EISAGWGH STHN K-JEWRIA

Iwnnhc P. Zhc

E-mail: i.zois@exeter.oxon.org
19 Maou 2010

Perieqmena
1 (Anterh) Algebrik K-Jewra 9

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6

Dilexh 1 Dilexh 2 Dilexh 3 Dilexh 4 Dilexh 5 Dilexh 6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 16 21 25 30 36

Analutik K-Jewra (K-Omologa)

40

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

Dilexh 1 Dilexh 2 Dilexh 3 Dilexh 4 Dilexh 5 Dilexh 6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

40 46 51 55 59 65

Topologik K-Jewra

69

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6

Dilexh 1 Dilexh 2 Dilexh 3 Dilexh 4 Dilexh 5 Dilexh 6

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69 75 80 86 92 98

Parrthma

103

Sntomo Biografik Shmewma tou Suggrafa:

O Iwnnhc Panagitou Zhc gennjhke to 1968 sth Broia.

Met to

prac twn proptuqiakn tou spoudn sto Tmma Fusikc tou Panepisthmou Ajhnn, ap' pou apofothse me ' rista, sunqise tic metaptuqiakc A tou spoudc sthn Aggla: Mster (

Part III of the Mathematical Tripos)

H trimelc epitrop thc

sto Panepistmio tou Kimpritz (Kollgio Emmanoul) kai Didaktorik sto Panepistmio thc Oxfrdhc (Kollgio 'Exeter).

Simon K. Donaldson FRS (Fields Medal 1986, Crafoord Prize 1996), Roger Penrose OM, FRS kai Sheung-Tsoun Tsou. 'Htan uptrofoc, metax llwn, thc Eurwdidaktorikc tou diatribc apartiztan ap touc kajhghtc pakc 'Enwshc, thc Brettanikc Kubrnhshc, tou IKU ('Idruma Kratikn Upotrofin), tou Koinwfeloc Idrmatoc Idrmatoc
A.G. Lebnthc A.S. Wnshc

kai tou Koinwfeloc

. 'Eqei ergasje sto pareljn wc ereunhtc kai pa-

nepisthmiakc dskaloc sta Panepistmia thc Oxfrdhc kai tou Kimpritz thc Agglac, sto

Institut des Hautes Etudes Scientiques (IHES) (wc mloc thc ereunhtikc omdac tou kajhght Alain ConnesFields Medal 1982, Crafoord Prize 2002) kai sthn Ecole Polytechnique sto Parsi thc Gallac
kai allo. Ta ereunhtik tou endiafronta empptoun sta gnwstik antikemena thc Mh-metajetikc Gewmetrac, thc Topologac kai Gewmetrac twn Pollaplottwn (eidiktera twn Pollaplottwn Qamhln Diastsewn) kai efarmogc autn sth Jewrhtik Fusik (Kosmologa, Jewrec Enopohshc, Jewra Qordn/Membrann). 'Eqei dhmosiesei mqri stigmc perpou ekosi prwttupa ereunhtik rjra se diejn episthmonik periodik (se hlektronik kai ntuph morf).

Prlogoc kai Bibliografa:

To kalokari tou 1995 diorganjhke ap thn Majhmatik Etairea tou Londnou ( tairea (

London Mathematical Society, LMS), thn Gallik Majhmatik ESociete Mathematique de France, SMF) kai to Kollgio thc Gallac (College de France) sto panepistmio tou Lnkaster sthn B. Aggla na jerin sqoleo gia metaptuqiakoc foithtc me jma thn K-Jewra. Thn oikonomik ensqush anlabe to Ereunhtik Sumbolio Mhqanologac kai Fusikn Episthmn (

thc M. Bretanac se sunergasa me thn Eurwpak 'Enwsh (Diejunsh

Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, EPSRC) X European Mathematical Society, EME).

'Ereunac kai Teqnologac thc Eurwpakc Epitropc) kai thn Eurwpak Majhmatik Etairea (

To jerin aut sqoleo klupte kai touc treic basikoc kldouc thc K-Jewrac, dhlad thn
Jewra (K-Omologa) (Anterh) Al gebrik K-Jewra

, thn

Analutik

K-

kai thn kai

Topologik

K-Jewra

, me didskontec touc

D.G. Quillen, A. Connes

M.F. Atiyah,

antstoiqa, en thn txh twn pro-

blhmtwn thn eqe analbei o kajhghtc

J. Roe.

Oi didskontec auto den

qreizontai fusik sustseic, prkeitai gia treic ap touc megalterouc en zw majhmatikoc pagkosmou fmhc, katqouc (metax llwn diakrsewn) tou Metallou Flntc (

Fields Medal),

oi opooi qoun suneisfrei ta mgista O grfwn, wc metaptuqiakc

kai sthn anakluyh thc diac thc K-Jewrac.

didaktorikc foithtc sto Panepistmio thc Oxfrdhc tte, sto proswpik tou opoou nhkan oi 3 ap touc 4 didskontec (loi plhn tou gllou

Alain

Connes),

eqe thn tqh na epilege gia na parakoloujsei ta majmata tou

jerino auto sqoleou (wc nac ap touc 30 sunolik metaptuqiakoc foithtc kurwc ap thn Eurph all kai ap thn B. Amerik, thn Asa kai thn Australa).

Oi proswpikc shmeiseic tou grfontoc ap to parapnw jerin sqoleo epektjhkan kai sumplhrjhkan gia prth for kat to akadhmak toc 2003-2004 tan didqjhkan se metaptuqiakoc foithtc tou panepisthmou tou Krntif thc M. Bretanac. Epshc kat to jerin exmhno tou 2010 djhke mia seir metaptuqiakn dialxewn ston toma purhnikc fusikc kai stoiqeiwdn swmatidwn sto tmma fusikc tou panepisthmou Ajhnn. Epeid

h ellhnik bibliografa sto jma enai akmh kai smera, dustuqc anparkth, apofassthke na parousiasje kai mia ellhnik metfrash h opoa perilambnei epiplon epexhgseic (gia pardeigma prosjsame sto Parrthma

mia seir basikn orismn kai protsewn kurwc thc algebrikc topologac diti autc o basikc kldoc twn majhmatikn enai paramelhmnoc sthn tritobjmia ekpadeush sthn qra). Diathrjhke mwc h arqik morf twn

dialxewn tou jerino sqoleou kai oi shmeiseic qwrzontai se 3 keflaia (na gia kje kldo thc K-Jewrac) kai se kje keflaio perilambnontai 6 paragrfoi-dialxeic dirkeiac 2 wrn h kajema, sunolik dhlad uprqoun 18 pargrafoi (pou isodunamon me 18 dwrec dialxeic).

Ja jlame mwc na shmeisoume ti se eisagwgik eppedo, kai h diejnc bibliografa thc K-Jewrac se kami perptwsh den ja mporose na qarakthrisje ektetamnh: oi klasikc dialxeic tou Gia thn Topologik K-Jewra uprqoun fusik

M.F.Atiyah sto Panepistmio tou Qrbarnt sta M.F. Atiyah: K-Theory, Benjamin, 1967) all kai kpoiec shmeiseic tou kajhght A.Hatcher ap to Panepistmio Kornl sto diadktuo me ttlo Vector Bundles and K-Theory (blpe http://www.math.cornell.edu/ hatcher/sthn proswpik tou istoselda, oi opoec basik kai autc sthrzontai stic shmeiseic tou Atiyah). Uprqoun epshc sto diadktuo kai oi shmeiseic tou Max Karoubi, blpe http://people.math.jussieu.fr/ karoubi/KBook.html, oi opoec epshc sthrzontai stic shmeiseic tou Atiyah. Tloc prsfata kuklofrhse kai to biblo tou Efton Park: Complex Topological K-Theory, Cambridge University Press 2008 pou kai aut genik sthrzetia stic shmeiseic tou M.F.Atiyah.
tlh thc dekaetac tou 1960 (

C -algebrn uprqei to pol kal biblo tou N.E. Wegge-Olsen: K-Theory and C Algebras, Oxford University Press, 1993 eisagwgiko epipdou, to biblo tou B.Blackadar me ttlo K-Theory for Operator Algebras, Cambridge University Press, 1998 uyhlterou epipdou all kai kpoiec sunoptikc shmeiseic tou Timothy Gowers: K-Theory of Banach Algebras (epshc katqou Metallou Flntc) ap to Panepistmio
Gia thn K-Jewra twn tou Kimpritz (endimesou epipdou kai oi opoec epshc brskontai sto diadktuo sthn proswpik istoselda tou suggrafa, blpe

http://www.dpmms.cam.ac.uk/ wtg10/). Tloc uprqoun kai ta bibla twn Nigel Higson and John Roe: Analytic K-Homology, Oxford University Press 2000 kai F. Larsen, M. Rrdam and M. Rordam: An Introduction to K-Theory for C -algebras, Cambridge University Press 2000.
Gia thn Anterh Algebrik K-Jewra, ap so mporome na gnwrzoume, uprqei mno to biblo tou

Jonathan Rosenberg: Algebraic K-Theory and

4

its Applications, Springer Graduate Texts in Mathematics 1995 sik me ta aujentik ereunhtik rjra tou Quillen thc dekaetac

(maz futou 1970

kai tou 1980). Sunepc, akomh kai sthn diejn bibliografa den uprqei kti antstoiqo autn twn shmeisewn pou na periqei mia eisagwg lwn twn basikn kladwn thc K-Jewrac.

Ja apotelose shmantik parleiyh an maz me ta parapnw onmata den mnhmoneame kai ton meglo

A. Grothendieck,

(pou maz me ton bretan

M.F.

Atiyah

swc apotelon touc megalterouc majhmatikoc tou deterou miso

tou 20ou aina), pou tan o prtoc pou asqoljhke me thn K-Jewra, rise thn mhdenik K-Omda kai mlista tan autc pou thc dwse kai to sugkekrimno noma, to

prorqetai ap to arqik thc germanikc lxhc

Klasse

pou shmanei klsh, sunepc o roc K-Jewra sta ellhnik ja mporose na apodoje wc
Jewra Klsewn

H K-Jewra ankei sthn klsh twn legmenwn

jewrin omologac

genikeumnwn ( exwtikn)

(ikanopoie ta 4 ap ta 5 aximata

Eilenberg-Steenroad,

dhlad ikanopoie ta aximata omotopac, ektomc, prosjetikthtac, akrbeiac all den ikanopoie to axwma distashc) kai h qrhsimtht thc sta perpou 50 qrnia zwc thc qei apodeiqje dh pol meglh se polloc tomec twn majhmatikn pwc sthn topologa, thn olik anlush, thn jewra arijmn, thn lgebra, thn gewmetra klp. Endeiktik ac anafroume pwc apotele

to na ap ta do basik sustatik twn perfhmwn Jewrhmtwn Dektou pou apotelon anamfbola to pio kombik apotlesma sta majhmatik tou deterou miso tou 20ou aina afo ennei treic diaforetikoc tomec twn majhmatikn: thn Anlush, thn Gewmetra (Topologa) kai thn ' lgebra. UA prqoun difora jewrmata dektou, ta pio gnwst enai: To jerhma dektou

Atiyah-Singer twn pollaplottwn, to jerhma dektou Riemann-RochGrothendieck thc Algebrikc Gewmetrac, to jerhma dektou tou Connes thc
twn mh-metajetikc gewmetrac klp. Ac shmeisoume ed ti ousiastik na no jerhma dektou sta plasia thc mh-metajetikc gewmetrac (fullopoihmnec pollaplthtec) apdeixe kai o grfwn sta plasia thc didaktorikc tou diatribc. Ta jewrmata dektou apotlesan thn bsh pou sthrqjhkan metpeita pollo megloi majhmatiko gia na orsoun diforec topologik anallowtec posthtec me tic opoec eplusan spoudaa kai shmantik problmata kathgoriopohshc, gia pardeigma anafroume touc

Donaldson, Kontsevich, Witten,

Gromov,

klp.

'Omwc kai sthn jewrhtik fusik tso h K-Jewra all kai ta jewrmata dektou pazoun prwtarqik rlo sthn melth topologikn (olikn) fainomnwn sthn Kbantik Jwra Pedwn kai stic diforec enopoihmnec jewrec pwc sthn jewra uperqordn, sthn M-Jewra, stic topologikc kbantikc jewrec pedwn, sthn kbantik barthta, sthn arq olografac, sthn exleiyh twn anwmalin klp. Pio sugkekrimna, stic arqc tou 2000 o

E. Witten

parousase na epiqerhma (pou gine dekt ap thn diejn episthmonik kointhta) smfwna me to opoo mia mikr parallag thc topologikc K-Jewrac (pou onomsthke
sunestrammnh K-Jewra (

twisted K-Theory

) apotele thn

dexamen twn topologikn fortwn twn membrann sta plasia thc legmenhc M-Jewrac (pou apotele thn sgqronh exlixh th jewrac uperqordn).

Majhmatikc metexelxeic thc K-Jewrac apotelon oi simopoietai sthn

qeirourgik twn pollaplottwn

L-Jewra pou qrh-

(kai geniktera qrwn stouc (

opoouc isqei o dusmc Jewra tou

Poincare),

KK-Jewra

Kasparov),

h legmenh E-Jewra tou

bivariant K-Theory KConnes, h K-Jewra tou

epshc parleiyh na mhn pou sqetzetai mesa me

Waldhausen

(pou ousiastik apotele mia topologik kdosh thc anterhc

algebrikc K-Jewrac tou anafroume kai thn

Quillen) klp. Ja tan legmenh motivic cohomology

thn anterh algebrik K-Jewra kai pou odghse sthn lampr ergasa tou

V. Voevodsky (Metllio Flntc 2002) sthn algebrik gewmetra all kai thn prsfath apdeix tou twn eikasin Block-Kato (IHES , 2009). Gia lgouc plhrthtac anafroume kai thn legmenh equivariant K-Jewra (parallag thc Topologikc K-Jewrac) pou uprqei kai h drsh kpoia madac Lie.
'Oson afor ta proapaitomena gia thn melth autn twn shmeisewn, ja jlame na epishmnoume ti oi shmeiseic enai xekjara metaptuqiako epipdou, sunepc oi anagnstec ja prpei na qoun mia kal gnsh gewmetrac (jewrac pollaplottwn), lgebrac (jewrac omdwn, omologikc lgebrac kai jewrac protpwn) kai topologac (algebrikc kai diaforikc). Gia to prto ja mporose kpoioc na sumbouleuje tic shmeiseic me ttlo
Eisa gw g sthn Jewra Pollaplottwn

tou grfontoc pou mpore kanec

na tic katebsei dwren ap to diadktuo kai thn proswpik tou istoselda, gia thn lgebra ja mporose na sumbouleuje kpoioc to klasik biblo ' lgebrac twn A to biblo tou

S. MacLane, G. Bircko: Algebra, Chelsea, 1988 S. Lang: Algebra, Addison Wesley 1993 kai gia omologik lgebra mia kal anafor enai to klasik biblo twn P. J. Hilton, U. Stammbach: A Course in Homological Algebra, Springer 1997. Gia thn
6

Topologa ja mporose kanec na sumbouleuje gia pardeigma tic pol kalc shmeiseic tou kajhght

A. Hatcher

tou panepisthmou

Cornell

pou ep-

shc mpore kpoioc na katebsei dwren ap to diadktuo kai thn antstoiqh proswpik istoselda akmh kai tic exairetikc, all kpwc uyhlterou epipdou shmeiseic tou

J. P. May: A concise Course in Algebraic To-

pology ap to panepistmio tou Sikgo pou uprqoun sto diadktuo (bl. http://www.math.uchicago.edu/ may/CONCISE/ConciseRevised.pdf ). Enallaktik ja mporose kpoioc na sumbouleuje na kal biblo algebrikc

E.H. Spanier: Algebraic Topology, Springer 1991, A.Dold: Lectures on Algebraic Topology, Springer 1991, C.R.F. Maunder: Algebraic Topology, Dover 1996, W.S. Massey: A Basic Course in Algebraic Topology, Springer 1991, J. Munkres: Elements of Algebraic Topology, Westview 1995 klp). Shmeinoume pntwc pwc oi
topologac ap aut pou kukloforon (pq parosec shmeiseic se kama perptwsh den filodoxon na apotelsoun na plrec paidagwgik biblo (

textbook) eisagwgc sthn K-Jewra sunolik

all parqoun nan skelet basikn ennoin kai protsewn (gia pardeigma oi apodexeic enai mllon sntomec kai periqoun tic basikc idec, ja apotelose mia kal skhsh gia ton anagnsth pou protenetai anepiflakta, na sumplhrsei o dioc ta ken). Sto tloc parajtoume na Parrthma me kpoiec basikc protseic kai orismoc ap diforouc kldouc twn majhmatikn pou qrhsimopouome stic shmeiseic qwrc epexhgseic. Gia na ftsoun sto eppedo oi shmeiseic autc na apotelsoun na plrec biblo ja qreiasje na sumplhrwjon kai na epektajon, swc aut gnei kpote sto mllon.

Oi diforec protseic, orismo, jewrmata, anafrontai arqik me ton arijm thc paragrfou sthn opoa brskontai akoloujomeno ap ton sugkekrimno arijm thc prtashc msa sthn en lgw pargrafo, gia pardeigma h prtash 4.1.2 anafretai sthn prtash 2 thc paragrfou 4.1 en to tloc miac apdeixhc sumbolzetai me na leuk tetrgwno.

Elpzoume oi shmeiseic autc na apotelsoun to nausma gia mia bajterh melth twn ellnwn metaptuqiakn foithtn (tso sta majhmatik so kai sthn jewrhtik fusik) ston morfo, sunarpastik kai ereunhtik pol energ aut kldo me tic pmpollec efarmogc. Ja jlame na euqaristsoume jerm touc kajhghtc

M.F. Atiyah, A. Connes, D.G. Quillen, J. Roe

gia

tic upodeigmatikc dialxeic pou pardwsan oi opoec opwsdpote sthrzontai sthn bajei katanhsh twn jemtwn autn all kai ton Euggelo Xunogal pou eqe thn eugen kalosnh na diabsei to kemeno kai na knei orismnec

orjografikc kai tupografikc diorjseic.

Ennoetai pwc kje peraitrw

dirjwsh prtash gia beltwsh twn shmeisewn autn ja gnei dekt me eugnwmosnh.

IPZ, Ajna, Mioc 2010.

http://sites.google.com/site/ipzoisscience/home

Keflaio 1 (Anterh) Algebrik K-Jewra

H algebrik K-Jewra afor daktulouc (me monda all h lleiyh monadiaou stoiqeou mpore na parakamfje auxnontac bbaia thn poluplokthta, sthn mh-metajetik gewmetra sunjwc qreiazmaste kai kpoia epiplon dom gia na lboume upyh mac kai metrikc idithtec opte qrhsimopoiome

C -lgebrec

all oi orismo kai oi basikc protseic den metabllontai ou-

siastik). Ja mporose kpoioc diaisjhtik kai uperaplousteontac arket na pei ti h K-Jewra enai h melth omotopikn klsewn pinkwn stoiqea ap ton daktlio

me

A. Alexander Grothendieck
sta pla-

H mhdenik K-Omda orsthke ap ton

sia thc algebrikc gewmetrac kat thn dekaeta tou 1950, h prth K-Omda orsthke argtera ap ton meglo topolgo rh K-Omda orsthke ousiastik ap ton

John Whitehaed en h deteRobert Steinberg. H katstash plus construction

moiaze adixodh son afor thn sunqeia all sth dekaeta tou 1970 emfansthke o amerikanc

D.G. Quillen

pou me thn perfhmh

dwse ton genik orism thc omdac

Kn
gia

pou fusik perieqe tic omdec twn

Grothendieck, Whitehead, Steinberg Q construction

riptseic . Lgo argtera emfansthke ap ton

n = 0, 1, 2 antstoiqa wc eidikc peQuillen kai pli h legmenh

enjousase ton

pou afor genikterec periptseic me kalterec sunarth-

tikc idithtec. H kataskeu tou

D.G. Quillen

Grothendieck

pou tou apsteile na jrulik grmma 600 seldwn sqetik me to mllon thc algebrikc gewmetrac kai thc K-Jewrac! Anafroume epshc ti kat thn

dekaeta tou 1980 emfansthke kai mia kdosh thc Algebrikc K-Jewrac tou

Quillen

gia topologikoc qrouc me to noma

K-Jewra

tou

Waldhausen.

Dustuqc, pwc sumbanei sunjwc me ta sgqrona majhmatik, oi upologismo enai exairetik dskoloi kai pol lga paradegmata enai gnwst akmh kai smera.

1.1

Dilexh 1
1.

Orismc

'Estw tan:

daktlioc me monda. 'Ena

A mod

(A-prtupo)

enai

probolik

F =P Q Q = ker(p),
pou ta

kai

enai elejera

miac probolc tou

F ).

