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Electronic Circuits II - AC
Electronic Circuits II - AC
Electronic Circuits II - AC
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ALTERNATING CURRENT
(AC)
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
} FFF
p%# } |/| } F } FvsFFK| } Fs%FF|Fs| } |H|F
F|! F
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Alternator operation
Step #1
Step #2
S
N
N
+
no current!
Load
Load
Step #3
Step #4
N
S
no current!
Load
+
I
I
Load
|/R5|/213|-|/8-K*813-4/x*&
Step #2
S N
N S
S N
-
+
I
Load
Load
Step #3
N S
Step #4
S N
N S
S N
-
+
I
Load
Load
KF/|F } K#;F/F|!FrF
r#s/7|#krFCFs } | }
F#Fn } |F } F } F/ F r3
|Frr } FF9#9F[||K/#7F| } 3
F
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X| F=F|FF[F=F/ } F| } } F } %|| } |;|
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Induced AC
voltage
F|| } }
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0
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FFF } F } |[
Speed multiplication geartrain
Large gear
(many teeth)
Small gear
(few teeth)
high torque
low speed
low torque
high speed
"Step-down" transformer
high voltage
AC voltage
source
many
turns
low voltage
few turns
Load
high current
low current
p;V||0F|s|FFsFF|# } |!FFrF_ } F } |g
F /F K } [F#|9F/C
|/R5|/213|-|/8-K*813-4/x*&
high torque
low speed
"Step-up" transformer
high voltage
AC voltage
source
low voltage
few turns
many turns
Load
high current
low current
Home or
Business
low voltage
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
Pq,0z|$K{~u
Time
x*0|81II+.5
D
2yD
D&:D:
:::::::::::3::
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E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::(
E:v::::::::::3::
E:v::::::::::3::
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E:v::::::::::A&3::
"Ev::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A&3::(
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::v::::::::::A&3::
::v::::::::::A::
:T&"ER:&
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::v::::::::::A&3::
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:SD&
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
90
180
270
360
(0)
90
180
270
360
(0)
Alternator shaft
position (degrees)
Frequency in Hertz =
1
Period in seconds
x*0|81II+.5
Note
Musical designation
A1
261.63
277.18
293.66
311.13
329.63
349.23
F# or Gb
369.99
392.00
G
#
G or A
415.30
440.00
A
A sharp (or B flat)
D or E
246.94
E
F sharp (or G flat)
233.08
C# or Db
D
D sharp (or E flat)
A or B
B1
C (middle)
C sharp (or D flat)
220.00
A or B
466.16
493.88
1
523.25
F# G# A#
Gb Ab Bb
C# D#
Db Eb
F# G# A#
Gb Ab Bb
C# D#
Db Eb
F# G# A#
Gb Ab Bb
C D E F G A B C D E F G A B C D E F G A B
one octave
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
Triangle wave
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Time
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Peak-to-Peak
Time
(
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10 V
10 V
(peak)
Time
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Bandsaw
Jigsaw
blade
motion
wood being
cut
wood being
cut
blade
motion
(analogous to DC)
(analogous to AC)
C
*2|/213P5:C*x*/2|1+.
5 A RMS
2
10 V
RMS
50 W
power
dissipated
5 A RMS
Equal power dissipated through
equal resistance loads
5A
2
10 V
5A
50 W
power
dissipated
D^1352|13^1I-0/65
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RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
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100
10 V
R2
R3
400
500
7DT5:^I1Tx**8
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4
4
)
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
Rtotal = 1 k
Etotal
Itotal =
Itotal =
10 V
1 k
Rtotal
Itotal = 10 mA
ER1 = ItotalR1
ER1 = 1 V
ER2 = ItotalR2
ER3 = ItotalR3
ER2 = 5 V
ER3 = 4 V
10m
100
R2
R3
Total
10
Volts
10m
10m
10m
Amps
500
400
1k
Ohms
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A B
A B
A B
;A
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;A
=90
>270
180
Adegrees
@(0)
?360
=90
@(0)
?360
>270
180
<0
=90
180
>270
?360
@(0)
=90
180
>270
?360
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Adegrees
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A B
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AC voltage
produced
Radio receivers
AC current
produced
electromagnetic radiation
electromagnetic radiation
Radio transmitters
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length = 7
angle = 0 degrees
length = 10
angle = 180 degrees
length = 5
angle = 90 degrees
length = 4
angle = 270 degrees
(-90 degrees)
length = 9.43
angle = 302.01 degrees
(-57.99 degrees)
length = 5.66
angle = 45 degrees
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Amplitude
Vector representation
Length
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hKGQ]LOUWNF^`FHJ^FKN`L_ZKGITd!^zkGbD{NTOs^SbLOUWFKp^Qu^TOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGmUWFL_UsYGwQOhH^iiW|fd
ZHGIFL_ZKGejKZH^QOG0NDt^
d^zkGbD{NTOsUF^gSIUT$SbhHUxLU\QGIPjKTOGRQOQOGJfULnU\QT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGJL_NgLOZKGjaNld!GITnQ]hKjHjKi|BkNixL$^`pG
d!^zkGbD{NT_s ^`T_VKUxL_T_^TOUWiW|
Q]L_^lL_GJL_NVXGn^`L_ w
GsBGstVXGITLOZH^`LjKZH^Q]GUWQ^`iWd!^z|PQ^ O z sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFLVXGbLd!GIGFgLd!N
d!^zkGbD{NT_scQ
T$^lLOZHGITLOZa^`Fq^`F^`VHQONiWhPL_GjKT_NjXGITOL|w
\ M
K Kr
onn
Waveforms
Phase relations
Vector representations
(of "A" waveform with
reference to "B" waveform)
A B
A B
A is ahead of B
90 degrees
(A "leads" B)
B is ahead of A
-90 degrees
(B "leads" A)
180 degrees
A
angle
B
phase shift
ZKGpT_G^lL_GITLOZKGjKZH^QOGQOZKUDLgUFJKGIpT_GIGRQVXGbLd!GIGF0Ld!N[d!^zkGbD{NTOscQfKLOZHGpTOGR^lLOGTL_ZKGB^FKpiWGtJPUGIT_GIFHSIG
VXGbLd!GIGIFqL_ZKGSINT_TOGRQ]jXNFaJPUFHpckGSbLONT_Qw
nGUFHp^cT_GIi\^lLOUWkGgsYGR^QOhKTOGsYGIFLfaiUWvGkNiL_^pGfKjKZH^Q]GtQOZKUDL kGSbLONT
^`FHpiWG NFHi|ZH^QsYG^FKUWFKpcUFT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGrL_N[Q]NsBGoQ]L_^FHJK^T_Jd!^zkGbD{NTOsqwrGIFHGIT$^`iWi|cL_ZKU\Q`T_GbD{GTOGFHSbGRtd^zkGI
D{NT_s2U\QL_ZKG!sY^UFBmjXNldnGTQOhKjKjKiW|okNiL_^`pGUWFtL_ZKG!SIUT$SbhHUxLRw EDKL_ZKGIT_G!UWQsYNT_GL_ZH^`FNFKGekNiL_^`pGQONhKT$SbGf
LOZHGIFqNFKGgNDL_ZKNQOGgQ]NhKT$SbGQ!U\Q^`T_VKULOT$^`T_UiW|[S$ZKNQ]GFL_NBVXGgL_ZKGgjKZH^Q]GT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGrD{NT^iiNLOZKGT
sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL$Q
UWFL_ZKGoSbUWT$SbhKULw
ZKU\QoSbNFHSbGjPLtND
^qT_GbD{GTOGFHSbGcjXNUWFLtU\QgFKN`LhKFKiWUvGcLOZH^`LtN`DL_ZKG`pTONhKFHJKjXNUWFLUF^0SIUT$SbhHUxLgD{NToLOZHG
VXGIFKGIKLNDkNiL_^pGgT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGw!ULOZM^cSIiGR^`T_i|uJPGbaFKGJjXNUWFLUWFLOZKGSbUWT_SIhKUxLrJPGSIiW^TOGRJuLON[VXGt`pTONhKFHJf YUL
VXGSbNsYGQjXNQ_QOUVKiWGLONoL_^`iWv^VaNhPLkNiL_^`pG`NFHrNT^lL_gQOUWFKpiWG
jaNUFL$QUWF[^oSbUWT_SIhKULfVXGIUWFKpohHFHJPGIT$Q]LONNPJBLOZH^`L
LOZHNQOGkNixL$^`pGQ ^`iWd!^z|PQgT_GIi\^lL_UkG[VaGILdnGGIF
jXNUWFL_Q ^TOG[T_GbD{GTOGFHSbGRJeLONe`pT_NhHFHJw nNT_TOGRQ]jXNFHJKUFKpi|f
d
ULOZ^mSbiWG^TOiW|JPGIHFKGJyjXNUWFLN`DTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGuD{NTcjKZH^Q]GUL[VXGSbNsYGQcjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGqLONQOjaGR^`vNDrkNiL_^pGQY^FHJ
SbhHTOT_GIFL_QUF[^FY SIUT$SbhKULZH^zkUWFKpoJPGbaFKUxL_GjKZH^Q]G^`FKpiGRQIw}K^`sYjKiWGlLOZHGSbhKT_T_GIFL}LOZKT_NhHpZYTOGRQ]U\Q]LONT
UWQ
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^lL! JPGpT_GIGRQIf od
