CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Brief Description of the Excitation System

The static excitation equipment regulates the voltage (and/or the flow of reactive power during parallel operation) from the synchronous machine (generator) by direct control of the rotor current (field current) using (static) Thyristor converters. The entire unit can be broken down into four major groups: The excitation transformer T01 The control unit REG Thyristor converter TY The field breaker, field flashing and de-excitation equipment FF & F In excitations with shunt-connected supply, there is no enough remnant voltage in the rotating generator to build up the generator voltage autonomously via the converter. To accomplish this, special field flashing equipment is needed. When the field flashing equipment is being supplied with power from a DC power source (power station battery), resistor is used to limit the field flashing current. When it is being supplied from an AC power grid, a transformer serves as the adapter needed. Excitation of the generator is started by closing the field circuit-breaker and the field flashing breaker. This supplies current to the field, which excites the generator up to 15.. 30% of Generator voltage. The generator then supplies voltage to the converter voltage the firing electronics and the converters are able to continue the voltage build-up, so that the field flashing circuit is relieved of current. Once the voltage exceeds approx. 70% of Generator voltage the field flashing breaker is opened, having no current. The diode bridge at the input to the field flashing breaker prevents a backflow of current to the field flashing source.

To accomplish this, special field flashing equipment is needed. When the field flashing equipment is being supplied with power from a DC power source (power station battery), a resistor is used to limit the field flashing current. When it is being supplied from an AC power grid, a transformer serves as the adapter needed. Excitation of the generator is started by closing the field circuit-breaker Q1 and the field flashing breaker Q2. This supplies current to the field, which excites the generator up to 15 ....30% U. The generator then supplies voltage to the converter via the excitation transformer. Starting from approx.10% of the generator voltage, the firing electronics and the converter are able to continue the voltage build-up, so that the field flashing circuit is relieved of current. Once the voltage exceeds approx. 25% of U the field flashing breaker is finally opened, having no current. The diode bridge at the input to the field flashing breaker prevents a back-flow of current to the field flashing source. The converter TY has Final Pulse Stage, cooling and monitoring of the elements. Redundancy in the regulator section is ensured by means of two fully separate channels with independent measuring inputs and extensive monitoring (SUPERVISION) Channel 1 (AUTOMATIC channel) is built as voltage regulators and is ON during normal operation. In addition to the voltage regulator, which has a PID control algorithm,

the AUTOMATIC channel also contains various limiters and corrective control circuits to ensure the use and stable operation of the synchronous machine up to its operating limits. This channel possesses a Gate Control Unit with a subsequent Intermediate Pulse Stage to generate the firing pulses for the Thyristor converter. During normal operation, the Intermediate Pulse Stage of AUTOMATIC Channel, is active and transmits the firing pulses galvanically separated to the common pulse bus at the input to the Final Pulse Stage. Various monitoring functions of the AUTOMATIC channel and pulse monitoring on the common pulse bus initiate an automatic switch-over to stand by Channel (MANUAL)in case of a malfunction. Channel 2 (the MANUAL channel) is built as a simple field-current regulator with a PI control algorithm. It serves as a back-up channel in case of a malfunction on the AUTOMATIC channel. Manual channel performs valuable service for testing commissioning and preventive maintenance. The MANUAL channel has its own Gate Control Unit (the software for the If regulator is also implemented therein) and its own intermediate pulse Stage .During normal operation (AUTOMATIC), the output pulses from Intermediate Pulse Stage are blocked from reaching the pulse bus. Various monitoring on the MANUAL channel initiate an alarm in case of a malfunction while the MANUAL channel is on stand-by. If the MANUAL channel suffers a malfunction while it is in operation, the excitation is switched off (TRIP). Both channels are equipped with tracking equipment so that the inactive channel always generates the same control variable as the active channel during steady-state operation. This ensures smooth switch-over from Automatic to Manual channel and vice versa. To ensure that the MANUAL channel will, in a switch-over initiated by a malfunction, take over the operating point of the machine as it was prior to the problem, the response of the tracking for the MANUAL channel is set relatively slow. In addition to the pulse monitors (SUPERVISION) shown in the basic circuit diagram, the excitation system has an autonomous Excitation Monitoring. As one of its functions, this equipment monitors for field currents that exceed acceptable maximum limits. It initiates an emergency switch-over to the MANUAL channel whenever the field current exceeds the preset limit. If, even after such a switch-over, the field current does not drop back to

the permissible level, the excitation is switched off by Excitation Protection. The most important measuring inputs for the excitation system (If, Ug, Usyn) are redundant (2fold). The Excitation Monitoring checks these measuring inputs for discrepancy and plausibility. An alarm is always initiated in case of malfunction. In certain cases, a switch-over to MANUAL channel is also initiated. The excitation system contains an Excitation Protection to protect the excitation transformer, the converters, and the synchronous machine. The protection system can detect short-circuits in the excitation circuit and keep secondary damage within acceptable limits by a quick tripping of the excitation and an opening of the generator breaker. An overheating of the excitation transformer first sets off an alarm (at a given preset limit) and then likewise initiates a protective shut-down at an even higher limit . The over voltage protection in the deexcitation equipment provides an autonomous protective function for the rotor and the rectifier. This protection system monitors the field voltage in both polarities for over voltage and, if necessary, de-energizes the field via the de-excitation resistor.

1.2 Principle of primary power supply

In the shunt excitation system, the excitation transformer, also provides the power supply for the electronic equipment and the converter fans. So, a failure of the auxiliary supply to the converter fans does not cause a shutdown of the excitation. When the auxiliary supply fails, the supply to converter fans is switched over to Excitation transformer O/P with a contactor. A station battery supply is absolutely necessary for the control of the field circuit breaker. It is the power source for the electronic devices till the generator is able to supply voltage. Auxiliary power to the field flashing equipment must be present in order to build up the generator excitation. The power supply for standstill heating and the cubicle lighting is also from Station Auxiliary Power Supply and is of secondary importance for operation of the plant. Power supply to rotor earth fault detection circuit too is from Station Auxiliary Supply. The two synchronous voltages Usyn are each supplied to the AUTOMATIC channel and the MANUAL channel separately across transformers. The Gate Control Units need these voltages to enable

them to issue the pulses at a given firing angle relative to the input voltage of the converter.

