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5 Improve and Control
5 Improve and Control
For the Green Belt, Improve and Control are combined into a single phase in which you will identify improvements, pilot and test solutions, evaluate the practicality of the solutions and implement a control plan. To better understand this concept, the ASQ Body of Knowledge provides the following topics: Design of experiments (DOE) Define and describe basic DOE terms such as independent and dependent variables, factors and levels, response, treatment, error, repetition, and replication. Interpret main effects and interaction plots.
Statistical process control (SPC) Describe the objectives and benefits of SPC, including controlling process performance, identifying special and common causes, etc. Define and describe how rational subgrouping is used. Identify, select, construct, and apply the following types of control charts: X-bar and R, X-bar and s, individuals and moving range (ImR / XMR), median (X~ and R), p, np, c and u. Interpret control charts and distinguish between common and special causes using rules for determining statistical control.
Implement and validate solutions Use various improvement methods such as brainstorming, main effects analysis, multi-vari studies, FMEA, measurement system capability re-analysis, and post-improvement capability analysis to identify, implement, and validate solutions through F-test, t-test, etc .
Control plan Assist in developing a control plan to document and hold the gains, and assist in implementing controls and monitoring systems.
more traditional methods: Evaluating multiple factors at the same time can reduce the time needed for experimentation. Some well-designed experiments do not require the use of sophisticated statistical methods to understand the results at a basic level. However, computer software can be used to yield very precise results as needed. The costs vary depending on the experiment, but the financial benefits realized from these experiments can be substantial.
DOE Components
The graphic below depicts an example of a relationship between the components that DOE examines. process input variables, normally referred to as x variables and as factors in design and analysis of experiments terminology process output variables, normally referred to as y variables and as responses in design and analysis of experiments terminology the relationship between input variables and output variables the interaction, or relationship, between input variables as it relates to the output variables
DOE Terminology
Certain terms used with Design of Experiments need to be defined clearly.
Definition A variable that can contribute to the explanation of the outcome of an experiment. Also known as a predictor variable. A variable representing the outcome of an experiment. The response is often referred to as the output variable" orresponse variable.
Factors
A predictor (or independent) variable that is varied with the intent of assessing its effect on a response (or dependent) variable. Most often referred to as an input variable. A factor may be quantitative (such as a temperature in degrees F or cycle time in pieces per minute) or qualitative (such as a different production machine or a different mold). A specific setting for a factor. In DOE, levels are frequently set as high and low for each factor. A potential setting, value, or assignment of a factor of the value of the predictor variable. If the experiment is to be performed at two different temperatures, then the factor temperature has two levels. For example, if the factor is time, then the low level may be 50 minutes, and the high level may be 70 minutes. A single level assigned to a single factor in an experiment. For example, cycle time at 300 pieces per minute is a treatment. A treatment combination is the set of levels for all factors in a specific experimental run. For example, a temperature of 150 degrees F, cycle time of 300 pieces per minute, and a blow pressure of 50 psi is a treatment combination. The specific setting of factor levels for an experimental unit. For example, a level of temperature at 65 degrees C and a level of time at 45 minutes describe a treatment as it relates to an output of yield. An error from an experiment reveals variation in the outcome of identical tests. An error is variation in the response variable beyond that accounted for by the factors, blocks, or other assignable sources while conducting an experiment. Many times referred to as experimental error. Performance of an experiment more than once for a given set of predictor variables. Each of the repetitions of the experiment is called a replicate. Replication differs from repeated measures in that replication is a repeat of the entire experiment for a given set of predictor variables, not just repeat of measurements of the same experiment. Note: Replication increases the precision of the estimates of the effects in an experiment. Replication is more effective when all elements contributing to the experimental error are included. In some cases, replication may be limited to repeated measures under essentially the same conditions. In other cases, replication may be deliberately different, though similar, in order to make the results more general. A repeated measure, or repetition, is the measurement of a response variable more than once under similar conditions. Repeated measures allow one to determine the inherent variability in the measurement system. Repetition occurs when each run is conducted n times in a row.
Levels
Response
Treatment
Error
Replication
SPC Background
"A phenomenon will be said to be controlled, when, through the use of past experience, we can predict, at least within limits, how the phenomenon may be expected to behave in the future." - Walter Shewhart Statistical process control (SPC) is not a particular technique or procedure, but a philosophy focusing on optimizing continuous improvement by using statistical tools for analyzing data, making inferences about process behavior, and then making a decision. Pioneered by Dr. Walter Shewhart in the 1920s and later enhanced by Dr. W. Edwards Deming, SPC is a collection of statistical techniques used to measure and analyze the variation in processes. A process is monitored by sampling data from the process stream. The data provide clues about the process operation from which consistency of process improvement can be measured. If the variability is large, the next step is to investigate root causes of the variability. The basic rule of SPC is to leave the variations from common causes to chance, and instead focus on identifying and eliminating special causes. Since all processes are subject to variation, SPC relies on the evidence rather than intuition.