ZKU\S$ZusBGR^`FHQnL_ZKGoSbhKT_T_GIFL!d^zkGID{NT_siW^pQ ` VXGIZKUWFHJLOZKGsc^`UWFqQ]NhKT_SIG
kNixL$^`pGd^zkGID{NT_suw
b&%
n
H
0n0n
ZKGIFuhHQOGJcL_NBJKGQ_SbT_UVXGr^F ha^`FLOUL|fLOZHGriWGIFHp`LOZN`D^tkGSL_NT!TOGjKT_GQOGIFL_QLOZKG^`sYjKiWULOhHJPGNDLOZHG
d!^zkGd
ZKUWiGLOZHG^FKpiWGrN`D^kGRSL_NT!TOGjKTOGRQ]GFL_QLOZKGjKZH^Q]G^`FHpiWGNDLOZHGrd^zkGTOGiW^`LOUWkGLONcQ]NsYGNLOZKGT
{T_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbG d^zkGID{NT_suw
d 3\(!A~ jA~\*
? $
GsBGstVXGITYL_ZH^lLckGRSL_NT$Q^TOGusc^lLOZHGIsc^lL_UWS^`i
NVK~GSL$Q~hHQLciWUvGqFhHstVXGIT$QNFy^MFhKstVXGITciWUWFKGLOZKG|SI^F
V Gq^JKJPGRJfnQOhKVPL_T_^SLOGRJfshKiLOUWjKiUWGJf!^FHJ JKUkU\JPGJwJHJPUxL_UNFUWQYjXGIT_ZH^`jaQtL_ZKGqG^Q]UWGQ]LckGSbLONTNjaGT_^`LOUWNF
X
LONukUWQOhH^iU IGfQ]NudnG iWiVaGpUWFd
ULOZMLOZH^`Lw EDnkGRSL_NT$Qd
ULOZmSbNsYsYNFe^`FKpiGRQ^TOGY^JHJPGJfL_ZKGIUWTsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
{iWGIFHp`LOZaQ ^JKJhHj~haQLiWUWvGTOGphKi\^`T
Q_SI^iW^T hH^FL_UxL_UGRQI
length = 6
angle = 0 degrees
length = 8
total length = 6 + 8 = 14
angle = 0 degrees
angle = 0 degrees
kNixL$^`pGQ^JKJt~hHQ]L^Q|NhusBUWpZLGIjXGSbLd UxL_ZVH^lLOLOGTOUWGQ
6V
0 deg
+
-
8V
0 deg
+
14 V
6V
0 deg
14 V
8V
iWG^Q]GFKNLOG
L_ZKG E
^`FHJ { jXNi\^`T_UL|tsc^`T_vPQFKGbLL_NgLOZKGiGR^JKQ}NDLOZKG
Ld!NoQ]NhKT_SIGQwkGFtL_ZKNhKpZ
d!GovFKNld2JKNGRQ]F LrZH^zkGojaNiW^TOUL|PYUFL_ZKGQ_^`sYGtQOGIFaQ]GgL_ZH^lLrJPNGRQIfaLOZKGRQ]Gsc^`T_vQ^`T_GoGQ_Q]GFLOU\^`iL_N
vFKNld
UWFKp[ZKNldL_NT_GbD{GIT_GIFaSbGoL_ZKGBpUWkGIFjHZH^QOG^FKpiWGQN`D}L_ZKGkNiL_^pGQwZKU\Qrd
UiWiVaGRSbNsYGBsYNT_Gt^`jKja^`T_GIFL
UWFL_ZKGgFKGILGIK^`sYjKiWGw
EDkGSL_NT$QnJKUT_GSbLOiW|cNjKjXNQOUFHptG^S$Z[N`L_ZKGIT ]
NhPL!NDjKZH^Q]G ^TOG^JHJPGJ[LONpGbL_ZKGITRfL_ZKGIUWTsc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGQ
{iWGIFHp`LOZaQ QOhKVPL_T_^SL~hHQ]LiUWvGgjXNQOUxL_UkGg^`FHJFKGIp^lL_UkGQ_SI^iW^T ha^`FLOULOUWGQ
QOhKVPL_T_^SL
d
ZKGIF^JKJPGJ
KPy0n
I
6V
8V
180 deg
+
0 deg
+
-
6V
2V +
180 deg
8V
2V
`[ M M
eGoSbNhHiWJZH^zkGn~hHQ]L^Q!d!GIiWiQOZKNld FL_ZKGgNjHjaNQ]UWFKpBkNiL_^pGRQ!QOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpYUWFQ]GTOUWGQ!iWUvGLOZKU\QI
8V
0 deg
+
-
0 deg
6V
6V
+
2V
180 deg
2V
8V
+
-
NLOGZKNld,LOZKGujaNiW^TOULOUWGQ^`jKjXG^TtL_NVXGNjKjaNQ]GRJmLONMG^S$ZN`LOZHGITBFKNldgf}JPhKGLON0L_ZKGT_GIkGIT$QO^iN`Dd
UT_G
bS NFKFKGRSLOUWNFaQNFL_ZKG
kNiLoQ]NhKT_SIGw PUFHSIGYVaNLOZmQ]NhKT_SIGQ^`T_GtiWU\QL_GJm^QrZH^zkUWFKpG hH^`ijKZH^Q]GY^`FHpiWGQ f
LOZHGI|BLOT_hKiW|Y^TOGNjKjXNQOGJBL_NtNFHG^`FHN`LOZHGITRf^`FaJYLOZKGNlkGT_^iiKGIXGRSL!UWQLOZKGrQO^sYG^QLOZKGD{NT_sYGITnQ_SbGFH^`T_UWNod
UxL_Z
^JKJPULOUWkGRtjXNi\^`T_UxL_UGRQ
^`FHJuJPUXGTOUWFKpcjKZa^QOG^FKpiWGQ}^LON`L$^`ikNiL_^`pGNDNFKiW|
kNiL_Qw
n
H
0n0n
6V
0 deg
+
-
8V
0 deg
+
-
+
2V
180 deg
2V
0 deg
ZKGT_GQOhKiL_^FLnkNiL_^pGS^`FcVXGGbPjKT_GQ_QOGJYUWFcLdnNoJKUxGIT_GIFLnd^z|PQI
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UWTOGRQD{T_Ns^`Fu kNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGU\QL_ZKGQO^sBGr^QnjKZH^Q]GIEQOZKUDLOUWFKp
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180 deg
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(%
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0 deg
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-
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^BjaNLOGFL_UW^iiW|SINFPD{haQ]UWFKpcQ]hHVP~GSbLwD{GIdUWiiWhHQ]LOT$^lLOUWNFaQnsc^z|[ZHGIiWjL_N[Sbi\^`T_UxD{|[LOZKGgU\QOQOhKGw
GsBGstVXGITYL_ZKUWQYUWsYjaNT]L$^`FLcTOhHiGjKZH^QOGuUWQ[^ O l sYG^Q]hKT_GIsYGFLRfL_ZKG0^`sYNhHFLcNDrQOZKUxDL^id^z|PQ
VXGIUWFKpYTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGJcL_NYNFKGrjH^`TOLOU\SbhHiW^T!d^zkGID{NT_sUWFq^BSIUT$SbhHUxLRwd^zkGID{NT_sV|[UL_QOGIiDT_G^iiW|[JPNGQOF L
ZH^zkGr^
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UxL_ZN`LOZHGIT
d^zkGbD{NTOscQnLOZa^lLd!GgSI^`FQ_^`sYGo^`F|LOZHUFKpYsYG^FKUWFKp`D{hKi
^`VXNhKL!`UL_QnjKZH^Q]Gw FHJd
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LOZa^lLnd^zkGID{NT_s Q}QONhKT$SbGUWQnQ]GTOkUWFKpt^QLOZKGTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGjXNUWFLRw}Ni\^`T_UxL|osc^TOvPQNF[ kNixL$^`pGQONhHT_SIGQ}GIU\Q]L
QOUsYjKiW|cLONBjKT_NlkUWJPG^tD{T_^sBGNDTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGD{NTjKZH^QOG^`FKpiGRQIfT$^lLOZHGIT!LOZH^FL_NB^SL_hH^`iWi|[JKGIFKNLOGjaNiW^TOUL|cN`D^
T_G^`ikNiL_^pGw
ZKU\QU\Q!^`FH^iNpNhaQLONLOZKGjaNiW^TOUL|sc^TOvUWFKpgN`DgykNiLOsYGbL_GITL_GQ]L!iWG^JKQnV|cSINiWNTRT_GJ[^FHJ[VKi\^S$vw F
GIiWGSbLOT_NFKU\SIQnd!NT_vXfT_GJcL|jKU\SI^iiW|cT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_Qn`jXNQOUxL_UkG^`FHJVKiW^S$vYL|jKUWS^`iWi|YT_GIjKT_GQOGIFL$QnFKGIp^lLOUWkGw tNGQ
LOZHUWQsYG^FL_ZH^lLL_ZKGYTOGRJ0L_GQ]LiWG^J0NFe^kNixL_sBGILOGTrd
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kNixL$^`pGtQ]NhKT$SbGt^FHJL_ZKGtVKi\^S$vuL_GQ]LriWG^J
` SbNFKFKGRSLOGRJL_N[LOZHGFKGp^`LOUWkGRDnSINhKT$Q]GtFKN`LRrZHNGkGT
hHQOGQLOZKGokNiLOsYGbL_GITU\Q
D{T_GIGoLONSINFKFKGRSLUL^SbT_NQ_Q
^ckNixL$^`pGgQONhKT$SbGgZHNldnGkGITL_ZKGI|ujKiWG^Q]Gw!Za^lLL_ZKGoL_GQ]L
iWG^JSbNiWNT$QtJKNU\QtjKT_NlkUWJKG^ c O OI $ D{NTLOZKGusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`iQ]UWpFN`D
LOZHGuJPU\QOjKiW^z|GJkNiL_^pG
Po- M
Z
+
P i
Z
b
P"
KP
2o
V
V
A
A
OFF
OFF
COM
6V
COM
6V
UWvGd
UWQOGf
^FHJ jXNi\^`T_UxL|sY^TOvUWFKpQ!D{NT^FqkNiL_^`pGgQ]NhKT_SIGo^`T_GgpUWkGFqQOUWsBjHi|LON[jHTONlkU\JPGg^
D{T$^`sYGtNDTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGgD{NTrUFL_GIT_jKTOGILOUWFKpcL_ZH^lLgQ]NhKT$SbG QQ]L_^`LOGRJjKZH^Q]GB^`FKpiGwFHN`LOZHGITrUiWihaQL_T_^`LOUWNFsc^z|qZKGIiWj
UWFehHFHJPGIT$Q]L_^`FaJPUFHpL_ZKU\QIw PhKjKjXNQOGYLOZH^`LgLdnNqhKFKi\^`VXGIiWGJmgkNiL_^pGYQ]NhKT$SbGQ^TOGcSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJMLONpGbL_ZKGITgUWF
QOGIT_UGRQIf^`FaJ0d!Gd^`FLL_NL_TO|qL_NuJKGbLOGTOsYUWFKGYd
ZH^lLrLOZHGtL_N`L_^iTOGRQ]hKiL_^FLrkNiL_^`pGoU\QV|T_G^JPUFHp[LOZHGBkNiL_^pG
^SITONQOQG^S$Z0NFKG {UWFHJPUWkUWJKhH^`iWi| d
UxL_Ze^kNixL_sBGILOGTfXLOZHGIFeGIULOZKGT^JKJPUWFKpNTrQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UFKpusc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`iWi|
LONBHFaJuLOZKGg^`FaQ]d!GITRw}UWT$QLRfPdnGgd!NhKi\JsBGR^QOhKT_GL_ZKGgkNixL$^`pGrN`DNFHGQONhHT_SIG
n
H
0n0n
A
OFF
COM
Source 1
Source 2
Total voltage?
24 V
Source 1
Source 2
Total voltage?
b
P"
KP
2o
A
OFF
Source 1
COM
Source 2
Total voltage?
r M
24 V
Source 1
+[ M
17 V
Source 2
+
Total voltage = 7 V
FKiW|c^lDLOGT
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Ld!NkNiL_^pG[QONhKT$SbGRQo^`T_GcNjHjaNQ]UWFKpG^S$ZN`L_ZKGITRfT_GQOhKiLOUWFKp0UWF^qLONL_^ikNixL$^`pGcN`D
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LOZHGQ_^`sYG!jKhKT_jaNQ]G
^QL_ZKGTOGRJt^FHJtVHiW^S$voSbNiWNT$QN`DX^rgmkNixL_sYGbLOGT QLOGRQL}iWG^JHQIw EDHL_ZKGIT_Gnd^QQOhHS$ZY^L_ZKUFHp
^Q^u`jKZa^QOGIsYGbL_GIT$cLOZa^lLoSbNhKiWJeJPUWTOGRSL_i|UWFHJPU\SI^`LOGYjKZH^Q]GY^`FKpiG {ULod!NhKi\J0T_G hKUWTOGY^uQ]GRSbNFaJkNiL_^pG
QONhKT$SbGrLON[^SL^Q
^YTOGID{GIT_GIFHSIGrUWFuLOUWsYG faUxLrSbNhHiWJujKT_NlkUWJPGrLd!NcJPUxGIT_GIFLUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQ
NDjHZH^QOGo^`FKpiGd
ZKUWiWG
sYG^Q]hKT_UWFKptL_ZKGgd^zkGbD{NTOsNDL_ZKGoQO^sYGQONhKT$SbGfJKGIjXGIFHJPUWFKpcNFuZHNldd!GSINFKFHGSL_GJLOZKGL_GQ]LiGR^JKQ
n
H
0n0n
"phasemeter"
- 0 deg +
black
red
red
180 deg
black
+
"phasemeter"
NafPd
ZKGIFq|NhuQOGIGg^FukNixL$^`pGJPGRQ]UWpFH^`LOGRJ^Q!QOhHS$Zmw
w
w
8V
0 deg
+
ww
w}UxL
sYG^FHQ!LOZa^lL
NhKT
Z|jXN`LOZHGbLOU\SI^i`jKZH^Q]GsYGbLOGT_d!NhKi\J[T_G^JjKZa^QOGQOZKUDL
d
UxL_ZuUL_Q
FKGIp^lL_UkG
V
?
