Chapter 41. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology.

Anatomy is the study, classification and description of structures and organs of the body. Physiology explains the process of functions of the various structures of and how they interrelate. Anterior (ventral): To face forward; the front of the body. The chest is located anterior to the spine. Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back. The Kidneys are posteriors to the peritoneum Cranial: Toward the head. The brain is located in the cranial portion of body. Superior: Toward the head or above. The neck is superior to the shoulder. Inferior: Lower, toward the feet, or below another. The foot is inferior to the ankle. Medial: Toward the midline. The sternum (breast bone) is located in the medial portion of the chest. Superficial: Nearer the surface. The skin of the arm is superficial to the muscles below it. Deep: farther away from the body surface. The bone of the upper arm is deep to the muscles that surround and cover it.

Body Planes To make is easier to study individual organs or the body as a whole, divide the body into three imaginary planes: sagittal, the coronal (frontal), and the transverse. 1. The saggital plane runs lengthwise from the front to the back. A saggital cut gives a right and left portion of the body. A midsaggital cut gives you two equal halves. 2. The coronal (frontal) plane divides the body into a ventral (front) section and a dorsal (back) section. 3. The transverse plane cuts the body horizontal to saggital and frontal plane, dividing the body into caudal and cranial portions.

Body Cavities From the outside, the body appears to be solid structure, but it is not. It is made up from of open spaces, or cavities, that contain compact, well ordered arrangements of internal organs, the body has two major cavities that are, in turn, subdivided and contain compact. Two major cavities are ventral and dorsal body cavities. Ventral Cavity The ventral cavity consists of the thoracic (or chest) cavity and the abodminopelivc cavity which are separated by the diaphragm (a muscle directly beneath the lungs. The thoracic cavity contains the heart and the lungs. its midportion is a subdivision of the thoracic cavity, the mediastinum, which contains the trachea, the heart and the blood vessel. Its other subdivision is the right and left pleural cavities, which contain the lungs. The abdominal cavity contains the stomach, the liver, the gallbladder, the spleen, the pancreas, small intestine and parts of the large intestine. A subdivision called the pelvic cavity contains the lower portion of the large intestine. (lower sigmoid colon, rectum), the urinary bladder, and the internal structures of the reproductive system. The abdominal and pelvic cavities are not separated by any structure and therefore are referred to as the abdominopelvic cavity Dorsal Cavity

The dorsal cavity is composed of the cranial and spinal body cavities. The cranial body cavity houses the brain whereas the spinal cavity contains the spinal cord. The dorsal body cavity is smaller than the ventral cavity

Body Cavities Body Cavities Ventral Body Cavity Thoracic Cavity Mediastinum Pleural Cavities Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal Cavity Pelvic Cavity Dorsal Body Cavity Cranial Cavity Spinal Cavity Organs

Trachea, heart, blood vessels Lungs Liver, gallbladder, stomach spleen, pancreas, small intestine, parts of the large intestine Lower (sigmoid) colon, rectum, urinary bladder, reproductive organs. Brain Spinal cord

Abdominal Regions

For convenience in locating the abdominal organs, anatomist divide the abdomen into nine imagery regions, identified from right to left and from top to bottom, are the following: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Right Hypochondriac Region Epigastric region Left Hypochondriac region Right Lumbar Region Umbilical Region Left Lumbar Region Right Iliac (inguinal) Region Hypogastric Region Left Iliac Region (inguinal)

The most superficial organs: The visible organs in each region are as follows:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Right Hypochondriac Region, the right lobe of the liver and the gallbladder Epigastric region, parts of the right and left lobes of the liver and a large portion of the stomach Left Hypochondriac region, a small portion of the stomach and large intestine Right Lumbar Region, parts of the large and small intestine Umbilical Region, a portion of the transverse colon and loops of the small intestine Left Lumbar Region, additional loops of the small intestine and part of the colon Right Iliac Region, the cecum and parts of the small intestine Hypogastric Region, loops of the small intestine, the urinary bladder and the appendix; Left Iliac Region, portions of the colon and the small intestine

Structural Levels of Organizations Atoms are small particles that form the building blocks of matter, the smallest complete units of which all matter is made. When two or more atoms unite through their electrons structure s they form a molecule. A molecule can be made of atoms that are alike (e.g., the oxygen molecule is made of two

identical atoms), but more often the molecule is made two or more different atoms. (e.g. molecule of water [H2O] contains one atoms of oxygen [O] and two atoms of hydrogen [H]) The existence of life depends on the proper level and proportions of many chemical substances in the cytoplasm of cells. Cells are considered the smallest living units of structures and function in our body. A tissue us an organization of many similar cells that act together and surrounding by varying amounts and types of gluelike, nonliving intercellular substances. Systems are the most complex units that make up the body. A system is an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs arranged to perform complex functions for the body. The organs of the respiratory system permit air to enter the body and travel to the lungs, where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged. Organs of the respiratory include the nose, windpipe (or trachea), and the complex series of bronchial tubes that permit passage air into the lungs.

