepositivedirectionwillreturnB to zero. Notice that the curve did not return to the origin of the graph because some forceisrequiredtoremovetheresidualmagnetism.Thecurvewilltakeadifferentpath frompoint"f"backthesaturationpointwhereitwithcompletetheloop. From thehysteresisloop,anumberofprimarymagneticpropertiesofamaterialcanbe determined. Retentivity A measure of the residual flux density corresponding to the saturation induction of a magnetic material. In other words, it is a material's ability to retain a certainamountofresidualmagneticfieldwhenthe magnetizingforceisremovedafter achievingsaturation.(ThevalueofBatpointBonthehysteresiscurve.) Residual Magnetism or Residual Flux the magnetic flux density that remains in a material when the magnetizing force is zero. Note that residual magnetism and retentivityarethesamewhenthematerialhasbeenmagnetizedtothesaturationpoint. However,thelevelofresidualmagnetismmaybelowerthantheretentivityvaluewhen themagnetizingforcedidnotreachthesaturationlevel. Coercive Force The amount of reverse magnetic field which must be applied to a magneticmaterialtomakethemagneticfluxreturntozero.(ThevalueofHatpointC onthehysteresiscurve.) Permeability Apropertyofamaterialthatdescribestheeasewithwhichamagnetic fluxisestablishedinthecomponent. ReluctanceIstheoppositionthataferromagneticmaterialshowstotheestablishment ofamagneticfield.Reluctanceisanalogoustotheresistanceinanelectricalcircuit. Theshapeofthehysteresislooptellsagreatdealaboutthematerialbeingmagnetized. Thehysteresiscurvesoftwodifferentmaterialsareshowninthegraph.

MagneticFieldOrientationandFlawDetectability To properly inspect a component for cracks or other defects, it is important to understand that orientation between the magnetic lines of force and the flaw is very important.Therearetwogeneraltypesofmagneticfieldsthatcanbeestablishedwithin acomponent.

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A longitudinal magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run parallel to the long axis of the part. Longitudinal magnetizationofacomponentcanbeaccomplishedusing thelongitudinalfieldsetupbyacoilorsolenoid.Itcanalso beaccomplishedusingpermanentorelectromagnets. A circular magnetic field has magnetic lines of force that run circumferentially around the perimeter of a part. A circular magnetic field is induced in an article by either passing current through the component or by passing currentthroughaconductorsurroundedbythecomponent. To magnetize the part in two directions is important because the best detection of defects occurs when the lines of magnetic force are established at right angles to the longest dimension of the defect,if the magnetic fieldis parallel to the defect, the field willseelittledisruptionandnofluxleakagefieldwillbeproduced.

Anorientationof45to90degreesbetweenthemagneticfieldandthedefectis necessarytoformanindication.Sincedefectsmayoccurinvariousdirections,each partisnormallymagnetizedintwodirectionsatrightanglestoeachother.Todetermine mostofthedefects.

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Demagnetization Afterconductingamagneticparticleinspection,itisusuallynecessarytodemagnetize thecomponent Remanentmagneticfieldscan: Affectmachiningbycausingcuttingstoclingtoacomponent. Interferewithelectronicequipmentsuchasacompass. Createaconditionknownas"arkblow"intheweldingprocess.Arcblowmay causetheweldarctowonderorfillermetaltoberepelledfromtheweld. Causeabrasiveparticletoclingtobearingorfayingsurfacesandincreasewear.

MagnetizingEquipmentforMagneticParticleInspection Toproperlyinspectapartforcracksorotherdefects,itisimportanttobecomefamiliar withthedifferenttypesofmagneticfieldsandtheequipmentusedtogeneratethem.As discussed previously, one of the primary requirements for detection of a defect in a ferromagnetic materialis that the magnetic field inducedin the part must interceptthe defectata45to90degreesangle.Flawsthatarenormal(90degrees)tothemagnetic field will produce the strongest indications because they disrupt more of the magnet flux. AvarietyofequipmentexisttoestablishthemagneticfieldforMPI.Someequipmentis designed to be portable so that inspections can be made in the field and some is designed to be stationary for ease of inspection in the laboratory or manufacturing facility.

Permanentmagnets 40

Permanentmagnetsaresometimesusedformagneticparticleinspectionasthesource of magnetism. The two primary types of permanent magnets are bar magnets and horseshoe(yoke)magnets.Theseindustrialmagnetsareusuallyverystrongandmay require significant strength to remove them from a piece of metal. Some permanent magnetsrequireover50poundsofforcetoremovethemfromthesurface.Becauseitis difficult to remove the magnets from the component being inspected, and sometimes difficult and dangerous to place the magnets, their use is not particularly popular. However,adiverforinspectioninanunderwaterenvironmentorotherareassometimes usespermanentmagnets,suchasinanexplosiveenvironment,whereelectromagnets cannot be used. Permanent magnets can also be made small enough to fit into tight areaswhereelectromagnetsmightnotfit

Electromagnets Today,mostoftheequipmentusedtocreatethemagneticfieldusedinMPIisbasedon electromagnetism.Thatis,usinganelectricalcurrenttoproducethemagneticfield.An electromagneticyokeisaverycommonpieceofequipmentthatisusedtoestablisha magneticfield.Itisbasicallymadebywrappinganelectricalcoilaroundapieceofsoft ferromagneticsteel.Aswitchisincludedintheelectricalcircuitsothatthecurrentand, therefore, also the magnetic field can be turn on and off. They can be powered with alternatingcurrentfromawallsocketorbydirectcurrentfromabatterypack.Thistype ofmagnetgeneratesa

verystrongmagneticfieldinalocalareawherethepolesofmagnettouchtheparttobe inspected.Someyokescanliftweightsinexcessof40pounds.

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Portableyokewithbatterypack

Portablemagneticparticlekit

Prods Prods are handheldelectrodes that are pressed against the surface of the component being inspected to make contact for passing electrical current through the metal. The current passing between the prods creates a circular magnetic field around the prods that is can be used in magnetic particle inspection. Prods are typically made from copperandhaveaninsulatedhandletohelpprotecttheoperator.Oneoftheprodshas a trigger switch so that the current can be quickly and easily turned on and off. Sometimesthethetwoprodsareconnectedbyanyinsulatorasshownintheimageto facilitateonehandoperation.Thisisreferredtoasadualprodandiscommonlyused forweldinspections. If proper contact is not maintained between the prods and the component surface, electrical arcing can occur and cause damage to the component. For this reason, the useofprodsarenotallowedwheninspectingaerospaceandothercriticalcomponents. Tohelptopreventarcing,theprodtipsshouldbe inspected frequently to ensure that they are not oxidized, covered with scale or other contaminant,ordamaged.