Me

A mod s (opte to P apotele thn eikna lla lgia to P enai probolik en grfetai wc

jroisma miac elejerhc isodunamac.

Qrhsimopointac ton formalism thc jewrac kathgorin, ja mporosame na orsoume ta probolik prtupa anafrontac thn idithta anebsmatoc

P enai probolik en kai mnon en gia kje omomorfism protpwn f : N M pou enai ep kai gia kje omomorfism protpwn g : P M , uprqei epshc nac omomorfismc h : P N (qi aparaitht monadikc) ttoioc stef h = g .
( 'Ena prtupo H nnoia tou peperasmna paragmenou protpou genikeei thn nnoia tou dianusmatiko qrou peperasmnhc distashc (sthn perptwsh pou o daktlioc
na

lifting property):

apotele sma): 'Ena (arister stw)

A mod P

lgetai

peperasm-

para gmeno

en kai mno en uprqoun peperasmna se pljoc stoiqea ttoia ste

x1 , x2 , ..., xn P
tsi ste

x P

na uprqoun stoiqea

a1 , a2 , ..., an A

x = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + ... + an xn .
To snolo

{x1 , x2 , ..., xn }

lgetai snolo gennhtrwn tou

P.

Jerhma 1. 1.

Ta paraktw enai isodnama:

To

enai peperasmna paragmeno probolik (gia suntoma ja grfoume

10

ppp)
2.

A mod. n N
kai kpoio detero

Uprqei kpoio

A mod Q

ttoia ste

P Q = An .
3.

Uprqei kpoio

n N

kai kpoio stoiqeo

e Mn A

ttoia ste

e = e2
kai

P = An e
(pou

Mn A

to snolo twn

nn

pinkwn me stoiqea ap ton

A).

PA thn kathgora twn peperasmna paragmenwn probolikn Amod s en me Iso(PA ) ja sumbolzoume to snolo twn ismorfwn klsewn twn ppp A = mod s. To detero snolo apotele abelian monoeidc (abelian monoid) me prxh thn
Ja sumbolzoume me

[P ] + [Q] = [P + Q].
Orismc 2.

Orzoume wc mhdenik K-Omda tou daktulou

kai thn

sumbolzoume

no monoeidoc)

K0 A, thn abelian Iso(PA ), dhlad

sumplrwsh omdac tou sunlou (abelia-

K0 A :=abelian group completion of Iso(PA ).

H mhdenik K-Omda lgetai kai glou gllou majhmatiko

Grothendieck proc timn tou meAlexander Grothendieck (germanikc katagwgc)

omda

pou thn rise gia prth for to 1957.

Genik, en omda

I I

enai kpoio abelian monoeidc, tte uprqei mia abelian

maz me nan omomorfism

: I I

pou apotele pagksmio omo-

morfism ap to

se kpoia abelian omda. To zegoc

(I , ) enai monadik

mqri kanoniko isomorfismo.

Uprqoun treic trpoi kataskeuc thc omdac

I : [a], a I
kai sq-

1.

seic

I enai h elejerh [a + b] = [a] + [b].

H

abelian omda me genntorec

11

I = I I/ pou h sqsh isodunamac orzetai wc exc: (a, b) (a , b ) : a + b + = a + b + . Faner h parapnw apotele sqsh isodunamac. Orzoume sth sunqeia (a, b) + (a , b ) = (a + a , b + b ) en 0 = (0, 0) kai (a, b) = (b, a). Opte (a, b) = [a] [b].
2. 3.

Upojtoume ti uprqei kpoio

a0 I

ttoio ste

a In N, b

ttoia ste

a + b = nd0 .

Tte

I = I N/
pou

(a, n) (a , n ) n N

ttoio ste

a + n a0 = a + na0 .

'Olec oi parapnw abelianc omdec qoun thn apaitomenh pagksmia idithta.

Sunepc, anakefalainontac, h mhdenik K-Omda me monda sqseic

K0 A

enc daktulou

A enai h elejerh abelian [p q] = [p] + [q], pou enai sh

omda me genntorec

[p]p PA

kai

me thn omda twn epshmwn diaforn

[p][q] kai pou enai epshc sh me thn omda twn epshmwn diaforn [p][An ].
Paradegmata

1.

'Estw

na antisummetrik sma (

skew-eld,

dhlad daktlioc me

0=1

pou h diaresh enai dunat, dhlad kje stoiqeo qei pollaplasia-

stik antstrofo, isodnama na sma pou o pollaplasiasmc den enai kat'

F mod s apoteletai ap touc dianusmatikoc qrouc peperasmnhc distashc me sma to F. Tte to abelian monoeidc Iso(PF ) N K0 F = Z.
angkh antimetajetikc). Tte h kathgora

PF

twn ppp

2.

En

A = Z,

tte h kathgora

elejerh abelian omda

n N

n PZ

enai h peperasmna paragmenh

en

Iso(PZ ) = N,
sunepc

K0 Z = Z.
3.

Peda orismo

tik sma

Dedekind (Dedekind domains). 'Estw F kpoio arijmh[F, Q] < kai A to akraio phlko tou Z sto F. Sumbolzoume
12

me

P ic(A)

thn omda twn idewdn klsewn (

ideal class group)

tou

A,

dhlad

to phlko twn klasmatikn idewdn dia ta prwteonta idedh. to paraktw Jerhma:

Tte isqei

Jerhma 2.

En

P PA ,

tte

a1 a2 ... an ,

pou ta

ai

enai

klasmatik. Epiprsjeta qoume ti

K0 A = Z P ic(A).
4. To Jerhma

Serre-Swan.

[To Jerhma aut apotlese na ap ta knhtra gia thn anakluyh thc mh-metajetikc gewmetrac ap ton meglo gllo majhmatik

Alain Connes

pou kat kpoion trpo sunennei thn algebrik kai thn diaforik gewmetra].

'Estw

sumpagc qroc Qousntorf kai stw

A = C(X) to snolo twn

mi ga-

migadikn suneqn sunartsewn tou me monda). Tte h kathgora

dikn dianusmatikn desmn

(pou wc gnwstn apotele daktlio

PA

enai isodnamh me thn kathgora twn

pnw ap ton

X. (E, , X)
pnw ap ton

Orismc

3.

Mia migadik dianusmatik dsmh

qro

apoteletai ap kpoion qro

pou lgetai olikc qroc kai nan

suneq epimorfism

:EX

tsi ste to snolo

Ex = 1 (x),

gia kje

xX

pou lgetai

nma

, na qei thn dom migadiko dianusmatiko qrou kai

o qroc

na enai topik tetrimmnoc, dhlad na uprqoun mia kluyh auto

{Ua }aI

kai mia oikogneia isomorfismn ttoiwn ste

E|Ua
na shmanei ti h probol

Cna Ua

Ua Cna Ua
sbetai thn parapnw dom.

Gia thn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc ja qreiastome do Lmmata:

Lmma

1.

Dojeshc miac dianusmatikc dsmhc

pnw ap ton

X,

u-

prqei mia llh dianusmatik dsmh

epshc pnw ap ton

EE

enai ismorfh me to

Cn X

gia kpoio arket meglo

X ttoia n N.

ste h

13

idempotent) endomorfismc miac dianusmatikc dsmhc E pnw ap ton X , tte oi eE kai e E = (1 e)E apotelon epshc dianusmatikc dsmec pnw ap ton X .
Lmma 2.

En

kpoioc monadodnamoc (

Apdeixh

Lmmatoc

2.

Qwrc blbh thc genikthtac mprome na

upojsoume ti

E=

Cn , opte to X Mn C.

enai mia suneqc oikogneia

ex

monado-

dnamwn pinkwn tou

Fixroume kpoio

x0 .

Tte h

Tx = ex ex0 + e ex0 : Cn Cn x
apotele mia suneq oikogneia pinkwn ttoia ste

ex Tx = Tx ex0
kai

Tx = 1atx = x0 .
Ap thn deterh petai ti uprqei o antstrofoc pnakac mia geitoni tou

1 Tx
.

gia

x Ux0

x0

opte h oikogneia

T = {Tx }

ddei nan automorfism tou

Cn

ttoion ste h

T 1 eT

apotele oikogneia me timc

exo .

Apdeixh Lmmatoc 1.

Uprqei mia peperasmnh anoikt kluyh

Ua

me isomorfismoc

ga : E|Ua
Epilgoume mia diamrish thc mondac

Cna . Ua a
ttoia ste

1= a 2 a

a =
kai

2 = 1. a
Sthn sunqeia jewrome tic apeikonseic

E N Cna E a=1 X i (periqesjai) ddetai ap thn stlh me stoiqea 1 (xa ga ) en h deterh p (probol) ddetai ap thn gramm me stoiqea (xa ga ).
pou h prth apeiknish Tte

i =

1 a ga a ga =

2 = 1 a

14

pou shmanei ti h

apotele

retract

thc

Cn X

afo

pi = 1 (ip)2 = ip Cn = (ip)Cn (ip)Cn . X X X

.

Apdeixh

Jewrmatoc

Serre-Swan.

'Estw

V ect(X)

h kathgora

twn migadikn dianusmatikn desmn pnw ap ton

X . Jewrntac ti A = C(X), uprqei nac sunarthtc ap thn kathgora V ect(X) sthn kathgora PA twn A mod s pou orzetai wc exc: se kje dianusmatik dsmh E pou apotele na antikemeno thc kathgorac V ect(X) antistoiqome to snolo twn diatomn (X, E) pou faner apotele na A mod. Afo h E apotele n jroisma kpoiwn CX , petai ti kai to (X, E) apotele jroisma kpoiwn (Cn , X) = An . O sunarthtc autc enai plrwc pistc (fully faithfull), X
dhlad

HomV ect (E, E )

HomA ((E, X), (E , X)). E, E ,

ja isqei kai gia thn

Afo isqei gia kpoiec dianusmatikc dsmec

E E kai afo isqei gia thn E ja isqei kai gia kje jroisma thc E (diti to retract isomorfismo apotele epshc isomorfism). Parmoia isqoun gia tic periptseic E = CX kai E = CX . .

15

1.2

Dilexh 2

Sumbolzoume me

stoiqea ap ton daktlio

GLn A to snolo A. Faner

twn

nn

antistryimwn pinkwn me

GLn A GLn+1 A ... GLA = n GLn A,

pou h apeiknish periqesjai enai h

a
Sumbolzoume me panto allo

a 0 0 1

. (i, j)
kai mhdenik

eij ton pnaka (i = j). Faner

me stoiqeo 1 sthn jsh

eij ekl = jk eil .

'Estw

a A.

Tte jtoume

ea = 1 + aeij ij
en

ea eb = ea+b . ij ij ij
Upenjumzoume ti se mia pollaplasiastik omda o metajthc do stoiqewn orzetai wc

[x, y] = xyx1 y 1
en o antstrofoc tou metajth orzetai wc

[x, y]1 = [y, x].

Me bsh ta parapnw upologzoume ton metajth

[ea , eb ] ij kl

1, eab , il ba ekj ,

en en en

j = k, i = l j = k, i = l j = k, i = l

Upologzoume kai tic exc posthtec:

ea eb = (1 + aeij )(1 + bejk ) = 1 + aeij + bejk + abeik , ij jk

16

ea eb ea = (1 + aeij + bejk + abeik )(1 aeij ) = 1 + aeij + bejk + abeik aeij , ij jk ij

opte

[ea , eb ] = (1 + aeij + bejk + abeik )(1 bejk ) = 1 + bejk + abeik bejk = eab ij jk ik
kai

[ea , eb ]1 = [eb , ea ] = eba [ea , eb ] = eba . ij ki ki ij kj ij ki kj

Orismc 1.

Sumbolzoume me

a getai ap ta stoiqea eij gia

sumbolzoume me

EA

thn

En A thn upoomda thc GLn A pou par1 i, j n, i = j kai kpoio a A. Epshc nwsh lwn twn En A: EA = n En A.

Orismc

2.

Mia omda

lgetai

tleia

en enai sh me thn upoomda

twn metajetn autc

G = [G, G]
pou

[G, G] h upoomda [g, g ]g, g G.

Orismc 3.

thc

pou pargetai ap ta stoiqea thc morfc

Orzoume thn mgisth abelian omda phlko

G(ab)

thc

wc exc

G(ab) = G/[G, G].

(ta

ab

prorqontai ap thn lxh

abelian

kai den apotelon dektec).

Prtash 1.

H omda

En A

enai tleia gia

n 3.

Apdeixh:

Afo

ea = [ea , e1 ] [En A, En A], ik ij jk

dojntwn twn

i, k ,

epilgoume

j=i
.

kai

j=k

kai blpoume pwc loi oi gen-

ntorec apotelon metajtec.

Lmma 1 (Lmma

Whitehead).

EA = [GLA, GLA] = [EA, EA].

17

Apdeixh:

'Estw

a GLn A

opte

1 a 0 1
pou

= eijij GL2n A
Tte

1in 1 a 0 1

kai

n + 1 j 2n. 1 0 a1 1

1 a 0 1 0 a 1 a 0

0 a a1 0 0 1 1 0

GL2n A.

Epshc

a 0 0 a1
Sth sunqeia, stw

E2n A.

a, b GLn A.

Tte gia touc paraktw diagniouc se

mplok morf pnakec ja qoume:

diag([a, b], 1, 1) = diag(a, a1 , 1)diag(b, 1, b1 )[diag(a1 , a1 , 1)]1 [diag(b, 1, b1 )]1

ankoun loi sthn omda

E3n A.

Sunepc h

thn nwsh gia la ta

[GLn A, GLn A] sthn GL3n A periqetai sthn E3n A. Parnontac n brskoume ti [GLn A, GLn A] EA. Opte EA = [EA, EA] [GLA, GLA] EA.

Orismc

4.

H prth K-Omda

mgisth abelian omda phlko thc

K1 A tou GLA, dhlad

daktulou

orzetai wc h

K1 A = GLA(ab) = GLA/EA.
H prth K-Omda lgetai kai gglou topolgou
omda

Whitehead

proc timn tou meglou

John Whitehead

pou thn rise.

Pardeigma: 1.

'Estw

A=F

kpoio sma.

Aristerc pollaplasiasmc me touc pnakec

ea prosjtei thn ij

j -gramm

sthn

i-gramm.

Enai gnwst ti

En (F) = ker{GLn (F Fx }
18

pou me

Fx

sumbolzoume ta mh-mhdenik stoiqea up thn drsh tou

orzousa

kai Sth

h parapnw apeiknish ddetai ap thn gnwst sunqeia parnoume to phlko

twn pinkwn.

GLn (F)/En (F),

sunepc katalgoume sto ti

K1 (F) = Fx .
Orismc 5.

H Omda

a h omda me genntorec xij ,

Steinberg Stn A (StA h perptwsh n ) i = j kai a A pou upkeintai stic sqseic xa xb = xa+b . ij ij ij

enai

Oi metajtec ddontai ap tic akloujec sqseic:

[xa , xb ] ij kl

1, xab , ik xba , kj

en en en

j = k, i = l j = k, i = l j = k, i = l

Uprqei nac kanonikc epimorfismc

: StA EA
ttoioc ste

(xa ) = ea . ij ij
Prtash 2.

O purnac thc parapnw

apotele to kntro thc omdac

StA.
Orismc 6.

H deterh K-Omda

K2 A

orzetai wc o purnac tou para-

pnw kanoniko epimorfismo

K2 A = Ker{ : StA EA}.

'Estw Cn h upoomda tou StA pou pargetai i = n kai a A. 'Estw (Cn ) h upoomda tou EA pou a pargetai ap touc ein gia i = n kai a A. Isqurismc: H : Cn (Cn ) apotele isomorfism, dhlad o periorismc thc sthn Cn enai 1-1.
Apdeixh Prtashc 2.

ap touc

xa in

gia

19

Apdeixh tou Isqurismo:

Epeid ta

xa in

metatjentai, sthn apeiknish

i=n A Cn
pou orzetai wc

(ai )i=n i=n xai , in

to ginmeno den exarttai ap thn ditaxh kai epiprosjtwc apotele omomorfism diti:
i (ai + ai ) i=n xin

a +ai

i = i=n xai i=n xin . in

Sthn sunqeia orzoume thn omda

Rn

pou apotele upoomda thc omdac

StA

wc thn omda pou pargetai ap touc

xa ni

gia

parmoio epiqerhma apodeiknei ti o periorismc

i = n kai a A. 'Ena thc sto Rn enai 1-1.

Gia na oloklhrsoume thn apdeixh thc prtashc 2, ti dhlad o purnac thc

kai to grfoume wc peperasmno ginmeno twn paragntwn

apotele to kntro thc StA, jewrome kpoio tuqao stoiqeo Ker xa . Epilgoume ij kpoio n diaforetik ap ta i, j pou emfanzontai sthn sugkekrimnh anaparstash tou . Tte to kanonikopoie thn Cn , dhlad Cn 1 Cn
en

xa xb xa = ij kn ij
kai

xb , kn ab b xin xjn ,

en en

k = i, j, k=j

xa xb xa xb = xab . ij jn ij jn in
Sth sunqeia stw

Cn ,

tte

1 Cn

kai epshc

(1 ) = ()
diti

Ker. All o periorismc thc sthn Cn enai 1-1 opte 1 = , sunepc to kentropoie thn Cn . Anloga apodeiknetai ti to kentropoie kai thn Rn . 'Omwc h nwsh Cn Rn pargei thn StA kai to kntro thc EA enai to 1. .

20

1.3

Dilexh 3

Edame ti

K1 A = GLA/EA.
Gia topologikoc qrouc isqei

K 1 X = [X, GLC],
pou to dex mloc pwc gnwrzoume ap thn Jewra Omotopac sumbolzei to snolo twn omotopikn klsewn suneqn apeikonsewn ap ton qro

sto

GLC,

kai

Hom(spaces) (X, GLn C) = GLn (C(X)),

pou to

C(X)

sumbolzei to snolo (daktlioc me monda) twn suneqn a-

peikonsewn ap ton

sto

C. 1 ta 1

'Estw

mia omotopa ap to

1 0 0 1
sto

1 a 1
'Estw

. SX
h anrthsh (

kpoioc topologikc qroc kai

suspension)

auto. Tte gnwrzoume ti

K 2 X = K 1 SX = [SX, GLC] = [S 1 , [X, GLC]]

pou fusik

[X, GLC] = Hom(X, GLC) = GLn (C(X)).

H omda

StA

qei genntorec

xa ij

me

1 i, j <

kai

aA

kai sqseic

xa xb = xa+b ij ij ij

21

kai metajtec

[xa , xb ] = kl ij

1, xab , ik ba xkj ,

en en en

j = k, i = l j = k, i = l j = k, i = l

Uprqei h paraktw kentrik epktash

1 K2 A StA EA 1,
dhlad h

K2 A

periqetai sto kntro thc

StA,

me

xa ea . ij ij
Jerhma 1.

Dojeshc miac kentrikc epktashc

1 C Y StA 1, : Y StA, aut qwrzetai, ttoioc ste s = identity

me
Prisma 1.

dhlad uprqei omomorfismc

s : StA Y

En

Y = [Y, Y ],

tte h

enai ismorfh me thn

StA. y1 , y2 Y

Apdeixh Jewrmatoc 1.

H basik ida enai h exc: stw

enai ttoia ste

(y1 ) = (y2 ),

dhlad

y1 = cy2

me

c C.

Tte

1 [y1 , y ] = [cy2 , y ] = cy2 y (cy2 ) y 1 = cy2 y y2 c1 y 1 = [y2 , y ],

dhlad gia

kai

x StA, tte to [1 (x), y ] enai na kal orismno stoiqeo thc 1 parmoia to [ (x), 1 (x )] enai na epshc kal orismno stoiqeo
Tte

thc

Y.

xa = [xa , x1 ] ij in nj
gia

n = i, j ,

opte ja prospajsoume na orsoume thn

ap thn sqsh

s(xa ) = [1 xa , 1 x1 ]. ij in nj
To dskolo shmeo enai h apdeixh anexarthsac ap to paraktw qrhsimopointac 2 Lmmata:

pou ja knoume

Lmma 1.

[1 xa , 1 xb ] = 1 ij kl
22

en

j=k

kai

i = l.
Epilgoume kpoio

Apdeixh:

diaforetik ap ta

k, l, i, j .

Tte

[1 xb , 1 x1 ] 1 [xb , x1 ] = 1 xb . kn nl kn nl kl
Jewrome kpoia

1 xa kai arke na ij

v 1 xb kn

w 1 x1 . nl apodexoume [u, [v, w]] = 1:

kai

Sth sunqeia epilgoume

u[v, w]u1 = [uvu1 , uwu1 ] = [v, w]

en ta

uvu1

kai .

kai ta

uwu1

kai

enai

congruent.