Cells Almost 350 years ago Robert Hooke discovered the first cell while examining plant fragments under the microscope. The structures reminded his tiny, individual miniature prison cells, so he coined the term cell (a fundamental unit of all living tissue). Many living things are so simple that they consist of just one cell. The human body, however, is so complex that is has trillions of cells of these tiny power houses of life. All cells are microscopic but differ widely in size and shape. Despite their differences, all cells exhibit five unique characteristics of life: growth, metabolism, responsiveness, reproduction, and homeostasis. Homeostasis is when the bodys internal environment is relatively constant; this state is naturally maintained by adaptive responses that promote healthy survival.

Structural Parts of Cells The three main parts of a cell are the plasma membrane, the cytoplasm, and the nucleus.

Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane encloses the cytoplasm and forms the outer boundary of the cell. It is an incredible delicate structure-only about 7nm (nanometers), or 3/10,000,000 inch, thick. Even though it seems fragile, the plasma membrane is strong enough to keep the whole cell and intact. It also performs other life-preserving functions for the cell, serving as a gateway between the fluid inside the cell and the fluid around it. The plasma membrane is selectively permeable. This means the membrane permits certain substances to enter and leave while not allowing other substances to cross. This membrane separates the cell contents from the dilute saltwater solution called interstitial fluid, or simply tissue fluid, which bathes every cell in the body. The plasma membrane also has distant surface proteins that identify a cell as coming from one particular individual. This fact is the basis of tissue typing, a procedure performed before an organ from one person is transplanted into another. Carbohydrate chains attached to the surface of the cells often help identity cell types. Cytoplasm Cytoplasm is the internal living material of cells. Cytoplasm (protoplasm) is a sticky, fluid like substance that lies between the plasma membrane and the nucleus of the cell. Numerous organelles (tiny functioning, structures) are located within the cytoplasm. Cells contain cytoplasm is composed largely if a gel-like substance that contains water, food, minerals, enzymes, and other specialized materials. The term cyto- is combining form from the Greek and denotes a relationship to a cell. These organelles were not discovered until the development of the powerful electron microscope. Cytoplasm is composed of 70% water with traces of proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, minerals, and salts. Nucleus

The nucleus is the largest organelle within the cell. It is responsible for the cell reproduction and control of the other organelles. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane. It contains two specialized structures: The nucleolus and the chromatin granules. The nucleolus is critical in the formation of protein. The chromatin granules are composed of protein and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the genetic code, or blueprint, of the body. Endoplasmic Reticulum Throughout the cytoplasm lies a system of membranes or canals called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). ER functions as a miniature circulating system for the cell to another. There are two types of ER: (1) smooth, which is found in cells that deal with fatty substances; and (2) rough, which is found in cells that manufacture proteins. Ribosomes Ribosomes are tiny structures floating free in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough ER. They are called protein factories because they produce enzymes and other proteins. Mitochondria The mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cells. They are bean shaped with folded interior membranes. They take food and covert to a complex energy form adenosine triphophate (ATP), for use by the cell. ATP is described as the energy currency of the cells because it supplies the energy for all activities. Lysosomes Lysosomes are small saclike structures containing enzymes that digest food compounds and microbes that have invaded the cell. Golgi Apparatus The Golgi apparatus is usually located near the nucleus. It is the packaging plant of the cell. It packages certain carbohydrate and protein compounds into the globules. Then it moves outward through the cell membrane, where it beaks open and releases it contents. Centrioles The centrioles are paired, rod-shaped organelles. During cell division (mitosis) they aid in the formation of the spindle, a structure necessary for cell reproduction.