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Portable Coils and Conductive Cables Coilsandconductivecablesareusedtoestablishalongitudinalmagneticfieldwithina component.Whenapreformedcoilisused,thecomponentisplacedagainsttheinside surfaceonthecoil.Coilstypicallyhavethreeorfiveturnsofacoppercablewithinthe moldedframe.Afootswitchisoftenusedtoenergizethecoil.Conductivecablesare wrappedaroundthecomponent.Thecableusedistypically00extraflexibleor0000 extraflexible.Thenumberofwrapsisdeterminedbythemagnetizingforceneededand, ofcourse,thelengthofthecable.Normallythewrapsarekeptasclosetogetheras possible.Whenusingacoilorcablewrappedintoacoil,amperageisusuallyexpressed inampereturns.Ampereturnsistheamperageshownontheampmetertimesthe numberofturnsinthecoil.

Portablecoil

ConductiveCable

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central conductor. Thistypeofasetupisusedtoinspectpartsthatarehollowsuchasgears,tubes,and other ringshaped objects. A central conductor is an electrically conductive bar that is usually made of copper or aluminum. The bar is inserted through the center of the hollow part and the bar is then clamped between the contact pads. When current is passedthroughthecentralconductor,acircularmagneticfieldflowsaroundthebarand entersintothepartorpartsbeinginspected.

LightsforMagneticParticleInspection
Magnetic particle inspection can be performed using particles that are highly visible under white lighting conditions or particles that are highly visible under ultraviolet lighting conditions. When an inspection is being performed using the visible color contrastparticles,nospeciallightingisrequiredaslongastheareaofinspectioniswell lit.Alightintensityofatleast1000lux(100fc)isrecommendedwhenavisibleparticles areused,butavarietyoflightsourcescanbeused. When fluorescent particles are used, special ultraviolet light must be used. Fluorescenceis defined as the property of emitting radiation as a result of and during exposure to radiation. Particles used in fluorescent magnetic particle inspections are coatedwithamaterialthatproduceslightinthevisiblespectrum whenexposedtothe nearultraviolet light. This "particle glow" provides high contrast indications on the component anywhere particles collect. Particles that fluoresce yellowgreen are most commonbecausethiscolormatchesthepeaksensitivityofthehumaneyeunderdark conditions. However, particles that fluoresce red, blue, yellow, and green colors are available.

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UltravioletLight Ultravioletlightor"blacklight"islightinthe1,000to4,000Angstroms(100to400nm) wavelength range in the electromagnetic spectrum. It is a very energetic form of light that is invisible to the human eye. Wavelengths above 4,000 Angstroms fall into the visible light spectrum and are seen as the color violet. UV is separated according to wavelength into three classes: A, B, and C. The shorter the wavelength, the more energythatiscarriedinthelightandthemoredangerousitistothehumancells. Class UVA UVB UVC WavelengthRange 3,2004,000Angstroms 2,8003,200Angstroms 2,8001,000Angstroms

The desired wavelength range for use in nondestructive testing is between 3,500 and 3,800 Angstroms with a peak wavelength at about 3,650 A. This wavelength range is usedbecauseitisintheUVArange,whichisthesafesttoworkwith.UVBwilldoan effective job of causing substances to fluoresce, however, it should not be used because harmful effects such as skin burns, and eye damage can occur. This wavelength of radiation is found in the arc created during the welding process. UVC (1,000 to 2,800) is even more dangerous to living cells and is used to kill bacteria in industrialandmedicalsettings. ThedesiredwavelengthrangeforuseinNDTisobtainedbyfilteringtheultravioletlight generated by the light bulb. The output of a UV bulb spans a wide range of wavelengths.Theshortwavelengthsof3,120Ato3,340Aareproducedinlowlevels. Apeakwavelengthof3650Aisproducedataveryhighintensity.Wavelengthsinthe visible violet range (4050 A to 4350 A), greenyellow (5460 A), yellow (6220 A) and orange(6770A)arealsousuallyproduced.Thefilterallowsonlyradiationintherange of3200to4000angstromsandalittlevisibledarkpurpletopass. MagneticParticles Asmentionedpreviously,theparticlesthatareusedformagneticparticleinspectionare akeyingredientastheyformtheindicationsthatalerttheinspectortodefects.Particles start out as tiny milled (a machining process) pieces of iron or iron oxide. A pigment (somewhatlikepaint)isbondedtotheirsurfacestogivetheparticlescolor.Themetal usedfortheparticleshashighmagneticpermeabilityandlowretentivity.Highmagnetic permeabilityisimportantbecauseitmakestheparticlesattracteasilytosmallmagnetic leakage fields from discontinuities, such as flaws. Low retentivityisimportant because theparticlesthemselvesneverbecomestronglymagnetizedsotheydonotsticktoeach otherorthesurfaceofthepart.Particlesareavailableinadrymixorawetsolution.

Dry Magnetic Particles

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Drymagneticparticlescantypicallybepurchasedinred,black,gray,yellowandseveral other colors so that a high level of contrast between the particles and the part being inspected can be achieved. The size of the magnetic particles is also very important. Dry magnetic particle products are produced to include a range of particle sizes. The fine particles are around 50 m (0.002 inch) in size are about three times smaller in diameter and more than 20 times lighter than the coarse particles (150 m or 0.006 inch), which make them more sensitive to the leakage fields from very small discontinuities. However, dry testing particles cannot be made exclusively of the fine particles.Coarserparticlesareneededtobridgelargediscontinuitiesandtoreducethe powder's dusty nature. Additionally, small particles easily adhere to surface contamination,suchasremanentdirtormoisture,andgettrappedinsurfaceroughness features producing a high level of background. It should also be recognized that finer particles will be more easily blown away by the wind and, therefore, windy conditions can reduce the sensitivity of an inspection. Also, reclaiming the dry particles is not recommendedbecausethesmallparticlearelesslikelytoberecapturedandthe"once used"mixwillresultinlesssensitiveinspections.

The particle shape is also important. Long, slender particles tend align themselves along the lines of magnetic force. However, research has shown that if dry powder consists only of long, slender particles, the application process would be less than desirable.Elongatedparticlescomefromthedispenserinclumpsandlacktheabilityto flow freely and form the desired "cloud" of particles floating on the component. Therefore, globular particles are added that are shorter. The mix of globular and elongatedparticlesresultinadrypowderthatflowswellandmaintaingoodsensitivity. MostdryparticlemixeshaveparticlewithL/Dratiosbetweenoneandtwo.