SPC Objectives
Dr. Shewharts pioneering work in the area of process analysis enabled generations of quality engineers to adopt an effective approach to data analysis and process monitoring. For use by any organization measuring processes (not just manufacturing), SPC is a feedback system for identifying the need for process intervention.
Objectives of SPC Produce data to inform and guide process improvement Reduce variation Increase knowledge about the process Quickly detect occurrences of special causes shifting the process
Uses of SPC techniques Monitor processes for maintaining control Detect out-of-control conditions in processes Analyze process capability Serve as a decision-making tool Assures customers that product is produced consistently over time Enables proactive process improvement
Increase profits and improve customer service by the following: Assuring customers that product is produced consistently over time Increasing product consistency Improving product quality Reducing the need for inspection Decreasing scrap and rework Increasing production output Streamlining processes
SPC Tools
Basic Quality Tools The following are important SPC tools: Flow charts Run charts Pareto charts and analysis Fishbone diagrams Histograms Scatter diagrams
Rational Subgrouping
Rational subgrouping is a subset defined by a specific factor. As a sample with variations caused by conditions producing random effects, the rational subgroup identifies and separates variations by special causes. Rational subgroups are our attempt to ask the right questions about the data. Selecting the appropriate control chart to use depends on the subgroups. The issue of rational subgroups is perhaps one of the least understood ideas in all of statistical process control. As Donald J. Wheeler points out in Advanced Topics in Statistical Process Control, rational subgroups are part of the conceptual foundation of Shewhart charts.
Defect or Defective Defect An undesirable result on a product; also known as a nonconformity. (Note: The biggest difference between the term defect and nonconformity is that defect has product liability associated with it.) Defective ) An entire unit failing to meet specifications; also known as a nonconformance. (Note: A defective part may have one or more defects.)
Sample Size Generally, a sample size consists of five to ten items produced under essentially the same conditions.
charts simply become data collection devices that do not support the process of continual improvement (and, in fact, probably hinder it).
ForExample
Aqualityengineer(QE)desirestomonitoraprocessthatmanufacturesPET(plastic)bottlesforthe beverageindustry.Thebottlesareinjectionmoldedonamulticavitycarousel.Theparticularcarousel containsfourcavities,andtheQEinitiallydecidestotakethreebottlesfromeachcavityeachhourand measureacriticalcharacteristic.Thedatamightlooklikethetablebelow(whereM1,M2,andM3are thethreemeasures). Option1:Everyhour,takethreesamples(subgroups)offourbottles(n=4)atrandom.Plottheprocess (ononechart). Positives Eachhourhasthreeaveragesandthreerangestoplot. Therangeindicatesoverallprocessvariation. Theoptionprovidesoverallassessmentofthequalityduringthetimeperiod. Optionprovidesdataforoverallassessmentofprocesscapability. Thisistheeasiestmethodofsampling.
Key Questions
Each option is appropriate depending on the circumstances. Key questions to consider are the following:
How capable is the process? Is monitoring overall quality more important than detecting shifts? How easy is it to identify a special cause when it occurs? How much does it cost to collect the data and perform the tests?
Summary
Rational subgroups are our attempts to be sure that we are asking the right questions about the data. Creating rational subgroups is not the same thing as obtaining a random sample. When obtaining a random sample, each member of the sampling frame has the same chance of being selected (not the goal of rational subgrouping). Construct rational subgroups to allow for quick identification of the most important sources of variation. Subgroup size is important, but not more important than identifying sources of variation. Without appropriate design, control charts simply become data collection devices that do not support the process of continual improvement. Effective detection of signals and identification of the sources of variation results from appropriately designed control charts.
Answer:(Option2isRightAnswer)
Control Charts
Originated by Walter Shewhart, control charts are a type of graph for studying how a process changes over time. Samples are entered onto a control chart in a time-order sequence. By comparing data points to a central line average, with an upper control limit (UCL) and lower control limit (LCL), users can note variation, track common causes, and seek special causes. Alternative names are statistical process control charts and Shewhart charts.
Procedure
1. Choose the appropriate control chart for your data (Information about specific type appears later). 2. Determine the appropriate time period for collecting and plotting data. 3. Collect data, and construct the chart with trial control limits, using rational subgrouping. 4. Analyze the chart to determine process stability, looking for out-ofcontrol signals. 5. Resolve any control issues, looking for assignable causes. 6. Recalculate the limits as necessary. 7. Prepare charts and instructions for production use. 8. Take samples and record data on the control chart. 9. Look for out-of-control conditions. 10. When out-of-control conditions occur, take appropriate action. Otherwise, leave the process alone.