Protein Synthesis Protein is a vital component of every cell in the body. Protein production relies on nucleic acids in the cells cytoplasm and nucleus. Two important nucleic acids are (1) DNA which is located in the nucleus and (2) ribonucleic acid (RNA), which is located in the cytoplasm. The DNA encodes the message for protein synthesis and sends it to the RNA, which transports to the ribosomes, where the protein is produced. Hence DNA called chemical blueprint, and RNA called chemical messenger. Cell Division All cells in the body expect sex cells, reproduce by mitosis. This is a type of somatic (pertaining to no reproductive cells) cell division in which the original cell divides to form two daughters. Each daughter cell has the same characteristics (including both the nucleus and the cytoplasm) as the original cell. Each daughter cell contains the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Each chromosome in the daughter cell contains the complete genetic information of the original chromosome because of the duplication of the DNA molecule during interphase. The chromosomes (spindle shaped rods) in the cells nucleus carry the genes that are responsible for the organisms traits, including such hereditary factors as hair and eye color. These chromosomes are composed of DNA. Each body cell in humans contains 46 chromosomes, which exist in pairs. At the time of fertilization, one member of each pair is received from the father and one is received from the mother. These paired chromosomes, expect for the pair that determines sex, are alike in size and appearance and carry genes for the same traits. During mitosis the cell goes through the cell goes through four phases: telophase. Prophase prophase, metaphase ad

In the nucleus the chromosomes form two strands called chromatids. In the cytoplasm the centrioles form a network of spindled fibers. Metaphase The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus disappear, and the chromosomes are aligned across the center of the cell. The centrioles are the opposite ends of the cell, and spindle fivers are attached to each chromatid. Anaphase The chromosomes are pulled to the opposite ends of the cell, and cell division begins.

Movement of Materials across the Cell Membranes For a cell to survive, it must receive good and oxygen and secretes its waste products. A number of processes allow for mass movement of substances into and out of the cells. These transport processes are classified under two general headings passive transport and active transport The difference between active and passive transport is based on whether energy is required. Active transport involves chemical activity that allows the cell tto admit larger molecules than would otherwise be possible. Active process requires the cell to expend energy. Passive transport processes, on the other hand, do not require energy expenditure. The cells obtain energy for active transport from an important chemical surface called ATP. ATP is produced in the cell from nutrient and releases energy so the cell can work. Active Transport Process Active transport is an extremely important process. It allows cells to move certain ions or other watersoluble particles to specific areas. Certain enzymes play a role in active transport, providing a chemical pump That helps move substances through the cell membrane. For example, insulin binds with glucose and transports the glucose into the cell. Other active transports process including the following.

Phagocytosis (Greek for cell eating): The process that permits a cell to engulf (or surround) any foreign material and to digest it. The white blood cells in the human body often perform this function. Pinocytosis: the process by which extra cellular fluid is taken into the cell. The cell membrane develops a saclike indentation field with extra cellular fluid, then closes around it and digests it. Sodium-potassium Pump: the process of actively transporting sodium ions (Na+) out of cells and potassium ions (K+) into cells. The sodium-potassium pump maintains a lower sodium concentration into intracellular fluid than in the surrounding extra cellular fluid. At the same time, this pimps maintains a higher potassium concentration in the intracellular fluid than in transport pump operates in the plasma membrane of all human cells and is essential for healthy cell survival. Calcium Pump: Active calcium carrier in the membranes of muscle cells (for example) that allow the cell to force nearly all of the intracellular calcium ions (Ca++) into special compartments or out of the cell entirely. This is important because a muscle cell cannot operate properly unless the intracellular Ca++ concentration to a lower concentration. Active transport processes require cellular energy to move substances from a low concentration to a high concentration. In contrast, passive transport processes of a cell diffusion-do not require cellular energy and move substances from a high concentration to a lower concentration. Passive Transport Processes The primary passive include the following: Diffusion: A process in which solid particles in a fluid move from an area high concentration to an area of lower concentration, resulting in an even distribution of the particles in the fluid. Osmosis: The passage of water across a selectively permeable membrane, with water molecules going from the less concentrated solution to the more concentrated solution. Filtration: The movement of water and particles through a membrane by force from either pressure of gravity. This membrane contains spaces that allow liquid to pass but are too small to be permeated by solid particles. Movement is from areas of greater pressure to areas of lesser pressure. Tissues Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function. The body and its organs are composed of the following four main types of tissues. 1. 2. 3. 4. Epithelial tissue Connective tissue Muscle tissue Nervous tissue

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial cells are packed closely together contain no blood vessels. Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and some of the internal structures. The four types of epithelial tissues are (1) simple squamous, (2) stratified squamous, (3) simple columnar and (4) stratified transitional Epithelial tissue serves several important functions in the body, including the following:

Protection: Covering the body and many of its organs, it serves as a protective barrier against invasion Absorption: Certain specialized epithelial cells can absorb material in the body (e.g., the lining of the small intestine can absorb digested nutrients). Secretion: Mucus is secreted in areas such as the respiratory and digestive tracts.