WetMagneticParticles Magneticparticlesarealsosuppliedinawetsuspensionsuchaswateroroil.Thewet magnetic particle testing method is generally more sensitive than the dry because the suspensionprovidestheparticleswithmore mobilityandmakesitpossibleforsmaller particles to be used since dust and adherence to surface contaminationis reduced or 46

eliminated. The wet method also makes it easy to apply the particles uniformly to a relativelylargearea. Wetmethodmagneticparticlesproductsdifferfromdrypowderproductsinanumberof ways. One way is that both visible and fluorescent particle are available. Most nonfluorescentparticlesareferromagneticironoxides,whichareeitherblackorbrown incolor.Fluorescentparticlesarecoatedwithpigmentsthatfluorescewhenexposedto ultraviolet light. Particles that fluoresce greenyellow are most common to take advantageofthepeakcolorsensitivityoftheeyebutotherfluorescentcolorsarealso available. (For more information on the color sensitivity of the eye, see the penetrant inspectionmaterial.)

Theparticlesusedwiththewetmethodaresmallerinsizethanthoseusedinthedry methodforthereasonsmentionedabove.Theparticlesaretypically10 m(0.0004 inch)andsmallerandthesyntheticironoxideshaveparticlediametersaround0.1 m (0.000004inch).Thisverysmallsizeisaresultoftheprocessusedtoformtheparticles andisnotparticularlydesirable,astheparticlesarealmosttoofinetosettleoutof suspension.However,duetotheirslightresidualmagnetism,theoxideparticlesare presentmostlyinclustersthatsettleoutofsuspensionmuchfasterthantheindividual particles.Thismakesitpossibletoseeandmeasuretheconcentrationoftheparticles forprocesscontrolpurposes.Wetparticlesarealsoamixoflongslenderandglobular particles.Thecarriersolutionscanbewater oroilbased.Waterbasedcarriersform quickerindications,aregenerallylessexpensive,presentlittleornofirehazard,giveoff nopetrochemicalfumes,andareeasiertocleanfromthepart.Waterbasedsolutions areusuallyformulatedwithacorrosioninhibitortooffersomecorrosionprotection. However,oilbasedcarriersolutionsoffersuperiorcorrosionandhydrogen embrittlementprotectiontothosematerialsthatarepronetoattackbythese mechanisms.

ChapterIV 47

UltrasonicTesting
BasicPrinciplesofUltrasonicTesting UltrasonicTesting(UT)useshighfrequencysoundenergytoconductexaminationsand make measurements. Ultrasonic inspection can be used for flaw detection/evaluation, dimensionalmeasurements,materialcharacterization,andmore. The sound energy is introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformedintoelectricalsignalbythetransducerandisdisplayedonascreen.

Initial pulse

Probe

Crack echo

Backsurface echo

Plate
0 2 4 6
SCREEN

Crack

10

Ultrasonic Inspection is a very useful and versatile NDT method for detecting both surface and subsurface volumetric defects and is widely used in pipeline, oil and gas andprocessingindustry.

Oscilloscope,orflaw detectorscreen

48

SoundSpectrum

Audible range Ultrasonictestingrange

16Hz

20kHz

200kHz

15MHz

256Hz

70kHz

15MHz

Usualsteeltesting range
AdvantagesofUltrasonicInspection Someoftheadvantagesofultrasonicinspectionthatareoftencitedinclude: Itissensitivetobothsurfaceandsubsurfacediscontinuities. Thedepthofpenetrationforflawdetectionormeasurementissuperiorto otherNDTmethods. Only singlesided access is needed when the pulseecho technique is used. Itishighaccuracyindeterminingreflectorpositionandestimatingsizeand shape. Minimalpartpreparationrequired. Electronicequipmentprovidesinstantaneousresults. Detailedimagescanbeproducedwithautomatedsystems. It has other uses such as thickness measurements, in addition to flaw detection.

DisadvantagesofUltrasonicInspection As with all NDT methods, ultrasonic inspection also has its limitations, which include: 49

Surfacemustbeaccessibletotransmitultrasound. Skillandtrainingismoreextensivethanwithsomeothermethods. It normally requires a coupling medium to promote transfer of sound energyintotestspecimen. Materialsthatarerough,irregularinshape,verysmall,exceptionallythin ornothomogeneousaredifficulttoinspect. Castironandothercoarsegrainedmaterialsaredifficulttoinspectdueto lowsoundtransmissionandhighsignalnoise. Lineardefectsorientedparalleltothesoundbeammaygoundetected. Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration, and characterizationofflaws.

Propertiesofsoundwave WavePropagation Ultrasonic testing is based on timevarying deformations or vibrations in materials,whichisgenerallyreferredtoasacoustics.Allmaterialsubstancesare comprised of atoms, which may be forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Insolids,soundwavescanpropagateinfourprinciplemodesthatarebasedon thewaytheparticlesoscillate.Soundcanpropagateaslongitudinalwaves,shear waves, surface waves, and in thin materials as plate waves. Longitudinal and shear waves are the two modes of propagation most widely used in ultrasonic testing. The particle movement responsible for the propagation of longitudinal andshearwavesisillustratedbelow.

Longitudinalwaves: In longitudinal waves the oscillations occur in the longitudinal direction of the direction of wave propagation. Since compressional forces are active in these waves, they are also called compressional waves. Compression waves can be

50

generated in liquids, as well as solids because the energy travels through the atomic structure by a series of comparison and expansion (rarefaction) movements. Transverseorshearwave: In the transverse or shear wave, the particles oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the direction of propagation. Shear wavesrequireanacoustically solid material for effective propagation and, therefore, are not effectively propagated in materials such as liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively weakwhencomparedtolongitudinalwaves SurfaceorRayleighwaves: SurfaceorRayleighwavestravelonthesurfaceofarelativethicksolidmaterial penetratingtoadepthofonewavelength.Theparticlemovementhasanelliptical orbit. Raleigh waves are useful because they are very sensitive to surface defects and since they will follow the surface around curves, therefore can be usedtoinspectareasthatotherwavesmighthavedifficultyinreaching. Platewaves: Plate waves can be propagated only in very thin metals. Lamb waves are the mostcommonlyusedplatewavesinNDT.Lambwavesareacomplexvibrational wavethattravelsthroughtheentirethicknessofamaterial.PropagationofLamb wavesdependsondensity,elastic,andmaterialpropertiesofacomponent,and theyareinfluencedbyagreatdealbyselectedfrequencyandmaterialthickness. Velocity:Howquicklyasoundwavewilltravel Frequency:Howmanyvibrationspersecond Wavelength: How far a sound wave will advanceincompletingonecycleThewavelengthis directlyproportionaltothevelocityofthewaveandinverselyproportionaltothe frequencyofthewave.Thisrelationshipisshownbythefollowingequation.

