Relational DataBase Management System (RDBMS)

The DBMS whose designed is based on relational theory in mathematics is called RDBMS. RDBMS packages are Oracle, Sybase and Informix etc. It supports largest of databases .It also provide access to many concurrent users.

Difference between DBMS & RDBMS

DBMS: It allows only one person to access the database at a given time. RDBMS: It allows many users simultaneously to access the database.

Relational Database Management System (RDBMS)

A DBMS that is based on relational model is called as RDBMS. Relation model is most successful mode of all three models. Designed by E.F. Codd, relational model is based on the theory of sets and relations of mathematics. Relational model represents data in the form a table. A table is a two dimensional array containing rows and columns. Each row contains data related to an entity such as a student. Each column contains the data related to a single attribute of the entity such as student name. One of the reasons behind the success of relational model is its simplicity. It is easy to understand the data and easy to manipulate.Another important advantage with relational model, compared with remaining two models is, it doesnt bind data with relationship between data item. Instead it allows you to have dynamic relationship between entities using the values of the columns. Almost all Database systems that are sold in the market, now- a-days, have either complete or partial implementation of relational model.

Relational Database: Definitions

Relational database: a set of relations. Relation: made up of 2 parts: Schema : specifies name of relation, plus name and type of each column. E.g. Students(sid: string, name: string, login: string, age: integer, gpa: real) Instance : a table, with rows and columns. #rows = cardinality #fields = degree / arity Can think of a relation as a set of rows or tuples. i.e., all rows are distinct

Example: University Database

Conceptual schema: Students(sid: string, name: string, Conceptual Schema login: string, age: integer, gpa:real) Courses(cid: string, cname:string, Physical Schema credits:integer) Enrolled(sid:string, cid:string, DB grade:string) External Schema (View): Course_info(cid:string,enrollment:integer) One possible Physical schema : Relations stored as unordered files. Index on first column of Students. View 1 View 2 View 3

Keys
Keys are a way to associate tuples in different relations Keys are one form of integrity constraint (IC)
Enrolled
sid 53666 53666 53650 53666 cid grade Carnatic101 C Reggae203 B Topology112 A History105 B

Students
sid 53666 53688 53650 name login Jones jones@cs Smith smith@eecs Smith smith@math age 18 18 19 gpa 3.4 3.2 3.8

FORIEGN Key

PRIMARY Key

Figure shows how data is represented in relational model and what are the terms used to refer to various components of a table. The following are the terms used in relational model.

Tuple / Row A single row in the table is called as tuple. Each row represents the data of a single entity. Attribute / Column A column stores an attribute of the entity. For example, if details of students are stored then student name is an attribute; course is another attribute and so on. Column Name Each column in the table is given a name. This name is used to refer to value in the column. Table Name Each table is given a name. This is used to refer to the table. The name depicts the content of the table.

The following are two other terms, primary key and foreign key, that are very important in relational model.

Primary Keys
A set of fields is a superkey if: No two distinct tuples can have same values in all key fields A set of fields is a candidate key for a relation if : It is a superkey No subset of the fields is a superkey what if >1 key for a relation? one of the candidate keys is chosen (by DBA) to be the primary key. E.g. sid is a key for Students. What about name? The set {sid, gpa} is a superkey.

Primary and Candidate Keys in SQL

Possibly many candidate keys (specified using UNIQUE), one of which is chosen as the primary key.

Keys must be used carefully! For a given student and course, there is a single grade.

CREATE TABLE Enrolled CREATE TABLE Enrolled (sid CHAR(20) (sid CHAR(20) cid CHAR(20), cid CHAR(20), vs. grade CHAR(2), grade CHAR(2), PRIMARY KEY (sid), PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid)) UNIQUE (cid, grade)) Students can take only one course, and no two students in a course receive the same grade.

Primary Key
A table contains the data related entities. If you take STUDETNS table, it contains data related to students. For each student there will be one row in the table. Each students data in the table must be uniquely identified. In order to identify each entity uniquely in the table, we use a column in the table. That column, which is used to uniquely identify entities (students) in the table is called as primary key. In case of STUDENTS table (see figure) we can use ROLLNO as the primary key as it in not duplicated. So a primary key can be defined as a set of columns used to uniquely identify rows of a table. Some other examples for primary keys are account number in bank, product code of products, employee number of an employee.

Composite Primary Key

In some tables a single column cannot be used to uniquely identify entities (rows). In that case we have to use two or more columns to uniquely identify rows of the table. When a primary key contains two or more columns it is called as composite primary key. In figure, we have PAYMENTS table, which contains the details of payments made by the students. Each row in the table contains roll number of the student, payment date and amount paid. Neither of the columns can uniquely identify rows. So we have to combine ROLLNO and DP to uniquely identify rows in the table. As primary key is consisting of two columns it is called as composite primary key.

Foreign Keys, Referential Integrity

Foreign key : Set of fields in one relation that is used to `refer to a tuple in another relation. Must correspond to the primary key of the other relation. Like a `logical pointer. If all foreign key constraints are enforced, referential integrity is achieved (i.e., no dangling references.)