CHAPTER 2 Digital Automatic Voltage Regulator (DAVR)

2.1 Principle of Operation of the Regulator (DAVR)
To regulate the voltage and the reactive power of a synchronous machine, the field voltage must be adjusted quickly to the changes in the operating conditions (with a response time that does not exceed a few ms). To accomplish this, analog control systems include amplifiers which make continuous comparison of the actual values against the reference values and vary the control variable to the converter with almost no delay. Most of the delay that occurs originates in the converter, since the firing pulses for changing the rectifier phase angle are only issued periodically (every 3.3 ms). The DVR digital voltage regulator calculates the control variable from the measured and reference data in very short time intervals. This results outwardly in a quasi-continuous behavior with a negligible delay time (as in an analog regulator). The calculations are made in the binary number system. Analog measurement signals, such as those for generator voltage and generator current, are converted into binary signals in analog/digital converters. The set-points and limit values have already been defined in digital (binary) form. An understanding of the actual computation processes in the digital voltage regulator is not necessary for operation, preventive maintenance or troubleshooting. Like the operator of a pocket calculator or a personal computer, all the operator needs is to know how to operate the instrument and the programming for this working tool. For that reason, we will explain below only the principle division of work among the various modules and the flow of data processing. The purpose is, above all, to make clear how the processor system has been integrated into the rest of the power electronics system.

2.2 Basic Structure of the Processor Systems

The signal processors 25 analog input/output modules. Each of these processor systems has a common bus circuit and output, and the control lines. There is a specific range of addresses assigned to each assignment. Board including the power supply bus, the address lines, the two data lines to the input calculates the reactive current (I . sin ) and the active current ( I.cos ). With these two channel processor. Synchronized with these interrupts (i.e., with the phase positions of current Ig, the field current If, and the synchronous voltage Usyn. From the exchange data with the microprocessor card across the two data lines. generator voltage Ug) this processor measures the generator current Ig, and then hardwired connections or multi-conductor cables. Binary and analog input/output modules i.e., for galvanic isolation and adaptation to the electronics level. The most important input interrupts per period to trigger the cycles for processing actual values in the AUTOMATIC module on the processor bus) for filtering and further processing.

Monitoring each consist of the central microprocessor module and binary and parameters to the AUTOMATIC channel are the generator voltage Ug, the generator peripheral unit, Ug, Ig, and Usyn are sent to the Interrupt Generator (plug-in peripheral units (wall-mounted units). peripheral units are used for preprocessing signals from external measurement circuits, power supply units. Signals are exchanged among these processor systems via processed across separate peripheral units for each channel. These processor working on the bus (a house address that can be adjusted using a switch).

systems. The AUTOMATIC channel, the programmable controls and the Excitation The actual values measured from AUTOMATIC channel and MANUAL channel are The AUTOMATIC channel and the MANUAL channel, each have their own The digital voltage regulator is broken down into several autonomous microprocessor The inputs and outputs of the processor systems are directed across voltage-isolating The Interrupt Generator also uses the 3-phase Ug signal to generate the 12 themselves contain a limited number of hardware inputs and outputs with fixed equipment Whenever addresses from this range are called up, the signal processing module can results, the processor is then able to derive further operating parameters, such as the load angle, the active power, etc. The functions of all microprocessor systems other than the programmable controls have been accomplished in firmware. The non-varying standard function modules can be configured to the design desired, for plant-specific purposes, using software switches (KFlags). Thus, for example, the stored status of a K-Flag determines whether or not a Limiter is active, and whether the de-excitation or the excitation limiters take precedence. Because these K-flags determine the software Scope of Supply for the installation, they cannot be changed permanently via the Micro-Terminal. In this way, they differ from such setting data as the values of the parameters for the PID filter of the voltage regulator or the set-points for the limiters. These values can be permanently changed using the Micro-Terminal. Communication is possible with each of the processor systems via the Micro-Terminal by plugging on the connecting cable. In this way, signals within the processor and setting parameters can be viewed, analog signals can be issued, and the set parameters can be altered temporarily (F... range) or permanently (C... range). Unlike the other processor systems, the programmable controls do not include any firmware for realization of the functions. They have been designed so that the designer can adapt and change their functions easily using the Functional Block Programming Language P10. Digital and analog functions can be implemented in practically any degree of complexity desired using the P10 functional blocks. The control variable of the voltage regulator (AUTOMATIC channel) and the control variable of the field current regulator (MANUAL channel) are each processed in separate Gate Control Unit and formed into a chain of pulses at the appropriate firing angle. The pulses of the active channel are directed to the pulse bus via the associated Intermediate Pulse Stage. The pulses for each converter block are amplified sufficiently in Final Pulse Stage to fire the Thyristor.

2.3.1 General Information

The functions of the automatic voltage regulator AVR are: 1. to regulate the generator voltage. 2. to regulate the effect of the reactive and/or active current on the voltage. 3. to limit Volt/Hz. 4. to limit max. and min. field current. 5. to limit inductive stator current. 6. to limit capacitive stator current. 7. to limit the load angle. 8. to stabilize the power system. Block Diagram shows the software structure of AUTOMATIC channel. The generator limiters not provided for the installation in question (optional equipment) are identified in this overview as Not Supplied. The parameter values, signal values, and software switches (flags) marked with addresses (hexadecimal numbers) can be viewed and altered via the Micro-Terminal. The values selected are displayed in %, sec, p.u., Hz, etc. and can, where necessary, be changed directly in these formats. The plant-specific settings of the variables and the flags can be obtained from the Test and Commissioning Report. This block diagram provides information about the important functions and possible settings of the AUTOMATIC channel. For the sake of clarity, no detailed presentation has been given of special functions such as tracking circuits, initializations, etc. The page heading cross-refers this overview to the various sheets of the schematic diagram. Binary signals are shown in broken lines, analog signals in solid lines. The corresponding text designations in the schematic diagram can be used for identification of the input signals (hardware inputs). The only analog output signal from the automatic voltage regulator, control variable Ucontr, is sent via the data bus (CRU bus) to the Gate Control Unit. Most of the binary messages (outputs) from the AVR are of no interest functionally and they have been omitted for the sake of clarity. The basic structure of the digital voltage regulator and the limiters is simple. This is necessary in order that the behavior of the regulators/limiters will remain calculable and understandable in all operating situations and that there will be no problem in adjusting and optimizing them. The central PID filter in the digital voltage regulator defines the dynamic response of the closed-loop controls both in the voltage regulator mode and after limiters have