51 1Second 1Second

Achangeinfrequencywillresultinachangeinwavelength.Inultrasonictesting, the shorter wavelength resulting from an increase in frequency will help in the detectionofsmallerdiscontinuities. Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ability to locate small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increaseswithhigherfrequency(shorterwavelengths). Resolution: Resolution is the ability of the system to locate discontinuities that are close together within the material or located near the part surface. Resolution also generallyincreasesasthefrequencyincreases. Velocityofsoundtravelingthroughmaterials: Velocityofsoundvarieswiththematerialinwhichitistraveling. Material Compression Velocity m\sec Steel Water Air Copper 5960 1490 344 4700 Shear Velocity m\sec 3245 NA NA 2330

AttenuationofSoundWaves When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance. This weakening results from two basic causes, which are scattering and absorption. The combined effect of scattering and absorption is called attenuation.

52

RefractionandSnell'sLaw Whenanultrasoundwavepassesthroughaninterfacebetweentwomaterials,it produces both reflected and refracted waves. Refraction takes place at an interface due to the different velocities of the acoustic waves within the two materials. The velocity of sound in each material is determined by the material properties(elasticmodulesanddensity)forthatmaterial. Snell's Law describes the relationshipbetweentheanglesandthevelocitiesof the waves. Snell's law equates the ratio of material velocities v1 and v2 to the ratio of the sine's of incident ( ) and refraction ( ) angles, as shown in the followingequation.

Where: VL1 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 1. VL2 is the longitudinal wave velocity in material 2.

UltrasonicProbes Theconversionofelectricalpulsestomechanicalvibrationsandtheconversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for

53

ultrasonic testing. The active element is the Probe. It converts the electrical energytoacousticenergy,andviceversa. CharacteristicsofProbes Theprobeisaveryimportantpartoftheultrasonicinstrumentationsystem.The probeconvertselectricalsignalsintomechanicalvibrations(transmitmode)and mechanical vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode). Many factors, including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the external mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior a transducer. Mechanical construction includes parameters such as radiation surface area, mechanicaldamping,housing,connectortype

TypesofProbes

54

Ultrasonictransducersaremanufacturedforavarietyofapplicationandcanbe custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to selecting the proper transducer for the application It is important to choose transducers thathavethedesiredfrequency,bandwidth,andfocusingtooptimizeinspection capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to enhance sensitivity or resolutionofthesystem.

Transducersareclassifiedintogroupsaccordingtotheapplication.

Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged casing to withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducersaredesignedsothattheyareeasytogripandmovealonga surface. They also often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life. Coupling materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial materialsareusedtoremovetheairgapbetweenthetransducerandthe componentinspected.Contactprobesareclassifiedas.

Singlecrystalprobe Twincrystalprobe Normalbeamorzerodegreeprobe Anglebeamprobe

55

Contacttransducersareavailableinavarietyofconfigurationstoimprovetheir usefulnessforavarietyofapplications. Singlecrystalprobenormalprobe: The flat contact transducer shown above is used normal beam inspections of relatively flat surfaces, and where near surface resolution is not critical. If the surfaceiscurved,ashoethatmatchesthecurvatureofthepartmayneedtobe addedtothefaceofthetransducer.

Twincrystalnormalprobe: contain two independently operating elements in a single housing. One of the elements transmits and the other receives. Active elements can be chosen for their sending and receiving capabilities providing a transducer with a cleaner signal, and transducers for special applications, such as inspection of course grain material. Dual element transducers are especially well suited for making measurements in applications where reflectors are very near the transducer sincethisdesigneliminatestheringdowneffectthatsingleelementtransducers experience. (When singleelement transducers are operating in pulse echo mode,theelementcannotstartreceivingreflectedsignalsuntiltheelementhas stopped ringing from it transmit function.) Dual element transducers are very useful when making thickness measurements of thin materials and when inspectingfornearsurfacedefects.Thetwoelementsareangledtowardseach othertocreateacrossedbeamsoundpathinthetestmaterial. Anglebeamtransducers: Anglebeamsaretypicallyusedtointroducearefractedshearwaveintothetest material.Inthefixedangleversions,theangleofrefractionthatismarkedonthe transducer is only accurateforaparticularmaterial,whichisusuallysteel.The angledsoundpathallowsthesoundbeamtobereflectedfromthebackwallto improvedetectabilityofflawsinandaroundweldedareas.Theyarealsousedto generate surface waves for use in detecting defects on the surface of a component.

56

Couplant A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generallynecessarybecausetheacousticimpedancemismatchbetweenairand solids

CalibrationBlocks Standard blocks are used to calibrate the instrument and to calculate different features ofprobeandtheinstrument.Theseblocksconsistsaccuratelycutand finepolishedsurfaces,holes,anglesetc.

57

InspectionofWeldedJoints The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag inclusions, lack of sidewall fusion, lack of interrun fusion, lack of root penetration,undercutting,andlongitudinalortransversecracks. Ultrasonicweldinspectionsaretypicallyperformedusingastraightbeamprobe in conjunction with an angle beam probe A straight beam probe, producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence into the test piece, is first used to locate anylaminationsinorneartheheataffectedzone.Thisisimportantbecausean anglebeamtransducermaynotbeabletoprovideareturnsignalfromalaminar flaw.

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ChapterVI

RADIORGAPHICTESTING

59

Introduction: In this method of Nondestructive testing the penetration property of Xray and Gamma rays to detect the discontinuities. The object to be inspected is placed between the radiation source and a piece of film. Xrays or gamma rays pass throughtheobject.Theobjectwillstopsomeoftheradiation.Thickeranddenser area will stop more of the radiation and show on the film lighter than thinner or less dense area. Most weld defects will show on the film darker than the surroundingarea. NatureofPenetratingRadiation Xrays and gamma rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are waveformsasarelightrays,microwaves,andradiowave,butxraysandgamma rayscannotbeenseen,felt,orheard.Theypossessnochargeandnomassand, therefore, are not influenced by electrical and magnetic fields and will always travelinstraightlines.Theycanbecharacterizedbyfrequency,wavelength,and velocity

TheElectromagneticSpectrum

60

TheInternationalSystem(SI)unitforactivityistheBecquerel(Bq),w

WavelengthsofElectroMagneticSpectrum

ElectroMagneticRadiationType

Wavelengthinnm

VisibleLight Ultraviolet light X-Rays Gamma -Rays

700-400 400-100

1nm=109Meters

AdvantageofRadiography

1.Givesapermanentrecord
2.DetectsinternalFlaws 3.Detectsvolumetricflawsreadily 4.Canbeusedonmostmaterials 5.Cancheckforcorrectassembly