All ta

(u), (v)

metatjentai.

Upenjumzoume tic paraktw tautthtec pou isqoun gia kje omda:

[x, [y, z]] = [xy, z][z, x][z, y]

kai

[xy, z] = [x, [y, z]][y, z][x, z].

Lmma 2.

'Estw ta

h, i, j, k

diakrit kai

a, b, c A.

Tte

[1 xa , [1 xb , 1 xc ]] = [[1 xa , 1 xb ], 1 xc ]. hi ij jk hi ij jk
Apdeixh:

Epilgoume kpoia

u 1 xa , v 1 xb ij hi

kai

w 1 xc . jk

Ap to Lmma 1 parapnw qoume ti

[u, w] = 1
en

[u, v] 1 [xa , xb ] = 1 xab hi ij hj

pou metatjetai me ta

u, v

en to

[v, w]

metatjetai me ta

v, w.

Epiplon

[u, [v, w]] [1 xa , 1 xbc ] 1 xabc hi ik ik

pou metatjetai me ta

u, v, w.

Parmoia to

[[u, v], w]

metatjetai me ta

u, v, w.

Epshc qoume:

[x, [y, z]] = [xy, z][z, x][z, y]

23

kai

[u, [v, w]] = [uv, w][w, u][w, v] = [[u, v]vu, w][w, v] = [vu[u, v], w][w, v]
en

[xy, z] = [x, [y, z]][y, z][x, z].

H

[u, [v, w]] = [uv, w][w, u][w, v] = [[u, v]vu, w][w, v] = [vu[u, v], w][w, v]
enai sh me

[u, [v, w]] = [uv, w][w, u][w, v] = [[u, v]vu, w][w, v] = [vu[u, v], w][w, v] = = [vu, [[u, v], w]][[u, v], w][vu, w][w, v] = [[u, v], w]
en tautqrona

sa := s(xa ) = [1 xa , 1 x1 ]. ij ij in nj
Xanagrfoume to Lmma 2 wc exc:

[1 xa , 1 xbc ] = [1 xab , 1 xc ] hi ik hj jk
kai

[1 xa , 1 xb ] = [1 xa , 1 x1 ], hi ik hj jk
dhlad anexrthto tou

n.

Jerhma 2.

Kje tleia omda

G qei mia pagksmia kentrik epktash:

1 H2 (G) G G 1 1 C Y G 1,
pou pagksmia shmanei ti uprqei monadik apeiknish

H2 (G) C .

To parapnw Jerhma upodhlnei ti h omda smia kentrik epktash thc

StA

apotele thn pagk-

EA.

Pio sugkekrimna

H2 (EA) = Ker(StA EA) := K2 A

en

K1 A = GLA/[GLA, GLA] = H1 (GLA, Z), K2 A = H2 (EA, Z)

kai

K3 A = H3 (StA, Z).
24

1.4

Dilexh 4

Ja asqolhjome me omologa omdwn. 'Estw Gnwrzoume ti gia thn sunomologa isqei

G omda kai M

na

Gmod.

H i (G, M ) = H i (C . (G, M ))
kai antstoiqa isqoun gia thn omologa. En

Abelian omda me tetrimmnh

G-drsh

qoume

H 0 (G, C) = C, H 1 (G, C) = Hom(G, C) = Hom(G(ab) , C) G(ab) = G/[G, G]) kai H (G, C) = {snolo twn ismorfwn klsewn twn kentrikn epektsewn thc G ap thn C}, dhlad
(pou

1 C E > G 1 1 C E > G 1.
H topologik ermhnea thc (sun)omologac omdwn enai h exc: nan qro kathgoriopohshc ( roc shmewn ttoioc ste:
1. 2.

H G qei classifying space) BG pou enai nac kalc q-

1 (BG) = G.
O pagksmioc kalptwn qroc (

universal covering space)

tou

BG

enai

surriknomenoc (

contractible). G = Z,
tte

Gia pardeigma en

BG = S 1 .

BG

enai monadikc mqri omotopikc isodunamac.

Gegonc:

H i (G, C) = H i (BG, C).

To dio isqei kai gia thn omologa.

Ap to Pagksmio Jerhma twn Suntelestn (

universal coecients the-

orem)

petai ti

0 Ext1 (Hi1 (BG, Z), C) H i (BG, C) Hom(Hi (BG, Z), C) 0, Z

pou

Hi1 (BG, Z) = Hi1 (G, Z) = Hi1 G.

25

Epshc

H 1 (G, C)
ap to opoo prokptei ti

Hom(H1 G, C)

H1 G = G(ab) .
'Eqoume akmh to exc:

0 Ext1 (H1 G, C) H 2 (G, C) Hom(H2 G, C) 0. Z

Sthn perptwsh pou h

enai mia tleia omda, dhlad

G(ab) = 0,

tte

H 2 (G, C) = Hom(H2 G, C).

H kentrik epktash pou antistoiqe ston tautotik omomorfism

id

Hom(H2 G, H1 G)

enai h

1 H2 G G G 1 1 C u G G 1
pou

u : H2 G C . u
pwc parapnw, qoume na

Dojntoc enc omomorfismo

parapnw metajetik diagrmmata pou ddei mia kentrik epktash thc thn

push out sta G ap

C,

pou

u G =
kai

C G . {(u(x), i(x))|x H2 G}

i : H2 G G.
Sunepc kje kentrik epktash thc

ap thn

epgetai ap kpoion

monadik omomorfism

u : H2 G C . G
enai tleia.

Prtash 1.

H omda

Apdeixh:'Eqoume

ta paraktw diagrmmata:

1 H2 G G G G 1 B [G, G] G 1
26

 1 H2 G G G 1,
pou

B = H2 G[G, G]. Uprqei mia apeiknish u : H2 G B kai en sumbol soume me i : B H2 G, ja qoume iu = 1H2 G diti i u (G) = i [G, G] = G. Sunepc B = H2 G [G, G] = G. .
Prtash 2.

H2 G = 0,

dhlad h

den diajtei kama mh-tetrimmnh

kentrik epktash, me lla lgia kje kentrik epktash qwrzetai.

Apdeixh:

Dojeshc thc akoloujac

E > G > G
pou

enai mia tleia kentrik epktash thc

kai o prtoc epimorfismc

sumbolzetai stw me kentrik epktash

q en thc G.

o deteroc me

p,

isqurizmaste ti h

apotele

Tte

1 Kerq Ker(pq) Kerp 1.

H

dra se aut thn akrib akolouja abeliann omdwn, qei tetrimm-

nh drsh stic

Kerq kai Kerp, sunepc parnoume nan omomorfism E Hom(Kerp, Kerq). Epomnwc h drsh thc E sthn Ker(pq) enai epshc tetrimmnh.

'Etsi en qoume

E = G,

tte apotele mia tleia kentrik epktash thc

G.

'E-

1 H2 G G G 1
kai h pagksmia idithta thc pc

sunepgetai ti h .

anebanei sthn

G.

Sune-

G = G H2 G H2 G = 0.

Paradegmata:

G = A5 , h apl mh-abelian omda txhc 60 (pou ddei tic summetrec peristrofc tou 20-edrou). Poic enai oi G kai H2 A5 ?
1.

'Estw

Arqik jewrome thn akrib akolouja

1 {1} SU2 SO3 1.

27

SU2 = S 3 kai h omda aut enai upoomda twn automorfismn tou C en h omda SO3 enai upoomda twn automorfismn 1 1 2 tou CP kai topologik CP = S . Epshc h A5 apotele upoomda thc SO3 .
Upenjumzoume ti topologik

'Eqoume sunepc ta paraktw diagrmmata:

1 Z2 S 3 SO3 1 1 Z2 E G 1
kai profanc

E S3

kai

G SO3 .

Orzoume

M := S 3 /E = SO3 /G M apotele mia prosanatolsimh ncare Homology 3-sphere.

kai h Epeid 3-pollaplthta pou apotele mia

Poi-

i S 3 = 0 i = 0, 1, 2, tte i = 1, 2, qoume ti
gia h

moizei me ton qro kathgoriopohshc

BE .

Gia

i (M ) = i S 3 = 0
ap to opoo petai ti

Hi M = Hi E.
H

apotele prosanatolsimh 3-pollaplthta sunepc ap dusm Pouan-

kar qoume ti telik

H2 M = 0

diti

H1 M = H1 E = 0.

Sunepc

H2 E = 0.

' ra A

H1 E = H2 E = 0 E = A5
kai

H1 E = H2 E = 0 H2 A5 = Z2 .
2.

Ja anafroume kpoiec analogec thc K-Jewrac me tic omotopikc

omdec twn omdwn Gnwrzoume ti

Lie. S 3 > SO3 O3

pou

0 (O3 ) = SO3

h sunektik sunistsa thc mondac thc

O3

en

S3

enai

h pagksmia kluyh thc

SO3 .

28

Epshc an antikatastsoume thn lxh sunektik me tleia qoume thn paraktw analoga:

StA EA GLA
pou

EA

h mgisth tleia upoomda thc

GLA

en

StA = EA

h pagksmia

kluyh.

H peirh orjognia omda

O = O

enai akmh pio kont sthn K-Jewra:

Spin > SO O
kai

0 (O) = K 1 O(pt) enai o purnac thc apeiknishc periqesjai SO O 2 en 1 (O) = K O(pt) enai o purnac tou epimorfismo Spin > SO.

29

1.5

Dilexh 5
qroc

Me ton ro me

ja ennoome na

CW

-smploko

me shmeo bshc en

[X, Y ]

ja sumbolzoume tic omotopikc klseic twn apeikonsewn

X Y

pou diathron ta shmea bshc.

'Estw

qroc ttoioc ste h jemelidhc omotopik omda

1 (X)

enai

tleia, dhlad

1 (X)(ab) = 0 = H1 (X, Z).

Jloume na kataskeusoume nan qro

Prblhma:

X+

ttoion ste apeik.

1 (X ) = 0 kai mia apeiknish i : X X ttoia ste h epagmenh + nish i : H (X) H (X ) stic antstoiqec omologec na enai
Bma 1.

isomorfismc

Epilgoume stoiqea

upoomda pou pargoun na enai

i 1 (X), i I , ttoia olklhrh h omda 1 (X).

ste h kanonik

Upojtoume thn exc eidik perptwsh: kpoio nan brgqo

pou pragmatopoietai ap

u:S X

kai stw

Y = X D2
pou

D2

nac 2-dskoc (

2 cell)

tou opoou to snoro enai o brgqoc

Ap to Jerhma

Van Kampen

qoume ti

1 (Y ) = 1(X) 1 (D2 ) = 1 (X)/ = 0

pou me

sumbolzoume thn kanonik upoomda pou pargetai ap to . H2 (X) H2 (Y ) H2 (X, Y ) H1 (X) H1 (Y ) 0.

Tte:

All

H2 (X, Y ) = Z

en

H1 (X) = 0. Hn (X)

Sunepc

Hn (Y ), n 3.

'Eqoume loipn thn akolouja

0 H2 (X) H2 (Y ) Z 0
sthn opoa efarmzoume to Jerhma

Hurewicz

kai parnoume:

1 (Y ) = 0

2 (Y ) = H2 (Y ).

Uprqei mia apeiknish

v : S2 Y
30

ttoia ste

H2 (S 2 ) H2 (Y ) Z.
Jtoume

X + := Y v C 3
pou

C3

na

3 cell.

Tte ja proume thn paraktw akolouja:

H3 (X + ) H3 (X + , Y ) H2 (Y ) H2 (X + ) H2 (X + , Y )
pou

: H3 (X + , Y ) H2 (Y )
kai h eikna thc

enai h klsh thc

v.

Sunepc

H2 (X) H2 (X + )
kai

Hn (X) = Hn (Y ) = Hn (X + ), n 3.
Prtash 1.

Upojtoume ti h

1 (X)

enai tleia kai stw

X+

ttoia ste

1 (X + ) = 0

kai h epagmenh

i : X i : H (X) H (X + ) enai

isomorfismc. Tte gia kje omotopa

Y , 1 (Y ) = 0

kai h epagmenh apeiknish sthn

i : [X + , Y ] [X, Y ]
apotele isomorfism.

Prisma 1.

Oi

(X + , i)

kajorzontai mqri omotopikc isodunamac.

Apdeixh Prtashc 1:

'Eqoume to paraktw digramma:

X Y Y /X X + Z Z/X +
pou:

f : X Y , Z = Y f X + , f : X + Z , i : X X + , i : Y Z , f apotele to push out thc f kai Y /X = Z/X + .

Ap to Jerhma

Van Kampen qoume ti 1 (Z) = 0 en h efarmog tou 5Lmmatoc ddei ti h epagmenh apeiknish sthn omologa i : H (Y ) H (Z) apotele isomorfism. Epiplon to Jerhma Whitehead (1-sunektik kdosh)
31

ddei ti h

i :Y Z

apotele omotopik isodunama.

'Estw

:Z Y

mia

omotopik antstrofh apeiknish thc

i.

Tte qoume:

( f )i = (i f ) = ( i )f (id)f = f.
Ap la ta parapnw sungetai ti h apeiknish ep.

i : [X + , Y ] [X, Y ]

enai

Gia na apodexoume ti h

enai 1-1 ergazmaste wc exc: Jewrome kai

pli to metajetik tetrgwno

X X+ Y Z
me to

i : X X + , Y Z omotopik isodnama, f : X Y , f : X + Z , f push out thc f . 'Estw do apeikonseic k0 , k1 : X + Y

ttoiec ste oi

k0 i

kai

k1 i

na enai omotopikc me thn

f.

Ap to Jerhma thc

deform) tic k0 , k1 tsi ste k0 i = k1 i = f . Sth sunqeia orzoume tic 0 : Z Y wc (idY , k0 ) : Y X X + Y kai 1 : Z Y wc (idY , k1 ) : Y X X + Y me
Omotopikc Epktashc prokptei ti mporome na apomorfsoume ( ttoion trpo ste

0 i = 1 i = idY .
All h

apotele omotopik isodunama sunepc to dio isqei kai gia tic

0 1 .

Afo

0 f = k0 G

kai

1 f = k1 ,

petai ti

k0 k1 .

Upojtoume ti h

enai tleia kai

1 H2 G G G 1
h pagksmia kentrik epktash. Upenjumzoume ti qoume to exc:

H1 G = H2 G = 0.

Tte

Lmma 1.

(Jtoume

C = H2 G).

'Eqoume mia apeiknish nhmatsewn (

inopoisewn,

brations): BC B G BG
32

 BC B G+ BG+ .
Apdeixh:

(Upenjumzoume ti

1 (BG) = G).

H apdeixh gnetai me kungi

diagrammtwn.

H 2 (G, C) = H 2 (BG, C) = [BG, K EM (C, 2)]

(pou

K EM

o qroc

Eilenberg-McLane). BC BC K EM (C, 1) B G P E(C, 2)

pou

BG BG+ K EM (C, 2), : BG+ K EM (C, 2) kai : B G P . H apeiknish 2 (BG+ ) = H2 (BG+ ) = H2 (BG) = C.

uprqei ap

thn Prtash 1. Epshc qoume:

epgei nan isomorfism sta

2 :

2 (BG+ ) 1 (BC) 1 (P ) 1 (BG+ )

pou

1 (BC) = C , 1 (BG+ ) = 0.

Sunepc

1 (P ) = 0. 1 (P ) = 0 B G+ P

H apeiknish

apotele isomorfism omologac,

omotopik isodnamoi.

Ap tic apeikonseic

BC B G+ BG+ ,
qrhsimopointac to Jerhma

Hurewicz,

brskoume ti

3 (BG+ ) = 3 (B G+ ) = H3 (B G+ )
epeid

H1 G = H2 G = 0. G = EA
tleia. 'Eqoume

Jewrome sth sunqeia

G = StA

kai

H2 G =

K2 A.

33

Isqurismc:

2 (BEA+ ) = K2 A = H2 (EA) 3 (BEA+ ) = H3 (StA).

H Apdeixh tou Isqurismo enai apl ap ta parapnw:

2 (BEA+ ) = H2 (BEA+ ) = H2 (BEA) = H2 (EA) = K2 A. 3 (BEA+ ) = 3 (BStA+ ) = H3 (BStA) = H3 (StA).

.

Jerhma

1.

'Estw

te uprqei nac qroc

N 1 (X) mia tleia kanonik upoomda. TX + (pou exarttai ap thn N ) kai mia apeiknish

i : X X+

ttoia ste:

Oi omdec

1 (X)/N

1 (X + )

enai ismorfec.

Gia kje

1 (X + ) mod L,

na isqei ti h epagmenh apeiknish sthn

omologa

i : H (X, i L) H (X, L)
apotele isomorfism.

To zegoc

(X + , i)

kajorzetai mqri omotopikc isodunamac.

Apdeixh:

H Apdeixh ousiastik sunstatai ap thn kataskeu tou

qrou

me tic epijumhtc idithtec.

X 1 (X) = N .
'Estw

o kalptwn qroc pou antistoiqe sthn 'Eqoume to exc tetrgwno:

N 1 (X),

dhlad

X X+ X X +.
Tte

1 (X + ) = 1 (X)/N .

X = BGLA, 1 (X) = GLA, EA = N kai profanc EA GLA kai parnoume ta BGLA+ , 1 (BGLA+ ) =
Gia thn K-Jewra knoume tic exc epilogc: 34

GLA/EA = K1 A.
Epshc

H (BGLA, L)
gia la ta prtupa pnw sthn tetrgwno

H (BGLA+ , L)
kai qoume kai to paraktw metajetik

K1 A

BEA BGLA+ BGLA BGLA+ BGLA+ h pagksmia kluyh kai oi katakrufec apeikonseic BEA BGLA kai BGLA+ BGLA+ apotelon pull back. Sunepc to BEA+ + apotele thn pagksmia kluyh tou BGLA opte
pou

n (BGLA+ ) = n (BEA+ ), n 2.
Gia

n=2
Gia

qoume sunepc

2 (BGLA+ ) = K2 A. 3 (BGLA+ ) = H3 (StA).

orism thc K-Omdac tou

n=3

qoume sunepc

' Ara

loipn ftsame sthn genik

Quillen

Orismc 1:

Kn A := n (BGLA+ ), n 1.

35

1.6

Dilexh 6

Ddoume qwrc apdeixh thn paraktw Prtash pou ja mac qrhsimesei gia na dsoume amswc paraktw nan basik Orism:

Prtash 1.

Gia mia apeiknish

f :XY

(pou oi qroi

X, Y

apote-

lon

CW -smploka

me shmea bshc), ta paraktw enai isodnama:

H F = 0, pou omotopik na shmanei na antikatastsoume thn f me mia inopohsh (bration)

(a.)

H omotopik na

thc

enai akuklik, dhlad

kai na proume mia na.

(b.)

1 (f ) : 1 (X) 1 (Y )

enai ep kai gia kje

1 (Y ) mod L

isqei ti h epagmenh apeiknish stic omologec

f : H (X, f L) H (Y, L)
apotele isomorfism.

(g.)

To anbasma

isomorfism (pou

f : X Y Y Y

thc

h pagksmia kluyh tou

f :XY Y ). f

apotele omologik

Orismc 1.

En ta parapnw isqoun, tte h

lgetai

akuklik

Prisma

1.

Oi akuklikc apeikonseic enai kleistc sthn snjesh, ta kai ta omotopik

omotopik

pull-backs

push-outs. N 1 (X), uf :X

Jerhma 1.

Dojeshc miac tleiac kanonikc upoomdac

prqei monadik (mqri omotopikc isodunamac) akuklik apeiknish

ttoia ste

Epiplon gia kje qro

N = ker[1 (f )] (pou 1 (Y ) = 1 (X)/N ). T , h epagmenh apeiknish

f : [Y, T ] {a [X, T ]|1 (a) : 1 (X) 1 (T )killsN }

apotele isomorfism.

Apdeixh:

To basik shmeo sthn apdeixh tou jewrmatoc enai h ka'Estw

taskeu tou

Y.

nac kalptwn qroc tou

me

1 (X) = N .

Afo

36

f :XY

akuklik, qrhsimopoiome to akuklik

push out X X + .

En efarmsoume to parapnw sthn perptwsh thc kanonik upoomda thc tetrgwno:

EA pou apotele tleia

GLA = 1 (BGLA),

ja proume to exc metajetik

BEA BGLA+ BGLA BGLA+ ,

pou

f : BGLA BGLA+ h monadik akuklik apeiknish me ker[1 (f )] = EA, BGLA+ h pagksmia kluyh kai 1 (BGLA+ ) = GLA/EA = K1 A. En f akuklik tte kai h f : BEA BGLA+ epshc akuklik.
To sumprasma lwn autn enai ti:

BGLA+

qei pagksmia kluyh thn

BEA+ .