intervened. The control deviation at the input to the PID filter is either the control deviation for voltage, the control deviation of a de-excitation limiter (the value determined by minimum value selection), or the control deviation of an excitation limiter (the value determined by maximum value selection). Flag F730 (PRIOR) is used to determine whether the exciting (Min. value) or the de-exciting signal takes precedence on the min/max value limiter (normally: F730 = 1111, i.e., the de-exciting signal takes precedence). With the exception of the Minimum Field Current Limiter, all other limiters have variable factoring multipliers of the signal outputs so that they can be adjusted individually together with the common PID filter, which has been optimized for voltage regulation. The setting parameters for this PID filter are as follows: Vo = KR Static amplification 1 Ta = ---- Integration time constant Tc1 Vp Proportional amplification 1 Tb = ---- Differential time constant Tc2 V Amplification of high frequencies

The BODE diagram below shows the assignment of settings in accordance with DIN/IEC standards based on a typical example:

The PID filter amplifications Vo, Vp, and V can be adjusted in p.u. values. But the ceiling factor pl+ must be adjusted correctly with parameter F310 if the total amplification (circuit amplification) of the control circuit is actually to conform to the p.u. settings. This factor must agree with the external amplification, i.e., with the ceiling value of the transformer-/ converter circuit: Ceiling factor(pl+) = Ufmax /Ufo in which Ufmax = ceiling field voltage Ufo = no-load field voltage To attain a suitable response of the AVR when starting excitation (EXCITATION ON), it may be necessary to change the proportional amplification of the regulator during this phase. Vp2 (transiently activated) and Vp1 (permanently activated) can be adjusted for this purpose. For example, the value of Vp2 takes effect immediately once the excitation is switched on and remains effective for a period as set at F30C. Once the period F30C (e.g., 5 sec) has expired, Vp shifts over to Vp1 (becomes the steady-state Vp) at the rate of change set. The standard operating mode for the PID filter is voltage regulation, for which the discrepancy between the voltage set-point and the current value for generator voltage Ug (the control deviation) is supplied at the input. To compensate for the voltage drop in the block transformer, or whenever several generators are operating to the same distributing bus, the generator voltage must be varied in proportion to the measured generator current (droop influence). To accomplish this, the voltage set-point is varied as a function of the measured reactive current IX and/or active current IR. Flag F712 enables the IX droop, Flag F710 the IR droop. The desired compensation is set in F282 and F286 respectively. Flags F284 and F288 are used

to select whether this droop influence is to increase the voltage or to reduce it (compensation). Combined influence of the active and reactive currents is attained by enabling both droops, IX and IR. Flag F716 activates a so-called Soft-Start at the starting of excitation. This Soft-Start ensures that the voltage set-point integrates from 0% to 100% within the time set on F290 when the excitation is switched on (EXCITATION ON). A smooth excitation of the generator can be achieved in this way whenever there is no demand for a quick excitation.

2.3.2 Voltage Set-Point

Various signals and settings, control and limit the voltage set-point F270. For example, the values of F254 and F252 define the normal operating range possible for setpoint adjustment (e.g., 90 ... 110%) using external control commands (control room, local operators panel, superposed control system). The effective set-point adjustment rate is governed. The set-point can be set at the values of F250 and F256 by activating appropriate control commands for SET input. Enabling Flag F71A and activating a binary input prior to switching on the excitation (EXCITATION OFF) sets the Ug setpoint at the value of UAUX. This makes it possible, for example, to ensure that the generator voltage will agree exactly with the network voltage after the voltage build-up. An external value with variable amplification can be added to the Ug set point by enabling F724 (for example, for stability tests).

2.3.3 Regulator Tracking in MANUAL Operation

Whenever the AUTOMATIC channel is not in operation (the MANUAL channel is ON), a "follow-up" equipment ensures a smooth switch-back to the AUTOMATIC mode will always be possible. To track, the voltage set-point is shifted by means of RAISE/LOWER pulses from the Gate Control Unit. so that control variable Ucontr at the output from the PID filter is held steady and identical to the control variable Ucontr from the MANUAL channel. Because this tracking must react slowly, resultant transient control deviations resulting from the amplification in the PID filter might cause severe interference with control variable Ucontr. To prevent this, the follow-up equipment intervenes on the regulator's mixing point with a corresponding compensation signal.

2.3.4 Ug/f Limiter

At under frequency, the Ug/f Limiter reduces the generator voltage so as to prevent saturation effects in the supply and measuring transformers. To adjust this limiter, the max. permissible generator voltage at rated frequency is defined and set. When any under-frequency occurs, the generator voltage is thus reduced in proportion to that setting. 2.3.5 Field Current Maximum Limiter The Field Current Maximum Limiter is provided to protect the generator rotor from s occurring in steady-state and transient operation. High field currents are normally the result of a sharp drop in network voltage, or of an improper raising of the voltage setpoint by the operating staff. The field current is held steady at the value TH1, i.e., at the maximum thermal value permissible for the excitation circuit and the rotor. In order that the generator can support the power network with its transient overload capacity during brief collapses in voltage, a temporary switch-over is made to the transient limit MAX1 (a higher setting). When the generator or the converter is operating at a reduced capacity. These limits TH1/MAX1 can be switched over to the lower settings TH2/MAX2 by activating the corresponding binary signals. The switch-over from the thermal limit TH1/2 to the transient limit MAX1/2 can be configured in one of three ways: a) Depending on the over current, with -dU/dt ENABLE Flag programming: F418 = any setting desired; F41A = 0000. This variant enables the transient value MAX1/2 whenever a collapse of voltage in the network is detected. The ENABLE time is fixed, and can be set. The example below shows the typical behavior of the limiter configured in this way:

b) Dependent on the time integral, with -dU/dt ENABLE:

Flag programming: F418 = inactive; F41A = 1111. This variant likewise enables the transient value only when a collapse of network voltage has been detected. However, the switch-back to the thermal limit is not made dependent upon the time itself, but on the calculated time integral idt of the. The setting on Parameter F414 in s/p.u. takes into account the time the rotor needs to cool down, i.e., the rate of temperature change in the case of intermittent operation. The example below shows how the timing of the switch-back to the thermal limit depends on the present value for idt: The time integral is based on the formula:

Example: The setting of =idt equivalent to Version a (F416) at a constant 1.6 times the nominal field current for 10 seconds (with TH1/2 = 105%) is:

c) Dependent on the time integral, without any preconditions

Flag programming: F418 = 1111; F41A = 1111 In this variant, the transient becomes available without any prior conditions (without a -dU/dt ENABLE) with the time integral idt.