61

6.GivesdirectImages 7.RealtimeImageispossible DisadvantagesofRadiography 1RadiationHealth 2Canbesensitivetodefectorientationandcouldmissplanarflaws 3Haslimitedabilitytodetectfinecracks 4Accessisrequiredtobothsidesoftheobject 5Limitedthicknessofthematerialcanbepenetrated 6Skilledradiographicinterpretationisrequired 7Requirehighcapitalcost 8Relativelyslowprocess 9Requirehighcapitalcost 10Requirehighrunningcost PropertiesofXraysandgammarays 1.Theyhavenoeffectonthehumansenses 2.Theyhaveadverseeffectonthebodytissuesandblood 3.Theypenetratematter 4.Theymoveinstraightline 5.Theyarepartofelectromagneticspectrum 6.Theytravelatthespeedoflight 7.Theyobeytheinversesquarelaw 8.Theyionizegases 9.Theymaybescattered 10.Theymakecertainmaterialsfluoresce 11.Theymayberefracted,diffractedandpolarized

XrayTube
HighElectricalPotential Electrons

XrayGeneratororRadioactiveSource CreatesRadiation

62
ExposureRecordingDevice

Radiation Penetrate theSample

PropertiesofXrays 1.Potentialdifferenceofaround300kvisused 2.Approximatelyaround9799%heat&13%ofxraysare generated 3.Anodeismadeupofcuppertocarryouttheheat.Additional coolingusingoil,airorwaterisalsoused 4Targetismadeupoftungsten 5.Areaofthetargetstruckbytheelectronsiscalledasfocalspot 6. Focalspotsizeshouldbebigtoabsorbmoreheatbuttoproduce goodqualityradiographthissizeshouldbethesmallest 7.Importantcontrolpointsofthexraymachinearetimer,Amperage controlandVoltagecontrol 8.Moretimemoreradiationmoreexposure 9.AmperagecontrolstheintensityorqualityofXray,612Ampareusuallyused 10.Morevoltagegeneratestheshorterwavelengthorqualityofx raysmorepenetratingpower 11.Increaseinvoltageincreasesthespeedoftheelectrons,therefore highkineticenergyandhighpenetration

Gammarays: Gammarays are electromagnetic radiation emitted by the disintegration of a radioactiveisotopeandhaveenergyfromabout100keVtowellover1MeV.The most useful gammaemitting radioactive isotopes for radiological purposes are foundtobecobalt(Co60),iridium(Ir192),cesium(Cs137),ytterbium(Yb169),and thulium(Tm170).

63

PropertiesofGammarays 1.Gammaraysareemittedfromartificialradioactiveisotope 2.Radioactiveisotopeisanunstablestateofelementwhichhasdifferentnumber ofneutronstothenormalstateofthesameelement 3.ThemassnumberofRadioactiveIsotopewillbedifferentfromsameelement 4.Theradioactiveisotopedisintegratecontinuouslyreleasingelectromagnetic energy(gammarays) 5Gammaraysourcesareusuallydisc,cylindricalorsphericalshape 6Thediscs:3.0mmdiameterand1mmthick,stackedtogether 7Cylindrical:Typicallyupto4mminlength 8Spherical:0.63.0mmdiameter 9Sourcesareencapsulatedinthecapsulesof316\S12gradeStainlesssteel IsotopeDecayRate(DecayoftheGammaSource) LossofactivityofaradioactivenucleaseduetoDisintegration

HalfLifeofGammasource: TimetakenforaradioactiveIsotopetoreduceitsoutputbyhalf Source 60Cobalt 192Iridium Ytterbium169 Halflife 26Years Penetrationrange steel 75150mm 2045mm 64 115mm

74days
31days

AdvantagesofGammaraysoverXrays 1.Noelectricalorwatersupplyareneeded 2.Gammaequipmentisusuallysmallerandlighterandthereforemoreportable 3.Theequipmentismoresimple 4.Placesinaccessibletoxrayequipmentareaccessibletogammaequipment 5.Becauseofhighenergythereislessscatter 6.Gammaequipmentislessexpensivethanxrayequipment 7.Greaterpenetratingpowerthanxrays Disadvantagesofgammaraysoverxrays 1.Duetothehigherenergy,poorercontrastanddefinition 2.Exposuretimesarelonger 3.Sourcesneedreplacingatregularintervals 4.Theradiationcannotbeswitchedoff 5.SFDisshorter,resultinginpoorergeometricunsharpness 6.Remotehandlingisnecessary

RadiographicTechniques 1) 2) 3) 4) SWSI:(FilmInsideSourceOutside) SWSI:(FilmOutsideSourceInside) DWSI:(FilmOutsideSourceOutside) DWDI:(FilmOutsideSourceOutside

65

RadiographicContrast

Radiographic contrast describes the differences in photographic density in a radiograph.Thecontrastbetweendifferentpartsoftheimageiswhatformsthe image and the greater the contrast, the more visible features become. Radiographiccontrasthastwomaincontributors:subjectcontrastanddetectoror filmcontrast. Subjectcontrastisdeterminedbythefollowingvariables: Absorptiondifferencesinthespecimen Wavelengthoftheprimaryradiation Scatterorsecondaryradiation Filmcontrastisdeterminedbythefollowing: Grainsizeortypeoffilm Chemistryoffilmprocessingchemicals Concentrationsoffilmprocessingchemicals Timeofdevelopment Temperatureofdevelopment Degreeofmechanicalagitation(physicalmotion)

Exposingthefilmtoproducehigherfilmdensitieswillgenerallyincreasecontrast. In other words, darker areas will increase in density faster than lighter areas becauseinanygivenperiodoftimemorexraysarereachingthedarkerareas. Reasonsforlowcontrast Radiationwavelengthtooshort Overexposure Prolongeddevelopment Toocolddeveloper

66

Insufficientfixing Fogonthefilm ReasonsforHighcontrast Radiationwavelengthtoolong Incorrectdeveloper Underexposure Definition

Radiographicdefinitionistheabruptnessofchangeingoingfromonedensityto another.ThereareanumberofgeometricfactorsoftheXrayequipmentandthe radiographic setup that have an effect on definition. These geometric factors include: Focalspotsize,whichistheareaoforiginoftheradiation.Thefocalspotsize shouldbeasclosetoapointsourceaspossibletoproducethemostdefinition. Source to film distance, which is the distance from the source to the part. Definition increases as the source to film distance increase. Specimen to detector (film) distance, which is the distance between the specimen and the detector. For optimal definition, the specimen and detector should be as close together as possible. . Abruptchangesinspecimenthicknessmaycausedistortionontheradiograph. Movement of the specimen during the exposure will produce distortion on the radiograph. Filmgraininess,andscreenmottlingwilldecreasedefinition.