1 (BGLA+ ) = K1 A. 2 (BGLA+ ) = 2 (BEA+ ) = H2 (BEA+ ) = H2 (EA) = K2 A. 3 (BGLA+ ) = H3 (StA).

Genik,

n (BGLA+ ) = Kn A, n 1.

Ja dome thn sqsh autn me thn Topologik K-Jewra (dec to Keflaio 3 paraktw twn shmeisewn).

G = limk Grk (C ) = BGLC

pou da

Gr sumbolzei tic Grassmannians kai Grk (C ) = BGLk C. GLC jewrome thn fusik thc topologa.

Sthn om-

Sto euj jroisma dianusmatikn desmn antistoiqe mia dom h space ston G . Shmeinoume ti en o BGLA den apotele h space, o BGLA+ apotele. Uprqei mia suneqc apeiknish : G G G (me x0 shmeo bshc) ttoia ste (x0 , x) = x kai (x, x0 ) = x0 .

37

Upenjumzoume kai to exc gegonc: 'Estw

a GLn C.

Oi apeikonseic

a
kai

a 0 0 1 1 0 0 a GL2n C
kai enai omotopikc sthn fusik

a
apeikonzoun thn omda

GLn C

sthn

topologa all oi apeikonseic

a 0 0 a 0 1 0 0 0 1
kai

1 0 0 a 0 a 0 0 0 1 conjugate (suzugec) msw EA BGLA

sthn pou diathron ta

enai

enc stoiqeou thc

EA.

suz uga

msw

stoiqewn thc konseic

den enai tetrimmnh (an jewrsoume tic apei-

shmea bshc)

. All epeid

1 (BGLA+ ) = GLA,
h suzuga me stoiqea thc

EA

sthn

BGLA+

enai tetrimmnh (mqri omotopac)

Gnwrzoume ti omotopiko qroi qoun ismorfec dianusmatikc dsmec. Aut isqei sthn Topologik K-Jewra all OQI sthn Algebrik K-Jewra.

Genika oi upologismo thc (Anterhc) Algebrikc K-Jewrac enai exairetik polplokoi. Parajtoume merikoc gnwstoc upologismoc: 'Estw

F [x1 , x2 , ..., xn ] F o daktlioc twn poluwnmwn me suntelestc ap kpoio sma F . O Grothendieck apdeixe ti K0 (F [x1 , x2 , ..., xn ]) = K0 F,
en o

Quillen

apdeixe ti kje dianusmatik dsmh pnw ap nan daktlio

poluwnmwn enai tetrimmnh.

38

'Estw exc:

Fq

na peperasmno sma me

stoiqea. Tte qoun upologisje ta

Kn (Fq ) = Z, n = 0. Kn (Fq ) = F+ q Zq1 , n = 1. Kn (Fq ) = 0, n = 2. Kn (Fq ) = Zq2 1 , n = 3. Kn (Fq ) = 0, n = 4. Kn (Fq ) = Zq3 1 , n = 5. etc
'Eqoume tic exc apeikonseic:

BGLFq BU BU,
pou h prth apeiknish enai to anbasma

Brauer, BU = G sthn topologa q kai h deterh apeiknish enai h (L) = L . Uprqei kai mia apeiknish ap q1 + : BU BU . ton BGLFq sthn h f ibre (omotopik na) thc
q
Gia touc upologismoc twn K-Omdwn tou smatoc epponoi), qrhsimopoijhke to paraktw jerhma:

Fq

(pou enai arket

Jerhma

2.

H apeiknish

BGLF+ h f ibre(q1 : BU BU ) q H (BGLA+ , Q)

enai omotopik isodunama.

Epeid o apotelon

BGLA+ apotele h-qro, gnwrzoume lgebra Hopf. Epiplon gnwrzoume ti

ti oi

(BGLA+ ) Q = P rim[H (GLA, Q)]

pou den enai par to gnwst Jerhma

Milnor-Moore.
apdeixe kai ta exc:

Sthn perptwsh pou

A = Z,

Borel

dimQ [Kn Z Q] = Z, n = 0, 5, 9. dimQ [Kn Z Q] = 0, n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8.

39

Keflaio 2 Analutik K-Jewra (K-Omologa)

Ja mporose kpoioc na pei pwc h Analutik K-Jewra apant sthn erthsh
pso knei

(pou sto gumnsio lgame ti apotele aprosdiristh

morf).

Epshc o Orismc tou Dekth enc telest (Frntqolm) apotele

nan ap touc pio qrsimouc orismoc sta majhmatik diti ap autn prokptoun ta difora Jewrmata Dekth pou anamfbola apotelon ta pio kombik apotelsmata twn majhmatikn tou deterou miso tou 20ou aina afo susqetzoun anlush, lgebra kai gewmetra (sun thn topologa). 'Ena enallaktik noma gia thn analutik K-Jewra enai
K-Omologa

2.1

Dilexh 1

Gnwrzoume ap thn Topologik K-Jewra ti

K0 () = Z.

En sma

V0 , V1

duo dianusmatiko qroi peperasmnhc distashc (me kpoio

F),

enai ekolo na upologsoume thn diafor twn diastsen touc pou

ja thn sumbolzoume foume

[V0 ] [V1 ].

(Gia eukola suqn ant gia

dim V

ja gr-

[V ]

kai ja ennoome thn distash enc dianusmatiko qrou).

'Estw

T : V0 V1

nac grammikc telestc. Anaptssoume:

0 KerT V0 V1 cokerT 0,

40

pou

cokerT = V1 /ImT = V1 /T (V0 ) = (ImT ) .

Jerhma 1

(Grammik ' lgebra). A

[KerT ] [V0 ] + [V1 ] [cokerT ] = 0.

To jerhma isqei gia kje kont akrib akolouja dianusmatikn qrwn peperasmnhc distashc.

Xanagrfoume thn sqsh tou Jewrmatoc se mia pio bolik morf:

[V0 ] [V1 ] = [KerT ] [cokerT ].

An jewrsoume dianusmatikoc qrouc
peirhc distashc

(pwc qrouc

Hilbert

gia pardeigma), tte to arister mloc thc parapnw exswshc den

qei nhma (diti ddei aprosdiristh morf

),

all ap to dex mloc

swc katafroume, se kpoiec eunokc periptseic an o telestc lc, na proume mia (saf kai) peperasmnh apnthsh.

enai ka-

(Sunepc h diafor

mpore na mhn enai pnta aprosdiristh).

Sto keflaio aut loi oi telestc, ektc en dhlwje kti diaforetik, ja jewrontai grammiko.

Ac upenjumsoume sntoma ton orism tou qrou

Hilbert:

Orismc 1.

'Enac qroc Qlmpert

enai nac (migadikc) dianusmati-

kc qroc peirhc distashc, efodiasmnoc me eswterik ginmeno pou enai

plrhc

, dhlad kje akolouja

(xn ) H

me

||xn || < , sugklnei ston H . T : H0 arijmc c t-

Orismc

2.

Mia grammik apeiknish (grammikc telestc) en uprqei kpoioc jetikc pragmatikc

H1

lgetai

fra gmnh

toioc ste

||T x|| c||x||, x H.

O kalteroc ttoioc jetikc pragmatikc arijmc lgetai sumbolzetai
nrma

thc

kai

||T ||.
bshc Qlmpert

Dojntoc enc qrou Qlmpert, orzetai h nnoia thc wc proc kpoiec bseic Qlmpert stouc

kai

H0 , H1

parapnw, kje fragmnoc

41

grammikc telestc

mpore na anaparastaje me nan pnaka

(ousia
pna-

stik me ton dio trpo pou mjame sthn grammik lgebra na anaparistome grammikc apeikonseic me pnakec). Antstrofa, dojntoc enc

ka, enai pol pio dskolo na apofanjome en autc orzei kpoion fragmno telest.

'Enac pnakac

prgmati orzei nan fragmno telest en (all

pljoc mh-mhdenikn stoiqewn

qi apokleistik) qei perptwsh aut lgetai

peperasmno telestc

Sthn

peperasmnhc txhc

Orismc 3.

'Enac grammikc telestc

lgetai

sumpa gc

en

> 0,

uprqei telestc peperasmnhc txhc

ttoioc ste

||T F || < .
Gia pardeigma, o tautotikc telestc

I:HH

DEN enai sumpagc.

Prtash 1.

'Estw

ton

ston

H.

To

B(H) to snolo lwn twn fragmnwn telestn ap uposnolo twn antistryimwn telestn sto B(H) enai

anoikt.

Apdeixh:

Arke na apodexoume ti o tautotikc telestc

apotele e-

swterik shmeo tou sunlou twn antistryimwn telestn diti en tte

||A|| < 1,

(I A)

= I + A + A + ....

Orismc 4.

'Enac fragmnoc telestc

Frntq olm ( )

T : H0 H1

metax do qrwn

Qlmpert lgetai

rasmnh distash, h eikna tou epshc to phlko

Fredholm en o purnac tou KerT qei pepeImT apotele kleist uposnolo tou H1 kai

H1 /ImT

qei epshc peperasmnh distash.

Isqei ta paraktw basik Jerhma:

Jerhma 1.

Atkinson)

Ta paraktw enai isodnama:

a.

T T

enai Frntqolm.

b.

enai antistryimoc mntoulo sumpagec (

pacts),

dhlad uprqei nac lloc telestc

invertible modulo comS : H1 H0 ttoioc ste oi

42

telestc

ST I

kai

TS I

enai sumpagec stouc

H0

kai

H1

antstoiqa.

Apdeixh: a.

(KerT ) kai KerT en o H1 apotele thn xnh nwsh twn upoqrwn ImT kai (ImT ) H1 /ImT , ra uprqei grammik apeiknish (KerT ) ImT . Qrhsimopoiome to Jerhma
thn xnh nwsh twn upoqrwn Kleisto Grafmatoc thc Sunarthsiakc Anlushc ap to opoo prokptei ti h parapnw suneqc amfeiknish (1-1 kai ep) qei mia suneq antstrofh

b. H0 apotele

S : (ImT ) (ImT ) .
txhc.

Tte oi telestc

ST I

kai

T S I

enai peperasmnhc

b.

a.

'Estw uprqei

ttoioc ste oi

ST I

kai

TS I

enai sumpagec. Perio-

rzoume ton prto ston

KerT

opte

(ST I)|KerT = I|KerT ,

opte o

I|KerT

enai sumpagc, ra o

KerT

qei peperasmnh distash.

Parmoio epiqerhma gia ton

distash, an gnwrzoume pwc to

T SI ja dsei ti o cokerT ImT enai kleist.

qei peperasmnh

||ST I F || < 1/2, F

peperasmnhc txhc. Tte en

x KerF

||ST x x|| (1/2)||x||,

opte

||ST x|| (1/2)||x||,

sunepc

||T x||
dhlad o

1 x, 2||S|| KerF ,
sunepc to

enai ktw fragmnoc ston

T (KerF )

enai

kleist. All

ImT = T (KerF ) + T ((KerF ) )

kleist. .

43

Ja sumbolzoume me

F red(H) to snolo twn telestn Frntqolm ap ton

ston

H.
En T F red(H), tte orzoume ton tou IndexT ( pio sntoma me IndT ), thn posthta
Dekth

Orismc 5.

T, kai ja

sumbolzetai me

IndT := dim(KerT ) dim(cokerT ) = [KerT ] [cokerT ] Z.

Faner o dekthc enc telest Frntqolm enai nac akraioc arijmc.

Ja mporose kpoioc diaisjhtik na pei ti o Dekthc enc telest apotele mtro tou pso apqei o telestc ap to na enai antistryimoc, diti gia

antistryimouc telestc o

Dekthc mhdenz etai

H basik idithta tou Dekth enai h exc: epshc

En

T0 , T1 F red(H),

tte

T0 T1 F red(H)

kai

Ind(T0 T1 ) = IndT0 + IndT1 .

Gia pardeigma, stw o

qei mia bsh

e0 , e1 , e2 , ...

kai stw telestc

U :HH

pou orzetai wc exc:

U e 0 = e1 U e 1 = e2 etc
Tte

KerU = {0} IndU = 1.

o mhdenikc upqwroc en

dim(cokerU ) = 1.

Sunepc

Ap to parapnw pardeigma prokptei ti o Dekthc exarttai perisstero ap touc qrouc autn.

H0 , H1 kai ligtero ap ton grammik telest T

metax

Prtash 2.

suneqoc troqic

T0 , T1 F red(H) kai mporon na sundejon msw miac Tt t [0, 1] telestn Frntqolm, tte
En

IndT0 = IndT1 .
Apdeixh:

Arke na apodexoume ti h apeiknish

stajer. Meletme ti sumbanei kont sto shmeo

t IndTt t = t0 .

enai topik

44

a.

'Iswc o

Tt0

enai amfeiknish (dhlad antistryimoc).

Tte oi geitoniko

Tt
b.

enai epshc antistryimoi, opte o Dekthc mhdenzetai, ra enai stajerc

kont sto

t = t0 . Tt0
na enai ep, dhlad stw

'Ena llo endeqmeno enai o Jewrome ton telest

dim(KerTt0 ) =

n.

St : H H Cn , x (Tt x, PKerTt0 x).

Auto oi telestc enai Frntqolm kai

IndSt = IndTt n.
All o

St0

enai amfeiknish opte o Dekthc tou

St

enai stajerc kont sto

t0 .
g.

Mpore na mhn isqei tpote ap ta parapnw. Tte epilgoume mia orjo-

kanonik bsh ap ta

ei kai stw Qn h probol en+1 , en+2 , ... Isqurizmaste ti o

ston qro stw

Hn ,

pou pargetai

Qn Tt0 : H Hn
enai ep gia arket meglo

n.

Sunepc

Ind(Qn Tt0 ) = IndTt0 + m

kai efarmzoume thn perptwsh (b) parapnw. .

Prisma 1.

En

Frntqolm kai

sumpagc telestc, tte o

T +K

enai Frntqolm kai

Ind(T + K) = IndT.
Apdeixh:

Jewrome ton

Tt = T + tK

kai efarmzoume thn Prtash 2.

45

2.2

Dilexh 2

Gnwrzoume ti

F red(H)
En

Z G .

mia sumpagc kai prosanatolsimh pollaplthta Rman, tte mporome

na sqhmatsoume ton qro

L2 (M ) = {f : M C|
M

|f |2 d < }.

O qroc autc apotele qro Qlmpert me eswterik ginmeno

< f, g >=
M
Gia pardeigma, stw

f g d.

L2 (S 1 )

to snolo twn tetragwnik oloklhrsimwn

migadikn sunartsewn tou kklou. An jewrsoume ton kklo wc to phlko

[0, 2]/(0 = 2),

tou

dhlad to kleist disthma

[0, 2]

me tatish twn krwn,

tte skeftete tic gnwstc seirc

Fourier.

Mia plrhc orjokanonik bsh

L2 (S 1 )

ddetai ap tic sunartseic

1 en (x) = einx , n Z, 2
dhlad en

f L2 (S 1 ),

tte

f (x) =
pou

cn einx ,

cn = S 1 C.

1 2

f (x)einx dx.
0

Mporome epshc na dome ton kklo wc uposnolo tou epipdou Tte oi parapnw sunartseic bshc grfontai wc

Argand,

1 en = z n . 2
H migadik anlush upagoreei thn melth tou upoqrou

H 2 (S 1 ) = {f

L2 (S 1 )|f =

n n=0 cn z },

qroc

Hardy,

dhlad tic sunartseic me jetikoc

mno suntelestc Fouri. H orjognia probol

P : L2 (S 1 ) H 2 (S 1 )
46

lgetai probol Qrnti.

L2 (S 1 ) apotele prtupo ep tou C(S 1 ), twn su1 neqn migadikn sunartsewn tou kklou, dhlad dojeshc miac f C(S ), 2 1 2 1 mporome na orsoume nan pollaplasiastik telest Mf : L (S ) L (S ):
Shmeinoume ti o qroc

(Mf g)(x) = f (x)g(x).

Autc apotele fragmno telest me

||Mf || = sup|f |.
Mtro thc mh-topikthtac enc telest apotele o metajthc auto me touc

pollaplasiastikoc telestc

Lmma 1.

En

f C(S 1 ),

tte o metajthc

[P, Mf ] = P Mf Mf P
apotele sumpag telest (sunepc h probol Qrnti den enai topik all qi pol makri ap to na enai topik).

Apdeixh:

Upojtoume arqik pwc h

apotele polunumo twn

z , z 1 ,

stw

f = am z m + ... + am z m .
Tte wc proc thn bsh

(en )

pou anaframe parapnw, h

anaparstatai wc

pnakac. Parnontac ton metajth me ton

telestc peperasmnhc txhc, sunepc sumpagc). ' ra en h A

Mf , prokptei h apdeixh (prokptei f enai poluwnumik sunrthsh, tte o metajthc [P, Mf ] apotele telest peperasmnhc txhc, opte ap to Jerhma Stone-Weierstrass prokptei ti ta polunuma 1 enai pukn uposnolo tou C(S ). Me prosggish oloklhrnetai h apdeixh.
.

Orismc 1.

H 2 (S 1 )

enai o

f C(S 1 ). Tte o telestc Tf = P Mf . H f lgetai

'Estw O telestc

telestc

smbolo

Toeplitz Tf : H 2 (S 1 ) tou Tf .

Prtash 1.

Tf Tg Tf g

enai sumpagc.

47

Apdeixh:

P Mf P Mg P 2 Mf Mg = P [Mf , P ]Mg f C(S 1 )

enai sumpagc.

Prisma 1.

En h

enai antistryimh, tte o

Tf

enai Frnt-

qolm.

Apdeixh:

Tf 1

enai nac antstrofoc mntoulo sumpagec.

Erthma:

Poioc o

dekthc tou

Tf ?

'Estw

f : S 1 Cx
)

mia apeiknish ttoia ste h kamplh na mhn dirqetai Upenjumzoume ti o

ap thn arq twn axnwn.

(

wn(f ),

arijmc

strofc

winding number

thc

apotele thn monadik topologik anallowth pos-

thta ttoiwn apeikonsewn.

Jerhma 1.

IndTf = wn(f ).
Apdeixh:

Epeid o dekthc enai posthta anallowth stic apomorfoh antistoqish

poiseic (

deformations),

f IndTf
orzei geniktera mia apeiknish

[S 1 , Cx ] Z.
Kje omotopik klsh emperiqei na antiprswpo se autn ton antiprswpo poia enai h apnthsh.

zm

opte apl elgqoume

f (x) = z opte o H 2 (S 1 ) pargetai ap ta e0 , e1 , e2 , ... en Mz (ei ) = ei+1 . Tte o Tz = Tf ddetai ap thn Tz (ei ) = ei+1 , i = 0, 1, 2, .... Sunepc o Tz enai apl h metatpish me dekth 1. .
Gia pardeigma, jewrome thn An ant twn parapnw jewrsoume telestc tte oi noi telestc enai Frntqolm en h

Tf

pou

f : S 1 Mn (C),
dhlad

enai antistryimh,

en f : S GLn (C). 'Opwc kai prohgoumnwc, parnoume apeikonseic [S 1 , GLn (C] Z pou se kje sunrthsh f antistoiqon ton dekth IndTf , dhlad f IndTf . 'Omwc pwc edame

GLn (C) GLn+1 (C),

48

f
Tte

f 0 0 1 Tf 0 0 1

= f.

Tf =

Sunepc qoume na metajetik digramma

[S 1 , GLn (C] Z [S 1 , GLn+1 (C] Z

pou oi orizntiec apeikonseic enai oi dektec kai h katakrufh h apeiknish tou periqesjai.

Sto rio

parnoume mia apeiknish (sthn ousa apotele omomor-

fism omdwn)

K 1 (S 1 ) Z.
Ta parapnw mporon na genikeujon gia opoiondpote sumpag qro (ant tou kklou

) efodiasmnou me ta paraktw dedomna:

a.

'Enan qro Qlmpert

pou apotele prtupo thc lgebrac (daktu-

lou)

C(X) (dhlad C(X) B(H)).

b.

efodiasmnou me nan omomorfism algebrn

f Mf,

Mia autosuzug probol

ston

H. f C(X). odd K-cycle

) tou

g.

O telestc

P Mf Mf P

na enai sumpagc

Ta parapnw dedomna perigrfoun na

qrou

peritt K-kklo (

(peritt diti orzoun na stoiqeo tou

(X)).

Uprqei fusik kai o sqetizmenoc antstoiqoc omomorfismc

K 1 (X) Z.
Auto upodhlnei ti oi K-kkloi ja prpei na pargoun mia jewra duk thc K-Jewrac pou lgetai
K-Omologa

49

En ant thc lgebrac logik qro

C(X)

(pou prorqetai ap kpoion sumpag topo-

X)

jewrsoume mia tuqaa lgebra

A,

ta dia perpou dedomna

orzoun nan peritt K-kklo thc mh-metajetikc gewmetrac.