2.3.7 Inductive Stator Current Limiter

The Inductive Stator Current Limiter holds the stator current Ig within permissible limits while the generator is in the over-excited operating range by reducing the field current accordingly. The setting TH (thermal limit) provides the limit against stationary s that might occur. To take advantage of the generators transient overload capacity, a switch-over is made to the higher setting MAX. The principle of operation of this switchover to the value MAX, permissible only transiently, is identical to that employed for the field current limiter (refer to the description above). When the drive output from the turbine is very high, stator current may exceed permissible limits even while inductive

loading of the generator is low. In this case, if the stator current limiter is not kept from influencing the field current, the control circuit will oscillate back and forth between the Inductive Stator Current Limiter (deexciting) and the Capacitive Stator Current Limiter (exciting).The output signal of that function then dominates the control variable of the Ig-dependent limiter via a maximum value selection.

2.3.8 Capacitive Stator Current Limiter 2.3.9 Load Angle Limiter

The Load Angle Limiter prevents the synchronous machine from slipping out of phase due to slippage of the rotor. The load angle , the difference in phase between the rotor and the stator rotating field, results mainly from the driving torque (active power P) acting on the generator and the level of rotor current (field current). If the driving torque remains constant, a increase in the field current reduces the load angle . The current load angle at any moment is obtained from the generator current and generator voltage based on a simplified model of the generator. Whenever this calculated load angle exceeds the preset limit angle, the limiter increases the field current until the load angle has dropped back to its permissible value. The quadrature reactance Xq of the generator and the network reactance Xe during normal operation must be adjusted on the regulator in order to obtain the load angle . The graph below shows the Power Chart for a salient-pole machine with typical limiter characteristics:

The purpose of a Power System Stabilizer is to use the generator excitation to damp electromechanical oscillations between the network and the generator. Depending on the design of the generator and the requirements imposed for network stability, its main function will be either to damp the oscillations originating in the machine or those from the network. A synchronous generator working in a combined power network is, in principle, an oscillating structure. In order to produce a torque, the magnetic field of the rotor and the stator must form a given angle (referred to as the rotor displacement or load angle ). The electrical torque ME increases as the angle increases, just as with a torsion spring. Because the ME of the generator and the mechanical driving torque MA from the turbine are in equilibrium during steady-state operation, the angle remains in a given position. Whenever this state of equilibrium between MA and ME is disturbed, the load angle slips of this rest position, and change thereby the electrical torque ME. The torque attempts to restore the load angle to a stationary position. Due to the mass inertia of the turbine/generator rotor, however, this can only take place aperiodically. It does so in the form of more or less effectively damped oscillations (again similar to the effect of mass inertia on a torsion spring). In order to damp the oscillations, there must be a damping torque produced depending not on the electrical torque ME associated with the angle, but on the difference in frequency (Df) between the rotor and the stator rotating field, i.e., on the slippage. This torque is produced mainly by the so-called damper winding in the rotor, but the dimensioning of this is subject to limits imposed by considerations of design and economy. Some further action is therefore needed to increase the damping effect. The following drastically simplified formula shows the parameters upon which the amount of active power PE supplied by the generator depends: PE = active power

It can be seen from the above relationship that the active power that the generator transfers depends not only on the load angle , but also on the field current If. That means

that a transient change can be made in the active power PE and with that in the effective electrical torque ME by varying the field current. The principle of operation of the DVR Power System Stabilizer becomes clear from a consideration of the oscillations in power output and frequency (PE, f) and the vector diagram: If it is assumed, that oscillations in the network frequency generates load oscillations with the mass inertia of the rotor, then the active load of the generator (e.g. MW-measured) is influenced with a sinusoidal value -PE (ME-MA = -PE). By inversion of -PE, one obtains the fluctuation in power provided by the rotor, +PE. As is known, the slip signal f follows +PE with a phase delayed by 90. The +ME produced by the periodic changes in the load angle is in phase with +PE. A good damping is attained if ME is varied in phase with the slip f. However, this signal must also be advanced somewhat to compensate for the time constants in the excitation circuit and the generator. As mentioned above, the electrical torque ME can be influenced by varying the field current. To accomplish this, a suitable control signal, referred to as variable disturbance compensation, must be imposed upon the voltage set-point or the converter control variable Ucontr. As can be seen from the vector diagram, by applying proper weighting factors (K1, K2), and then adding together the signals -PE and f, an overall stabilization signal can be produced that rotates in advance of the Df signal by any angle desired between 0 and 90. Because the amplitude of -DPE remains proportional to the amplitude of f, a constant angle in advance of f results for the compensation of the time constants referred to above. The optimum weighting factors K1 and K2 for a synchronous generator working to a power network depend on its operating point at any moment and the external reactance of the network. Normally, the selection of a compromise setting is good enough to attain stability in all operating points and for all external reactance. For special demands, these settings must be parameterized as a function of the external reactance (which means, optional equipment: Xe-Identification). The Power System Stabilizer PSS is a section of the AVR computer program and is processed once per network cycle. The voltage at the generator terminals and the generator current are measured in order to define the signals PE and f. The calculated signals for _P_ (=PE) and f are then sent across DC filters D (real differentiators) that transmit only the dynamic portion of the signals. The PE and f signals obtained in this

way are then weighted (multiplied by) with the factors K1 and K2 and sent to the summing point of the voltage regulator.

The PSS stabilization signal is imposed on the automatic voltage regulator only if the following prerequisites are met: Generator on line Generator power output > the value F338 Generator voltage in a range between F33C and F33A The stabilization signal is limited at the output from the PSS to the lower and upper limits. Flag defines whether the stabilization signal is introduced before or after the PID filter (usually before the filter). Because the PID filter, as noted above already takes the ceiling factor Vp1 into account, the PSS signal needs to be multiplied by Vp1 if it is added to the voltage regulator following the PID filter (divider at the input to the min/max limiter). This precaution prevents the DC filter D in the P-channel from producing an unnecessary stabilization effect in the case of rapid changes in turbine load. As an alternative for the AVRs Power System Stabilizer, a stabilization signal from an outside system can be imposed by activating the binary input PSS-SIGN.EXT. Flag F340 can be used to select between an analog and a 12-bit signal, and F33E to select the polarity desired for that signal.