3P *
!A(j$A%\*
Vector addition
length = 10
angle = 53.13
degrees
length = 8
angle = 90 degrees
length = 6
angle = 0 degrees
6 at 0 degrees
8 at 90 degrees
10 at 53.13 degrees
EDLd!NkNiL_^pGQ
gNhPLN`DjKZa^QOG 0^`T_Gt^JKJKGJL_NpGbLOZHGITrV|VXGIUWFKpqSbNFKFKGSbLOGRJUFeQ]GTOUWGQfXLOZKGUT
kNixL$^`pGBsc^pFKULOhHJKGQtJKNFKN`LJKUT_GSbLOiW|e^JKJmNTtQOhKVPL_T_^SLt^Qgd
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K
a Y
2 a I
6V
0 deg
+
-
8V
90 deg
+
10 V
53.13 deg
nNsYjH^TOGRJuLONuSIUT$SbhHUxLg^`FH^i|PQOUWQfaLOZKU\QU\QrkGTO|qQL_T_^FKpGtUFHJKGIGJwN`L_GoLOZa^lLUxL QrjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGoLONNVPL$^`UWF
kNixL_sYGbLOGTUWFHJPU\SI^`LOUWNFHQN`D ^FHJ
kNiL_QfT_GQOjaGRSLOUWkGi|f^SbT_NQ_QLOZKGLdnN kNiL_^pGQONhKT$SbGRQIf|GbL!NFKiW|BTOGR^J
BkNiL_QnD{NT^L_N`L_^ikNixL$^`pG
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ULOZcFHN`LOZHUFKpgUWFYVaGILdnGGIFwULOZ[flLd!N
kNixL$^`pGQS^`FoVXG^`U\JPUFHpNTNjKjXNQOUWFKpNFKGn^FKN`L_ZKGIT E `H E O$ VaGILdnGGIFgD{hKiWiW|^`U\JPUWFKp^FHJgD{hHiiW|NjKjaNQ]UWFKpaf
UWFHSbiWhHQOUkGwUxL_ZKNhKLnL_ZKGhHQOGNDkGRSLONT SbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT FKN`L$^lLOUWNF[LONJKGQ_SbT_UVXG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQIfUL!d!NhKi\J
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FYLOZHGFKGILnQ]GRSL_UNFfd!G iWiaiWG^TOFcZKNldyL_NtT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLkGRSL_NT hH^FL_UxL_UGRQUWFQO|stVXNiWUWS
T$^lL_ZKGITLOZH^F[pT$^`jHZP
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sYGbL_ZKNPJKQNDQO|stVXNiWUWQOsshHQLVXGohHQOGJuUD^`F|QOGIT_UNhHQ
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kNiL_^pGRQSI^FNFKiW|gGIULOZKGTJKUT_GSbLOiW|t^`U\JoNTJKUT_GSbLOiW|gNjKjXNQOGnGR^S$ZN`LOZHGITd
ZKGIFYSbNFKFKGRSLOGRJoUWFBQOGIT_UWGQw
kNixL$^`pGQ!sc^z|^`U\JNT
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-
(P#
%!A#BC\oArA%\(
n
H
0n0n
8.06 -29.74
(8.06
330.26 )
o
8.49 45o
5.39 158.2
7.81 230.19
(7.81
-129.81 )
kGRSL_NT$Q^FKpiWGJ0JPNld
FHSI^`FMZH^zkGB^`FKpiGRQT_GIjHTOGRQ]GFL_GJUWFejaNiW^TD{NTOs^QjXNQOULOUWkGBFhHstVXGIT$QUWFMGIKSbGQ_QN`D
KfNTrFKGp^lL_UkGtFhKsVaGT_QriWGQ_QL_ZH^`F HwgKNTGIP^sYjKiGf^[kGSL_NT^`FKpiGRJ
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F SI^F
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[ H
r
90o
180o
270o
(-90o)
GRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqfNFL_ZKGcN`L_ZKGITgZa^`FHJfUWQd
ZHGIT_GY^SINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGTgUWQgJKGIFKNLOGJeV|0UL_QgT_GQOjXGSL_UkG
ZKNTOU INFL$^`iH^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^`iaSbNsYjXNFKGFL_Qw FGQ_Q]GFHSbGfL_ZKG^FKpiWGJYkGSL_NTU\QL_^`vGIFYL_NtVXGLOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGND^
T_UpZLLOT_UW^FKpiWGfXJPGQ_SbT_UVXGJqV|LOZKGiGFKp`L_ZHQNDLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^FHJqNjHjaNQ]ULOGtQOU\JPGQw^lL_ZKGITLOZH^FJPGRQOSITOUWVKUWFKp
^[kGSbLONT QiWGIFKpLOZe^`FHJ0JKUT_GSbLOUWNFV|JPGFKN`L_UFKpusc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGY^`FHJ^`FKpiGfXULUWQJPGRQOSITOUWVaGRJ0UWF0L_GIT_sYQN`D!`ZKNld
D^`T
iWGbDL zT_UpZL_Y^`FHJu`ZHNldD^`ThHj lJPNld
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FBNT$JPGITLONJPU\QL_UFKphKU\Q]ZtLOZKGZKNTOU INFL$^`i^`FHJtkGT]L_UWS^`iJPUsYGFHQ]UWNFaQD{T_Ns2GR^S$ZN`LOZHGITRfzLOZKGkGT]L_UWS^`iUWQjKT_GbHGRJ
!
K
a Y
2 a I
4 + j0
4 + j4
"4 right and 4 up"
-4 + j4
"4 left and 4 up"
-4 + j0
"4 left and 0 up/down"
4 - j4
"4 right and 4 down"
-4 -j4
"4 left and 4 down"
+ "imaginary"
+j
- "real"
+ "real"
-j
- "imaginary"
ZKGZHNT_U NFL_^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLU\QT_GbD{GTOT_GJrL_N^QLOZHG O
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d
ULOZFHNT_sY^ifrQOS^`i\^`T `T_G^iW FhKstVXGIT$QwZHGMkGITOLOU\SI^`iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLqUWQTOGID{GIT_TOGRJLON^QLOZHG I
SbNsYjaNFKGIFLfQ]UWFHSIGYLOZH^`LJPUWsBGFHQOUNFeiWUWGQgUWF^JPUxGIT_GIFLtJPUWT_GSL_UNFfLON`L$^`iWi|M^`iWUGFML_NqLOZKGQOS^`iWGBNDnL_ZKG[T_G^i
MH i-
n
H
0n0n
FhKstVXGIT$Qw
ZKGTOGR^`i\^`U\QN`DL_ZKG
pT$^`jKZYSbNTOT_GQOjXNFHJKQL_NgLOZKGD^sYUiWUW^TFhKstVXGITiUWFKG
d!GQO^zd G^`T_iWUGTL_ZKGNFKG
d
UxL_Z
VXN`LOZjXNQOULOUWkGg^`FHJuFKGp^`LOUWkGgkl^`iWhKGQNFqUxLRwnZKGtUsc^pUWFH^`T_|Pt^lPU\Q
N`DLOZHGopT$^`jKZqSbNTOT_GQOjXNFHJKQnL_N[^`FKNLOZKGT
FhKstVXGIT
iWUWFKGoQ]ULOha^lLOGRJq^lL
L_NYLOZKGoTOGR^`i\tNFKGw }GRSL_NT$QVaGUFKpBLd!N`JPUWsBGFHQOUNFH^`iXLOZHUFKpQIfHdnGsthaQLZH^zkG
^LdnNEJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFH^i`sc^`jHBhKjXNFqd
ZKU\S$ZuLONYGbPjKT_GQ_Q!LOZHGIsqfPLOZhHQ
LOZKGLd!NYFhHstVXGIT
iWUFKGRQ
jXGIT_jaGFHJPU\SbhKi\^`TL_N
G^S$ZNLOZKGT
#
&5
(4
%3
'2
"imaginary"
number line
$0
...
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
1
"real" number line
-1
%3
&5
...
-2
-3
-4
-5
ULOZHGITtsYGILOZKNPJNDFKN`L$^lLOUWNFUWQkl^`iWUWJmD{NTSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$QIwMZKGjKT_UWsY^TO|eT_G^QONFmD{NTtZH^zkUWFKpLd!N
sYGbL_ZKNPJKQND}FKN`L$^lLOUWNFU\QD{NTGR^QOGgN`DiWNFKpZH^`FaJuS^`i\SbhKi\^lL_UNFfXTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NT_siWGIFHJKUFKpUxL$Q]GixD}L_N^JHJPUxL_UNF
^`FaJQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWNFfK^`FHJujXNi\^`T!D{NT_siWGIFHJKUFKpYUL_QOGIiDL_NcsthKiLOUWjKiWUWS^lL_UNFq^FHJuJPUkU\Q]UWNFw
nNFkGIT$Q]UWNFVXGbLd!GIGFL_ZKGuLdnNmFKNL_^lL_UNFH^`i!D{NTOscQBUFkNiWkGQBQOUsYjKiWGuLOT_UpNFKNsBGILOT_|wNSbNFkGITOLtD{T_Ns
jXNi\^`TLONmTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^TfHFaJL_ZKGqTOGR^`i
SbNsBjXNFHGIFLBV|shKixL_UjHi|UWFKpL_ZKGqjaNiW^TYsY^pFKULOhaJPGV|mL_ZKGSbNQOUWFKG
N`D}L_ZKGY^`FKpiGfX^FHJqLOZHGUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|uSbNsYjXNFKGFLV|qsthKiLOUWjKiW|UWFKpLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKGtV|uLOZKGBQ]UWFKGtNDLOZHG
^`FHpiWGw
ZKU\Qsc^z|VXGthKFaJPGIT$QL_NNJqsYNTOGgT_G^JPUiW|V|qJPT$^zd
UFKpYL_ZKG hH^FL_UxL_UGRQ^QQOUWJPGRQND}^[TOUWpZL
LOT_U\^`FKpiGf
LOZHGZ|jaNLOGIFhHQOGNDXL_ZKGL_TOU\^`FHpiWG
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d
UxL_Z[T_GQOjaGRSLL_NoLOZHG
ZKNTOU INFL$^`iHSINFHQ]LOULOhKLOUWFKpgLOZHGjXNi\^`TD{NTOs fL_ZKGZKNTOU INFL_^`iK^FHJckGITOLOU\SI^`iaQ]U\JPGQTOGjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpLOZHG`T_G^iW^FHJ
`UWsc^`pUFH^TO|PtTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TSINsYjXNFKGFL$QIfPT_GQOjXGSL_UkGIiW|
K
a Y
2 a I
length = 5
+j3
angle =
36.87o
+4
)5 36.87
(polar form)
(5)(cos 36.87o) = 4
(real component)
(imaginary component)
(5)(sin 36.87 ) = 3
(rectangular form)
4 + j3
ZKGNT_GIs L_ZKGjaNiW^Tsc^pFKULOhHJKG!U\QLOZKGZ|jaNLOGFhaQ]G!N`Da^T_UpZLLOT_U\^`FKpiGf`^`FHJoLOZKGT_G^`iP^FHJoUWsc^`pUWFH^TO|gSbNsB
jXNFKGFL$Q^TOGoLOZKGB^Jz~]^SbGIFL^`FHJqNjKjaNQ]ULOGBQ]U\JPGRQIfXTOGRQ]jXGSbLOUWkGi| f^`FaJqLOZKGB^`FKpiGtV|uL$^`vUFHpcLOZKGY^`T$SL$^`FKpGIFL
N`DLOZHGgUsc^`pUFa^`T_|[SbNsYjXNFKGFL
JKUkU\JPGJuV|cLOZHGgTOGR^`iSbNsYjaNFKGIFL
*4 + j3
+c = ,a
(rectangular form)
(pythagorean theorem)
+ b2
polar magnitude =
*4
+ 32
polar magnitude = 5
*34
)5 36.87
b&%
(polar form)
n
H
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kGSbLONT ^`FHJLOZKGgQOGSINFHJ ha^`FLOUL|[U\Q!LOZKGg`UWsc^`pUFH^TO|PoSINsYjXNFKGFL#kGITOLOU\SI^iXJKUsYGIFaQ]UWNFuN`DkGSbLONT w
nNLOZYjXNi\^`Tn^FHJBTOGRSL$^`FKphKiW^T}D{NT_scQ}N`DFKNL_^`LOUWNFYD{NTn^oSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGIT!SI^FcVaGT_GIi\^lL_GJYpT_^jKZKU\SI^`iWiW|
UFLOZKGD{NTOsN`D^BT_UpZL!L_TOU\^`FHpiWGfPd
ULOZLOZKGgZ|jaNLOGFhaQ]GT_GIjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpLOZKGgkGSbLONTUL_QOGIiD jaNiW^T!D{NT_su
Z|jXN`L_GIFhHQOG
iGFKp`L_Z sY^pFKULOhaJPGP^`FHpiWG
d
UxL_Z[TOGRQ]jXGSbLLONZKNT_U INFL$^`iHQOUWJKG ^`FKpiG fLOZKGZKNT_U NFL_^i
Q]U\JPG0T_GIjKT_GQOGIFL_UFKpmL_ZKG0T_GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TTOGR^`i\mSbNsYjXNFKGFLf^`FaJLOZKGkGITOLOU\SI^iQOUWJKG0TOGjKT_GQOGIFLOUWFKpmLOZHG
TOGRSL_^FKphHiW^T!Usc^`pUFa^`T_|SbNsBjXNFHGIFLw
10
V
3
?