Upenjumzoume epshc ti

Ki (C(X)) = K i (X), i = 0, 1.

50

2.3

Dilexh 3
1.

Orismc
kkloc

'Estw

sumpagc topologikc qroc. 'Enac

perittc

K-

tou

apoteletai ap ta paraktw dedomna:

a.

'Enan qro Qlmpert

H H

ston opoo dra h

C(X).

b.

Mia probol

ston

(dhlad

P = P 2 = P ).

g.

f C(X), [P, f ]

sumpagc.

'Enac perittc K-kkloc ddei kai nan omomorfism

K 1 (X) Z
pou sthn ousa enai o dekthc tou antstoiqou telest

Toeplitz.
)

Orismc 2.

'Enac K-kkloc enai

ekfulismnoc (

0, f

pou epgei thn mhdenik apeiknish

degenerate (X) Z.

en

[P, f ] =

Oi K-kkloi mporon na prostejon me euj jroisma.

Uprqoun do basikc nnoiec isodunamac metax K-kklwn:

H mo-

nadiak isodunama, dhlad parxh monadiako telest isodunama (parxh suneqoc oikogneiac

U (H, Pt ), t [0, 1]).

kai h omotopik

Gia dosmno

X,

to snolo lwn twn omotopikn klsewn perittn KEn proume sthn

kklwn apotele hmi-omda me prxh to euj jroisma. sunqeia thn omda lian) omda

Grothendieck

autc thc hmi-omdac parnoume thn (abe-

K1 (X).

Sunepc qoume na zeugrwma (ginmeno)

K1 (X) K 1 (X) Z.
Lmma 1.

Oi ekfulismnoi K-kkloi antistoiqon sto mhdn thc omdac

K1 (X).

51

Apdeixh:

'Estw

(H, P )

ekfulismnoc.

Sqhmatzoume ton K-kklo

( H, P ). X = [(H, P )] Y X = 0. .
'Estw sthn

K1 (X)

kai

Y = [(H , P ].

Tte

X+Y =

Ja prpei na uprqei kai to anlogo tou

slant product

K1 (X) K 1 (X Y ) K 0 (Y ).
Ta stoiqea tou prtou aristero pargonta enai oi peritto K-kkloi pou h

(P, H)

C(X)

dra ston

gnwrzoume pwc

y gy Tgy

H . Gia ta stoiqea tou deterou aristero pargonta X Y GLn (C) = Y M aps(X GLn (C)) dhlad F red(P, H), ra apoktme mia apeiknish Y F red.

slant product enai na apodexoume pwc mia Frntqolm oikogneia pnw ap ton Y , dhlad mia suneqc apeiknish Y F red orzei mia K-klsh sthn K 0 (Y ).
To basik shmeo sthn kataskeu tou En to

Y = {},

h apeiknish aut den enai tpote llo ap ton dekth

Y F red(H), y Ty . H ida enai na jewrsoume tic apeikonseic {KerTy : y Y } Y kai {cokerTy : y Y } Y . Jloume o dekthc IndTy na enai h diafor twn dianusmatikn desmn [KerTy ] [cokerTy ]. Dustuqc mwc autc mpore na mhn sqhmatzoun diatou antstoiqou telest, nusmatikc dsmec diti oi diastseic mpore na parousizoun phdmata.

'Omwc, ap prohgomenh ergasa sthn analloithta tou dekth se apomorfopoiseic, mporome na brome mia probol peperasmnhc sundistashc ttoia ste o telestc

Qm

Qm Ty

na enai ep tou pedou timn tou

Qm

gia kje

y Y.
Tra oi purnec se kpoio shmeo

Ker(Qm Ty ) sqhmatzoun mia dianusmatik dsmh. Kont y0 , o Qm Ty0 enai ep tou pedou timn tou Qm . Jewrome Sy : H (RangeQm ) (Ker(Qm Ty0 )).

sth sunqeia thn apeiknish

H apeiknish

Sy0 y U , pou U

enai antistryimh, mia geitoni tou

sunepc kai h

Sy

enai antistryimh

y0 .
52

Jewrome thn eikna thc antstro-

fhc apeiknishc

1 Sy (O Ker(Qm Ty0 )) = KerSy .

Sunepc h

U , ddei mia amfeiknish metax thc oikogKerSy U kai thc stajerc oikogneiac O Ker(Qm Ty0 ) U . Sunepc h KerSy sqhmatzei mia dianusmatik dsmh.
periorismnh sthn neiac twn dianusmatikn desmn En katakledi, orsame mia apeiknish

Sy ,

[Y, F red(H)] K 0 (Y ) = [Y, Z G ].

Jerhma 1.

H apeiknish

F red(H) Z G
apotele (asjen) omotopik isodunama.

Apdeixh:

Prokptei ap ta parapnw.

Jewrome ton qro

F redS (H) = {
Jerhma 2.

T 0 0 1

|T F red(H)}.

H apeiknish

[X, F redS (H)] K 0 (Y )

apotele isomorfism. H apeikonish aut enai o dekthc.

Apdeixh:

Ja prpei na apodexoume ti h apeiknish enai ep kai 1-1.

Gia to prto (ep), ergazmaste wc exc: Dojntwn kn desmn pnw ap ton dsmh (diti o qroc

V, W

do dianusmati-

Y , tic emfuteoume se mia arket meglh tetrimmnh Qlmpert H qei peirh distash) V CN H

kai

W CN H.
53

O qroc Qlmpert

grfetai wc euj jroisma twn upoqrwn

Wy , Wy en

Vy , Vy

kai

Ty

enai h grammik apeiknish metax touc.

Gia to detero (1-1), stw

(Ty )

mia oikogneia telestn me dekth mhdn.

Qrhsimopointac kpoion telest

Qm

wc kyimo (

cuto ) KerTy KerTy

pwc prin, mpo-

rome na thn apomorfopoisoume se mia oikogneia me stajer sun-purna distashc

m.

Afo o dekthc enai mhdn, oi purnec

sqhmatzoun mia

stajer tetrimmnh dianusmatik dsmh distashc

m.

Epilgontac meglo

m,

mporome na upojsoume ti h dianusmatik dsmh

enai tetrimmnh.

Sqhmatik, o qroc Qlmpert grfetai wc jroisma twn upoqrwn

KerTy , Ty

(KerTy )

kai

S,

pou

kpoioc fixarismnoc qroc. H grammik apei-

knish metax touc enai sunepc h

Ty + Uy

pou enai antistryimh. 'Etsi h

mpore na apomorfopoihje se mia oikogneia antistryimwn telestn.

Upenjumzoume to exc gegonc: apdeixh enai dskolh).

H omda

GLH

enai surriknomenh (h

Gia thn stajer kdosh pou mac endiafrei ed,

qreiazmaste mno na gnwrzoume ti o qroc

U 0 0 1

|U GLH}

enai surriknomenoc. Gia na oloklhrwje h apdeixh, qrhsimopoiome kai to gegonc ti ap to Lmma

Whitehead U 0 0 U 1 1 0 0 1 ,

dhlad oi paraktw klseic mporon na sundejon me omotopa

Uy 1 1 ...
kai

1 Uy Uy Uy ...
.

54

2.4

Dilexh 4
periodikthta

Ja asqolhjome me thn

Bott.

Upenjumzoume to

slant product: K1 X K 1 (X Y ) K 0 Y,

pou

x y x\y.
Isqurismc:

K1 X K 1 (X Y ) K 0 Z K 0 (Y Z), x y z (x\y) z = x\(y z).

Aut enai profanc diti en anarwthjome poio to ginmeno

K 1 W K 0 Z

K 1 (W Z), h apnthsh prokptei ap to gegonc ti kje automorfismc miac dsmhc V pnw ap ton W orzei to stoiqeo V V thc prthc K-Omdac.
'Etsi eisgoume thn ida thc
K-Jewrac gia topik sumpa gec qrouc

(dh-

lad qrouc gia touc opoouc kje shmeo qei mia sumpag geitoni).

'Estw loipn enc shmeou tou

X nac topik sumpagc qroc X , dhlad X + = X {}.

kai

X+

h sumpagopohsh

Orismc 1.

K i X = K i X + := Ker(K i X + K()).
O parapnw orismc qei nhma diti lgw sunarthtikthtac ( mia apeiknish

functoriality),

XY

epgei mia apeiknish

X + Y +. K X

'Etsi h periodikthta me tic

Bott

angetai se Jerhma pou susqetzei tic

K (R X).

Upenjumzoume to stoiqeidec gegonc:

K 0 (R X) = K 1 X.
55

Epshc

(R X)+ = SX/A
pou

ta do shmea korufc thc anrthshc (

suspension) SX .

Jerhma 1.

K 1 (R X)
Apdeixh:

K 0 X. b K 1 R
o genntorac pou anti-

Ac sumbolsoume me

ton parapnw isomorfism kai ac pro-

spajsoume na ton perigryoume. stoiqe sthn sunrthsh

'Estw

z 1/z

ston

. Tte

: K 0 X K 1 (R X), x b x.
Shmeinoume ti

: K 0 () K 1 R K 0 (R2 ) = K 0 (S 2 )
pou

(1)

h tautologik dsmh eujein (eujea dsmh,

line bundle).

Sthn perptwsh

S 2 = CP 1 ,

epilgoume

(z0 , z1 )

omogenec suntetagmnec,

to B. Hmisfario apoteletai ap ta shmea me omogenec suntetagmnec

(1, z1 )

en to N. Hmisfario apoteletai ap ta shmea me omogenec suntetagmnec

(z0 , 1)

kai apoktme thn

Hopf line bundle.

: K 0 X K 1 (R X) = K 0 (R2 X), x b x.
Orzoume thn apeiknish

: K 1 (R X) K 0 X.
Uprqoun kai oi apeikonseic

K 1 (R X) K 1 (S 1 X)
all kai h apeiknish

a\ : K 1 (S 1 X) K 0 X,
56

pou

a K1 (S 1 ),

opte

(y) = a\y .

Sth sunqeia ja qreiastome to exc

Lmma 1.

((x)) = x, x K 0 X.
Apdeixh Lmmatoc:

a\(b x) = (a\b) x = 1 x = x.

Gia na oloklhrsoume thn apdeixh tou Jewrmatoc 1 ti h apeiknish

apotele isomorfism, arke na apodexoume pwc enai ep, dhlad ja jlame na apodexoume ti kje

y K 0 (R2 X)

enai thc morfc

b ().

Jewrome thn apeiknish

K 0 (R2 X) K 0 (R2 X R2 ), y y b.
Shmeinoume ti h eikna tou

y = (y b)\a

ap to Lmma 1. All

y b = b y,

pou

up thn apeiknish

R2 X X R2 ,
pou

(v, p) (p, v).

Epeid o pnakac

0 I I 0
pou dra ston

R2 R2

enai omotopikc me ton monadaio, ja qoume

y = (y b)\a = (b y )\a = b (\a). y

.

To parapnw enai gnwst kai wc

to trik

tou

Atiyah.

Genikeoume to parapnw:

X R2k

enai o olikc qroc miac tetrim-

mnhc migadikc dianusmatikc dsmhc pnw ap ton migadik dianusmatik dsmh pnw ap ton
periodikthta

X.

'Estw

mia tuqaa

Bott

gia na

upologsoume tic

X. KV

Mporome na genikesoume thn qrhsimopointac tic

KX ?

57

H apnthsh enai katafatik.

Uprqei mia apeiknish

: KX KV
pou apotele isomorfism. O isomorfismc

enai to ginmeno me mia

klsh

Thom

tou

V,

dhlad mia klsh thc

KV

pou o periorismc thc se kje na

enai o sunjhc genntorac

Bott. complex line bundle). H klsh P(L 1). H apdeixh tou trik tou Atiyah.

'Estw

V =L

mia migadik eujea dsmh (

Thom

enai h tautologik dsmh pnw ap ton

isomorfismo

Thom

enai parmoia me to

Mia qrsimh parapomp gia thn parosa dilexh enai h exc ergasa:

M.F. Atiyah: Bott Periodicity and the Index of Elliptic Operators, Q.J. of Maths, Oxford, May 1968.

58

2.5

Dilexh 5
K-Jewra al gebrn

Ja asqolhjome me thn

Banach

kai

-al gebrn

Upenjumzoume ti mia lgebra

Banach enai mia plrhc lgebra me nrma. Banach

efodiasmnh me mia anlixh

C -lgebra enai (involution) ttoia ste

Mia
Paradegmata:

mia lgebra

||xx || = ||x||2 .

a.

To snolo

B(H)

twn fragmnwn telestn pou droun se na qro

Qlmpert.

b.

To snolo

K(H)

twn sumpagn telestn pou droun se nan qro

Qlmpert (sthn pragmatikthta to

K(H)

apotele idedec tou

B(H)).

g.

H legmenh lgebra

Calkin

Q(H) = B(H)/K(H).
d.

En

sumpagc qroc Qousntorf, tte to

C(X)

(snolo twn su-

neqn migadikn sunartsewn tou

X)

efodiasmno me thn nrma

||f || = sup|f |
kai thn anlixh

g = g
pou

to migadik suzugc.

Shmewsh 1:

En

topik sumpagc (kai Qousntorf), jewrome to

snolo

C0 (X)

twn suneqn migadikn sunartsewn tou

pou mhdenzontai . 'Omwc

sto peiro. Aut apotele epshc mia

-lgebra

qwrc monda

C0 (X) = Ker(C(X + ) C), f f (),

pou

X+

h sumpagopohsh enc shmeou tou

X.

59

Kje trpo:

C -lgebra

qwrc monda mpore na sumpagopoihje me autn ton

J J + C,
pou

J + = {j + i : C}.
Shmewsh 2:

Ap to Jerhma

Gelfand

gnwrzoume pwc h topologa enc

sumpagoc qrou Qousntorf sullambnetai ap thn lgebra nai mia metajetik

C(X) pou eC -lgebra, opte kje metajetik C -lgebra antistoiqe

Sunepc h topologi-

se nan sumpag qro Qousntorf (to fsma autc).

k K-Jewra ousiastik enai h K-Jewra twn metajetikn h melth tuqawn

-al gebrn kai sthn melth thc mh-

-al gebrn

(metajetikn

mh)

antistoiqe

thc

mh-metajetikc

topologac

Aut

enai

na

enarktrio

shmeo

metajetikc gewmetrac tou

A. Connes.

Gia th sunqeia, stw

to snolo twn proboln ( Tte sumbolzoume me

A mia lgebra Mpnaq me monda kai stw Pn (A) P 2 = P ) sto snolo twn n n pinkwn Mn (A). P (A) to rio P (A) = lim Pn (A).
n

Orismc 1.

K0 A = Gr[0 (P (A))],
pou

Gr

h omda

Grothendieck

thc hmi-omdac

0 (P (A)).

Orismc 2.

K1 A = 0 (GLA).
Lmma 1.

alg K0 A = K0 A,
dhlad o orismc thc mhdenikc K-Omdac enai o dioc me ton orism thc Algebrikc mhdenikc K-Omdac. Epiplon, sto (

P (A)

h omotopa kai h suzuga

conjugacy)
OMWS

pargoun thn dia sqsh isodunamac.

alg K1 A = K1 A,

60

diti

0 (GLA) = 1 (BGLA+ ).
En

mia

C -lgebra

qwrc monda

, orzoume tic K-Omdec wc exc:

Ki J = Ker(Ki (J + ) Ki C), i = 0, 1.
Elpzoume o anagnsthc ap ta sumfrazmena na mpore na diakrnei to sumpagopohshc enc shmeou kai to

thc

plus construction

tou

+ thc Quillen.

Basikc sqseic:

1.

Ki (C(X)) = K i X.
2.

En

K(H)

to snolo twn sumpagn telestn enc qrou Qlmpert

H,

tte

K0 (K(H)) = Z
en

K1 (K(H)) = 0.
Upenjumzoume ti

K(H) = lim Mn C,
n
sunepc

K (K(H)) = lim K (Mn C) = lim K C = K C.

n n
3.

En

B(H)

to snolo twn fragmnwn telestn enc qrou Qlmpert

H,

tte

Ki (B(H)) = 0, i = 0, 1.
Erqmaste sth sunqeia sto exc erthma: Poia ja prpei na enai h K-Jewrhtik kdosh miac akriboc akoloujac enc zegouc

C -algebrn

(X, A)?
'Estw

U = X/A.

Tte uprqei mia akribc akolouja

0 C0 (U ) C(X) C(A) 0.
Isqei to paraktw

61

Jerhma 1.

Se kje kont akrib akolouja

C -algebrn

0 J A A/J 0,
antistoiqe h exc akribc akolouja K-Omdwn

K1 J K1 A K1 (A/J) K0 (A/J) K0 A K0 J,
pou oi katakrufec apeikonseic

K0 (A/J) K1 J
kai

: K1 (A/J) K0 J
knoun to parapnw digramma metajetik.

Apdeixh:

Paralepetai, parapmpoume sthn bibliografa.

'Estw

to empdio ( tou

u Mn (A/J) antistryimoc. To stoiqeo [u] ja prpei na apotele obstruction) tou anebsmatoc (lift) se nan antistryimo pnaka

Mn A.
Gnwrzoume pwc mporome pnta na anebsoume ton pnaka

u 0 0 u1 M2n A. P M2n A, P =
kai stw

, R

(akribstera thn klsh auto tou pnaka), se nan antistryimo pnaka 'Estw

1 0 0 0

M2n (J + )

Q = R1 P R M2n (J + ).

Tte

[P ] [Q] K0 J.
Endiafrousa eidik perptwsh enai h exc:

J = K(H), A = B(H)
genikeumno dekth

opte

A/J = Q(H).

Tte h apeiknish

apotele nan

62

Sthn sunqeia ja asqolhjome me thn K-Omologa twn

C -algebrn.

A = C(X), pou X sumpagc, metromenoc (metrisable) topologikc qroc. 'Enac qroc Qlmpert H apotele na X en uprqei mia anaparstash : A B(H).
Orismc 3.

'Estw

-prtupo

Orismc

4.

Mia

ousiastik

isodunama

metax

X -protpwn

enai nac

monadiakc (

unitary)

telestc

u:HH

ttoioc ste

u(a)u (a) K
sumpagc.

Orismc 5.

'Ena

X -prtupo

lgetai

meglo

en h apeiknish

: A B(H) Q(H)
enai 1-1.

Me bsh touc parapnw orismoc, qoume to exc basik

Voiculescu) Ta megla prtupa enai aporrofhtik, dhlad en H, H do X -prtupa kai to H enai meglo, tte to H H enai ousiastik isodnamo me to H .
Jerhma 2.

Apdeixh:

Paralepetai, parapmpoume sthn bibliografa.

Prisma 1.

'Ola ta megla prtupa enai ousiastik isodnama.

'Estw

kpoioc topologikc qroc (sumpagc, metromenoc). Epilgou-

me na meglo prtupo

HX .
duk

Orismc 6.

Paschke

D(X)

tou

enai h

C -lgebra

D(X) = {T B(HX ) : [T, (a)]compact}, a A = C(X).

Sth sunqeia orzoume:

Orismc 7.

Ki X = (K i A =)K1i (D(X)).
63

Uprqei mia akribc akolouja enc zegouc Omologa. Tte qoume:

C -albebrn (X, Y )

sthn K-

Orismc 8.

D(X, Y ) = {T D(X) : T (a) K(H), a C0 (X Y )}.

Epeid

D(X, Y )

D(X),

qoume mia kont akrib akolouja

C -algebrn:

0 D(X, Y ) D(X) D(X)/D(X, Y ) 0.

64

2.6

Dilexh 6

Gia thn dilexh aut mia kal anafor enai to rjro twn Brown, Douglas, Fillmore: C -algebra Extensions and K-Homology . Epshc sunstatai jerm kai to rjro twn P. Brown, R.G. Douglas: K-Homology and Index Theory, Proc. Symp. Pure Math. Vol 38 (1982) Part I.

'Estw

nac qroc Qlmpert,

N B(H)
(

nac fragmnoc telestc.

Orismc 1.

lgetai

kanonikc

normal

en

N N = N N.
En o

enai kanonikc, pargei mia metajetik

C -upolgebra

thc

B(H),

analutiktera mpore na apodeiqje ti h upolgebra pou pargetai ap ton

enai ismorfh me thn

C((N )),

pou

(N ) = { C : (N I)1 }
to
fsma

tou

N. classify) touc kanonikoc telestc m-

Ja jlame na kathgoriopoisoume ( qri monadiakc (

unitary)

isodunamac mntoulo sumpagec.

fsmatoc (

Berg apdeixe pwc kathgoriopoiontai essential spectrum e (N ), dhlad

)

plrwc msw tou

ousiastiko

((N )), : B(H) Q(H) = B(H)/K(H),

wc aprroia tou Jewrmatoc tou

Voiculescu.
ousiastik kanonikc

Orismc
(

2.