Attribute charts Use attribute data (data that counts items, such as the number of rejects or the number of errors). Control charts based on attribute data are generally less powerful. Sometimes more difficult to interpret than variable charts. Types: p-charts, np-charts, c-charts, u-charts. Samples are taken from lots of material where the number of defective units in the sample are counted (for p and np-charts) or the number of individual defects are counted for a defined unit (c and ucharts). Sample data are recorded in a time-order sequence on the chart. Attribute charts that count defectives (p charts and np charts) are based on the binomial distribution. Attribute charts that count defects (c charts and u charts) are based on the Poisson distribution.
The structure of both types of control charts is similar, but the statistical construction of the control limits is different due to the differences in the distributions.
X-Bar and R
The average and range chart or X-bar and R chart is the first type of variable control chart we will explore.
Finished
X-bar and s
The average and standard deviation chart (X-bar and s) is quite similar to the average and range chart, except that the statistic used to measure subgroup dispersion is the subgroup standard deviation, instead of the subgroup range. Mean-and-standard deviation (X-bar and s) control charts are conceptually similar to X-bar and R control charts. Instead of using the subgroups range, the X-bar and s use standard deviation (a measure of dispersion). With subgroups greater than 10, X-bar and s are more efficient than X-bar and R, but more difficult to calculate and understand.
Moving Range
Various control charts may be applicable depending on the situation and available data. Given the unknowns of future projects and situations, the Certified Quality professional may prefer to use the individual and moving range (X-MR, I-MR) control chart. Quality professionals often use this chart with limited data, such as when production rates are slow, testing costs are very high, or there is a high level of uncertainty relative to future projects. The individual and moving range chart is also used where data are plentiful, such as in the case of automatic testing of every unit where no basis exists for establishing subgroups. On a typical moving range chart, calculate the range between two successive units (n = 2), but more successive units may be included in the range calculation. The factors for calculating upper and lower control limits on the MR-chart are the same as those used in the R-chart. On the X-chart, plot every observation, and calculate the upper and lower limits using the factor E2.
X-MR
The individual and moving range chart (X-MR, I-MR) is applicable when the sample size used for process monitoring is n = 1. Also called I-MR, it is named moving range because of the calculation of a constant changing range between two successive values. Good for: individual measurements or situations where there is not a basis for rational subgrouping infrequently repeating processes process operating differently at different times
p-Charts
The p-chart is one of the most-used types of attribute charts. It shows the proportion of defective items in successive samples of equal or varying size. The proportion is the number of defectives divided by the number in the sample. To develop the control limits for a p-chart, consider this example, in which we are inspecting a variable sample size and recording the number of nonconforming items in each sample.
p-chart Concepts
Variable Sample Sizes Sample size n does not affect the centerline on a p-chart. However, the calculation of the upper and lower control limits is dependent on the sample size. Where a sample size is variable, a common technique is to calculate the upper and lower control limits using the average sample size. When using a chart with control limits, evaluate any points occurring near the upper or lower control limits to determine if, when the actual limits of the sample size are used, an out-of-control condition exists. Alternative Methods Once establishing the process average p, alternative methods are available to handle variable sample sizes. If using a computer to monitor the process, it is common to calculate the limits based on every sample size. Some refer to this process as having moving limits. OR Put two sets of limits on the chart, calculated using the maximum and minimum anticipated sample sizes. Then evaluate the points falling in between these two limits to determine if, when actual limits for the sample size are used, they signal out-of-control conditions.
np-Charts
The np-chart, number of defective units, is related to the p-chart. The np-chart is a control chart of the counts of nonconforming items (defectives) in successive samples of constant size. The np-chart can be used in place of the p-chart to plot the counts of nonconforming items when there is a constant sample size. In effect, using np-charts involves converting from proportions to a plot of the actual counts.
Each item must either possess or not possess the characteristic in question to the quality standard (items judged as acceptable or not acceptable, good or bad, etc.). The probability that a given item possesses the characteristic of interest is independent of whether there are or not preceding items.
Quality professionals often use X-MR charts instead of p and np-charts, especially when there is doubt about meeting the binomial model conditions.
c-Chart formula
Thecchartformulaassumescountingthenumberofdefectsinthesameareaofopportunity. Thecintheformulaisthenumberofdefectsfoundinthedefinedinspectionunit,andthatis plottedonthechart.Forexample,iftheinspectionunitis100forms,countthedefectsona sampleof100formsandplotthatnumberonthecchart.
c-Charts
Use the c-chart (c standing for counts) when you are interested in the number of defects per inspection unit. The formulas for the control limits for the c-chart (and the u-chart, discussed later) are based upon the Poisson model.
u-Chart Formula
With a u-chart, the number of inspection units may vary. The u-chart requires an additional calculation with each sample to determine the average number of defects per inspection unit. The n in the formula is the number of inspection units in the sample.
u-Charts
The u-chart monitors the defects (nonconformities) per unit when the number of inspection units is allowed to vary.