2.4 The MANUAL Channel

2.4.1 Summary The MANUAL channel (Channel 2) has been built as a simple field current regulator

without additional limiters. Its main function is to maintain the excitation of the generator even if the AUTOMATIC channel becomes non-operational. The MANUAL channel also performs valuable service for purposes of testing, commissioning, and preventive maintenance. Its measurements, regulator, generation of firing pulses, and power supply are physically separate from those on the AUTOMATIC channel. 2.4.2 Principle of Operation All the functions of the MANUAL channel including the generation of firing pulses, have been implemented in a single electronic module, the Gate Control Unit. The control variable Ucontr of voltage regulator is used as the reference value for generating firing pulses on the principle, known as ramp control (Comparison of Ucontr with Usynsynchronous sawtooth signal). For further processing in the UN 0096 Intermediate Pulse Stage, the Gate Control Unit supplies six firing pulses at its output whose phase position with respect to the synchronous voltage Usyn is in accordance with control variable Ucontr. An internal linearization ensures that the field voltage produced via the firing pulses remains proportional to the control variable Ucontr throughout the entire range. As a result, the circuit amplification of the control remains constant over the entire range. Whenever excitation is switched ON the set-point for Generator Voltage is set automatically at the preset - ref. Value. This provision ensures that the generator voltage always attains approximately its nominal value after the field flashing. The Gate Control Unit can be refunctioned ( by pre-selection with a switch ) for purposes of testing to act as a purely firing pulse control. In this case, the control variable Ucontr is adjusted directly using the RAISE/LOWER push buttons on the front of the module. In this way, for example, the relationship between the phase position of the firing pulses and the control variable Ucontr can be checked easily.

CHAPTER 3 PULSE SECTION

3.1 Pulse Generation and Amplification
The Gate Control Units of both AUTOMATIC channel and MANUAL channel each supply six firing pulses for operating the 6-pulse thyristor bridges. The low-power pulse signals from these Gate Control Units are then amplified in the Intermediate Pulse Stage, galvanically isolated, and then sent to the common pulse bus. On the output end, the Intermediate Pulse Stage of the non-active channel) is always blocked. The Gate Control Units generate the pulses based on microprocessor control. The reference voltage used for the firing pulse phase location is the output voltage from the excitation transformer (Usyn1, Usyn2). The commutation spikes of the synchronous voltage caused by the converter are calculated prior to use of the voltage as a reference value and are deliberately filtered out. The lower limit for the firing pulses (double pulses), which are offset from one another by 60, is defined by the limit rectifier position (min) and the upper limit by the limit inverter position (max) for the firing angle. min and max can be adjusted on the Gate Control Units using BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) switches. min ensures that the firing pulses will not be issued (premature firing) until there is sufficient positive phase voltage on the thyristor involved. max prevents a dangerous tipping of the thyristor bridge into the rectifier mode if the firing angle is too large (late firing). The critical factors determining max are the overlap time max (max. commutation time) and the recovery time of the thyristors (max < 180 - max - ). An external control signal can force the firing pulses into their inverter limit position. Other binary inputs can block or direct the firing pulses of the Gate Control Units so as to produce freewheeling on the thyristor bridge. During freewheeling, the firing pulses for the thyristor pair R and S are blocked and the pulse signals T+/T- are engaged with chains of pulses. Both Gate Control Units (for the MANUAL & AUTOMATIC channels) contain a field current monitor that blocks the firing pulses immediately whenever the current exceeds a preset threshold level. In this case, the field circuit-breaker is also tripped via an output contact. The purpose of these provisions is to prevent damage to thyristors and thyristor fuses in case of a slip-ring short-circuit, or to keep any damage that does occur to a minimum. The pulse signals are galvanically separated at the outputs

from the Intermediate Pulse Stage (with pulse transmitters) and are then directed to the common pulse bus. This transmission of the pulse signals to the pulse bus via passive transmitters ensures a high degree of active channel autonomy. Practically no possible malfunctions on the inactive channel (including, for example, sustained pulses) affect the active channel.

3.2 Pulse Monitoring

The Pulse Bus and the pulse signals of the AUTOMATIC channel are monitored. This monitoring device consists of potential isolating stages and the common monitor If the pulse monitoring of the Pulse Bus responds, a switch-over is made to MANUAL channel. The function of the potential isolating stages is to couple the pulse monitoring device to the pulse circuits without any feedback effect. The pulse monitoring checks the six pulse lines for the following malfunctions: continuous or periodic failure of one or more pulses. Periodic occurrence of synchronous or asynchronous false pulses. Continuous pulses the pulse monitoring device can be tested while the machine is in operation.

CHAPTER 4 CONVERTER
Thyristor:
The term thyristor usually refers to a family of four layer solid state device having turn on characteristics that can be externally controlled by either current or voltage. They are also referred to as breakdown device because their working depends on avalanche breakdown. Thyristors have only two stages: OFF and ON. Thyristors have a similar function to Uni-junctions they act as switches. Thyristors use current flow as a switch.

Thyristors have three states: 1. Reverse blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would be blocked by a diode 2. Forward blocking mode Voltage is applied in the direction that would cause a diode to conduct, but the thyristor has not yet been triggered into conduction 3. Forward conducting mode The thyristor has been triggered into conduction and will remain conducting until the forward current drops below a threshold value known as the "holding current". Converter is a semiconductor device which converts ac input voltage into a constant dc output voltage. In present excitation system three phase fully controlled thyristor converter is used.

Because of the following advantages thyristor converters are used. a) Thyristors are used for high power applications .i.e., up to 10Kv,3500A,1KHz. b) Having high reliability and low losses. c) Uni-directional device like diode. d) Its operation as a rectifier which are low resistance in forward conduction mode and high resistance in reverse conduction mode.