20
UWFHSbGMSbNsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$Q[^TOGiWGIpUxL_Usc^lL_G0sc^lL_ZKGIsc^lL_UWS^`iGFLOULOUWGQf~hHQLuiUWvGMQOS^`i\^`TcFhKstVXGIT$QfnL_ZKGI|SI^F
VXGY^JKJPGRJfQ]hHVPLOT$^SbLOGJfsthKiLOUWjKiWUGRJfJPUWkUWJKGJfQ hH^`T_GJfXUWFkGT]L_GJf^FHJQOhHS$Zf~hHQ]LoiWUvGB^F|qNLOZKGTrvUWFHJMN`D
FhKstVXGITRw NsYGQOSIUGFLOUaSSI^`i\SbhHiW^`LONT$Q^TOGjKT_NpT$^`sYsYGJcLONYJPUT_GSbLOiW|cjaGT]D{NTOsL_ZKGQOGrNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQNF[Ld!NNT
sYNT_GcSbNsYjKiWGbMFhHstVXGIT$QIfVKhPLgLOZHGQOGcNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQgSI^`Fm^`i\QONuVXG[JPNFKGc`V|0ZH^FHJw ZKUWQtQ]GRSLOUWNFed
UWiiQOZKNld
|Nh[ZKNldL_ZKGVH^QOU\SNjXGIT$^lL_UNFHQ!^`T_GjXGITOD{NT_sBGRJw EL
UWQ #xz# x T_GSINsYsYGIFHJKGJYL_ZH^lL
|Nh[G hKUWju|NhHT_QOGIiDd
UxL_Z
^tQ_SbUWGIFL_UxaSSI^iWSIhKiW^`LONTnSI^jH^`VHiGN`DjXGITOD{NT_sYUFKp^`T_UxL_ZKsYGbLOU\SD{hKFHSL_UNFHQnG^QOUWi|YNFSbNsYjKiWGbcFhKsVaGT_Qw EL!d
UWii
sc^`vGo|NhKTQ]LOhHJK|N`DSbUWT$SbhKULshHS$Z0sYNT_GojKiWG^QO^FLLOZH^FUD|Nh T_GgD{NT$SbGRJqLONuJPN^iiSI^iWSIhKi\^lLOUWNFaQ
LOZHG
iWNFKpGITd!^z|w
JHJPUxL_UNF^FHJoQOhKVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFod
ULOZYSbNsYjKiGIgFhHstVXGIT$QUWFtT_GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TD{NT_sU\QG^Q]|wKNT^JKJPULOUWNFf`QOUWsBjHi|
^JHJghKjgL_ZKGT_G^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFL_QN`DPL_ZKGnSINsYjKiWGbFhKstVXGIT$QL_NJPGILOGTOsYUWFKG}LOZHGnT_G^iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLNDPLOZKGQ]hHsufl^FHJ
^JHJhHjqLOZKGoUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKGFL_Q
NDL_ZKGoSbNsYjKiGIuFhKsVaGT_Q
LON[JPGILOGIT_sYUFHGgLOZKGgUWsc^`pUFH^TO|SbNsYjXNFKGFL
N`DLOZHGoQ]hKsq
82 + j5
9+ *4 - j3
:6 + j2
- j34
9+175
80 - j15
255 - j49
j10
820 ++ j82
9+-36
-16 + j92
ZKGFuQOhKVPL_T_^SLOUWFKpYSbNsBjHiGI[FhHstVXGIT$QnUWFuTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOsqfKQOUsYjKiW|[Q]hHVPLOT$^SbL!L_ZKGTOGR^`iSbNsYjaNFKGIFLN`D
LOZHG[Q]GRSbNFaJeSINsYjKiWGbeFhHstVXGITD{T_NsL_ZKG[T_G^iSbNsYjXNFKGFLNDnL_ZKGcHT$Q]LgLON0^`T_T_UkGB^`LgLOZKGcT_G^iSbNsYjXNFKGFL
N`D!LOZHG[JPUxGIT_GIFaSbGf^`FaJMQOhKVPL_T_^SLgLOZHGcUsc^`pUFa^`T_|SbNsBjXNFHGIFLgN`D!LOZKGQOGSINFHJeSbNsYjKiGIFhKstVXGIToD{TONsLOZHG
UWsY^pUWFH^`T_|[SbNsYjaNFKGIFL
N`DLOZKGaT_Q]LLON[^`T_T_UkGLOZHGgUsc^`pUFa^`T_|[SbNsYjXNFKGFLN`DL_ZKGoJPUXGTOGFHSbG
82 + j5
*
- 4 - j3
-2 + j8
175 - j34
- 80 - j15
95 - j19
-36 + j10
- 20 + j82
-56 - j72
`[
=<
K
0[0
0 I
UkU\Q]UWNFNDjaNiW^T]D{NT_sSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$QU\Q^`i\QON[G^Q]|Q]UWsYjKi|qJPUWkUWJPGtLOZKGjaNiW^Tsc^`pFKULOhHJPGtN`D}LOZHG
HT$QLSINsYjKiWGbqFhKstVXGITV|LOZKGojXNi\^`TsY^pFKULOhaJPGgN`DLOZHGtQ]GRSbNFHJqSbNsYjKiWGbuFhKstVXGIT
L_N^`T_T_UkG^`L
LOZKGtjaNiW^T
sc^`pFKUxL_hHJPGN`DLOZHG hKNLOUWGIFLfa^`FHJuQ]hHVPLOT$^SbL!L_ZKGg^`FKpiGNDLOZHGoQ]GRSbNFaJSINsYjKiWGbFhKsVaGTD{TONsLOZKGo^FKpiWGrN`D
LOZHGHT_Q]LSbNsBjHiGIFhKstVXGITL_Nc^`T_TOUWkG^lLLOZHGo^`FKpiGN`DLOZHG hHN`LOUWGIFLR
35 65o
10 -12o
124 250o
11 100o
30
)53-30
o
o
>
= 3.5 77o
= 11.273 150o
= 0.6 60o
@
A0
1
1 0o
=
= 0.02857 -65o
35 65o
35 65o
1 0o
1
=
= 0.1 12o
o
o
10 -12
10 -12
1
0.0032 10o
1 0o
0.0032 10o
>
= 312.5 -10o
ZKGRQ]Gt^TOGoLOZKGVH^QOUWSoNjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQ|Nhd
UiWiFKGIGRJqLONvFHNldUWF0NT_JPGTL_N[sc^`FKUWjKhKi\^lL_GSbNsYjKiGIFhHstVXGIT$Q
WU F L_ZKG^`FH^i|PQOUWQBNDrSbUWT_SIhKUxL$QIwjXGIT$^lLOUWNFaQd
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LONu^JKJKUxL_UNFfXQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFfashKiLOUWjKiU\SI^`LOUWNFfJPUWkUWQOUNFf^`FHJUWFkGT_QOUNFfHZHNldnGkGITRw UWT]L_hH^`iWiW|q^F|u^TOULOZKsYGILOU\S
NjXGIT$^lL_UNFyLOZH^`LSI^`FVXGJPNFKGd
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ULOZSbNsYjKiGI FhKsVaGT_QfUFHSIihaJPUFHp
jXNldnGT_QfnT_NN`L$QIf
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UxL_ZSbNsYjKiWGbSbNG cSIUGFL_Qf^FHJGIkGIFL_TOUWpNFKNsYGbL_TOU\S
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No^JKJYSbNsYjKiWGbBFhKstVXGIT$Q}UWFBT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TD{NTOsqf^JKJLOZHGTOGR^`iKSINsYjaNFKGIFL$Q^`FHJc^JKJLOZKGUsc^`pUFa^`T_|
SbNsYjXNFKGFL_Qw PhKVPLOT$^SbLOUWNFuUWQQ]UWsYUi\^`TRw
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JPUkU\JPGfKJKUkU\JPGLOZKGgsc^pFKULOhHJKGQ
^`FaJuQOhKVPL_T_^SL
NFHG^FKpiWGrD{TONsLOZHGgN`LOZHGITRw
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GIL QtSINFKFKGRSLoL_ZKT_GIGkNiL_^`pGcQ]NhKT_SIGQgUWFQOGIT_UGRQo^`FaJmhHQ]GSbNsYjKiWGbmFhKstVXGIT$QgL_NJPGILOGIT_sYUFHG^JKJKUxL_UkG
kNixL$^`pGQwiWiL_ZKG[T_hKiGRQo^`FaJMi\^zdQgiWG^TOFKGRJeUFeLOZHGQL_hHJP|eN`DgSIUT$SbhHUxL$Qo^`jKjHi|LONSbUWT_SIhKUL_Qo^QgdnGii
ZHs Q ^zdgf UWT$S$ZKZKN` Q ^zdQflFKGbLd!NT_vo^`FH^i|PQOUWQsYGbL_ZKNPJKQ fd
ULOZLOZKGGIPSIGIjPL_UNFNDajXNldnGTS^`i\SbhKi\^lL_UNFHQw
ZKGoNFKiW| hH^`iWUaSI^`LOUWNFqUWQLOZH^`L^`iWikl^TOU\^`VKiWGQ V
VXGoGbPjKT_GQ_QOGJuUF0SINsYjKiWGbD{NT_sufHL_^vUWFKpcUWFLON^SISbNhKFL
jKZH^Q]G^Q
d!GIiWi^Q
sc^`pFHUxL_hHJPGf^`FaJ^`iWikNixL$^`pGRQ^`FaJSbhKT_TOGFL_QsthaQLrVaGoNDLOZKGBQO^sBGD{T_G hKGFHSb| {UWFNT$JPGT
LOZa^lL
LOZHGIUWT
jKZH^QOGgT_GIi\^lLOUWNFaQ]ZKUWjHQ!T_GIsc^`UWFuSINFHQ]L_^FL w
822 V -64
E1
-
12 V 35o
+
E2
load
15 V 0o
+
E3
-
EE
EE
total
= E1 + E2 + E3
total =
rT$^`jKZKU\SI^iiW|fL_ZKGgkGRSLONT_Q^JKJuhKjqUFLOZKU\Q sc^`FHFKGITR
GF
K Py0r0n!0 2o
r }
22 -64o
15 0o
12 35o
Hresultant vector
22 -64o
15 0o
12 35o
[`
n
H
0n0n
15 V 0o = 15 + j0 V
12 V 35o = 9.8298 + j6.8829 V
822 V -64
15
= 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
+ j0
9.8298 + j6.8829 V
>34.4740 - j12.8906 V
+ 9.6442 - j19.7735 V
I
`
ZKU\Q!UWQGIL_TOGsYGIiW|cUsYjXNTOL_^`FL
UWFT_GIi\^lL_UFKpYSI^iWSIhKi\^lLOGRJcHphKT_GQ!N`DkNiL_^pGr^`FHJuSbhKT_T_GIFLnL_NT_G^iSbUWT_SIhKUxL$QIw
iLOZHNhKpZuT_GSbL_^FKphKi\^`TFKNL_^`LOUWNFqUWQSbNFkGIFKUWGIFLD{NT^JKJPULOUWNF^`FaJuQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFfK^`FHJud^QUWFHJPGGJuLOZHGHFH^`i
Q]LOGIjUF0NhKTQ_^`sYjKiWGojKT_NVHiGsZKGTOGfaULU\QFKN`LkGIT_|u^jKjKiWUWS^`VKiWGgL_NjKT$^SbLOU\SI^`isBGR^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL_Qw
GRSL_^FKphHiW^T
HphKTOGRQsthHQ]LVXGtSbNFkGITOLOGRJcL_N[jaNiW^THphHTOGRQ QOjaGRSbUaSI^iiW|jXNi\^`T
IH n VXGbD{NTOGL_ZKGI|qSI^FuVXGoT_GIi\^lL_GJ
LONc^SLOha^`iSIUT$SbhKUL
sYG^QOhKT_GIsYGIFL$QIw
M +
KJ
GF
K Py0r0n!0 2o
r }
822 V -64
LV
MR
LV
12 V 35o
10 k
LV
15 V 0o
NPO/QKRSUTNWVKXYN[Z[Z!\]T^\_R_`
Qbaca/dcNPOea]fcdhg\i`
QKjcjkalNPOea]jcmnfg\o`
QKmcmpjcNPOYjnjpq[rWshg\o`
tbalmpdua]dWv
w NPt!OY\o`SPTc\i`xNPO/alQrndcDm#rnddQ Dm7d NP{y g z}|N~^ZgX[\o`nnVNU~NSUTY[QtKNXWWS_~P~PXXU`^O]R[crnd
wXU`Z
w
[tKXW
r w d[dndWd!a
QDmP
Q Dm
m w r[^aid!aq[j w dnfndWnd^a
7 A
!L
HT$QLpiW^FHSbGfPLOZHUWQ
U\QSINhKFLOGT]EUWFL_hKULOUWkGw
NldUWQ
ULjXNQ_Q]UWVKiWGrLON[NVPL_^UFq^BLONL_^`ikNiL_^pGN`DX~hHQ]LNlkGT
kNixLtQOhKjKjKiWUWGQoSINFKFKGRSL_GJeUFQOGIT_UWGQ$UxL_ZgfLOZKU\Qod!NhHiWJeVXG
kNiL_Qgd
ULOZ kNiLfn kNixLRf^FHJ
UWsBjXNQ_QOUVKiWGf^QkNixL$^`pGaphKT_GQd
UiWiGUxL_ZKGITrJPUWTOGRSLOiW|^JKJqNTQOhKVPL_T_^SLfJPGjaGFHJPUWFKpNFjaNiW^TOUL|w!hPLrd
UxL_Z
fNhKTt`jXNi\^`T_UL| jHZH^QOG[Q]ZHUxDL gSI^Fekl^TO|^F|d
ZHGIT_GBUWFmVaGILdnGGIFeD{hKiWix^`U\JPUWFKp0^`FaJD{hHiiNjKjXNQOUFKpaf^FHJ
LOZHUWQ^iiWNldQnD{NTQOhHS$ZujH^`T$^JPNzPU\SI^iXQOhKsYsYUFKpaw
7P e
22 V -64o
E1
-
Polarity reversed on
source E2 !