Thegrainsizeofthefilm willaffectthedefinitionoftheradiograph.Wavelength of the radiation will influence apparent graininess. As the wavelength shortens andpenetrationincreases,theapparentgraininessofthefilmwillincrease.Also, increased development of the film will increase the apparent graininess of the radiograph. RadiographicDensity

67

Degree of blackening of a radiograph. Density is measured by a densitometer.High density area is a dark area and low density area is a light area.Ahighdensityareaabsorbsmorelightthanthelowdensityarea Densityisthelogoftheintensityoflightincidentonthefilmtotheintensityof lighttransmittedthroughthefilm.Adensityreadingof2.0istheresultofonly1 percentofthetransmittedlightreachingthesensor. Densityrequiredintheareaofinterestshouldbebetween1.5and 2.5.Radiographswithverylowdensityandwithveryhighdensityarenot acceptable. Reasonsforlowdensity Underexposuretoradiation Insufficientdevelopmenttime Developmenttemperaturetoolow Incorrectdeveloper ReasonsforExcessivedensity .OverexposuretoRadiation Excessivedevelopmenttime Developmenttemperaturetoohigh IncorrectDeveloper sensitivity Theabilityoftheradiographictechniquetodetectthesmallestpossible defect.SensitivityismeasuredbyusingImageQualityIndicators(IQI),also calledasPenetrameters.SensitivitydependsonRadiographiccontrastand Density. ControllingRadiographicQuality Oneofthemethodsofcontrollingthequalityofaradiographisthroughtheuseof imagequalityindicators(IQI).IQIsprovideameansofvisuallyinformingthefilm interpreter of the contrast sensitivity and definition of the radiograph. The IQI indicatesthataspecifiedamountofmaterialthicknesschangewillbedetectable

intheradiograph,andthattheradiographhasacertainlevelofdefinitionsothat thedensitychangesarenotlostduetounsharpness.Withoutsuchareference point, consistency and quality could not be maintained and defects could go undetected. Imagequalityindicatorstakemanyshapesandformsduetothevariouscodesor standardsthatinvoketheiruse.IntheUnitedStatestwoIQIstylesareprevalent the placard, or holetype and the wire IQI. IQIs comes in a variety of material

68

typessothatonewithradiationabsorptioncharacteristicssimilartothematerial beingradiographedcanbeused.

HoleTypeIQIs ASTM Standard E1025 gives detailed requirements for the design and material groupclassificationofholetypeimagequalityindicators.E1025designateseight groups of shims based on their radiation absorption characteristics. A notching systemisincorporatedintotherequirementsallowingtheradiographertoeasily determine if the penetrameter is the correct material type for the product. The thicknessinthousandsofaninchisnotedoneachpentameterbyaleadnumber 0.250 to 0.375 inch wide depending on the thickness of the shim. Military or Government standards require a similar penetrameter but use lead letters to indicatethematerialtyperatherthannotchingsystemasshownontheleftinthe imageabove. Imagequalitylevelsaretypicallydesignatedusingatwopartexpressionsuchas 22T.ThefirsttermreferstotheIQIthicknessexpressedasapercentageofthe regionofinterestofthepartbeinginspected.Thesecondtermintheexpression referstothediameteroftheholethatmustberevealedanditisexpressedasa multipleoftheIQIthickness.Therefore,a22Tcalloutwouldmeanthattheshim thickness should be two percent of material thickness and that a hole that is twicetheIQIthicknessmustbedetectableontheradiograph.Thispresentation ofa22TIQIintheradiographverifiesthattheradiographictechniqueiscapable ofshowingamateriallossof2%intheareaofinterest.

It should be noted that even if 22T sensitivity is indicated on a radiograph, a defect of the same diameter and material loss may not be visible. The holesin the penetrameter represent sharp boundaries, and a small thickness change. Discontinues within the part may contain gradual changes, and are often less visible.Thepenetrameterisusedtoindicatequalityoftheradiographictechnique andnotintendedtobeusedasameasureofsizeofcavitythatcanbelocatedon theradiograph.

69

WireTypeIQIs

ASTM Standard E747 covers the radiographic examination of materials using wire penetrameters (IQIs) to controlimage quality.Wire IQIs consist of a setof sixwiresarrangedinorderofincreasingdiameterandencapsulatedbetweentwo sheetsofclearplastic.E747specifiesfourwireIQIssets,whichcontrolthewire diameters.Thesetletter(A,B,CorD)isshowninthelowerrightcornerofthe IQI.Thenumberinthelowerleftcornerindicatesthematerialgroup.Thesame image quality levels and expressions (i.e. 22T) used for holetype IQIs are typicallyalsousedforwireIQIs.Thewiresizesthatcorrespondtovarioushole typequalitylevelscanbefoundinatableinE747F=0.79(constantformfactor forwire) PlacementofIQIs IQIsshouldbeplacedonthesourcesideofthepartoverasectionwitha materialthicknessequivalenttotheregionofinterest.Ifthisisnotpossible,the IQImaybeplacedonablockofsimilarmaterialandthicknesstotheregionof interest.Whenablockisused,theIQIshouldthesamedistancefromthefilmas itwouldbeifplaceddirectlyonthepartintheregionofinterest.TheIQIshould alsobeplacedslightlyawayfromtheedgeofthepartsothatatleastthreeofits edgesarevisibleintheradiograph.

Secondary(Scatter)Radiation Secondaryorscatterradiationmustoftenbetakenintoconsiderationwhen producingaradiograph.Thescatteredradiationcreatealossofcontrastand definition.Oftensecondaryradiationisthoughtofasradiationstrikingthefilm 70

reflectedfromanobjectintheimmediatearea,suchasawall,orfromthetable orfloorwherethepartisresting.Sidescatteroriginatesfromwalls,orobjectson thesourcesideofthefilm.Controlofsidescattercanbeachievedbymoving objectsintheroomawayfromthefilm,movingthexraytubetothecenterofthe vault,orplacingacollimatorattheexitportthusreducingthedivergingradiation surroundingthecentralbeam. Itisoftencalledbackscatterwhenitcomesfromobjectsbehindthefilm.Industry codesandstandardsoftenrequirethataleadletter"B"beplacedonthebackof thecassettetoverifythecontrolofbackscatter.Iftheletter"B"showsasa "ghost"imageonthefilmtheletterhasabsorbedthebackscatterradiation indicatingasignificantamountofradiationreachingthefilm.Controlofback scatterradiationisachievedbybackingthefilminthecassettewithsheetsof leadtypically0.010inchthick.Itisacommonpracticeinindustrytoplace0.005 leadscreeninfrontand0.010backingthefilm.