PROTECTION OF THYRISTORS:
For reliable operation of a thyristor demands that its specified ratings are not exceeded. When Subjected to or over voltages. During the turn - on of SCR di/dt prohibitively large. False triggering of SCR by high value of dv/dt andSpurious signals between gate and cathode may leads to unwanted turn on.

DI/DT AND PROTECTION :

When thyristor starts conducting in forward conduction mode and is turned on by gate pulse. The anode current increases rapidly whole area of the gate to Cathode junction, then hot spots will be formed near the gate connection, this locality of heating

destroys the thyristor. Thyristor thermal time is constant. The causes due to faults and short circuits or surge currents. Electronic crowbar protection is used against the over voltages. The rate rise of anode current must be kept at the time of turn on below the rated or specified limiting value. The di/dt value maintained below limited value by using a inductor also called di/dt inductor in series with anode circuit. The locality of heating is avoided by applying gate current but not greater the maximum gate current.

DV/DT AND OVER VOLTAGE PROTECTION:

With forward voltage across the anode and cathode of a thyristor, the two outer junctions are forward biased but the inner junction is reverse biased. This reverse biased junction J2, has the characteristics of a capacitor due to charges existing across the junction. In other words, space-charges exist in the depletion region around junction J2 and therefore junction J2 behaves like a capacitance. If the entire anode to cathode forward voltage Va appears across J2 junction and the charge is denoted by Q, then a charging current i given by Eq. (4.6) follows i = dQ/dt =d(Cj Va )/dt = Cj (d Va /dt) + Va(d Cj /dt) ..(4.6 a) As Cj the capacitance of junction J2 is almost constant, the current is given by i = Cj (d Va /dt) (4.6 b) If the rate of rise of forward voltage dVa/dt is high, the charging current i will be more. This charging current plays the role of gate current and turns on the SCR even when gate signal is zero. Such phenomena of turning-on a thyristor, called dv/dt turn-on must be avoided as it leads to false operation of the thyristor circuit. For controllable operation of the thyristor, the rate of rise of forward anode to cathode voltage dVa/dt must be kept below the specified rated limit. Typical values of dv/dt are 20 500 V/sec. False turn-on of a thyristor by large dv/dt can be prevented by using a snubber circuit in parallel with the device thyristor are very sensitive for over voltage than the semiconductor devices. Over voltage transients are perhaps the main cause of thyristor failure. In thyristor there are mainly two types:

1. Internal over voltages:

Due to the commutation of the thyristors large voltages are generated internally. Because of the series inductance of the SCR circuit, the large transient voltages L di/dt

produced. This voltage several times the break over voltage of the device, then thyristor destroys permanently.

2. External over voltages:

External over voltages are caused due to the interruptions of current flow in an inductive circuit and also due to the lightening strokes on the lines feeding the thyristor system. For the reliable operation of thyristor the over voltages must be suppressed by adopting suitable techniques.

Suppression of over voltages:

The RC circuit , called snubber circuit is connected across the device to protect. In order to keep the protective components to a minimum, the thyristors are chosen with their peak voltages ratings are 2.5 to 3 times of the normal peak working voltage. selenium thyrector diodes, metal oxide varistors or avalanche diode suppressers are commonly employed for protecting the thyristor circuit against the over voltages.

Gate protection:
Gate circuit should also be protected against the over voltages and surges. Over voltage at gate circuit can cause false triggering of the SCR may rises the junction temperature behind specified limit leading to its damage. Protection against over voltage can be achieved by connecting a ZD across the gate circuit, and a resister is connected in series with gate circuit to protect against the s. A capacitor and resister are connected across gate to cathode to by pass the noise.

4.1 Final Pulse Stages:

The Final Pulse Stages adapt the output pulses from the Intermediate Pulse Stage (pulses on the pulse bus) to the gate currents needed for the thyristors. Each thyristor bridge is equipped with its own Final Pulse Stage. Each Final Pulse Stages is provided with a power supply module The amplified output pulses from the Final Pulse Stages start as a short, strong, steep pulse with an amplitude approx. 2 times that of the main pulse. This initial pulse edge assures proper firing of the thyristors being triggered. Subsequently, the weaker part of main pulse keeps firing conditions steady. As already mentioned, the Final Pulse Stages and their associated thyristor bridges form single units. All six pulse outputs from a Final Pulse Stage can be blocked by an external control signal, so that all thyristors in the associated thyristor bridge will block the current. A blocking of the pulses is initiated whenever there is a malfunction in the associated thyristor bridge.

4.2 Converter Power Section

The thyristor converter consists of three independent parallel rectifier blocks TY1 to TY3 which are all in service. Even if one block fails the remaining blocks take over automatically the full design current of the excitation circuit. During normal operation (with ideal current share) and all three bridges in operation each of these blocks has to carry only (n-2)/n (i.e.,33%)of its design current. If 2 thyristor bridges fail, the excitation is limited. Only when all three bridges fail the excitation is switched off. Each thyristor bridge arm is equipped with current flow monitoring CTs. Failure of conduction in any arm is identified by a Current flow monitoring module.

4.3 Converter Cooling

A cooling system is needed to dissipate heat losses in the converter blocks and electronics. Each converter block has therefore been equipped with a fan supplied with power from the converters primary voltage (via transformer T8 in field flashing cubicle). The fans are protected with motor protection circuit breakers. An air flow monitoring unit is provided for monitoring the air flow through the thyristor bridge. If a circuit breaker failure is detected, or if the air flow monitor drops off at one of the thyristor bridges, the bridge involved is immediately set out of operation by blocking its firing pulses.

4.4 Thyristor Converter Monitoring

A thyristor bridge in which defects occur that could threaten the safety of operation or cause secondary damage is switched off automatically, i.e., its firing pulses are blocked. This happens whenever: A thyristor fuse is blown. The fuses are monitored individually with micro switches. The Final Pulse Stage fails, which is detected by internal monitors (supply voltage, sustained pulse, short-circuit on the output end). The power supply to the fan fails, fan air flow, as monitored by the Air flow monitor, fails or is insufficient. Isolator on AC/DC side is open

CHAPTER 5 Field Current Circuit, Excitation Transformer

5.1 Field Circuit Breaker
The circuit-breaker in the field circuit is used to isolate the field circuit from the converter. It is capable of switching off the synchronous machine from full load under the maximum conditions of a 3-phase short-circuit. In addition to its main contacts, the field circuit-breaker also has a de-excitation contact with which the field energy stored in the field can be dissipated across the de-excitation resistor. The de-excitation contact closes shortly before the main contacts open so as to ensure proper commutation of the field current from the main contacts to the de-excitation contact when the breaker is switched off. The field circuit-breaker is switched on by electromagnetic force and is kept switched on by a mechanical latch. When the latch is released by a trip coil, the circuit-breaker opens. The circuit-breaker also has auxiliary contacts that report its status.