12 V 35o
load
E2
+
+
15 V 0o
E3
-
22 -64o
NT_UpUFYN`DL_ZKG
KGFy02!P7horP}
22 -64o
resultant vector
15 0o
ZKGoSINFKFKGRSL_UNFuT_GIkGIT$QO^iNFuLOZKGc kNixLQOhKjKjKiW|uS^`FqVXGgTOGjKTOGRQ]GFLOGJUWFqLdnNcJPUXGTOGFLd!^z|PQ!UWFjaNiW^T
D{NT_sqV|[^F^JKJPULOUWNFND
LONBUxL$QkGSbLONT!^FKpiWG sc^`vUFHptUL kNiL_Q
fPNT!^T_GIkGT_Q_^`iaN`DQ]UWpF[NF
LOZHGcsY^pFKULOhaJPG sc^`vUWFKpULg$ kNiL_Q
bwcULOZKGTrd^z|fSbNFkGIT$Q]UWNFL_NqTOGRSL_^FKphHiW^TD{NTOs|UWGIi\JKQrLOZHG
Q_^`sYGTOGRQ]hKiL
ZKGT_GQOhKixL_UFHpY^JKJPULOUWNFqN`DkNixL$^`pGRQ!UFqT_GSL$^`FKphKi\^`TnD{NT_sufKLOZKGF
15
9+
9+ j0
-9.8298 - j6.8829 V
9.6442 - j19.7735 V
- j26.6564 V
F0jX14.8143
Ni\^`TD{NT_sufaLOZHUWQrG hH^`LOGRQ
LON1Hw `
LOZHGgTOGRQ]hKiL_QNDNhKT SI^iWSIhKiW^`LOUWNFHQ
Hw
NPO/QKRSUTNWVKXYN[Z[Z!\]T^\_R_`
Qbaca/dcNPOea]fcdhg\i`
QKjua/jcNPOea]jcmnfg\o` KRWTKXYT[PXtKXWQXWt!gUNS/R[`KR[ZX`n~U|PKXWt!gljpNU`KZua
QKmcmpjcNPOYjnjpq[rWshg\o` TKRhgn\ |P~S[NUTKXT[PXg]PN n \o`VR[O_RU`n`PXPO]T^\_RU`^g
tbalmpdua]dWv
w NPt!OY\o`SPTc\i`xNPO/alQrndcDm#rnddQ Dm7d
wXU`Z
[ tKXW
r w d[dndWd!a
7P e
QDmP
Q Dm
m w d[fndWd!aq[r w dnWsnnd^a
b
ZKGIFcT_GIkGIT$Q]UWFKprLOZKGrJPUWTOGRSLOUWNFYND^okGSbLONT G hHUkl^`iWGIFLL_NoT_GIkGT_QOUWFKpL_ZKGjXNi\^`T_UL|tN`D^F[kNiL_^pG
Q]NhKT_SIG
UFTOGiW^`LOUWNFYL_NtN`L_ZKGIT!kNixL$^`pGQ]NhKT_SIGQ fUxLSI^F[VaGGbPjKT_GQ_Q]GRJYUFGIULOZKGTnNDLdnNJPUxGIT_GIFLd!^z|PQ
^JKJPUWFKpq LONBLOZHGo^`FKpiGfPNT
T_GIkGT_QOUWFKpoL_ZKGoQ]UWpFuN`DLOZHGgsY^pFKULOhaJPGw
N`DSI^iWSIhKiW^`LOGRJkl^ihKGRQIw
GSbL_^`FHphKi\^`TGbPjKT_GQ_Q]UWNFaQNDaSbNsBjHiGI hH^`FLOULOUWGQUWFB^FBSbUWT_SIhKUxL}ZH^zkGFKNgJPUWT_GSLRf`GIsYjKUWT_UWS^`iG hKUWk
^`iWGIFLf^`iLOZKNhKpZmL_ZKGI|^TOG[SINFkGFKUGFLoD{NTojXGITOD{NT_sYUFHp^JKJKUxL_UNF^`FHJQOhKVPL_T_^SL_UNFf^Q
UWT_S$ZHZKN` Q
}NiL_^`pGr^FHJ0nhKT_TOGFL ^zdQnT_G hKUWT_Gw
5h
i
#Bb7AB#D7
R
ii_PKi UIPUP i
i DK
P@h_io
WP_ U7!BK_I P
]U W WKWU_W UYUB[APo UI
KU
lYKPW1K]UBU UP
PB[IKUKWl BUln @U[!U[lIUWKKKUBU[D_IUP1PUUP
WP_ K[@UKoU#BKiWUPUWD_W2 iUDUKi U[UPUPP_In _PA@_Ki_
]UU ii1 U
n @@ !o_KKKA@_Ko_P_ D o! "Ki
PP_[D_KiUP]UPU PB[ iB# WK2PD_[UKBWPWUUUUB[Ko U_ Bi$
%b& Ui !@KUiWPBKI KB[KUPU1Ko U _[U!i 'P
UWD_WU WPAiW2_ _[U!i '^_W( U[1UUiW[UWK
)*
+-,
Time
HO QP RSAB#D7
P
WK_7DiP]UK_U#i UD
TKBiW#o UD#KAWK[KC
P@_ io
U
PWKUKi DnIWKKK WUUUi KU!UUPUU2KBKB[
H _PP WUP[ UK
IBKB[KUKWPB DnUKPK2WUUUi
PWWWP_WK _ 6V UK #_BKB[
UBBUDK_ X WT!ZY$[ W \ UK 7P oAWUUU#U]{U!PD2!U _W{22_WD_
PB[@Koi[@UK 7LP_ K Ki[ P iWK1UUKPK KPPBi1UWD_U
_PPUW_P PBi
W]
P@_ ^K#BKiW o iWK# nK!U _ bBUi_P UKP1$
PBi
WJ
P@ UP[1PiBoU LPWK!WWl BKiWDPUKU B_i ` B !
D@PB_1o D_PB
`aKii_Ki_ BU UKB @WPK
D! BBKUWD_WKWKoU WKPKP
UUP
D@ U PB[DP_PU2KUPUKPP UWPDb
ce = eL dddi
dt
LK
KoU f @ WKUBUBK
!i_PKKI_UDP_PU_PUWD_KiUP KB[
@UiK _P!BiBUP(0LP2P
UP %iK_P K P_[D_KiUPUWD_W ]H
_^ WKU 7UUTL K@ P_P_K!B7UBP@P BKiW@Bi __[i2IPPP U
D K
1 gK/."4X;h.Cij.k.l;Pam
+Bn
eL
Time
-
oiIi
D!B ^KWU_WUPo UB[2_ P
U iW
U _WU2K UK KB[
PWKU7LPB UnKP_[D_KiUPWU_W iBKBKiUiKPUWD_KiUP Ki[ _
!i- Bi1DP_KW !U2iUi7U! ^U K KB[2P]U]H _PKIPD_[UKBWPUUUU @
!i- KiiUiPP_[D_KiUP KB[ _-nAP D_KW K2W[_BB!iU!WP
PB[]W [KB WoK BiIK]H pLK oPDAWU_W]UP_ C * ,rq W_PPU
K PB[]U @%{n nPI_K UD_K( WP2WUUU]U2iBIP]U2 UKiW U AWP
PB[]W ^[PUUUUk _iWKs AP Ki[ K_K KB[3 _ _W D!BPP1KUWD_W
tcurrent slope = 0
voltage = 0
Time
-
tcurrent slope =
uvoltage = 0
LKKWW BWB1U2[ioKKi
K_K@BWK D K
+`
e=
i=
p=
Time
B?J$BZ=
NB#?jsBrZ'
BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
8rNN
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
8rNN
?N
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
N
N8 rN
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
1Z gB.6"4X;h.Cihj.@6k.l;TPam
+
BKiW# KP
UBD P #K[PUn KUWD_UkUWDnKiDnPPKP
W
iU UP ] WK!NxPU W_keBKiW 1KIiUI BK K[P_ PIWUUU
UWD no]D[KiUP UPH
eL
10 V
10 mH
60 Hz
I=
I =
E
X
10 V
3.7699
I = 2.6526 A
Opposition =
10 V 90o
2.6526 A 0
Opposition =
or
0 + j3.7699
+)
90o
90o
0o
Opposition
(XL)
10 V
60 Hz
R
5
eL
10 mH
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih6"4X;h.Cih.@6_.l;TPam
++
W DKP_UUo _ UPiW
UP k UDi1!KiK 2UK!WW PBBP AKii
UA WKiKBU B WUP[U KB[_BPB2o D_PBUiW
D_PB_UK3LK
i BUi - !n DW X@#_ _ !KiilKKK_WK
yxW
iUP _P1iW
UP T 1K-D!@U2!K_KKK _Ub BKoK_
Ztotal = (5 resistance) + (3.7699 inductive reactance)
Ztotal = 5 (R) + 3.7699 (XL)
total
= 5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
or
E = IZ
I=
E
Z
Z=
P@p_io
WPPU iUP 2
7"$o _ _P1_niW
UP iP_D@BIW WDKP_U
BiH]PUUBHnBU]D!_ KUP<DBPoiWi1UKW oK_PBU1c BK
Li_ K @ KB[ P -D!@U BK|PDPBi UU1KPWUKUBBBPBWP
UWD_W UPB KK DUBPBD_ WKi DBB#"LKPPU_KWo_7iUUP1PKP
W
I!iP_PB_ - \ ? ,rq _P l* ,rq Kio
Ui KBWUKo_PUUB1KPWUKUiWUWD_WW
PB[ !
I=
I =
E
Z
10 V 0o
6.262 37.016o
I =1.597
YKAKK-37.016
B/PP U BD PK BKiW]U _[D!BKPP UWD_W1]U _P
UKD ?HK_PUKWP KUKUUWo@UP N ,Bn q WUK!Wi Kb* ,q UUP
o
BW 1KKPiP
UBD P
phase shift =
37.016o
e=
i=
Time
-
KWKo U _PIP
W ^KKPWIi_UPKP"
DBiB WUUUUP BKiW P]WB(
D PUKUoy W7UUUUUB[Ko U# 7KPU_ ,rq K#KBKB[7PWKU^n_PP
UWD_WAUB[KIPKP
U2l* , q UK_KPUA KI KB[WUKPWKUk Ii_WB
P_Ki_ BU
E = IZ
ER = IRZR
ER = 7.9847 V -37.016o
Notice that the phase angle of ER is equal to
the phase angle of the current.
LK UWD_WUB[Po UPUK! KW
UI KU2UKUUKBKiWPWKU iP
PP@3`UPX_2KPWUKo UWKB!
E = IZ
EL = ILZL
EL = 6.0203 V 52.984o
Notice that the phase angle of EL is exactly
90o more than the phase angle of the current.
LKUWD_W UB[AP1P
WPU KPW_PU U + B *-) q K1K Ki[KWKU/P
PP UUKPWUKUU7v Z ,#n q ~}^BB _!KW
* ,rq DBiB K#LK 2i P
@`Y_P<_ b* ,rq W_KPUWKP
WUKBH
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih6"4X;h.Cih.@6_.l;TPam
%bB DKiK@_
R
1
10 V
60 Hz
_7UKi_ K @WPBps=`3
2
eL
10 mH
0
# N Z?$?y?
#2? g
(
??
#
'Z# ?ys$ as$:(
'Z# ?$ a$
Z
rB
?$
$
8 rN Z'
8rN Zr p NNZN
rB
y$
$
8 rN Z'
8 r Z p N Z
(
Nr ZN
B ZN
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
E
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
E
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Rule of series
circuits
Ztotal = ZR + ZL
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
sIl`=y
+*
1Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCih6"4X;h.Cih.@6_.l;TPam
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
Amps
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
Amps
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
E
I
Z
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0
5 0o
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IL
6.3756 - j4.8071
7.9847 -37.016o
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
5 + j0
5 0o
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
L
3.6244 + j4.8071
6.0203 52.984o
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
1.2751 - j0.9614
1.597 -37.016o
Amps
5 + j3.7699
6.262 37.016o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
1Z('Zy3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih64<;=.Cih .@6k.l;TPam
AK C%]U BKp`:Is^ZCI `=J^$MI`h?
KB
i UDA_P
UDAUiUW PBAlBD K7P _UoK_ P]W
K UIUKUUBPB D! Bi ,q _Ml* ,q LPBD P KB[2]U KUIUKU
WIiKBlDBiB ,q _v * ,rq
-,
B #Bb7AT!RSA #D7
.0/ 1/3242 52
10 V
60 Hz
P_D_B{
10 mH
10 + j0
10 0o
E
I
Z
Total
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
2 + j0
2 0o
0 - j2.6526
2.6526 -90o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Volts
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
WPW
kpBD K BDKD_DBKiWDPUUBbpBD KUP U KUU{ KB[
DDKK-}C KiW3%]pbPU KK2UcU W3kh!