Connective Tissue As the name suggest, connective tissue connects, or joins, tissues or structure of the body and it also supports and protects them. Connective tissue is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue in the body. It exists in varying forms: thin and delicate, tough, and cordlike, or liquid (blood). Mast cells, plasma cells, and white blood cells are ground in connective tissue; red blood cells are not unless blood vessels have been injured. Unlike the closely packed epithelial tissue, the connective tissue cells are spaced out and surrounded by intercellular fluid, which is composed of protein complexes and tissue fluid. Some of the most important forms of connective tissue are areolar connective tissue, Adipose (fat) tissue, Fibrous connective tissue, bone, cartilage, blood and hematopoietic tissue. Muscle Tissue Muscle tissue is composed of cells that contract in response to a message from the brain or the spinal cord. The three types of muscle cells are (1) skeletal (striated, voluntary), (2) cardiac (striated, involuntary), and (3) visceral (smooth, involuntary) Skeletal muscle cells are striated (have striped appearance) and attach to bones to produce voluntary movement. Skeletal muscle is also known as voluntary muscle because a person has voluntary control over skeletal muscle contractions Cardiac muscle cell are started with fibers that branch to form many networks, or webs. These networks are found only in the walls of the heart, and the regular contractions of cardiac muscle produce the heartbeat. Generally cardiac muscles are involuntary, that is, a person cannot contract them at will. Smooth (visceral) muscle cell cells are nonstriated and appear in the viscera, or internal organs, such as the walls of blood vessels, the stomach, the intestines, and the uterus. Contractions of smooth muscle propel food and fluid through the digestive tract and help regulate the diameter of blood vessels. Contraction of smooth muscle in the tubes of the respiratory system, such as the bronchioles in the lungs, can impair breathing and result in asthma attacks and labored respiration. Generally, smooth muscles are involuntary, but some control can be exerted through the use if biofeedback techniques.

Nervous Tissue Nervous tissue allows rapid communication between the brain or spinal cord body structures and control of body functions. Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells: neurons and glial cells. The neurons are the verve cells and transmit impulses or messages. They are the systems functional or conducting units. The glial cells are connecting and supporting cells; they support and nourish the neurons. Neurons have three parts (1) dendrites, which carry impulses toward the cell body; (2) cell body; and (3) axons, which carry impulses away from the cell body Membranes Membranes are thin sheets of tissue that serve many functions in the body. They cover body surfaces, line and lubricate hollow organ, and protect and anchor organs and bones. The two major types of membranes are epithelial and connective tissue membranes. Mucous membranes Mucous membranes secrete mucus (a thick, slippery material), which keeps the membranes moist and soft and protects against bacterial invasion. Mucous membranes line the body surfaces that open to the outside environment. Examples include the nose; the mouth and urinary, reparatory, gastrointestinal, and reproductive tracts. The type of epithelium in the mucous membrane varies, depending on its location and function. The esophagus, for example, contains a tough abrasion-resistant, striated squamous epithelium. A thin layer of simple columnar epithelium covers the walls of the lower segments of the digestive tract. In addition to protection, the mucus produced by mucus membranes also serves other purposes. For example, it lubricates food as it moves along the digestive tract. In repository tract it serves as a sticky trap for contaminants. Serous Membranes Serous membranes secrete a thin, water fluid that prevents friction when organs rub against one another. These membranes line the body surfaces that do not open to the outside environment. Examples include the lungs (pleura) the intestines (peritoneum) and the heart (pericardium). Like epithelial membranes, serous membranes are composed of two distant layers of tissues (1) the epithelial sheet, a thin layer of simple squamous epithelium,; and (2) the connective tissue layer, a very thing sheet that holds and supports the epithelial cells. The serous membrane that lines body cavities and covers the surfaces of organs in those cavities and covers the surfaces of organs in those cavities is recent surfaces. The parietal membrane lines the wall of cavity like wallpaper; the visceral membrane covers the viscera (organs within the cavity). Connective Tissue Membranes (Synovial Membranes)

Connective tissue (or synovial) membranes are smooth and slick and secret synovial fluid (a thick, colorless lubricating fluid). Synovial membranes line the joint spaces and prevent friction between the ends of the bones, thus allowing free movement of the joints. Synovial membranes also line small, cushionlike sacs called bursae, which are found between some moving parts. Unlike serous and mucus membranes, connective tissue membranes do not contain epithelial components.