5.2 Field Flashing

In shunt supplied excitation circuits (excitation transformer connected to the generator terminals), the generator does not have enough remnant voltage for a generator voltage build-up via the converter. In this case, a field flashing circuit is provided. It consists of the field flashing contactor, the diode bridge, and a transformer used to adapt the auxiliary input voltage to the voltage needed for field flashing. when power is supplied from the auxiliaries network.

Fig: Field Flashing Because the field flashing contactor is not able to switch off the energy stored in the field, the control ensures that the contactor can only reopen if the field circuit breaker has already been opened (generating the TRIP order) or, in a normal field flashing sequence, when the converter has taken over the field current. Field flashing occurs in the following stages: The excitation is switched on, closing the field flashing contactor ( Field Circuit Breaker is already closed ). The start-up excitation current flows through the rotor, driving the generator voltage up to approx. 15% U After about 10% U, the firing pulses to the converter are released and it begins to excite the generator to its rated voltage. After about 30% U, the field flashing contactor opens (with no current, since the converter is now supplying the current). The diode bridge at the input to the field flashing contactor prevents a feed-back from the converter to the source of field flashing while the contactor is still closed.

5.3 De-excitation
When malfunctions occur, the stored field energy must be dissipated as quickly and safely as possible to protect the generator. This is done by the converter, the field circuit-breaker, and the de-excitation (discharge) resistor. De-excitation (with opening of the field circuit-breaker) takes place in the following stages:

The converter, drives to its inverter limit position (negative ceiling voltage), recovers a portion of the field energy into the network. A trip command is given to the field circuit breaker. The de-excitation contact closes, diverting the field voltage to the de-excitation resistor. Then, immediately, the main contacts open, building voltage. The field voltage commutates to the de-excitation resistor. The current diminishes at a given time constant TE: (With linear resistance: TE = Lf/ (Rf + Re)) Due to the reversal of the field voltage by the converter, the field current commutates from the main contacts of the field circuit-breaker to the de-excitation resistor in a very early phase. This reversal of the field voltage prevents burn-off on the main contacts and provides effective protection for the field circuit-breaker. Depending on the operating policy, an operational shut-down of the excitation can also be effected with the field circuit-breaker closed. This method is useful mainly when the excitation is switched on and off frequently. In this case, the converter is merely driven into the inverter limit position so that the field energy is recovered into the network. The converter then blocks since it is supplying positive current only.

5.4 Excitation Transformer

The excitation transformer matches the generator voltage to the field voltage (required ceiling voltage). It also serves as a commutation reactance for the thyristor converter and as a potential isolator between the network and the excitation circuit. In addition, the transformer functions as a current limiter in that it makes it possible to keep any short circuits in the excitation circuit under better control. The excitation transformer is equipped with temperature monitoring probes which set off an alarm when the temperature exceeds a first max. limit, and then trips the excitation if the temperature continues rising to a second (higher)limit

CHAPTER 6

Monitoring and Protection

6.1 Excitation Monitoring 6.1.1 General Information
The main goal of Excitation Monitoring is to make optimum use of the redundancies provided in the excitation system and to give alarm whenever a malfunction makes these redundancies unavailable. The field current is monitored to see that it does not exceed a maximum level and, if necessary, a switch-over to the MANUAL channel is initiated. In addition, the criterion for switching off the field flashing is generated. The excitation Monitoring consists of an autonomous processor system.

6.1.2 over current Alarms

In the Excitation Monitoring, the limits for are set at higher levels than the settings on the Field Current Maximum Limiter. Whenever the current exceeds 110% of the nominal field current, contact R1 and the binary output associated with it are activated immediately. If field current remains > 110%, then, after a preset inverse-time has lapsed, relay R2 and - after a further delay - relay R0 and the binary outputs associated with them are activated. Parameters match the measurements for If1 and If2 to the nominal value for field current so that the internal values can be processed and read as p.u. values. It can be used to falsify the actual value of the field current If (to raise it) so as to cause a response from the alarm limits for purposes of testing. The processed If signal is always taken from on the active channel (CHANNEL I OR CHANNEL II). As long as the field current If is above the threshold value 1.1 . Ifn, its peak value is measured. This is stored (until RESET) and can be read at any time on the MicroTerminal . Once the value of If exceeds 1.1 Ifn, integration of this value starts. Whenever the integrated time-current value (idt) exceeds the preselected reference value , the alarm OVER CURRENT INVERSE-TIME is set off and a command is simultaneously issued to switch over to the stand by AUTO channel. Software switch F758 enables the three over current alarm functions (R0, R1, R2) and selects one of three possible inversetime curves T1, T2, or T3. Within the characteristic curve (T1, T2, T3) selected, the desired limit curve for response is set using the factor F216.

6.1.3 Switch-Off Criterion for Field Flashing

The Excitation Monitoring supplies the criterion for switching off the field flashing Whether this criterion is activated based on the actual value for generator voltage Ug or for field current If, or both, depends on the settings of the two threshold values F200/F202 (0% setting means that the output is always logical 1). The measurements Ug1/2 and If1/2 are switched over depending on the present status of the channels (Channel 1 or Channel 2 ON). Whenever Flag F750 is not activated, the binary output is fixed at logical 1.

6.1.4 Storage of Alarm Status

The outputs of the over current alarms (R1, R2, R0) and the messages NO FAILURE MONITORING/ PARAMETERS CHANGED are stored messages can be erased by activating the input GENERAL RESET or by using the RESET button on the front of the module. Erasure with the input GENERAL RESET is effective only if the situation causing the alarm or the malfunction is no longer present. Whenever the selfdiagnosis equipment in the processor detects a malfunction, the output NO FAILURE of MONITORING is set at logical 0 (= alarm). The alarm PARAMETERS CHANGED is activated whenever parameters or settings of software switches have been changed via the Micro-Terminal.