'Enac telestc
)

essentially normal
Sth sunqeia oi

en o

N B(H) lgetai N N N N K(H) enai sumpagc.

Brown, Douglas, Fillmore anarwtjhkan:

anallowth posthta up thn ousiastik

Enai to ousiaisodunama gia

stik

fsma

mnh

touc ousiastik kanonikoc telestc?

H apnthsh

enai arnhtik.

65

Wc antipardeigma,

anafroume to all

e (U ) = S

kai

IndU = 1

unilateral shift U . IndN = 0, N kanonik.

Gnwrzoume ti

Gia kje

pou den ankei sto ousiastik fsma tou N , o dekthc Ind(N

I) Z
En:

apotele anallowth posthta ousiastikc isodunamac. Opte mpo-

rome na rwtsoume to exc:

e (N1 ) = e (N2 ) = X , 2. Ind(N1 i I) = Ind(N2 i I), gia i C X , enai oi telestc N1 kai N2 ousiastik isodnamoi?
1.

H apnthsh se aut to erthma enai katafatik.

Orz oume

to

snolo

BDF (X)

pou

apoteletai

ap

tic

ousiastikc

klseic

isodunamac twn

ousiastik kanonikn telestn me ousiastik fsma

X. C
-

To

snolo

BDF (X)

enai

so

me

to

snolo

twn

epektsewn

twn

algebrn:

0 K(H) A C(X) 0 0 K(H) B(H) Q(H) 0,

pou

h lgebra pou pargetai ap ton

kai to

profanec katakrufec apeikonseic periqesjai

K(H) kai uprqoun kai oi A B(H), C(X) Q(H).

snolo twn monomorfismn

To

snolo

BDF (X)

enai

epshc

so

me

to

C(X) Q(H).
Epshc enai gnwst kai ta exc:

To

BDF (X)

apotele hmi-omda me prxh to euj jroisma.

(Ap to Jerhma

Voiculescu),

kje kanonikc telestc orzei na tau-

totik stoiqeo.

Parade gmata:

66

1.

BDF (I) = 0,

pou

I = [0, 1] C.

2.

BDF (S 1 ) = Z.
1.

Jerhma

Averson)

Dojntoc enc omomorfismo

: C(X)

Q(H),

uprqei nac omomorfismc

: C(X) B(H H) 11 12 21 22 ,

ttoioc ste en

=
tte

11 = . 12 , 21 prpei na enai sumpagec (dhlad me timc se sumpagec telestc) kai to 22 ja prpei na enai nac lloc -omomorfismc stw , opte o enai anelksimoc (liftable) sto B(H).
Shmeinoume ti ta
Apdeixh:

H basik ida enai h exc:

(xx ) = (x)(x ),
opte

11 (xx ) 12 (xx ) 21 (xx ) 22 (xx )

sunepc

11 (x) 12 (x) 21 (x) 22 (x)

11 (x ) 12 (x ) 21 (x ) 22 (x )

11 (xx ) = 11 (x)11 (x ) + 12 (x)12 (x ).

.

Parathrome ti

BDF (X) Hom(K 1 X, Z)

kai

0 K(H) A C(X) 0.
H antstoiqh makr akribc akolouja periqei mia apeiknish

K1 (C(X))(= K 1 X) K0 (K(H))(= Z).

67

To basik apotlesma twn

Brown, Douglas, Fillmore

enai to paraktw

Jerhma 2.

BDF (X) = K1 X.
Apdeixh:

Parajtoume ta basik stoiqea:

: C(X) Q(H) : C(X) B(H H),

pou

=
'Estw

11 12 21 22

p:H H H
h probol ston prto ro. Tte to

[, p] =
apotele akribc nan K-kklo.

0 12 21 0

K(H)

To

X apotele genik kpoio poledro tou R3 kai BDF (X) Hom(K 1 X, Z).

H sunqeia perilambnei kungi diagrammtwn:

K1 A K1 X K1 (X, A) K0 A Hom(K 1 A, Z) Hom(K 1 X, Z) ...

me tic antstoiqec katakrufec apeikonseic. .

Telik qoume ta exc:

0 Ext(K 0 X, Z) K1 X Hom(K 1 X, Z) 0
kai

K 1 X Z(= K0 (K(H))) K0 A K 0 X 0(= K1 (K(H))).

Upenjumzoume tic exc sqseic:

K1 (C(X)) = K 1 X
kai

K1 X = BDF (X) = Ext(C(X)) = Hom(K 1 X, Z).

68

Keflaio 3 Topologik K-Jewra

Oi shmeiseic auto tou kefalaou baszontai en mrei stic dialxeic tou

M.F. Atiyah sto Panepistmio tou Qrbarnt kat thn dekaeta tou 1960 pou
uprqoun sthn bibliografa. Kpoiec apodexeic protsewn kai jewrhmtwn paralepontai en sec uprqoun enai sunoptikc (anafrontai mno oi basikc idec). sggramma Gia perissterec leptomreiec mpore kanec na dei to klasik

M.F. Atiyah: K-Theory, Benjamin, 1967.

3.1

Dilexh 1

Ja xekinsoume me ton orism thc dianusmatikc dsmhc (

vector bundle).

Orismc 1.

Mia

dianusmatik dsmh

pnw ap nan topologik qro

qroc

B
1.

(sunjwc ja upojtoume ti o apl

bsh

enai pollaplthta) pou ja lgetai

bshc

, apoteletai ap ta paraktw dedomna:

'Enan topologik qro (sunjwc pollaplthta) .

pou ja lgetai

olikc

qroc

2. 3.

Mia suneq apeiknish Gia kje

b B, n,

o qroc

: E B pou ja lgetai Fb () = 1 (b) E lgetai

probol

.
nma

na

(tou

shmeou

b).

Apaitome kje na (nma) na qei dom

dianusmatiko

qrou

distashc

stw

opte ja lme antstoiqa ti h dsmh qei distash

(prosoq ed, h distash aut mpore na enai diaforetik ap thn topologik distash tou

E ).

En o dianusmatikc qroc enai pragmatikc (antstoiqa

migadikc) ja lme ti qoume pragmatik (antstoiqa migadik) dianusmatik

69

dsmh.
4.

Gia kje

b B,

stw

Ub B

mia geitoni tou

b.

Uprqei mia apeiknish

(jewrome pragmatik dianusmatik dsmh distashc

n)

h : Ub Rn 1 (U )
pou apotele omoiomorfism. Oi apeikonseic autc
menopoiseic

h lgontai

topikc tetrim-

en oi apeikonseic

Rn Fb ()
me

v h(b, v)
apotelon grammikoc isomorfismoc dianusmatikn qrwn.

O orismc miac magadikc dianusmatikc dsmhc enai moioc me ton parapnw, aplc antikajistome to

Rn

me to

Cn . ,
me thn dia bsh ja lgontai

Orismc 2.
ismorfec

Do dianusmatikc dsmec

kai ja to sumbolzoume

en uprqei omoiomorfismc metax

twn olikn touc qrwn pou en perioriste se kje na na ddei nan grammik isomorfism. Profanc ismorfec dianusmatikc dsmec qoun thn dia distash.

Paradegmata:

1.

Faner h (pragmatik) dianusmatik dsmh (distashc stw

n)

apote-

le genkeush tou Kartesiano ginomnou

(pragmatik) dianusmatik dsmh (distashc qroc.

pnta

B R pou onomzetai n), pou B tuqaoc topologikc

tetrimmnh

H basik diafor enai pwc mia tuqaa dianusmatik dsmh en enai

tetrimmnh

topik

(dhlad topik ismorfh me thn tetrimmnh dianuaut mpore na mhn isqei sunolik

smatik dsmh katllhlhc distashc),

(

globally
2.

'Estw M (diaforsimh) pollaplthta distashc n. H efaptmenh dT M M Rn = {(x, v) : v Tx M } apotele pragmatik dianusmatik dsmh distashc n me bsh M . smh

70

3.

Oi proboliko qroi (migadiko kai pragmatiko)

kai oi Gkrasmnianc

Gk (R )

kai oi pollaplthtec

CP n kai RP n kajc Stiefel Vk (Rn ) apotelon

paradegmata (pragmatikn migadikn antstoiqa) dianusmatikn desmn (brete tic bseic).

Ac jewrsoume kpoion stajer qro snolo

wc bsh kai ac meletsoume to

me bsh ton

V B(X) X

lwn twn (pragmatikn migadikn) dianusmatikn desmn kai me peperasmnh distash (lla qi kajorismnh). Sto

snolo aut mporome na orsoume tic exc prxeic:

Euj

jroisma

: En

zoume to euj jroisma to

, do dianusmatikc dsmec pnw pou apotele na dianusmatik E( ) E() E()

ap ton

X,

or-

dsmh pnw ap

me olik qro

pou

E( ) = {(v, w) : (v) = (w)}.

H distash thc dsmhc autc enai sh me to jroisma twn diastsewn twn

en h na prokptei ap to euj jroisma twn antstoiqwn inn (pou mporon na prostejon wc dianusmatiko qroi):

Fx ( ) = Fx () Fx (). f : X Y mia suneqc apeiknish kai Y mia dianusmatik dsmh pnw ap to Y , tte orzoume thn f () X pou lgetai to trbhgma psw thc pnw ap ton X msw thc f kai apotele mia dianusmatik dsmh pnw ap ton X me olik qro
Trbhgma psw (

Pull-back

: En

E(f ()) X E()

me

E(f ()) = {(x, e) : (e) = f (x)}.

H na orzetai wc exc:

Fx (f ()) = Ff (x) (). V ect(X) to snolo twn ismorfwn klsewn twn dianusmatikn desmn pnw ap ton X . To euj jroisma pou orsame parapnw orzei mia prosjetik prxh sto V ect(X):
'Estw

[] + [] = [ ].
71

H prxh aut enai prosetairistik, metajetik, uprqei oudtero stoiqeo all den uprqoun summetrik stoiqea, sunepc to (prosjetik, abelian)
hmi-omda

(V ect(X), +)

apotele

Orismc

3.

Orzoume wc

V ect(X).

(Sumbolzoume me

KX thn pagksmia omda thc hmi-omdac KOX kai KX thn pragmatik kai thn migadik
(En jewrsoume wc epipr-

perptwsh dianusmatikn desmn antstoiqa).

sjeth prxh kai to tanustik ginmeno metax dianusmatikn desmn, tte to

V ect(X)

apotele hmi-daktlio kai to

KX

apotele daktlio).

Ac upenjumsoume sntoma thn kataskeu: En diagnio omomorfism hmiomdwn

A hmiomda, jewrome ton

:AAA
opte

KA enai to snolo twn sunsunlwn tou (A) sto A A pou apotele

epgei summetrik stoiqea sto

hmiomda phlko all h enallag twn paragntwn sto kartesian ginmeno

AA

KA

opte progetai se omda.

Oi antiprswpoi twn K-klsewn enai epshmec diaforc thc morfc

[] []

[] [Cn ]. X
'Estw pou

X Y mia suneqc apeiknish. f , kai h opoa diathre to

Epgei thn

f : V ect(Y ) V ect(X) f : K(Y ) K(X)

euj jroisma, dhlad apotele omo-

morfism hmi-omdwn, sunepc ddei nan omomorfism abeliann omdwn.

Gia

th

sunqeia

jewrome

ti

topologikc

qroc

X
.

enai

sumpagc

kai

Qousntorf kai oi

dianusmatikc dsmec

enai migadikc

Lmma 1.

Dojeshc mia dianusmatikc dsmhc

pnw ap ton X , uprqei

dianusmatik dsmh

pnw ap ton

ttoia ste

= CN . X

72

Lmma

2.

'Estw

pnw ap ton

f0 , f1 : X Y omotopikc kai mia Y . Tte h f0 enai ismorfh me thn f1 .

dianusmatik dsmh

To ti f0 , f1 : X Y omotopikc shmanei ti uprqei suneqc F : X I Y , pou I = [0, 1], ttoia ste f0 (x) = F (x, 0) kai f1 (x) = F (x, 1).

Prisma 1.

V ect(X) = N
'Estw tou

kai

En X surriknomenoc (dhlad omotopikc me shmeo), tte KX = Z.

Gk (Cn ) h Gkrasmnian twn dianusmatikn upoqrwn distashc k k Cn kai f : X Gk (Cn ) suneqc. Tte f (n ) V ect(X), sunepc [X, Gk (Cn )] V ectk (X)

uprqei apeiknish

metax tou sunlou twn omotopikn klsewn twn apeikonsewn

f : X
pnw ap

Gk (Cn ) ton X .

kai tou sunlou twn dianusmatikn desmn distashc

H apeiknish aut qei mia, trpon tin, antstrofh: Dojeshc miac dianu-

k pnw ap ton X , epilgoume mia dianusmatik = CN . Gia kje x X , h na Fx () CN apoteX le dianusmatik upqwro distashc k . H antistoqish x Fx () orzei mia n apeiknish f : X Gk (C ). Tte
smatikc dsmhc distashc dsmh

ttoia ste

k f (N )
diti h na thc

x
enai h na thc

k N pnw ap to f (x), pou den enai llh ap thn Fx (). Faner h apeiknish f exarttai ap thn epilog thc .
pnw ap to shmeo

k f (N )

Upenjumzoume ti

Gk (Cn ) Gk (Cn+1 )
kai stw

Gk = lim Gk (Cn ) =
n n
Tte isqei to paraktw:

Gk (Cn ).

73

Jerhma 1.

H apeiknish

[X, Gk ] = lim [X, Gk (Cn )] V ectk (X)

n
enai 1-1 kai ep (isomorfismc sunlwn) gia kje sumpag qro Qousntorf

X.
En jsoume

k k = lim n = n n

k n ,

tte h apeiknish tou Jewrmatoc 1 kane to exc:

f f ( k ).
Aut pou ja prpei na mac apasqolsei sta parapnw enai h exrthsh thc

f : X Gk (Cn )
'Estw loipn

ap thn epilog thc

= CN X
kai

= CM X
opte

CN = = CM X X
en

CM = CN = CN +M . X X X
Sunepc h

orzei thn

f : X Gk (CN ) Gk (CN +M )

en h

orzei thn

f : X Gk (CM ) Gk (CN +M ). f kai f enai omotopikc sunepc ta snola V ectk (X)

Tte oi apeikonseic kai

[X, Gk ]

enai isodnama.

74

3.2

Dilexh 2
Tte en h

Jewrome migadikc dianusmatikc dsmec me sumpag bsh. bsh prokptei wc xnh nwsh

X=
tte

Xa , KXa

KX =
en edame ti en

Gk =

Gk (Cn ),

tte

V ectk (X) = [X, Gk ]

(gia thn akrbeia ennoome isthta plhjarjmwn kai qi pragmatik isthta sunlwn).

Ac dome thn omotopojewrhtik ermhnea thc omdac

KX .
thn

'Estw h bsh elattwmnh

X qei na shmeo bshc x0 . Tte (me K sumbolzoume (reduced) K-Jewra, blpe Orism 2 paraktw) KX = Ker(KX K(x0 )).

'Omwc nish

K() = Z en h distash thc dianusmatikc KX Z pou [] [] dim() dim().

1.

dsmhc orzei mia apeik-

Orismc

Do dianusmatikc dsmec
(

kai

pnw ap ton

tai

stajer

ismorfec

stably isomorphic

en uprqoun akraioi

X lgonN, M Z

ttoioi ste

Orismc

2.

elattwmnh

CM = CN . X X KX
K-Omda

tou

orz etai

wc

to

snolo

twn stajer ismorfwn klsewn twn dianusmatikn desmn pnw ap ton

X.

Gnwrzoume ti gia tic Gkrasmnianc uprqoun oi paraktw apeikonseic periqesjai:

Gk (Cn ) Gk (Cn+1 )
kai parnontac to epagwgik rio katalgoume sthn

Gk = lim Gk (Cn ) =
n n
75

Gk (Cn ).

Epshc

Gk (Cn ) Gk+1 (Cn+1 )

opte

Gk+1 = lim Gk+1 (Cn+1 ) =

n n
' ra A

Gk+1 (Cn+1 ).

Gk Gk+1 ,
sqsh pou mac ddei thn dunatthta na orsoume kai to epagwgik rio

G = lim Gk =
k k
Diaisjhtik to metablhtc

Gk .

G enai to dipl epagwgik rio twn Gk (Cn ) tan kai oi do k kai n tenoun sto peiro.

Tte qoume to exc basik:

Jerhma 1.

KX = [X, G ].
Sth sunqeia ja meletsoume dianusmatikc dsmec pnw ap thn anrthsh (

suspension) SX X

enc qrou

X. CX
ton kno tou

En

kpoioc topologikc qroc, sumbolzoume me

pou orzetai wc

CX =
Tte h anrthsh

X [0, 1] . X 0

SX

tou

orzetai wc

SX = C+ X X C X.
'Estw

f : X GLk (C)

mia apeiknish. Orzoume to snolo

V (f ) =
H

C+ X Ck C X Ck . (x, v) (x, f (x)v)

V (f ) SX

apotele dianusmatik dsmh.

76

Lmma 1.

'Estw

f0 , f1 : X GLk (C) V (f0 )

omotopikc apeikonseic. Tte

V (f1 ).

Epshc isqei kai to paraktw basik:

Jerhma 2.

V ectk (SX) = [X, GLk (C)].

En jewrsoume thn apeiknish periqesjai

GLk (C) GLk+1 (C)

pou ddetai ap thn

A
kai jsoume

A 0 0 1 GLk (C),
k

GLC = lim GLk (C) =

k
tte qoume thn epktash tou Jewrmatoc 2:

Jerhma 3.

K(SX) = [X, GLC].

Paratrhsh:

Edame ti

KX = [X, G ]
en

KSX = [X, GLC].

'Omwc

KSX = [SX, G ] = [X, G ],

pou

o qroc brgqwn tou

G ,

dhlad

G = M aps (S 1 , G ).
Sunepc

GLC,

77

dhlad
omdac

h peirh Gkrasmnian

apotele qro kathgoriopohshc thc peirhc

GLC: G = BGLC.
h periodikthta

To basik jerhma sthn K-Jewra enai

Bott

me thn opoa

ja asqolhjome sthn sunqeia. Sthn pio apl thc morf dhlnei ti uprqei isomorfismc metax twn

KX K(S 2 )

kai

K(X S 2 ). X , dhlad S 2 X = n anrthsh S X enc

isqoun ta

Sumbolzoume me

S 2X

thn deterh anrthsh tou qrou

S(SX). Epagwgik mporome na orsoume kai thn n-st qrou X . Upenjumzoume ti gia tic anartseic twn sfairn
paraktw:

S 2n (S 1 ) = S 2n+1
kai

S 2n2 (S 2 ) = S 2n .
H prth kdosh thc periodikthtac

Bott

enai h exc:

K(S 2 X)
en

KX

[S 1 , Gk (Cn )] = 1 (Gk (Cn )) = 0

diti oi Gkrasmnianc enai surriknomenoi qroi.

Akmh

[S 2 , Gk (Cn )] = 2 (Gk (Cn )) = Z, KS 1 = 0, KS 2 = Z, KS 2n+1 = 0

kai

KS 2n = Z.
Ac dome tic sunomologiakc idithtec thc K-Jewrac.

'Estw

sumpagc kai

AX

sumpagc upqwroc.

Epilgoume kpoio

nN

kai orzoume:

K n X = K(S n X).
78

Gia thn sqetik K-Jewra qoume ton exc orism:

K n (X, A) = K n (X/A) = K(S n (X/A))

kai telik

K n X = K n (X, ),
pou orzoume

(X, ) = X +
kai to

X+

enai o

me thn xnh nwsh enc shmeou bshc, dhlad

K(X + ) = KX.
Qrhsimopointac thn periodikthta kai qoume:

Bott

epektenoume ton parapnw orism

K n (X, A) = K n2 (X, A), n Z.

Sunoyzontac:

1.

Oi omdec

K n (X, A) orzontai gia kje n en K n (X, A)

K n+2 (X, A).

2.

Ousiastik, lgw periodikthtac h

K 0 (X, A) kai [X/A, GLC].

K 1 (X, A)

pou

Bott, uprqoun do K-Omdec, oi K 0 (X, A) = [X/A, G ] en K 1 (X, A) =

En doje mia apeiknish

f : (X, A) (Y, B),

uprqei mia epagmenh

apeiknish pou apotele omomorfism

f : K n (X, A) K n (Y, B)
en tautqrona ap thn

X/A X A
parnoume thn akrib akolouja thc K-Jewrac gia na zegoc

K 0 (X, A) K 0 X K 0 A K 1 A K 1 X K 1 (X, A)
pou uprqoun oi katakrufec sundetikc apeikonseic

: K 1 A K 0 (X, A)
kai

: K 0 A K 1 (X, A)
opte to parapnw tetrgwno enai metajetik.