ForExample
A firm generates 250 forms in a given day and inspection found 27 errors. Since a sample contains 100 forms, 2.5 inspected units were examined (250 forms / 100 forms/sample). To calculate u (defects per unit), divide the number of errors by the inspection unit (27 errors / 2.5 inspection units). Plot the u = 10.8 defects per unit on the control chart.
Advantage Can be used where the nonconformities from many potential sources may be found in a single inspection.
Identifying Causes
Interpreting control charts is an art grounded in continual analysis over time. Many common anomalies (such as spikes and points outside the limits) may be obvious; however, some special causes are subtle, and noticed only by the keen observer using the control chart. Control charts help detect special causes that must be found and eliminated. On the bottom image, notice the difference between first and second shift. Where are special causes noted? Common causes?
Common Signals
To see some of the common signs of an abnormality on a control chart, roll over each term below to see a chart example. When finished, see the next screen for Western Electric guidelines for interpreting control charts.
Solution selection matrices are templates, and may vary in format to best fit the industry or business of interest. Keep in mind that just because something has been proven to have a statistical impact does not mean it has a practical impact!
Ho: p1 = p2 Ha: p1 p2 Sample 1 2 X 1417 421 N 2106 2106 Sample p 0.672840 0.199905
Estimate for p(1) - p(2): 0.472934 95% Confidence Interval for p(1) - p(2): (0.446604, 0.499264) Test for p(1) - p(2) = 0 (vs. not = 0): Z = 35.20 p-value = 0.000
The p-value <.05 (.0000), so the null hypothesis is rejected (Ha: p1 p2). They are statistically different. This test shows that implementing the suggested solutions will statistically improve the wholesale lockbox process within the corporate account department. The improved process should be maps are modified based on pilot data and analysis.
Validate Solutions
Step 4: Validate solutions. After implementing solutions, it is important to validate the solutions to see if the process has been statistically changed. To complete this step, use various tools such as measurement system capability re-analysis, post improvement capability analysis, and multi-vari studies: 1. The measurement system capability analysis (Gauge R&R) used during the Measure phase can be used here to see if there is an improvement with repeatability, reproducibility, and accuracy. Readminister the Gauge R&R study from the Measure phase and compare results. 2. To estimate process improvements gained through the projects life, compare the current process performance to the improved process performance. Complete a process capability study during the Measure phase to see how capable the process is currently performing and then again as a post-improvement capability analysis to see how capable the improved process is performing. 3. Determine improvement validation using multi-vari analysis comparing the before process to the improved process to see if a statistically significant gain will be realized from implementing the proposed solutions. The test statistic used for improvement validation is dependent on the type of data. Follow the hypothesis testing roadmap as seen in the Analyze lesson of this course to help you choose which statistical test is appropriate for your data.
Chi-square = 5.024, df = 1, p-value = 0.025 The p-value of 0.025 < 0.05, so the null hypothesis is rejected (Ha: pb > pa). The employee turnover rate from the before process compared to the after process is statistically different, reflecting a lower turnover rate during the latter time period.
The control plan is a collaborative effort created by the project team. As a Green Belt, remember to include representatives of all functions involved in the process, especially the process owner. Depending on the industry and the organization, control plans will vary in format and content. For the purpose of this course, typical control plan elements will be discussed. An action/control plan summarizes the: improved process depicting the process flow. key process indicators (metrics). responsibility of the Six Sigma project team members.
The mailroom for At Your Service Bank receives commingled mail from the post office. The mail is then sorted by the cost center with return mail separated, bundled, and logged. The return mail is then routed to the respective business unit where it is reviewed for address changes.
The departments within At Your Service Bank are the process output users.
3. List the department/persons. 4. Provide the process map. 5. Determine the specifications.
The departments with incoming/outgoing mail from At Your Service Bank are the persons required to perform the process steps.
Customer requirements: return mail volume of multiple customer relationship items is < 5% of total outgoing mail.
Quality indicators are used such as control charts, frequency, and sample size to verify that the requirement is met (such as once a day, when the error occurs, 100%, etc.). Use an X-bar and R chart to track the number of return mail items from customers with multiple relationships with correct address and other account(s). Check 10 weekly samples.
Return mail volume of multiple customer relationship items > 5% of total outgoing mail. Submit a universal system exception note to the IT department to review the multiple relationship maintenance feature.