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 - j2.6526
2.6526 -90o
2 - j2.6526
3.3221 -52.984o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Itotal = IR + IL
Ohms
1Z('Zy3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih64<;=.Cih .@6k.l;TPam
parallel
1
1 6 1 6
1
Z + Z + . . . Z
1
2
n
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 - j2.6526
2.6526 -90o
2 - j2.6526
3.322 -52.984o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 + j3.7699
3.7699 90o
1.8122 + j2.4035
3.0102 52.984o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
Z= E
I
or
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
Ztotal =
1
1
+
ZR ZL
X"<!"
I!iP_PBi {y
KBi UD_PKP
UDUiUW PBPUUB! BKlxPW BoBD KH
K _D_!iKUP P]U KPW UKU UBPBD BiB ,rq UPl* r, q ELK1 BK
Ki[{P]UIKPW_PU UiKB"!D Bi , q _PXv * , q
#_D_i[ BKD#!K&DK7K_KPKUB[UKKU!Bi7U7PUUBZ_ BD PD
UUUU
KKUhKUPUKW7K D KDKUPDBKiWD#UKA2WhKUUK Ki[UUPAoK_ i
K KUKW Ko Kni_!UAPrIUxK _D_boK_PB
-)
Wire resistance
R
Ideal inductor
eL
1ZCBr64<;=.CihED;b65Fm
_P
UAKi_K _BPiKUZvKK D_ WKP1U!BD@U
KPBIBUBBB[
_ _@nPh!D 2Pi@i ]W KPxBnnUKiW]WU WWD_P@WDn _UP[KB
_K_D WKD W Ki_K iDPKUUW UK J!D 1Pio U KUBv BU[W
iDPKUUW7P
Ko@oBD D_PB2P_P]nPIUD K W KnKP KIKUUKB | B y
KUZ}v [K KBPB BnB iK KB[i_ BWB iUiW P K Wv i U _K
B6 W[KD KKIUPWP_ i W2
!} o
D
8L WK[iW
K BPiP P o _b UK_
Ui| K n PUPP_i D_PP2i_oJW0 Y \ s KU U W0 Y!s UN BUE!D PiyL P
"Effective"
R resistance
Ideal inductor
L
UnAAP_P_Ps[
}!o
UPDU @W[iUKKlxPUiPD_U[BKUP
_ /U/ BD PUAKi BUoHG_ KB U DKKi
}!o
An _
KU $DK_WK[KiP iKi1i_D KWPUWWIUPBUWBKBW!K_K
oUPi K
nPoPK!WUP_KK Wo@oI_UK[AUBKiW PU _
Bi U_WK DU @W(
`a}^i Uo D_PB _ PKP
UB_X
D ABWPBUP BD@WUK BKoUKi 0L
Ki K[PU[ KIi_U_WK[_
}!o
WAiUP UP
U !UK_KB@_KA
n i_o
PJ I V! ! HU3 K[PU U W IK D i_ K @i1UU@
K
XL
R
LKnD!U'NMl PWKUKK Bi
DPUW BUKU DP!UK DBPK DBUK#
KWWoUU(^ KX7@BD"LP_ Ki o PK_ BUK_KPDBiK_
UU !} ii[WK _[
Q=
LK
"AC resistance"
1Z[Z5ih3/ih0/]\ mFk62/+^U^0/"._\
_P WPP U W6v o
WP_7_i#XKW KPK!W_ WPP K KB[{KIU[AW
By DKW@`
AUDUUKKi@U8 U[BPPU]I[K_D-DKB^K!}^i !KUi(@nP W-v}KWPBPB
k KB[UPb ]WB7KWKU K K_BUP
WA_nn] bn K_3 xAPU@
D_!KiU_{U D_^o_]W3 D!_ iWW_P W w]z[_[iKPP Ki_
U UKW@cB_^B D!iWK iUUb
LK2BWiK D K[KB }^i K2! }^i U2o D_PB_{2 UP
UIU
i
Dn
PWUU _7@ K P _U
v}[_Wo! K& DKUKUKWKP o n! }^i
DPUKU
iUP W khP_U v}[_Wi_UnUUB K[KBPB aLK K[P_U U_KP? _K
s [1! }^i
2@KU KWPBPBo
Wo@iPU n z UW@
R
AC
= (RDC)(k)
Where,
AC
DC
&Bi
hhhNhhhhhNhhhhhNhhhNhNhhNhhh
i NrNNNNrNN ? =
i NrNNNNrNN Np
i NrNNNNrNN Np
NNNNrNNNNrN Np
NNNNrNNNNrN Np
NNNNrNNNNrN Bp
NNNNrNNNNrN 7
? NNNrNNNNrN p
NNNrNNNNrN p
NNNrNNNNrN ?
N NNNrNNNNrN 86N
K W
K _K{ iK_ UnKD!B n, [_UI ]khBPZv=-vBP
P]W2U
!} o
U?o _ _aZ n _AK[KiP _ n, z3
R = (R )(k) af
AC
DC
AC
= (25 )(27.6)
AC
= 2.182 k
10
o D_PBAU= +] UK
iWiB
D!B@K = |PWK2 " I!iP_PB K_K[ol ' BUP B_niU U! }^i
D
PP UWBUPUBW0LKKIUi_o|PUKU^PKi D_PBUKBUP
W"P_
UP[U K2
@u_Bi UP2K D H P@I!@B KUUKo@HHBUo
i
Usn
}!o
]oiW
D_PBUP K BU DKPi !}^i
DUiW
UP _ i D_PB !iKUP ?H7_
B[B }!ii[_BD
lnmpoWqsrut
y
y
y
|
|
x
x
}
z
~0{
QP #7 { #
i=C
dv
dt
LK
KoU
f WKU B_ PP Po_KKPAD@UDP_PU_#P_[D_KiUPWUUU
@Ui#lWUiIiBUP(ELKBUPUBD_PB{hAPUWK7UP K PUWD_KiUP KB[
H_ WKD b_P LK@kP@_K!BP UBP@PBKiW{ UP_NBK
BUPUBU D K
'Z gB..0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
e=
i=
Time
e=
i=
Time
voltage
slope = 0
tcurrent
=0
voltage
slope = max. (-)
tcurrent
= max. (-)
e=
i=
p=
Time
7IKKPKP
U D K @K3 * , iUBKPWKp D! BiUUUU_PI PB[#oPD
!@i]UP@_iP_oK[PUDBiB!WUUPKiW_U0LK o_PP_B_U W
niKU7KP_@B7U7iW
DUW_PDPUKUo{AWUUU^@#BB-DPUDP{UPioUib!@B
_i@i
i_PW U UK!WU11DP_KWWUUU D_ @i _WK[U _i@KWUUU
WBKiU {KD _ Dn
|PKU_]n DPUKUK PUWD_KiUP UUKPKUP o
Ub XKW
_n UUB1_WKPU7 cWU_W@UUi1 KWPBPB Pi_PW UUWWB iT W UP
iD_ _WKP U BKB[ U
WPWKBKB[KUKW IiW APP
W U{P2WUUU
UB[Ki UUPIKo _ - }^Bi DnKo U _K PB[#PWKUi_PW W#
KP U_K UUUU UB[ P_K s
- - }^BiX DnKi_PW W 7PP UD
PiW
UP _B_U W
KoiWK_Pn D!U ii DnIP Bh W7 D2U
o | !
nP i_PW Wk
UBUPKP
Ki[ KU!UU K_UWU_WID_KW bKB U
UA PB[W WBs vDPUKUKUWD_Wi =UKiD_U_ DPUW KIUIAUUUU!i
i2 H_P oBKiW2U@i v DP_PUKUWD_Uo
P@ Po_P2 2P_ iW
D_PB
UPW_n i_PW U _
!
2KU!UUPUK K[KiP _{K_i@K PB[
L
XC = j
1
2fC
B?NZ #N?B=
NB#?jsBrZ'
BN#?BH- g
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
8 N
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
?N
8
NrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrN
N
rNN
NNrNNNNrNNNNrNNrrNrNNrrNrNNNNrNrrNN
iWIKUIP_KB @WPK _BUPUBWiW
UP 1K[KiP
W
WK[IU
@U^P
UiW
D_PBp_PW UoU _ UP7o iUi7 PBoUP K[KB
UnWBDi PP UiW
D_PB UP PBoUi PBoUK h[K KiP PKP
UDUBv
!W UiD_KWK Ki[pnD KP KUi@BWUUUU
n^ BUPUBUDUP[ UBDP_PUK
UWD_W2Uh[D _@KIUi@B PB[
KB[{AKi_PW U D K bWK __KWU_W3 UWDb n i[D PBUPUBW
iU UP ] WK!Nx PU W_keBKiW 1KIiUI BK [K P_ PIWUUU
UWD no][D KiUP UPH
'Z gB..0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
10 V
60 Hz
100 F
XC = 26.5258
I =
L
E
X
10 V
26.5258
I=
@BWB _Kii
UiBP_WU_W_ Ki[_KUKPWKB7WK@
iUBUK2BKiWPUKPUK_@l* , io
AK UWD_WbiKiB[KiPPU
_PUiUUWD_UUP BKB[I_Ki@ BU7 i_ BUBK @ K KPW1_KWUK1PP U
iU U2UK!WU PB[
I = 0.3770 A
Opposition =
Voltage
Current
Opposition =
10 V 0o
0.3770 A 90o
For a capacitor:
90o
-90o
0o
Opposition
(XC)
?)
D KKBiW
D_PB_PAo _ [BDU T[K@UpD!BP!|BUWBKiB[C# U!UKi[
UP[U PB[1BU7BUK! nK DiK_ KUaxPi_ _CK[P_[iUi D_PB2UP
iU UP
X"<!"
s
- KWK!WW P@i_PW W}!i_iP_K KB[K
KPU!v KiWUU_ioU_biKBU Dio
h|PiypoiU UP nD!U&BiDnIP
B_PD_ B3" _P1 iUKi WK@xP&U o _ o!
_PW U2oU
D_PB2i_]D i_ K @i1PPK UAK B0 I n B^ {h
_PW UiU UP < s!! P iWK[K KiP UKiUDKK PKUPBK
v
WK PBPBn PoUK!Wi_ KW U WPP P
P@p_7Bi
WP
B #7 {ATP/3/
#
10 V
60 Hz
100 F
total
total
= 5 - j26.5258
or
26.993 -79.325o
'Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCihs.0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
E = IZ
I=
E
Z
Z=
Y U K U U WIPiKBPUU _
AK X %{] _P_ UD_KWW _
B i UK B `hI"6oHxPU!iKUP UUA WKiKBU
nPoW_UP[UP
P@UBi
WPP_pK iUP knYiUP UPU[YiW
UP iP_D@B/W
WDKP_UM Bo@P_D_i ![i_]DUPPUK XD!BKiB[o WKU !iKUP
Li_ K @ KB[ P - D!@U BK
|PDPBi UU1KPWUKUBBBPBWP
UWD_WUKD [PD1WBKiUUPIo D!_ Bi$ =LK KPU_KWoUiU _ BUPUBW
I!iP_PBIU< - \ ? ,q UP v * ,rq ^o!i UB ^B[_Do_#PWWBKU_PUiWWUUUW
PB[ !
I=
E
Z
I=
10 V 0o
26.933 -79.325o
I = 370.5 mA 79.325o
e=
i=
Time
i_KoK /PKP
D_PBDPUiWKl@D-DKAIBKUbUWUKiP BKhK[P_[i
Ui P K{nU Wc_PUaxP2U UlkpUP_
=%bB K UBUnK@]|PWKiW
PBi BK[DK_P1 WWnK K__n KIK [W
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
Amps
5 - j26.5258
26.993 -79.325o
Ohms
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
5 - j26.5258
26.993 -79.325o
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
Itotal = IR = IC
Total
343.11m + j1.8203
1.8523 79.325o
9.6569 - j1.8203
9.8269 -10.675o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
68.623m + j364.06m
370.5m 79.325o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
5 - j26.5258
26.993 -79.325o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
'Z1ZmZ/836/7m<3/7mNmCihs.0"y.@PCih.@6_.l;bPam
10 V
60 Hz
R
5
2
100 F
# Z?$?y?
#2? g
(
#?N-
#
'Z# ?ys$ as$:(
'Z# ?$ a$
Z
rB
?$
$
8 rN Z'
r Zr p ZN
rB
y$
$
8 rN Z'
8rN Z' N N
(
8
N ZN
= 1.852 V 79.33o
EC = 9.827 V -10.67o
I = 370.5 mA -100.7o
.0/1/3242B52#Bb7ATP/3/
A #
R 5
10 V
60 Hz
100 F
E
I
Z
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
-*
'Z('Zy3*)#)T/+)M3/7mZmCih.0y.@PCih.@6_.l;TPam
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
I
Z
Volts
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EC
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
2 + j0
2 0o
0 + j376.99m
376.99m 90o
5 + j0
5 0o
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Volts
Amps
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
WP#U
k BK DKUPDBKiWD{PUUB BD PUPK2UeP_D_ KB[
DDKK-}C KiW3%]p_[_$H
R
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 + j376.99m
376.99m 90o
2 + j376.99m
2.0352 10.675o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Itotal = IR + IC
Ohms
parallel
1
1
1
1
+
+ ...