79

3.3
'Estw

Dilexh 3

sumpagc kai sunektikc topologikc qroc.

Ap to snolo

twn ismorfwn klsewn dianusmatikn desmn

V ect(X)

orsame thn omda

K 0 X = [X, Z G ]

en h elattomenh mhdenik K-Omda orzetai wc

K 0 = Ker(K 0 X K 0 ()) = [X, G ].

Epshc edame pwc

K 1 X = K 0 (SX) = [X, GLC]

en gia nan sumpag upqwro

AX

kai

nN

qoume

K n X = K 0 (S n X), K n (X, A) = K n (X/A), K n X = K n (X, ),

pou

X + = X/

kai

K n (X, A) = K n2 (X, A)
qrhsimopointac thn periodikthta

Bott. K n (X, A)
pou prokptoun ap ta a-

Ac dome tic idithtec twn omdwn ximata

Eilenberg-Steenroad: (X, A) K n (X, A) apotele sunartht metax thc ka-

1.

H antistoqish

thgorac twn topologikn qrwn kai thc kathgorac twn abeliann omdwn.

2.

Omotopikc apeikonseic epgoun ton dio omomorfism metax abelia-

nn omdwn.

3.

Uprqei mia akribc akolouja gia ta zegh (dec tloc prohgomenhc

dilexhc).

4.

H akribc akolouja enai fusik.

5.

Ikanopoietai h idithta thc ektomc (

excision):

K n (X, A)

K n (X/A, ).
80

6.

K n () = 0, n N, odd
en

K n () = Z, n N, even.
Sunepc qoume mia
genikeumnh sunomologiak jewra

Uprqei h akolouja

K 0 (X, A) K 0 X K 0 A K 1 A K 1 X K 1 (X, A)
pou oi katakrufec sundetikc apeikonseic

: K 1 A K 0 (X, A)
kai

: K 0 A K 1 (X, A)
epgontai ap tic apeikonseic

A X X/A.
En

A X,

tte

SA
en

X CA X

SA
Epshc

X CA X CA X/A. X K n (X CA, X) K n (X CA) K n (X/A)

K n1 A = K n (SA)

en uprqoun oi apeikonseic

K 1 A K 0 (X/A)
kai

K 0 A K 1 (X/A).
H apdeixh thc akrbeiac (

exactness)

enai dskolh.

81

Ja epiqeirsoume sthn sunqeia na dsoume mia gewmetrik ermhnea twn sundetikn apeikonsewn

thc akriboc akoloujac thc K-Jewrac.

K 0 (X, A), jewrome na zegoc (, ) miac dianusmatikc dsmhc pnw ap ton X kai stw mia tetrimmenopohsh thc /A. Uprqoun do sqseic isodunamac twn parapnw zeugn, o isomorfismc metax twn (, ) 0 kai h omotopec thc , opte orzetai h klsh [, ] K (X, A).
Gia to Jewrome sth sunqeia thn apeiknish

: K 1 A K 0 (X, A)
me kpoia

f : A GLk (C).
Orzoume to

X Ck CA Ck glueviaf
kai parnoume ti

X CA

X/A.

Sth sunqeia ja sqolhjome me ta ginmena.

'Estw

V ect(X) V ect(Y ) V ect(X Y )

pou

(, )
to exwterik tanustik ginmeno. Gia tic nec qoume to exc:

Fx,y ( ) = Fx () Fy (),
diti h

X Y

apotele na dianusmatik dsmh.

Tte epgetai h apeiknish

K n (X, A) K m (Y, B) K n+m (X Y, A Y X B).

1.

H parapnw epektenetai se mia apeiknish

K 0 X K 0 Y K 0 (X Y )
82

me

([1 ] [1 ]) ([2 ] [2 ]) := [1 2 ] + [1 2 ] [1 2 ] [1 2 ].
Upenjumzoume to

qei shmeo

smash product thc algebrikc topologac X Y bshc x0 kai o Y qei shmeo bshc y0 . Tte X Y = X Y . x0 Y X y0 smash product SX S n X.
me ton kklo:

pou o

Gia pardeigma h anrthsh apotele

S1 X
kai

Sn X
2.

Ja dome thn epktash sthn elattomenh K-Jewra:

K 0 X K 0 Y K 0 (X Y ).
Orzoume gia to

smash product

to exc:

K 0 (X Y ) = Ker(K 0 (X Y ) K 0 X K 0 Y ).
Qrhsimopoiome tic profanec apeikonseic

K 0 (X Y ) K 0 X
ap thn

X = X y0 X Y
kai thn

K 0 (X Y ) K 0 Y
ap thn

Y = Y x0 X Y.
Opte parnoume:

K 0 (S n (X/A))K 0 (S m (Y /B)) K 0 (S n (X/A)S m (Y /B)) = K 0 (S n+m (X/A)(Y /B)),

pou

X Y X Y = . AY X B A B
83

Jewrome gia pardeigma thn eidik perptwsh parnoume:

X=Y

kai

A = B = .

Tte

K n X K m X K n+m (X X) K n+m X
pou h teleutaa apeiknish

: K n+m (X X) K n+m X
epgetai ap thn diagnia apeiknish

:X X X
me

(x) = (x, x).

Sunepc qoume tic apeikonseic

K 0 X K 0 X K 0 X, K 0 X K 1 X K 1 X,
kai

K 1 X K 1 X K 0 X,
pou ousiastik enai h periodikthta

Bott.

Orzoume kai to

K X = K 0X K 1X
pou apotele diabajmismno (

graded)

metajetik daktlio.

Sthn Dilexh 2 edame mia kdosh thc periodikthtac se jsh na dome mia anajewrhmnh kdosh:

Bott,

tra emaste

H apeiknish

apotele isomorfism

K 0 (S 2 ) K 0 X K 0 (S 2 X) 0 2 (upenjumzoume ti K S = Z).
apotele swc to pio qrsimo ergaleo stouc upolo-

H periodikthta

Bott

gismoc. Anafroume kpoia paradegmata:

84

 K 1 (S 2n+1 ) = Z = K 0 (S 2n )
en

K 1 (S 2n ) = 0 = K 0 (S 2n1 ).
Epshc

[S 2n+1 , GLC] = 2n+1 (GLC)(= 2n+1 (GLN (C)), N > 2n + 2),

en

[S 2n , GLC] = 0.
En sumbolsoume me

UN

thn omda twn monadiakn (

migadikn pinkwn (profanc apotele upoomda thc (gia

unitary) N N GLN (C)), tte qoume

N > 2n + 1): 2n+1 (UN ) = Z,

en

2n (UN ) = 0.
Gia thn eidik orjognia omda

SON

antstoiqa qoume (gia

N > i + 1):

i (SON ) = Z/2, i 1(8), i (SON ) = 0, i 2(8), i (SON ) = Z, i 3(8), i (SON ) = 0, i 4(8), i (SON ) = 0, i 5(8), i (SON ) = 0, i 6(8), i (SON ) = Z, i 7(8)
kai

i (SON ) = Z/2, i 1(8).

85

3.4

Dilexh 4
qara-

Sthn dilexh aut ja asqolhjome me thn apeiknish pou orzei o

ktrac

Chern

ap thn K-Jewra sthn kanonik (gia pardeigma thn

singular)

sunomologa.

Edame ti h

K n (X, A)

apotele mia (pollaplasiastik) genikeumnh jew-

ra sunomologac. 'Eqoume tic apeikonseic

K n (X, A) K m (Y, B) K n+m (X Y, X B A Y ).

Enai gegonc pwc h

K (X, A) Q
apotele kanonik sunomologa.

ma

Gia th sunqeia upojtoume ti o X enai nac kalc qroc (gia pardeignite simplicial complex or nite CW-complex).

Tte orzoume:

H ev (X; Q) = n0 H 2n (X; Q)
kai

H odd (X; Q) = n0 H 2n+1 (X; Q).

Tte qoume to paraktw basik:

Jerhma 1.

Uprqoun fusiko isomorfismo

ch : K 0 X Q H ev (X; Q)
kai

ch : K 1 X Q H odd (X; Q)
pou sbontai ta ginmena. Oi isomorfismo auto lgontai
( qaraktrec

Chern

Chern characters
Apdeixh:

Mia perlhyh thc apdeixhc uprqei sto tloc thc Dilexhc

4.

86

Gia th sunqeia ja qreiastome tic qarakthristikc klseic twn migadikn desmn grammn (eujein). 'Estw

suntoma ja thn sumbolzoume apl

L X mia migadik dsmh LX paraktw) kai stw

eujein (gia

V ect1 X = [X, G1 ],
pou

fL : X G1 =
n
Tte

G1 (Cn ) =
n

CP n1 := CP .

H (CP ; Z) = Z[u],
pou

u H 2 (CP ; Z).
Orismc 1.

H prth klsh

Chern

thc

enai

c1 L = fL (u) H 2 (X; Z).

Lmma 1.

H apeiknish

c1 : V ect1 (X) H 2 (X; Z)

apotele isomorfism omdwn.

Dojntwn twn

L1

kai

L2

mporome na sqhmatzoume thn

L1 L2

en h

CX

apotele to monadiao stoiqeo tou tanustiko ginomnou

Sumbolzoume me

L X

:= Hom(LX , C)

thn duk dsmh. Tte

L L
Epshc

CX .

c1 (L1 L2 ) = c1 L1 + c2 L2 .
Dojeshc miac dianusmatikc dsmhc

: P() X

me na

X distashc n, jewrome thn dsmh (x) = P(Fx ()) CP n1 . H epagmenh apeiknish

1

: H (X) H (P())
apotele omomorfism daktulwn pou kajist to tou daktulou

H (P())

na prtupo ep

H (X)

(me akraiouc suntelestc).

87

'Estw h apeiknish

H (X) H (P()) H (P()),

me

x y (x)y.
Uprqei mia dsmh eujein

pnw ap thn

P()

me

1 H 0 (P()), c1 (L ) =

u H 2 (P())

kai sqhmatzoume ta

u2 , u3

klp. Tte qoume to akloujo:

Jerhma 2.

To

H (P()) apotele elejero prtupo ep tou H (X) me

bsh thn

1, u, u2 , ...un1 .
H basik ida thc apdeixhc enai h exc: Perptwsh 1:

Apdeixh:

= X C H (CP n1 )

, tte

P() = X CP

n1

en to

upologzetai ap ton gnwst

H (X CP ) = H (X) tpo Kunneth thc algebrikc ton1

pologac. Gia na oloklhrwje h apdeixh qrhsimopoiome na epagwgik epiqerhma tpou

Mayer-Vietories.
2.

Orismc

(Klseic

Chern ).

'Estw

sqhmatzoume thn

P()

kai epilgoume mia klsh

X mia dianusmatik dsmh, u H 2 (P(); Z). Tte

un = c1 ()un1 + c2 ()un2 + ... + ck ()unk + ... + cn ().

H parapnw exswsh orzei tic klseic

Chern c2i () H 2i (X; Z).

' Askhsh: 1.

Elgxte tic idithtec:

ci (f ()) = f (ci ()). 2. (W hitney sum f ormulae) c() = 1 + c1 () + c2 () + ... + cn (), c( ) = c()c() kai ck ( ) = i+j=k ci ()cj ().
Lmma 2.

(Arq Diaqwrismo,

migadik dianusmatik dsmh. Tte nish H

Splitting Principle) 'Estw X mia uprqei nac qroc F () kai mia apeik-

f : F () X ttoia ste: f : H (X) H (F ()) enai 1-1 kai f () L1 L2 ... Ln , pou n h distash
To dio isqei kai gia thn K-Jewra, dhlad h epshc 1-1.

thc . f : K (X) K (F ())

enai

88

f1 : P() X enai 1-1 ap to Lmma 1 parapnw. Epshc L f () f () = L kai sthn sunqeia gia na oloklhrwje to epiApdeixh:

qerhma qrhsimopoiome epagwg.

Jloume na kataskeusoume ton qaraktra o opooc ikanopoie tic idithtec (den aplopohshc sumbolismo):

Chern ch : K 0 (X) H ev (X; Q) qrhsimopoiome agklec [] gia lgouc

ch( ) = ch() + ch() ch( ) = ch()ch().

Ti ja prpei na enai o

ch(L)

gia mia dsmh eujein

L?

c1 (L) = x kai c1 (L) = y . Tte c1 (L L) = x + y . Jumzei dunamoseirc F (x) (ch(L) = F (x)) pou F (x + y) = F (x)F (y), sunepc
'Estw

F (x) = ex .
'Etsi katalgoume ston exc orism:

Orismc 3.

Gia mia dsmh eujein

orzoume

ch(L) = ec1 (L) = 1 + c1 (L) +

Gia mia tuqaa dianusmatik dsmh

c2 (L) 1 + ... 2

qoume:

E = L1 L2 ... Ln
me

c1 (L1 ) = x1 , c1 (L2 ) = x2 ,...,c1 (Ln ) = xn .

Tte

ch(E) = ex1 + ex2 + ... + exn

opte

ch(E) = c(L1 )c(L2 )...c(Ln ) = (1+x1 )(1+x2 )...(1+xn ) = 1+c1 (E)+c2 (E)+...+cn (E)
diti

c(Li ) = 1 + xi .

Sunepc

ci (E) = i (x1 , x2 , ...xn )

89

pou to

enai h

i th

stoiqeidhc summetrik sunrthsh.

Gia pardeigma

c1 (E) = x1 + x2 + ... + xn

en

c2 (E) =

i<j

xi xj

opte

ex1 + ex2 + ... + exn = n + S1 (1 , 2 , ..., n ) + S2 (1 , 2 , ..., n ) + ...

Orismc 4.

ch() = dim + S1 (c1 (), c2 (), ..., cn ()) + S2 (c1 (), c2 (), ..., cn ()) + ...
Gia pardeigma ac dome analutik to

S2 :
2 (xi xj ) = 1 22 . i<j

x2 + x2 + ... + x2 = (x1 + x2 + ... + xn )2 2 1 2 n

Tte

1 ch() = dim + c1 () + [c2 () 2c2 ()] + ... 2 1 Jumhjete ti oi do idithtec pou epijumome ch( ) = ch() + ch() ch( ) = ch()ch() prokptoun ap thn arq diaqwrismo.
Orsame ton

kai

ch : K 0 (X) H ev (X; Q).

Orismc 5.

ch([] []) = ch() ch().

Tte

ch : K 1 (X) H odd (X; Q), ch : K 0 (SX) H ev (SX; Q),

pou wc gnwstn

K 1 (X) = K 0 (SX)

kai

H odd (X; Q) = H ev (SX; Q).

X = S 2 , tte K 0 (S 2 ) = Z kai 0 2 ev K (S ) = ZZ. Epshc ch(1) = 1 kai ch() = 1+u diti H (S 2 ; Q) = QQ (to 1 antistoiqe ston prto ro Q kai to u ston detero).
Apdeixh Jewrmatoc 1:

Bma 1. En

Bma 2.

'Eqoume isomorfism tan

X = S 2n

diti o qaraktrac

Chern

metatjetai me ta ginmena.

90

Bma 3. 'Eqoume isomorfism tan logism).

X = S 2n+1

(prokptei ap meso upo-

Bma 4. Upojtoume ti o X apotele na simplicial complex me N simplices kai to A X apokttai apomakrnontac na simplex korufaac distashc. n Tte mwc X/A = S kai qrhsimopoiome akribec akoloujec kai to 5-Lmma. .

91

3.5

Dilexh 5

Orsame touc:

ch : K 0 (X) H ev (X; Q)
kai

ch : K 1 (X) H odd (X; Q)

kai edame to basik jerhma ti h apeiknish

ch : K (X) Q H (X; Q)
apotele isomorfism.

Sth sunqeia ja dome

prxeic

sthn K-Jewra

'Estw

migadikc dianusmatikc qroc peperasmnhc distashc stw

n.

Ap thn grammik lgebra gnwrzoume tic exwterikc dunmeic

k V = (V V ... V )/(x1 x2 ... xk sign()x (1) x (2) ... (k) x).

Faner

0 V = C, 1 V = V, ..., k V, ..., n V , dim k V = (n!)/[k!(n k)!].

pou

dim n V = 1

kai genik

Ta parapnw epektenontai se kje dianusmatik dsmh qro

pnw ap kpoio

X:

Sqhmatzoume tic exwterikc dunmeic

pou apotelon epshc

dianusmatikc dsmec pnw ap ton

me na

Fx (k ) = k (Fx ()).
En

V, W

do dianusmatiko qroi, tte

k (V W ) =
i+j=k

i V j W

kai oi antstoiqh sqsh gia tic dianusmatikc dsmec ja enai parmoia:

k ( ) =
i+j=k

i () j ().

Parathrste thn analoga me tic klseic Tsern:

ck : V ect(X) H ev (X; Q)
92

pou

ck ( ) =
i+j=k
Dojeshc miac dianusmatikc dsmhc

ci ()cj (). ,
kataskeuzoume thn seir

t ()

K 0 (X)[[t]]

me metablht

kai suntelestc ap thn omda

K 0 (X),

dhlad

t =
k=0
Tte h

tk k .

k ( ) =
i+j=k
gnetai

i () j ()

t ( ) = t () t ()
dhlad qoume mia apeiknish

t : V ect(X) K 0 (X)[[t]].
Kat smbash jtoume

0 () = 1 K 0 (X)

opte h

t ()

apotele epshma

dunamoseir me prto ro thn monda, ra h daktulou

t ()

apotele to monadiao tou

K 0 (X)[[t]]. G(K 0 (X)[[t]])

thn omda twn mondwn tou

Sumbolzoume wc gnwstn me daktulou

K (X)[[t]],

dhlad thn omda twn antistryimwn stoiqewn tou o-

pte qoume tic exc apeikonseic pou sqhmatzoun na trigwnik digramma

t : V ect(X) G(K 0 (X)[[t]]), V ect(X) K 0 (X)

kai

t : K 0 (X) G(K 0 (X)[[t]]).

Dojntoc enc sthn

x K 0 (X), orzoume to i (x) na enai o suntelestc i (x). En x = [] [], tte t (x) = t () t ()1 . t L
mia dsmh eujein, tte

tou

ti

Gia pardeigma en

t (L) = 1 + tL

kai

t (L) =

1 = 1 + tL + t2 L2 + ... 1 tL
93

Ac shmeisoume ed pwc enai dskolo nohmatik na katanosei kpoioc to (gi' aut kai milme gia epshmh dunamoseir, qei xekjaro nhma enai oi suntelestc.

formal power series),

aut pou

Upenjumzoume tic summetrikc dunmeic

S k (V ) = (V V ... V )k .
Kat' analogan sqhmatzoume tic summetrikc dunmeic dianusmatikn desmn

S k ()

kai

St () =
k=0
en kat smbash jtoume

tk S k ()
Epshc qoume ti

S () = 1.

S k (V W ) =
i+j=k

S i V S j W.

Me thn dia mjodo pwc parapnw sqhmatzoume to trigwnik digramma

St : V ect(X) G(K 0 (X)[[t]]), V ect(X) K 0 (X)

kai

St : K 0 (X) G(K 0 (X)[[t]]).

Gia pardeigma, en

mia dsmh eujein, tte

St (L) = 1 + tL + t2 L2 + ...
diti

S k L = Lk ,
sunepc

St (L) = t (L),
ra

t (L)St (L) = 1 t (L)St (L) = 1 t ()St () = 1

pou h tuqaa dianusmatik dsmh

grfetai wc jroisma desmn eujein.

94

Ap thn arq diaqwrismo thc K-Jewrac petai ti gia kje dianusmatik dsmh

qoume

t ()St () = 1
opte

t ([] []) = (t )(St )

kai

k ([] []) =
i+j=k

(1)j i ()S j (). f :XY

mia apeiknish, tte gia

Shmeinoume kai to exc shmantik: En kpoio

x K (Y ) f (i (x)) = i (f x)

pou

i : K 0 (X) K 0 (X).
prxeic

Sth sunqeia ja asqolhjome me tic

Adams

thc K-Jewrac.

'Estw

x K0 (X)

kai

t (x) K 0 (X)[[t]].

Orzoume

t (x) := dim(x)

d d t t (x) = dim(x) t log(t (x)). t (x) dt dt K 0 (X).

'Oloi oi suntelestc enai akraia pollaplsia stoiqewn thc

Akmh orzoume tic posthtec

k (x)

msw thc exswshc

tk k (x) = t (x).
Oi apeikonseic

k : K 0 (X) K 0 (X)
lgontai
prxeic

Adams (Adams operations

thc K-Jewrac.