6.1.5 Actual Value Monitoring

The actual values for generator voltage Ug, synchronous voltage Usyn, and field current If are monitored for malfunctions. This monitoring is active regardless of whether or not the generator is in operation. Essentially, when the generator is in operation, the measurements are monitored by comparing the signals (the smaller signal reading is detected as incorrect). When the generator is not in operation, the measured data are monitored for extreme values. The percentage of deviation permissible in the measurement signals being compared (Ug1&Usyn1, Ug1&Ug2, Ug2&Usyn2, If1&If2) is defined by parameters F208 and F20A.If the excitation transformer is being supplied from an auxiliary power source (no shunt operation), the values of Ug and Usyn will be different in some operational conditions.

In that case, Flag F75A can be used to deactivate comparative measurements Ug1/ Usyn1 and Ug2 / Usyn2. The primary monitoring compares Ug1 with Ug2 and generates the messages that Channel 1 or Channel 2 has suffered a malfunction. Whenever Ug1 < Ug2 and the binary message from CH1 reports no malfunction, a malfunction on Measurement Channel 1 is reported (Ug1/Usyn1 FAILURE). A similar malfunction is also present whenever the binary message CH1 DISTURBANCE is reported and a discrepancy is detected between Ug1&Ug2. The generation of the alarm Ug2 / Usyn2 FAILURE is analogous to that for Channel 1. The secondary monitoring compares Ug1 with Usyn1 & Ug2 with Usyn2. This is enabled whenever the binary message of the comparison channel reports a malfunction, or whenever both binary messages report no malfunction - but both secondary monitors report a malfunction. As long as the secondary monitoring is blocked, the differences Ug1Usyn1 or Ug2Usyn2 trigger malfunction signals for the measurement channel involved (suspicion that there is a corresponding error in Usyn). The measurement channel malfunctions are enabled operationally, whenever, after excitation has been switched on, generator voltage Ug exceeds the value set on F204. The voltages Ug1 and Ug2 are checked 16 seconds after the excitation is switched off to see that they do not exceed the limit value F210 that applies to both of them . At the same time, g1/Ug2/Usyn1/Usyn2 are checked for extreme values (> or < the operating range). Monitoring for extreme values is likewise enabled during normal operation ( Excitation ON and Ug > F204 ). Flag F754 is used to enable or block the malfunction signals to the binary outputs. Basically, the monitoring of the actual values for If1/If2 functions like that of the Ug1/Ug2 monitoring.

6.2 Excitation Protection 6.2.1 General Information

The Excitation Protection switches off the excitation (and de-excites the machine rapidly) whenever a danger arises that threatens the excitation transformer, the converter, or the generator. Generally, limiter or monitoring functions precede the emergency trips, and these normally respond before the Excitation Protection must initiate a trip. Protective trip commands are issued directly to the field circuit-breaker from potential free contacts of the board via the trip relays. They are directed redundantly to the operative field circuit-breaker OFF command.

6.2.2 Protection against Excitation Transformer Overheating

This equipment monitors the excitation transformer for overheating in the windings that could result from over current, short-circuits, or inadequate cooling. The monitoring uses temperature monitoring modules, in conjunction with temperature sensors built into the windings. Normally, the temperature is monitored in two stages the first stage sets off an alarm, the second causes a trip of the excitation.

6.2.3 Rotor Over voltage Protection

Malfunctions in the generator circuit (e.g., terminal short-circuit, failed synchronization, asynchronous operation), cause induced negative field currents that produce high voltages in the field circuit. These must be restricted to a level with a sufficient safety margin below the insulation capacity of the field winding (test voltage) and also below the peak blocking voltage of the converter thyristors. The crow bar employs spark gap elements to detect over voltages in the field circuit. Whenever they respond the associated thyristors are fired immediately switching the de-excitation resistor parallel to the field. The de-excitation current generated thereby initiates an excitation trip via a supervision circuit, causing an immediate opening of the field circuitbreaker. The malfunction isets off an alarm and an internal malfunction is indicated at the cubicle.

TEST VALUES OBTAINED WHEN EXCITATION IS RAISED

S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

PARTICULARS VREF VACT IFACT IGACT ACTIVE POWER REACTIVE POWER POWER FACTOR ACTIVE CURRENT(IR) REACTIVE CURRENT(IX) POWER ANGLE FIRING ANGLE

ACTUAL VALUE 99.6% 99.7% 73.5% 70.3% 70.3% 10.1% 0.99 IND 70.5% 10.2% 56.6% 64.0%

OBTAINED VALUE 100% 100.3% 76.5% 70.7% 70.5% 14.2% 0.98 IND 70.3% 13.8% 54.6% 63.2%

TEST

VALUES OBTAINED WHEN EXCITATION IS LOWERED S.NO 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 PARTICULARS ACTUAL VREF VACT IFACT IGACT ACTIVE POWER REACTIVE POWER POWER FACTOR ACTIVE CURRENT(IR) REACTIVE CURRENT(IX) POWER ANGLE FIRING VALUE 100% 100% 78.7% 83.9% 83.9% 15.5% 0.98 IND 83.5% 14.0% 61.3 DEG 60.1 DEG OBTAINED VALUE 99.7% 99.7% 76.1% 83.7% 83.0% 11.0% 0.99 IND 83.0% 9.4% 63.1 DEG 59.9 DEG

ANGLE

CONCLUSION
For generating the EMF in stator winding, excitation is required to the rotor of a generator. There are two types of excitation 1. Static excitation system. 2. Brushless excitation system. A certain disadvantage in brushless excitation system is the slow response time of the field in case of fast load changes specified. No slip-rings and brushes, direct measurements of the field parameters not possible. To avoid all loses, static excitation is used. Since it does not have any rotating parts, mechanical loses and windage loses. This system has fast response and speed control. While preferring this excitation system, there are no limitations for the redundancy of Thyristor bridge circuits. Static excitation has fast field discharge by resistor and inverter operation, direct measurement of field quantity is possible. The meaning of excitation is nothing but continuous supply of DC current (i.e., field current) to the rotor to buildup required output voltage in the stator. Field current is changed with respect to the change of load, so the digital automatic voltage regulator (DAVR) is used to regulate the output voltage according to the load variations.

So we conclude that static excitation system with DAVR is preferred since it is having excellent dynamic performance and better options for R & M.