Z1
Z2
Zn
Total
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
10 + j0
10 0o
Volts
2 + j0
2 0o
0 + j376.99m
376.99m 90o
2 + j376.99m
2.0352 10.675o
Amps
5 + j0
5 0o
4.8284 - j910.14m
4.9135 -10.675o
Ohms
0 - j26.5258
26.5258 -90o
Ohms
Law
E
Z=
I
X"<!"
I!iP_PBi {y
or
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Ztotal =
1
1
1
+
ZR
ZC
'ZCBr
.0y.@PCihD;b6_Fm
P/3/D: B1<
PKP
UD
UK iUPBUPUBU# KKBAiW
WKBnBUBU[UPKDPUiiB o W
!@BKP_U ! }^i " KIo_{U yU WKK_KK !Bi k@BWBBUPUBUD
P]WKnK_UiKBD_ DiK Zs
iW
WBU!UKiWD _ P
UD
<A UiWB
oU UP BUPP 2 i_PW W @h[BPUBoiUP APU 2 KI_I
_PP U :LKKDU
i_iKUK P@i_i_PW WAnKi_lP]U1!iKUP PPU
_PUi2UIB[iUKKWUDPK< * ,q W
P_ yv * ,q P_ PP UD U KWPB[ ^KB#iP
P@o!@BPU_1 K[K]Ui[PKP
U
_U W_ iPAl DUB7_AW[BBU[P_PB K[K@UiW7PP UBUK[BP_
_ PBKiIBi |PB KI_ _WU_ BU[UPiM D! BB KBIK_o< KK W PP UD
K[_WK |B KP_KD_iP ! niPM DiUWP K KBUPA_K U !{KB _i
KUK D_PK WAi inKio
UUUKB _KW 1N ]W UKiBUWKB[D
KUPi
iUU
D K KiWKBDBP 1 ]WUi_PW W@UiPP W2KiiUB2iW !BDiKB
_i@U
_U W1UK |BU[iU2! }^i U2U D P1BBBPBKBiPB
P@ U[ 7!@i WiW 0LKUKD _bBUPUBUW PPUIK2io
@BU
D@PB__n iUP KU BKU1BUPUBUUBP_{
io
@BUB oU A DP_PUKBi
|PB K Dn PPBP Ko@ MLK APi@P
! }^i iKiB[ 1[ @B {UP KWP@_B[ i D_PB KBD K LPI
}!o
U
KUKWKPBi @AKUPB K[KB iUP W
ABUM D ! nBP@AA U i! KUi
_n W
PKIKBioKo@PP_K_B _ W KW aLK KW DBxi
D! Ki_i
K UBi D! BiAIBU!P_i n UPKi iWKD UbKWZ v} KWPBPBI /WU_W 0L{ii_K
BU[Ui Dn@_nKK UWD_WU K[KBPB_bKWKD n_PK @iKiUBP]W W[U
P DZxo
C DiPKi_i(
LK 2! }^i
KPo DKUi_PW UDPB
o
2K WWKB[2]
DiP]UIU KPi
s
A BKBBB[ AKUK]2W@K ! }^i
_Bi
_W DKnW
Bi @i _7i P i& DKI1K
}!o
GUU#Bi I@BU2_I K[P_ _W
B @U B_ _#Bi
2[U oUUi_iWWB KB
, 87
B#N
io
o [lUKoD B_DUcW BiUPPUUBi D_PBK KK
BUPUBD_PB
Rseries
Ideal
tcapacitor
Rparallel
lnmpoWqsrut
i
7
BWs/RS
%bB UK
}
w
R
250
120
V
60 Hz
650 mH
1.5 F
LKl|PDi
K iK PoU
D_PBikUKUKP
UUPKBUPUBU
-)
L
XL = 2fL
XL = (2)()(60 Hz)(650 mH)
XL = 245.04
XC =
1
2fC
XC =
1
(2)()(60 Hz)(1.5 F)
ZR = 250 + j0 or 250 0o
ZR
250 0o
120
V
60 Hz
ZL
245.04 90o
1.7684 k -90o
G@_
]_r K[PU[i_PWK[U2Bi
BKiW!KioBUU(_BUK!nKD!B
U@_ W!iKUP o
KUP P_UiUP oWoU
D_PBiH[PB i_]D PUPi K_2]
U7PUiUP o7_ _lBD P@LK # _ iUD]lP__PUD-DKU#K BK
_Pi_K _WWB# |PUKi_D_7UWD_U!UPK!iKUP o2_Ki U!P
W UP
BUPUBUHH
BrmZ/836/7m<)1#"4
+
.
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Volts
Amps
250 + j0
250 0o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
Ohms
D!2i
Ztotal = ZR + ZL + ZC
Ztotal = (250 + j0 ) + (0 + j245.04 ) + (0 - j1.7684k )
Ztotal = 250 - j1.5233k or 1.5437 k -80.680o
[UKD-DK
C
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
Volts
250 + j0
250 0o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
i_ K@kUKKEAK _%]
UK iiBD P
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
Rule of series
circuits:
total = ZR + ZL + ZC
250 - j1.5233k
1.5437k -80.680o
sIl`=o"WB B_
Amps
Ohms
Total
Volts
Amps
120 + j0
120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
I
250 + j0
250 0o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
77.734m 80.680o
250 - j1.5233k
1.5437k -80.680o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
250 + j0
250 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
250 - j1.5233k
1.7684k -90o
1.5437k -80.680o
77.734m 80.680o
0 - j1.7684k
BU -WP
12.589m + 76.708m
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
total = IR = IL = IC
Total
3.1472 + j19.177
19.434 80.680o
-18.797 + j3.0848
19.048 170.68o
135.65 - j22.262
137.46 -9.3199o
120 + j0
120 0o
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
E
I
77.734m 80.680o
250 + j0
250 0o
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
12.589m + 76.708m
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
12.589m + 76.708m
77.734m 80.680o
250 - j1.5233k
1.7684k -90o
1.5437k -80.680o
77.734m 80.680o
0 - j1.7684k
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
12.589m + 76.708m
Volts
Amps
Ohms
BrmZ/836/7m<)1#"4
N
.
-18.797 + j3.0848 V
+
135.65 - j22.262 V
EL
EC
120 + j0 V
Etotal
?_[?_??-?-[+?#N
5
[ 4?
44? ?4[[ 3-4P?[? ~ - C!4
34?? Z8? 4[O_4[
250
120
V
60 Hz
1.5 F
# NN :Z?'??
#2?N0Z
(
650 mH
"U8]Br58
$
"5
++
)#*
N
#
#
'Z# ? ys$ a s $:(
'Z# ? $ a #:
Z
rB
8 rNZ'
rB
8 rN Z'
? $
B Z'
y$
8 N Z'
a
Z
a
ZN
Nr ZN
8 N ZN
(
86NN N
8r Z'
= 19.43 V 80.68o
EL = 19.05 V 170.7o
= 137.5 V -9.320o
X"<!"
41?4[4
" $ PP %
!
_[?ss ?4[4?U[4[![`N![? [8
O [O? `?O[[[4X4?
-?? 44C[4 441!?` Js
[4?N?44N!?3?[O[
7
N?[4
Br By3*)#)+)M)#5
120 V
60 Hz
250
650 mH
1.5 F
120 V
ZR
60 Hz
ZL
250 0o
ZC
1.7684 k -90o
245.04 90o
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Volts
Amps
250 + j0
0 + j245.04
0 - j1.7684k
250 0o
254.04 90o
1.7684k -90o
Ohms
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
I
Z
Volts
Amps
250 + j0
250 0o
`!*
!4
0 + j245.04
0 - j1.7684k
254.04 90
1.7684k -90o
Rule of parallel
circuits:
Etotal = ER = EL = EC
#" h y
Ohms
4??4[[![?4?4[4?4N?
$
"5
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
250 + j0
480m + j0
$
480 0o
"U8]Br58
0 - j489.71m
489.71m -90o
0 + j67.858m
++
Volts
Amps
67.858m 90o
)#*
250 0o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
Ohms
Law
I = E
Z
Ohms
Law
I = E
Z
Ohms
Law
I = E
Z
Ohms
4 hy
'
N
_?!(
,
I
Total
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
120 + j0
120 0o
480m + j0
480 0o
250 + j0
250 0o
0 - j489.71m
489.71m -90o
0 + j245.04
254.04 90o
0 + j67.858m
67.858m 90o
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
480m - j421.85m
639.03m -41.311o
141.05 + j123.96
187.79 41.311o
Volts
Amps
Ohms
? [
[?43U-? ??XP[+??83-4!!"4 `
![_PC Zp? ?4P_44
Br By3*)#)+)M)#5
Vic
Vil
/
Vi
3
1
120
V
60 Hz
0
250
Vic
bogus
650 mH
1.5 F
0
13254 NN 2628794:29;79<
>=?=5@?132A=9BC@ 7ED
7F=5B?132G@
794HBHIH132J@
7 B 132J@
4O_
:
Q`UW@L@C@
@ =
4O_
:
Q`UW@L@C@
@ =
7>sZ :7C[
Q`UWILaC@ PL@:=
7 Z 7C[
P U=9I:= @=
7\sZ 794[
WU bC@C@ PL@=
7 Zs794:[
@eUW@C@C@ @C@
7>sZ 7 [
WU bCaLc L
P @=
7 Zs:7 [
Pa`UW@C@C@
@ =
7>Z 7L28[
Q`UdcCbCQ P@CB
7 sZ 7L28[
a`Ud@C@C@ @=
g
fU`h]BLiRh5`f j flk Gfgk5nm++lflk oh)3flk*
total
= 639.0 mA -41.31o
= 480 mA 0o
IL = 489.7 mA -90o
IC = 67.86 mA 90o
y )z
{|}e~}>: gG?
*?_?4- [4![PP4[
120
V
60 Hz
C1
4.7 F
650 mH
C2
1.5 F
470
1
2fC1
XL = 2fL
XC1 =
1
(2)()(60 Hz)(4.7 F)
XC1 = 564.38
XC2 =
1
2fC2
XC2 =
1
(2)()(60 Hz)(1.5 F)
R = 470
XC2 = 1.7684 k
g`-4_?`[?_[!
C
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Total
0 - j564.38
564.38
-90o
0 + j245.04
245.04
90o
0 - j1.7684k
470 + j0
1.7684k -90
470 0o
Volts
Amps
Ohms
4?4[ !4
4 :
4[!CN-P?*C?4*?5?
-?4# !4 5?" # ?454[?4s
?4_[P4? 4?543P[J[4P[?34
5???_?44[?[4 X[PNNCP[
?`[` + ???!
p O++!5 [?-?N[P[4???OC[[
?C`??!s-???-N?55[[5?4NO?!?P
P_[!?4+-[`-- p P[*4 414?
!4?[NC!?-?`4N5?
L -- C2
Total
C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
R // (L -- C2)
Volts
I
Z
Amps
Ohms
L -- C2
R // (L -- C2)
Total
C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
120 0o
E
I
Amps
Volts
0 - j1.5233k
1.5233k -90o
429.15 - j132.41
449.11 -17.147o
Rule of series
circuits:
ZL--C2 = ZL + ZC2
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
Ztotal = ZC1 + ZR//(L--C2)
Rule of parallel
circuits:
1
ZR//(L--C2) =
1
1
+
ZR ZL--C2
L -- C2
R // (L -- C2)
Total
C1 -- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
120 0o
76.899m + j124.86m
0 - j1.5233k
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
429.15 - j696.79
449.11 -17.147
1.5233k -90o
818.34 -58.371o
Volts
Amps
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
Volts
146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
Z
# 564.38 -90
%I
" 0 + j245.04
" 0 - j1.7684k
! 470 + j0
245.04 90o
1.7684k -90o
470 0o
C
R // (L -- C2)
Ohms
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
120 + j0
120 0o
Amps
Rule of series
circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
L -- C2
Z
$ 76.899m + j124.86m
C
L
0 - j1.5233k
1.5233k -90o
146.64m 58.371o
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
449.11 -17.147o
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
Rule of series
circuits:
total = IC1 = IR//(L--C2)
%I
Volts
Amps
Ohms
)(
C
$ 70.467 - j43.400
Z
Volts
146.64m 58.371o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
" 0 - j1.7684k
245.04 90
! 470 + j0
1.7684k -90
470 0o
Amps
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
L -- C
6 82.760 -31.629
& 76.899m + j124.86m
C
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
C
R // (L -- C2)
49.533 + j43.400
: 65.857
41.225
120 + j0
120 0o
146.64m 58.371o
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
! 449.11
-17.147
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
" 0 - j1.5233k
1.5233k -90o
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
8 Volts
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
70.467 - j43.400 V
+ 49.533 + j43.400 V
120 + j0 V
Indeed, it is!