Leadscreensinthethicknessrangeof0.004to0.015inchtypicallyreduce scatterradiationatenergylevelsbelow150,000volts.Abovethispointtheywill emitelectronstoprovidemoreexposureofthefilmtoionizingradiationthus increasingthedensityoftheradiograph. Undercut Anotherconditionthatmustoftenbecontrolledwhenproducingaradiographis calledundercut.Partswithholes,hollowareas,orabruptthicknesschangesare

71

likelytosufferfromundercutifcontrolsarenotputinplace.Undercutappearsas lighteningoftheradiographintheareaofthethicknesstransition.Thisresultsin alossofresolutionorblurringatthetransitionarea.

Undercutoccursduetoscatteringwithinthefilm.Attheedgesofapartorareas wheretheparttransitionsfromthicktothin,theintensityoftheradiationreaching thefilmismuchgreaterthaninthethickerareasofthepart.Thehighlevelof radiationintensityreachingthefilmresultsinahighlevelofscatteringwithinthe film.Itshouldalsobenotedthatthefasterthefilmspeed,themoreundercutthat islikelytooccur.Scatteringfromwithinthewallsofthepartalsocontributed sometoundercutbutresearchhasshownthatscatteringwithinthefilmisthe primarycause.Masksareusedtocontrolundercut.Sheetsofleadcuttofill holesorsurroundthepartandmetallicshotandliquidabsorbersareoftenused asmasks. FiltersinRadiography Atxrayenergies,filtersconsistofmaterialplacedintheusefulbeamtoabsorb, preferentially,radiationsbasedonenergylevelortomodifythespatial distributionofthebeam.Filtrationisrequiredtoabsorbthelowerenergyxray photonsemittedbythetubebeforetheyreachthetarget.Theuseoffilters produceacleanerimagebyabsorbingthelowerenergyxrayphotonsthattend toscattermore.

RadiographicFilm

72

Xray films for general radiography consist of an emulsiongelatin containing a radiation sensitive silver halide and a flexible, transparent, bluetinted base. Usually,theemulsioniscoatedonbothsidesofthebaseinlayersabout0.0005 inch thick. Putting emulsion on both sides of the base doubles the amount of radiationsensitivesilverhalide,andthusincreasesthefilmspeed.Theemulsion layersarethinenoughsodeveloping,fixing,anddryingcanbeaccomplishedin areasonabletime. FilmSelection Theselectionofafilmwhenradiographinganyparticularcomponentdependson anumberofdifferentfactors.Listedbelowaresomeofthefactorsthatmustbe consideredwhenselectedafilmanddevelopingaradiographictechnique. 1. thecomposition,shape,andsizeofthepartbeingexaminedand,insome cases,itsweightandlocation. 2. thetypeofradiationused,whetherxraysfromanxraygeneratoror gammaraysfromaradioactivesource. 3. thekilovoltagesavailablewiththexrayequipmentortheintensityofthe gammaradiation. 4. therelativeimportanceofhighradiographicdetailorquickandeconomical results.

FilmProcessing Processing film is a strict science governed by rigid rules of chemical concentration,temperature,time,andphysicalmovement.Whetherprocessingis done by hand or automatically by machine, excellent radiographs require the highestpossibledegreeofconsistencyandqualitycontrol.

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ManualProcessing&Darkrooms Manualprocessing begins with the darkroom. An area dry andfree of dust and dirtshouldbeusedtoloadandunloadthefilm.Whileanotherarea,thewetside, will be used to process the film. Thus protecting the film from any water or chemicalsthatmaybelocatedonthesurfaceofthewetside. Each of step in film processing must be excited properly to develop theimage, washoutresidualprocessingchemicals,andtoprovideadequateshelflifeofthe radiograph.Aradiographmayberetrievedafter5oreven20yearsinstorage. ViewingRadiographs Radiographs(developedfilmexposedtoxrayorgammaradiation)aregenerally viewed on a lightbox. Proper viewing conditions are very important when interpreting a radiograph. The viewing conditions can enhance or degrade the subtledetailsofradiographs. Beforebeginningtheevaluationofaradiograph,theviewingequipmentandarea shouldbeconsidered.Theareashouldbecleanandfreeofdistractingmaterials. Magnifying aids, masking aids, and film markers should be close at hand. Thin cotton gloves should be available and worn to prevent fingerprints on the radiograph.Ambientlightlevelsshouldbelow.Ambientlightlevelsoflessthan2 fc are often recommended, but subdued lighting, rather than total darkness, is preferable in the viewing room. The brightness of the surroundings should be aboutthesameastheareaofinterestintheradiograph.Roomilluminationmust be arranged so that there are no reflections from the surface of the film under examination. Filmviewersshouldbecleanandingoodworkingcondition.Filmviewersshould provide a source of defused, adjustable, and relativity cool light as heat from viewerscancausedistortionoftheradiograph.Afilmhavingameasureddensity of2.0willallowonly1.0percentoftheincidentlighttopass.Afilmcontaininga densityof4.0willallowonly0.01percentoftheincidentlighttopass.Withsuch low levels of light passing through the radiograph the delivery of a good light sourceisimportant.

Radiographicfilmqualityandacceptability,asrequiredbytheprocedure,should firstbedetermined.Itshouldbeverifiedthattheradiographwasproducedtothe correct density on the required film type, and that it contains the correct identificationinformation.Itshouldalsobeverifiedthattheproperimagequality indicatorwasusedandthattherequiredsensitivitylevelwasmet.Next,the