Pardeigma:

1 1 = 0
95

2 1 1 +22 = 0 3 2 1 +1 2 32 = 0
Genik

k k1 1 ... k2 = 0.
Oi prxeic kai kai

Adams sundoun dunamoseirc k (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = xk +xk +...+xk 1 2 n k k stoiqeideic summetrikc sunartseic i (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ), dhlad i i .
idithtec twn prxewn ' Antamc enai oi paraktw

Oi basikc

1.

k (x + y) = k (x) + k (y).
2.

En

mia dsmh eujein, tte

k (L) = Lk
3.

k (xy) = k (x)k (y)

4.

k (l (x)) = kl (x).
5.

En

prtoc arijmc, tte

p (x) = xp modp
6.

En

u K 0 (S 2n ),

tte

k (u) = k n u.
H prth idithta apodeiknetai wc exc:

t (x+y) = dim(x+y)

d t t t (x+y) = dim(x+y) = t (x + y) dt t (x) t (y) d (t (x) t (y)) dt kanna Leibniz gia na proume =

kai qrhsimopoiome ton

telik to zhtomeno

t (x) + t (y).

96

Gia thn deterh qoume:

t (L) = 1 tL
opte

d t (L) = L, dt tL = 1 + tL + t2 L2 k (L) = Lk . 1 tL

sunepc

t (L) = 1 +

97

3.6

Dilexh 6

Sthn prohgomenh dilexh edame tic prxeic ' ntamc: En sumbolsoume A me

i ()

tic exwterikc dunmeic miac dianusmatikc dsmhc

tte

i : V ect(X) K 0 (X)
en

t =
opte

ti i

t : K 0 (X) k 0 (X)[[t]]
me

t ([] []) = t () t ()1

kai

t (x) = dim x
pou

d t t (x) t (x) dt ti i (x).

t (x) =

Oi basikc idithtec twn prxewn autn enai oi exc:

1.

k (x + y) = k (x) + k (y).
2.

En

mia dsmh eujein, tte

k (L) = Lk
kai

k : K 0 (X) K 0 (X)
3.

k (xy) = k (x)k (y)

4.

k (l (x)) = kl (x).
H apdeixh sntoma enai h paraktw: Ap prosjetikthta, isqei gia dsmec eujein opte ap arq diaqwrismo isqei gia kje dianusmatik dsmh.

98

5.

En

prtoc arijmc, tte

p (x) = xp + py = xp modp
H apdeixh en suntoma enai h exc: 'Estw dsmec eujein. Tte

(x) =
tte

Lp + Lp + ... + Lp 1 2 n

x = L1 + L2 + ... + Ln , pou Li = (L1 + L2 + ... + Ln )p modp.

6.

En

u K 0 (S 2n ),

k (u) = k n u.
H apdeixh enai h paraktw: dsmh eujein 'Estw

nac genntorac thc

K 0 (S 2 )

kai

Hopf

pnw ap thn

CP

. Tte

h = [J] 1 K 0 (S 2 ).
Upologzoume thn

k (h) = k [J] k (1) = [J k ] 1

pou

[J k ] = k[J] (k 1) K 0 (S 2 ).
Me thn qrsh tou qaraktra

Chern

ch : K 0 (S 2 ) H ev (S 2 ; Q)
upologzoume ti

K 0 (S 2 ) = Z Z
sunepc qrhsimopointac thn

[J k ] = k[J] (k 1) K 0 (S 2 ).
parnoume ti

[J k ] 1 = k[J] k.
Epeid

S 4 = S 2 S 2,

qoume

K 0 (S 2 ) K 0 (S 2 ) K 0 (S 4 )
en o genntorac thc

K 0 (S 2n )

enai o

h h ... h

opte

k (h h ... h) = k n (h h ... h)
99

Efarmog:

Ja

qrhsimopoisoume me

tic

prxeic

' Antamc

gia

na

apodexoume

pwc

den

u-

prq oun apeikonseic

Hopf

anallowth

1.

'Estw

f : S 4n1 S 2n S 2n f C 4n = X.
Upologzoume zegoc

K 0 (X) = Z Z qrhsimopointac 2n (X, S ) kai to phlko X/S 2 n = S 4n .

thn akrib akolouja gia to

Epilgoume genntorec pou

u4n

enai nac

p : X X/S 2n = S 4n kai p : K 0 (S 4n ) K 0 (X) 0 (S 4n ) = Z kai y = p (u4n ) K 0 (X). genntorac thc K x K 0 (X)

ttoio ste

Sth sunqeia epilgoume kpoio stoiqeo

i (x) = u2n
pou

i : K 0 (X) K 0 (S 2n )
kai jewrome to stoiqeo

x2 : i (x2 ) = 0.
Orismc 1.

anallowth

Hopf

thc apeiknishc

enai o akraioc

pou orzetai ap thn exswsh

x2 = f y.
Apodeiknetai ti to

enai anexrthto ap thn epilog tou

x.

Isqei to paraktw basik:

Jerhma 1.

En

perittc, tte

n = 1, 2, 4.

Apdeixh:

Upenjumzoume ti

K 0 (X) = Z Z

100

me genntorec stw

kai

(nan gia kje antgrafo tou

Z).

Tte:

2 (x) = 2n x + ay
kai

3 (x) = 3n x + by
en

k (y) = k (p (u4n )) = p (k (u4n )) = p (k 2n u4n ) = k 2n y,

pou

2 (x) 2 (u2n ) = 2n u2n

kai

3 (x) 3 (u2n ) = 3n u2n .

Epshc upologzoume:

6 (x) = 3 (2 (x)) = 6n x + (2n b + 32n a)y 6 (x) = 2 (3 (x)) = 6n x + (22n b + 3n a)y,

opte

2n b + 32n a = 22n b + 3n a 2n (2n 1)b = 3n (3n 1)a.

'Omwc

2 (x) = x2 mod 2 = f y mod 2 = y mod 2 a odd.

Sunepc ap thn

2n (2n 1)b = 3n (3n 1)a

prokptei ti to ti

2n
.

diaire to

3n 1.

Me apl upologism prokeptei dhlad

n = 1, 2, 4.

Uprqoun treic klasikc apeikonseic

Hopf :

S 3 S 2 , S(C2 ) = S 3 S 2 = CP 1 , (z1 , z2 ) [z1 , z2 ] S 7 S 4 , S(H2 ) = S 7 S 4 = HP 1 , (q1 , q2 ) [q1 , q2 ] S 15 S 8 , S(K2 ) = S 15 S 8 = KP 1 , (k1 , k2 ) [k1 , k2 ]

101

H ley numbers.

pou me

sumbolzoume ta

quaternions

en me

sumbolzoume touc

Ca-

Ap to Jerhma

1 petai ti

den uprqoun llec

ttoiec

apeikonseic

Mia anlogh erthsh enai h exc:

sthn akolouja

pra gmatiko

mi gadiko

quaternions Caley numbers

uprq oun lloi

arijmo?

H apnthsh

enai

epshc

arnhtik

Klenoume me thn exc paratrhsh: O kkloc

S 1 apotele thn omda (U (1).

me mtro

H sfara

S3 S7

apotele thn omda twn

quaternions

1. 1.

H sfara

apotele thn omda twn

Caley numbers

me mtro

1 S 7 S 7 S 7 S 7 apotele omda, dhlad enai h-qroc 7 7 7 7 pwc kai o qroc S 1 S S S , dhlad jloume na dome en oi i sfarec S enai parallelisable spaces , dhlad en
O qroc
parallhlopoisimoi qroi ( )

oi efaptmenec dsmec touc enai tetrimmnec.

102

Keflaio 4 Parrthma
Sto Parrthma sugkentrsame kpoiec Protseic, Jewrmata kai Orismoc ap llouc kldouc twn majhmatikn pou ja dieukolnoun ton anagnsth sthn mleth tou. H anafor enai sntomh kai aposkope apl sthn upenjmish, pwc anafroume kai sthn eisagwg oi shmeiseic enai kajar metaptuqiako epipdou kai o anagnsthc ja prpei na qei dh mia kal gnsh (sunarthsiakc) anlushc, (diaforikc) gewmetrac, lgebrac kai (algebrikc kai diaforikc) topologac.

(Seifert)-van Kampen, pou ekfrzei thn jemelidh omda enc topologiko qrou stw X qrhsimopointac tic jemelideic omdec do anoiktn, kat troqic sunektikn (path connected) topologikn upoqrwn X1 , X2 X pou kalptoun ton X :
Xekinme me to Jerhma
Jerhma

van Kampen.

'Estw

topologikc qroc pou prok-

ptei wc nwsh twn eswterikn ap do kat troqic sunektikn upoqrwn

X0 = X1 X2 enai mh ken kai kat troqic sunektik. 'Estw na shmeo bshc tou X0 kai stw ik : 1 (X0 , ) 1 (Xk , ) kai jk : 1 (Xk , ) 1 (X, ) oi epagmenec apeikonseic ap tic antstoiqec apeikonseic periqesjai gia k = 1, 2. Tte kai o X enai kat troqic
kai stw ti to sunektikc kai h fusik apeiknish

X1 , X2 X

1 (X1 , )

1 (X0 ,)

1 (X2 , ) 1 (X, ) X
prokptei ap to

apotele isomorfism, dhlad h jemelidhc omda tou

elejero ginmeno twn jemeliwdn omdwn twn upoqrwn

X1

kai

X2

me thn

103

amalgamatopohsh thc jemelidouc omdac tou

X0 . X
mporon na analu-

H basik ida thc apdeixhc enai ti oi troqic ston jon se kommtia troqin entc thc tomc

X0 ,

entc tou

X1

all ektc tou

X2

kai entc tou

X2

all ektc tou

X1 .

Sunjwc oi epagmenec apeikonseic

thc periqesjai den enai 1-1 opte pio akribec morfc tou jewrmatoc qrhsimopoion ta

pushouts

omdwn.

Uprqei genkeush kai gia mh sunektikoc (ant omdwn) (pwc gia pardeig-

qrouc sthn kathgora twn

omadoeidn

ma sumbanei sthn mh-metajetik gewmetra) all kai genikeseic anterhc distashc (gia pardeigma se 2-omdec, 2-kathgorec klp, gia perisstera parapmpoume stic shmeiseic tou

J.P. May).
5-Lmma

Ac rjoume sthn sunqeia sto legmeno

thc omologikc lge-

brac. Sthn pragmatikthta to lmma aut isqei se kje abelian kathgora pwc oi kathgorec twn (abeliann) omdwn twn dianusmatikn qrwn me dedomno sma:

5-Lmma.

'Estw se mia abelian kathgora ddetai to paraktw metaje-

tik digramma (skla) pou h nw gramm enai h

ABCDE
pou oi morfismo enai oi h ktw gramm enai h

f : A B, g : B C , h : C D

kai

j : D E,

A B C D E
pou oi morfismo enai oi

r : A B , s : B C , t : C D kai u : D E en oi katakrufec apeikonseic enai oi l : A A , m : B B , n : C C , p : D D , q : E E . Tte en oi grammc enai akribec akoloujec, oi m kai p enai isomorfismo, h l apotele epimorfism kai h q apotele monomorfism, tte h n apotele epshc isomorfism.
H apdeixh gnetai me mia teqnik gnwst sthn jewra kathgorin pou lgetai kungi diagrammtwn.

To 5-Lmma apotele thn smptuxh twn do 4-Lhmmtwn pou to na enai to duk tou llou. Eidik perptwsh apotele to legmeno
kont 5-Lmma

sthn perptwsh pou oi grammc apotelon kontc akribec akoloujec. Sthn

104

periptwsh aut profanc

A = A = E = E = 0 opte qoume mno 3 katakn.

(

rufec apeikonseic kai to kont 5-Lmma lgei ti en oi akrinc apeikonseic

m, p

enai isomorfismo to dio ja isqei kai gia thn mesaa

Erqmaste sth sunqeia sto

)

pa gksmio

jerhma

suntelestn

univer-

sal coecient theorem pou ddei mia sqsh metax thc akraiac ac Hi (X; Z) enc topologiko qrou stw X me thn antstoiqh Hi (X; A) me suntelestc ap mia tuqaa abelian omda A:
Pagksmio Jerhma Suntelestn.

omologomologa

Me ton parapnw sumboli-

sm, stw to tanustik ginmeno

Hi (X; Z) A. Tte uprqei omomorfismc omdwn i : Hi (X; Z) A Hi (X; A) pou epiprsjeta enai 1-1 kai pou qei sun-purna T or(Hi1 (X; A), A).
Me lla lgia uprqei mia fusik kont akribc akolouja

0 Hi (X; Z) A Hi (X; A) T or(Hi1 (X; A), A) 0.

Aut h akolouja qwrzetai (all qi me fusik trpo) kai h omda thc stryhc (

torsion) mpore na jewrhje wc to empdio gia na enai h i isomorfismc.

Uprqei antstoiqo jerhma (duk) kai gia thn sunomologa.

To jerhma

Hurewicz

apotele kombik apotlesma thc algebrikc topo-

logac kai genikeei to jerhma tou meglou Pouankar pou ddei thn basik sqsh metax omotopac kai omologac. Mia kdosh enai h paraktw:

Jerhma

Hurewicz.

Gia kje topologik qro

kai fusik arijm

uprqei nac omomorfismc omdwn

h : k (X) Hk (X; Z)
pou lgetai omomorfismc

Hurewicz.

Uprqei sqetik kdosh all kai tria-

dik kdosh tou Jewrmatoc.

Ap to jerhma aut prokptei mesa ti gia apeiknish abelianopohshc

k = 1 prokptei h kanonik

h : 1 (X) 1 (X)/[1 (X), 1 (X)],

105

dhlad h prth omologik omda enai ismorfh me thn abelianopohsh thc jemelidouc omdac (opte isqei aut pou eqe anafrei o Pouankar ti h omologa apotele grammikopohsh thc omotopac, sthn ousa h anakluyh thc omologac ap ton Pouankar gine kurwc me aut to knhtro). en o Epshc

(n 1)-sunektikc, tte o omomorfismc Hurewicz apotele isomorfism k n (opte h prth omologik omda mhdenzetai en o qroc X
enai enai kat troqic sunektikc kai h jemelidhc omda tou enai tleia).

To jerhma

Whitehead ousiastik dikaiologe thn qrsh CW complexes

wc to basiko antikemeno melthc thc algebrikc topologac afo dhlnei pwc en mia suneqc apeiknish metax duo topologikn qrwn epgei isomorfismoc se lec tic antstoiqec omotopikc omdec (dhlad apotele asjen omotopik isodunama), tte h apeiknish apotele omotopa en kai mno en oi qroi apotelon sunektik

CW complexes:

Whitehead. 'Estw X, Y duo CW complexes me shmea bshc x, y antstoiqa kai f : X Y mia suneqc apeiknish ttoia ste f (x) = y . Gia jetik akraio n = 0 jewrome touc epagmenouc omomorfiJerhma

smoc

f : n (X, x) n (Y, y).

Lme ti h

apotele mia asjen omotopik isodunama en h

apotele iso-

morfism (1-1 kai ep) gia kje

n.

Tte en h

apotele asjen omotopik

isodunama, tte enai kai omotopik isodunama.

CW complexes apasqolon nan llo kldo thc topologac pou lgetai jewra morfc (shape theory). Epshc pwc apdeixe o Quillen, se kje kathgora montlwn (model category), mia asjenc omotopik isodunama metax inwdikn (brant) kai suninwdikn (cobrant) antikeimnwn apotele omotopik isodunama.
Genikeseic tou jewrmatoc gia qrouc pou den apotelon Oi qroi omotopac:

Eilenberg-MacLane

apotelon tic domikc mondec thc jewrac

Orismc

qrwn

Eilenberg-MacLane.

'Estw

kpoia omda kai

fusikc arijmc diforoc tou mhdenc. 'Enac sunektikc topologikc qroc

Eilenberg-MacLane tpou K(G, n) en h n th omotopik omda n (X) enai ismorfh me thn G kai lec oi uploipec omotopikc omdec
lgetai qroc 106

tou

X mhdenzontai. Gia n > 1 h G ja prpei na enai abelian opte wc CW complex o qroc Eilenberg-MacLane uprqei kai enai monadikc mqri

asjenoc omotopac.

Merik paradegmata:

K(Z, 1) = S 1 . K(Z, 2) = CP . K(Z2 , 1) = RP . K(G, 1) = k S 1 , i=1

Kje qroc tac ap to pou

elejerh omda me

gentorec.

K(G, n) mpore na kataskeuasje wc CW complex arqzonn sfhnoeidc ginmeno paragntwn S , mia gia kje genntora thc

kai sth sunqeia prosjtontac kuylec megalterhc distashc (pijann

peirec) ste na skotsoun thn pleonzousa omotopa.

Mia basik idithta twn qrwn autn enai ti

thc omologac me suntelestc ap thn omda

apotelon

anaparastseic

G: Gia kje abelian omda G kai CW complex X , to snolo [X, K(G, n)] pou apoteletai ap tic omotopikc klseic twn apeikonsewn f : X K(G, n) brsketai se fusik n amfeiknish me to snolo H (X; G) (the n-th singular cohomology group with coecients from G).
Jerhma

qwn

X . Hopf

Tte o omomorfismc

Milnor-Moore. 'Estw X 1-sunektikc qroc me qro brgHurewicz epgei nan isomorfism algebrn U ( (X) Q) H (X; Q)

pou me thc

U sumbolzoume thn universal enveloping algebra kai o metajthc Lie (X) Q ddetai ap to Samelson product.

To Jerhma Kleisto Grafmatoc apotele basik apotlesma thc sunarthsiakc anlushc:

Jerhma

Kleisto

Grafmatoc.

'Estw

T : X Y

grammikc

107

telestc metax do qrwn Mpnaq pou orzetai se olklhro ton grfhma tou

X.

To

orzetai wc

{(x, y) X Y : T x = y}.
Tte o

enai suneqc en kai mnon en kleistc, dhlad en to grfhma

enai kleist uposnolo tou

X Y

(upojtoume thn topologa ginmeno ston

X Y ).
Upenjumzoume epshc ti to jerhma

Weierstrass (1885)

sthn anlush

(pragmatik kai migadik) dhlnei ti kje suneqc sunrthsh pou orzetai se kpoio kleist disthma mpore na proseggisje omoimorfa ( ap mia poluwnumik sunrthsh.

unif ormly )

To 1937 o

M.H.Stone

genkeuse to jerhma tou

K.W eierstrass

taut-

qrona se do kateujnseic: Ant gia kleist disthma jerhse kpoion tu-

X (uprqei peraitrw genkeush akmh kai gia mh-sumpagec qrouc T ychonof f ) kai ant gia poluwnumikc sunartseic jerhse genikterec upolgebrec thc C(X) (lgebra twn migadikn suneqn sunartsewn tou X ). Pio sugkekrimna:
qao sumpag topologik qro Qousntorf

Stone-Weierstrass. 'Estw X sumpagc qroc Qousntorf S C(X) pou diaqwrzei shmea (dhlad gia kje zegoc shmewn x, y X uprqei sunrthsh f S ttoia ste f (x) = f (y)). Tte h migadik (kai me monadiao) -lgebra pou pargetai ap to S enai pukn sthn C(X).
Jerhma

kai stw

Shmeinoume ti uprqei kai pragmatik kdosh tou jewrmatoc all kai diforec genikeseic (gia topik sumpagec qrouc Qousntorf, plgmata klp).

Klenoume to Parrthma me mia anafor sto Jerhma tele mia afethra thc mh-metajetikc gewmetrac:

Gelfand

pou apo-

Jerhma

Gelfand.

Jewrome do kathgorec:

H prth enai aut kai blh touc omo-

me antikemena tic metajetikc me monadiao morfismoc pou diathron thn suzuga

C -lgebrec

H deterh enai h kathgora twn

sumpagn topologikn qrwn Qousntorf kai blh touc omoiomorfismoc.

Oi kathgorec autc enai isodnamec

. O prtoc sunarthtc enai o

C()

pou

108

se kje sumpag topologik qro Qousntorf kai me monda

antistoiqe thn metajetik

-lgebra

C(X)

twn suneqn migadikn sunartsewn tou

kai o deteroc sunarthtc enai o monda

Spec()

pou se kje metajetik kai me

C -lgebra A antistoiqe ton sumpag topologik qro Qousntorf Spec(A), to fsma thc A.
H isodunama isqei kai metax topik sumpagn qrwn Qousntorf kai metajetikn

C -algebrn

qwrc monda.

H afethra thc mh-metajetikc gewmetrac tou meglou gllou majhmatiko

Alain Connes

enai akribc h pijan epktash thc parapnw isodunamac

ap thn meri thc topologikc kathgorac en jewrsoume mh-metajetikc lgebrec.

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