Foreign Key
In relational model, we often store data in different tables and put them together to get complete information. For example, in PAYMENTS table we have only ROLLNO of the student. To get remaining information about the student we have to use STUDETNS table. Roll number in PAYMENTS table can be used to obtain remaining information about the student. The relationship between entities student and payment is one-tomany. One student may make payment for many times. As we already have ROLLNO column in PAYMENTS table, it is possible to join with STUDENTS table and get information about parent entity (student). Roll number column of PAYMENTS table is called as foreign key as it is used to join PAYMENTS table with STUDENTS table. So foreign key is the key on the many side of the relationship. ROLLNO column of PAYMENTS table must derive its values from ROLLNO column of STUDENTS table. When a child table contains a row that doesnt refer to a corresponding parent key, it is called as orphan record. We must not have orphan records, as they are result of lack of data integrity.

Foreign Keys in SQL

E.g. Only students listed in the Students relation should be allowed to enroll for courses.

sid is a foreign key referring to Students:

CREATE TABLE Enrolled (sid CHAR(20),cid CHAR(20),grade CHAR(2 PRIMARY KEY (sid,cid), FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES Students
Enrolled
sid 53666 53666 53650 53666 cid grade Carnatic101 C Reggae203 B Topology112 A History105 B
sid 53666 53688 53650

Students

name login Jones jones@cs Smith smith@eecs Smith smith@math

age 18 18 19

gpa 3.4 3.2 3.8

11111 English102 A

Integrity Constraints
A mechanism used to prevent invalid data entry into the table.

Domain integrity constraints. Entity integrity constraints. Referential integrity constraints.

Integrity Constraints (ICs)

IC: condition that must be true for any instance of the database; e.g., domain

constraints.

ICs are specified when schema is defined. ICs are checked when relations are modified. A legal instance of a relation is one that satisfies all specified ICs. DBMS should not allow illegal instances. If the DBMS checks ICs, stored data is more faithful to real-world meaning. Avoids data entry errors, too!

Integrity Rules
Data integrity is to be maintained at any cost. If data loses integrity it becomes garbage. So every effort is to be made to ensure data integrity is maintained. The following are the main integrity rules that are to be followed.

Domain integrity
Data is said to contain domain integrity when the value of a column is derived from the domain. Domain is the collection of potential values. For example, column date of joining must be a valid date. All valid dates form one domain. If the value of date of joining is an invalid date, then it is said to violate domain integrity.

Entity integrity
This specifies that all values in primary key must be not null and unique. Each entity that is stored in the table must be uniquely identified. Every table must contain a primary key and primary key must be not null and unique.

Referential Integrity

This specifies that a foreign key must be either null or must have a value that is derived from corresponding parent key. For example, if we have a table called BATCHES, then ROLLNO column of the table will be referencing ROLLNO column of STUDENTS table. All the values of ROLLNO column of BATCHES table must be derived from ROLLNO column of STUDENTS table. This is because of the fact that no student who is not part of STUDENTS table can join a batch

Where do ICs Come From?

ICs are based upon the semantics of the real-world that is being described in the database relations. We can check a database instance to see if an IC is violated, but we can NEVER infer that an IC is true by looking at an instance.
An IC is a statement about all possible instances! From example, we know name is not a key, but the assertion that sid is a key is given to us.

Key and foreign key ICs are the most common; more general ICs supported too.

Domain Integrity Constraints.

not null constraint (eg) Sql> create table customer (cust_id number(6) constraint cust not null, name varchar2(20)); check constraint (eg) Sql> create table order_info (order_id number(4) constraint checkit check (order_id>100), orderdate date, price number(7,2));

Entity Integrity Constraints.

unique constraint To prevent the duplicate values of a specified column. This constraint can also allow null values. (eg) Sql> create table price (prod_id number(6) constraint prod_cons unique, stdprice number(6,2), minprice number(8,2));

Entity Integrity Constraints.

primary key constraint To avoid the duplicate values of a specified column. This constraint does not allow null values. (eg) Sql> create table price (prod_id number(6) constraint prod_cons primary key, stdprice number(6,2), minprice number(8,2));

Referential Integrity Constraint

It establishes relationship between the two table have the same column. Column in the parent table as primary key and same column in the child table as foreign key.
(eg) create table product (prod_id number(6) constraint prd_fk references price (prod_id), prod_name varchar2(20));

Enforcing Referential Integrity

Consider Students and Enrolled; sid in Enrolled is a foreign key that references Students. What should be done if an Enrolled tuple with a nonexistent student id is inserted? (Reject it!) What should be done if a Students tuple is deleted? Also delete all Enrolled tuples that refer to it? Disallow deletion of a Students tuple that is referred to? Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a default sid? (In SQL, also: Set sid in Enrolled tuples that refer to it to a special value null, denoting `unknown or `inapplicable.) Similar issues arise if primary key of Students tuple is updated.

Relational Query Languages

A major strength of the relational model: supports simple, powerful querying of data. Queries can be written intuitively, and the DBMS is responsible for efficient evaluation. The key: precise semantics for relational queries. Allows the optimizer to extensively re-order operations, and still ensure that the answer does not change.

Relational Model: Summary

A tabular representation of data. Simple and intuitive, currently the most widely used Object-relational variant gaining ground Integrity constraints can be specified by the DBA, based on application semantics. DBMS checks for violations. Two important ICs: primary and foreign keys In addition, we always have domain constraints. Powerful query languages exist. SQL is the standard commercial one
DDL - Data Definition Language DML - Data Manipulation Language