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radiographshouldbecheckedtoensurethatitdoesnotcontainprocessingand handlingartifactsthatcouldmaskdiscontinuitiesorotherdetailsofinterest. Once a radiograph passes these initial checks it is ready for interpretation. Radiographicfilminterpretationisanacquiredskillcombining,visualacuitywith knowledge of materials, manufacturing processes, and their associated discontinues.Ifthecomponentisinspectedwhileinservice,anunderstandingof appliedloadsandhistoryofthecomponentishelpful. Aprocessforviewingradiographs,lefttorighttoptobottometc.,ishelpfuland willpreventoverlookinganareaontheradiograph.Onepartoftheinterpretation process,sometimesoverlooked,isrest.Themindas wellastheeyesneedsto occasionallyrestwheninterpretingradiographs. When viewing a particular region of interest, techniques such as using a small lightsourceandmovingtheradiographoverthesmalllightsource,orchanging the intensity of the light source will help the radiographer identify relevant indications. Magnifying tools should also be used when appropriate to help identifyandevaluateindications.Viewingtheactualcomponentbeinginspected is very often helpful in developing an understanding of the details seen in a radiograph. Interpretationofradiographsisanacquiredskillthatisperfectedovertime.By usingtheproperequipmentanddevelopingconsistentevaluationprocesses,the interpreterwillincreasehisorherprobabilityofdetectingdefects. SpuriousIndicationsonthefilmsor(Artefacts) SpuriousIndicationsarecausedbyincorrectprocessingorcarelesshandlingof thefilm Thecommonartefactsare 1 RadiationFogging:Thisoccurswhenthefilmisstoredtooclosetoasource ofradiationorwhenthefilmisaccidentallyleftintheexposureareaduring theexposureofanotherfilm

2 LightFog:Duetothestorageofthefilminafaultystoragestoragebox wherewhitelightisleaksintothefilmORduetothewrongtypeofsafelight in thedarkroom

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3PressureMarkings:Duetocarelesshandlingofthefilmduringloadingand unloadingofthefilm 4StaticMarks:Thishastheappearanceofthedarkbranchedandjaggedfine lines.Itisduetorapidremovalofthefilmfromthewrapper 5ScratchMarks:Usuallycausedbyafingernailorabrasivematerialonthe screensorduringhandling 6HighorLowDensityMarks:Causedwhenhandlingthefilmswithgreasyor chemicallystainedfingers 7LowdensityPatchesorsmears:Duetosplashesofwaterorfixingsolutionon thefilm 8HighdensityPatchesorsmears:DuetosplashesofDeveloperonthefilm 9FilmMottle:Duetotheuseofoldfilms 10LightSpots:Causedbydustparticlesbetweenthefilmandtheintensifying Screen 11ScreenMarks:Duetocontaminationoftheintensifyingscreenswith chemicalsORduetothedefectsonthescreensuchascrackingor buckling 12Airbells:Theseareshowndiscsoflowerdensitycausedbyairtrapedonthe surfaceoftheemulsion,duetoinsufficientagitation 13PatchesorStreaks:Duetoinsufficientagitationduringdeveloperorinthe rinsebath 14Reticulation:Thisistheappearanceofleathergrainandduetoruptureofthe emulsioncausedbygreatdifferencesbetweensuccesiveprocessing solutions 15DryingMarks:Duetodropsofwaterremainingonthesurfaceofthefilm, oftenoccurduetorapid dryingthefilminthehightemperaturecabinet.

ChapterVII

EddyCurrentTesting
Introduction 76

A varying electric current flowing in a coil gives rise to a varying magnetic field. A nearbyconductorresiststhismagneticfieldandthisproducesaneddycurrentflowingin thesurfacelayeroftheconductorandflowinginthedirectionoppositetothecurrentin thecoil. An induced eddy current in a conductor produces a magnetic field that opposes the magnetic field produced by the coil, resulting in a change of impedance. It is this impedancechangethatistobedetectedwithahighdegreeofaccuracybythemeasuring equipment. Cracksandothersurfaceconditionsmodifytheeddycurrentsgeneratedintheconductor and give rise to a local brief change in the impedance. This change is accurately monitored. Eddycurrentsalwaysflowparalleltotheplaneofthewindingofthetestcoilproducing them,Adiscontinuityparalleltotheeddycurrentcanbemissedbythismethod BasicPrinciple

Coil's Coil magneticfield

Eddycurrent's magneticfield Eddy currents Conductive Material

Eddycurrenttestingmethodcanbesuccessfullyusedtodetectssurfacebreakingand nearsurfacediscontinuitiessuchas Cracks

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Inclusions Dents Holes Scratches

Eddycurrenttestingmethodcanalsoidentifythematerialpropertiessuchas Alloycomposition Heattreatment Hardness Grainsize MagneticPermeability Eddycurrenttestingmethodcanalsobeusedtomonitorthesurfaceconditionsuchas Surfacecoating Corrosion SpecimenTemperature

EddyCurrentTestingDependson Electricalconductivityofthematerial

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Natureofdiscontinuitiesinthematerial Magneticpermeabilityofthematerial Dimensionsandshapeofthespecimen Currentfrequency Coilsize Numberofturnsinthecoil Metalcondition

AdvantagesofEddyCurrentTestingMethod Instantaneousresults Sensitivetoarangeofphysicalproperties Firmcontactbetweeninspectioncoilandspecimennotrequired Equipmentissmallandselfcontained Candetectverysmalldiscontinuities Defectsintubesandothercircularpartscanbedetectedusingspecialprobes Internalsurfaceofcylinderscanbeusingspecialprobes

DisadvantagesofEddyCurrentTestingMethod Thismethodcanbeusedonelectricalconductorsonly Depthofpenetrationisrestricted Interpretationneedsskill Defectsparalleltocoilsurfacecanbemissed Endsofthepartscannotbetested

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ChapterVIII

SelectionofNDTMethods
Defecttobedetected SurfaceCracks (i)Grindingcracks (ii)Heattreatcracks (iii)SolidificationCracks (iv)CraterCracks (v)ColdCracks Inclusions Lackofpenetration Lackofrootfusion Concavity MostSuitable Method PT,MPI& EddyCurrent Comments PTforallmetals MPIforFerrousMetals ETforconductivematerials

UT,RT&MPI

(i)Lackofsidewallfusion (ii)Lackofinterrunfusion

Laminations SurfacePorosity InternalPorosity Undercut Mismatch Inadequateweldreinforcement BurnThrough Whiskers Underfill, Underflush Root concavity Convexity

UT&RTfordeepdefects MPIfornearsurfacedefects RT,UT,MPI,DPI& RT&PTforallmetals ET MPIforFerrousMetals ETforconductivematerials UTiftherearsideoftheweld isnotvisible RT&UT RT is sensitive for vertical or inclineddefects UT is sensitive for horizontal or inclineddefects UT UTisverysensitive VT,MPI,PT PTismostsensitive RT,UT RTismostsensitive VT,MPI,PT,RT RTforrootundercut,ifnotvisible VT,RT RTifothersideisnotvisible VT,RT RTifweldfaceisnotvisible VT,RT RTifweldrootisnotvisible UT,RT RTgivesclearimage VT,UT,RT VT,RT VT VT&RTarebetter RTifweldrootisnotvisible WelderGaugeisusedtomeasure

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