+ '39Ct(]]Eo]]]t']]+8']3](L(
3o'l3(] u
wC#lLW
]3'(]Ee'`3XW(]>+3](X+]:]XL'Wj'l'(]o])l]+('LD p |'+X](]L(3
'X(W(gugw`]3(3g3(]V(gt33']3'rWE]jj]t(gu
wWj'+(r'
])]:XX3(+(3(lW'`>o:X33X`](+3]']t3+'X)o](XX X(]']]#lX()jdX
(3]]t']]g3]3(F
Ed3WlWtX|]+L(o(]3#]}A]3
C
& 70.467 - j43.400
Z
C
H 49.533 + j43.400
R
: 65.857 41.225
82.760 -31.629o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
G 245.04
90
" 0 - j1.7684k
+ j0
! 470
470 0
1.7684k -90o
Volts
9 Amps
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
7E
L -- C
E
49.533 + j43.400
: 65.857
41.225
o
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
41.225
120 + j0
120 0o
146.64m 58.371o
146.64m 58.371o
429.15 - j132.41
! 449.11
-17.147
429.15 - j696.79
818.34 -58.371o
8 Volts
" 0 - j1.5233k
C
R // (L -- C2)
1.5233k -90o
Ohms
Rule of parallel
circuits:
R//(L--C2) = ER = EL--C2
7E
C
& 70.467 - j43.400
1
E
I
Z
C
+ j43.400
I 49.533
65.857 41.225
82.760 -31.629o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
G 245.04
90
105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
" 0 - j1.7684k
! 470 + j0
1.7684k -90
! 470 0
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
% 7J
8 Volts
9 Amps
Ohms
L -- C2
E
I
Z
! 49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
41.225
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
C
R // (L -- C2)
&
! 49.533 + j43.400
I 65.857
41.225
120 + j0
120 0o
" 0 - j1.5233k
! 429.15 - j132.41
1.5233k -90o
Total
-- [R // (L -- C2)]
! 449.11 -17.147
8 Volts
818.34 -58.371o
Ohms
Ohms
Law
E
I=
Z
% J
Indeed, it is!
qC3(oR]3M
](]3X'X('tE:3W3L3H''(Xl('](Xtr('tE
3(] t:X]3 #] 8W('8('3o'(XLj]'('|6jN ]3rt+
(3(r WX(Xt)t'}+'C('tE+]:]XL'+(3'l'''(XLX
C
E
I
Z
C
L
82.760 -31.629o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
" 0 + j245.04
G 245.04
90
" 0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
49.533 + j43.400
65.857 41.225o
105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
+ j0
! 470
470 0
8 Volts
9 Amps
Ohms
Rule of series
circuits:
L--C2 = IL = IC2
%I
C
& 70.467 - j43.400
Z
82.760 -31.629o
" 0 - j564.38
# 564.38
-90
"
0 - j1.7684k
1.7684k -90o
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
Ohms
Law
E = IZ
Vir
S120 V
1.5 F
C2
0
650 mH
60 Hz
I 65.857 41.225
470
UVXW)YQZ\[]YWQ^?_U)Z`UbacadYcaeZ`^cac^`VfVb[gZ,Vgh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnkgoclpWb[rq
j\[giskmotUVl
j\[)abV.u3vpUV3l
j\[gZtutwtUVl
Vk*otu3vFxzy?h
a.vn{twc{clg|
V)oX{tl}k~xz{?h
Zpwtlfv`ycl
xzUV.a[qk*wclXwcl
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjoKu,Njd_o;u,3['j[gi\3[r_zj\[gi\
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjv{,Njd_v{,3['j[)a`Vb.[_j\[)abVb
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmj{Kl,Njd_{;l,3['j[)a`Vb.[_j\[)abVb
Volts
105.39m + j92.341m
140.12m 41.225o
Amps
470 + j0
470 0o
Ohms
Vilc
! 49.533 + j43.400
]}]8'+'jX't|]3##]'
C1
4.7 F
"
0 + j245.04
245.04 90o
Vit
76.451 41.225
146.64m 58.371o
-7.968 - j6.981
10.594 221.22o
C
R 57.501 + j50.382
L
Q
X
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
x_bZ[rqbiXUVmjwKl,Njd_w;l,3['j[gZ\3[r_zj\[gZ\
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
Z`YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
Z`YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
Z`YQ
wxzldlclQbblk
jo;u,
jQ_oKu
xzodycwQbblk^duxkgwcuQbcl\k
jv{,
jQ_v{
k~xzld{cQbblk^k~x1uccQbclco
j{
jQ_{,
yxzw)v`{Qbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k
jw
jQ_w,
wxz{dcwQbblk vxkgocoQcbl\k
['j\[ri\
k~xv`wdwQ^dl\k
['j\[?a`Vb
vFxzucoduQ^dlco
['j\[?a`Vb
vFxzucoduQ^dlco
['j\[rZ\
k~xv`lk^dl\k
[r_j\[gi\
{x1cucyQbcl\k
[r_j\[)a`Vc
k~x1u\kgoQbclco
[r_j\[)a`Vc
k~x1u\kgoQbclco
[r_j\[gZ\
vFxkgocoQbcl\k
k
bo
') ]3t
}3]t8(]:('tE 3)c )t' j)'}(] WX(X 3)tX R
Wjd)L(]r8:
> X(X3#(3l\3(E3](]j#](r] u]l(Xw (
yLz
;
F+X
])]]('LE]3ojE3}'} 8'X'(X+'] L3:) l'#(']3tEWC](
W()(X]X#3tX|() 6)t'(|]
g8t(]
6X!(']t:(8
(#]'+t(8r'o33](tE+)'V +']W('X|C!o3j8t('E
s#](XeW`
EdX#t(]'E]j+3:}]X(Et' +)3]8(Xeto'`jC: XX3(
:X#'X'tt)t+:']3(]'jE|j|'XWEL
;
Ed3Wl8((3'X|++'(EWd'])
)+''X\3]38t3o'L'X+o]'rt'X+]X't!] '(]]'('Wt]
'tX '|j'WW(XR5]38W( ]C((EWd']E
O X ]XR+'5jLXt3 m
383(]EC3X3t(]e]:]X9]t3XeL(jEjXu>w]j](X]'}'LX3\'}:X
L8J;0M0
X3
(])4
} ((3XV3(8XX +'('d'3]3 d''(X]XtE'X]]3C T')
3(t3' v 3 v ]'`g +V9 #gp p(# e3]3 #9p
+XoX:r'3]3t'](Ej]'X8'X'(XP`? ] ]' ]8(E('(]
XW'X)r+])]3 ''LX+X'3]]'(] ' 3(`(C]e]3(
jW38()]t sjL(t(Xl(]'Egs]}]''t>+'']]t(3!u3( eX']w
8(E't!(X(X+((3]3'38'])]rl''L+oE]('X\3]3!(t8'X't!(X(E
((3WW3 R8(XXX (3!W3'(]9 ( 8(E(ot HjL(t(X]'t
jC(
XL
l
TL*l++, -.
/10` -324rje
5
=
gF;e~
e=
i=
Time
Time
l
sm}'A
4
Time
+
capacitor charging: voltage increasing (in opposite polarity)
inductor discharging: current decreasing
Time
+
capacitor fully charged: voltage at (-) peak
inductor fully discharged: zero current
Time
+
capacitor discharging: voltage decreasing
inductor charging: current increasing
L(jt(X3t(]+t\8()3](}'X(])CX9Ct3(3g383(3t)3']E+t(3t
3('L(']3]E
]m V
+;
` 0
e=
i=
Time
Time
Time
l
sm}'A
4
maximum
potential energy,
zero kinetic
energy
mass
potential energy =
kinetic energy =
?D -
Jc10VJgVVp,
1~l'A
-
X3t(]o3
=D
{!~
l/)+}~K~K}-+
10 F
100 mH
Xx
XL = 2fL
XC =
l
sm}'A
4
1
2fC
1
2fC
2f2L =
1
22LC
f=
22LC
. . . simplifying . . .
1
f=
2
LC
Jc10VJgVVp,
1~l'A
-
XL = 2fL
XL = (2)()(159.155 Hz)(100 mH)
XL = 100
XC =
1
2fC
1
(2)()(159.155 Hz)(10 F)
XC = 100
Zparallel =
Zparallel =
Zparallel =
1
1
+
ZL
ZC
1
Zparallel =
1
100 90o
+
1
100 -90o
Undefined!
]E
l
sm}'A
4
1
1
1
Rbogus
C1
L
10 uF
100 mH
0
0
1 p
0
0
8Jc10VG8d#}'A
4
]
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
3
jC(')o!tt'(]J
!3 ] W 'X(d']oo]X 5(
L3]L'3}X]#]3Cgo)t#]L']to8'X383(] ]]t']]}(])gtC>K
]X(?'X(d)3]tr]+)LWX!(]#(j9]o> >:E}])t}jX39CtX
(t(]3t]''r''Ll]Xl'LX3)}E]'=
}otdXd
W(X3 WX] ]3 N
}3t3(] s
'(X]]t(3]G'']Gt3(E](Xo'] t |'
'tE+to(L3t3(E](Xl( ((:W'] 3('Lrt(r'']]E!Wj' 8
']33o(rjC(e:]#e l]C+)`(3tLWEd]38We:]L'`'X(X|(EW3j
'Lj]# } }++(3:]L+(3+()>('L']Y'j#}(]3'l]t(X'3
38XL']#( ])G8(|'C3EGL5(3
]8'!]38W]']X)
C+]}
3)])jt]l'38+3](( g]]? C+j|'LX3!](3
'E |W(X3X'l 88|t]3(|)3)](X(E'tX 'LX3 (EW:]jW
(3('tr}()3]]E#t'Lj]
4
5
6
87 9
:
;<+'X(]3]!(L3
fresonant =
>7
69
(](XX
+t(H(3
LC
=@?
=2
]?:X'X
A)BDCEGFBHF
KHF-I+
XW'(+]'X(]j3 'X])3X
ONQPSRsm}0T'A
4
]9
= 0 - j100
VZ
= ZL + ZC
VZ
= (0 + j100 ) + (0 - j100 )
VZ
=0
series
series
][^
]jL8\
`] (]t`(EWd']r ('X]3+t(']3]']3 ' tj83']']X
(3l]8 't''L(]+3`tt(X>C]3:(]' ]'
]3 8W ]X (3g'
)g] ' LX3XX
W
R1
1
_C
1V
2
10 F
3
L1
0
100 mH
0
W)YQZ[?YWa`VXVb[gZVrh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQ
xzY)qb
`Z YQ
['zj'kQ
uxkgwco)^dlco
k~xzlclcl)^dl\k uxkgwdoQ^dl\k k~xzl
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
k~xzldlclQbbldo k~x1lcucQ^Qlco !
x
x
x
x
k~xzld{cuQbbldo k~xkgycwQ^Qlco x !
x
x
x
x
k~xkrlc{Qbbldo k~x1'u `'k^Qlco x !
x
x
x
x
!
k~xkr{cQbbldo k~x1'{ ``{Q^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
!
k~xzokckbbldo k~x1c'l `c^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
!
k~xzodwcuQbbldo oxk ``c^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
! x
k~xzukgwQbbldo ox1w\kck^Qlco x
x
x
x
k~xzudwcQbbldo ux1occwQ^Qlco x
x!
x
x
x
6h
ba8cTc10dP0eVfT8dgT}0T'A
4
k~xi`bo\kbbldo `Fx1uccQ^Qlco x
x !
x
x
x
!
k~ix `b'y `cbbldo wxj``ycQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
k~xz{docwQbbldo k~xkgcwQ^Ql\k}x
x
x !
x
x
k~xz{dycQbbldo {x1uco'`c^Ql\k}x
x
x
x ! x
k~xzwducoQbbldo k~x1cycuQ^Ql\k}x
x
x !
x
x
! x
k~xzwd' `cbbldo x1yccyQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
k~xzyducyQbbldo {x1yclcyQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
k~xzydcQbbldo `Fx1oc{coQ^Qlco x
x !
x
x
x
k~xz2 ``oQbbldo uxj``lcwQ^Qlco x
x!
x
x
x
!x
k~xzdc{Qbbldo ox1c{coQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
! x
k~xz2 ``yQbbldo oxj``w\k^Qlco x
x
x
x
!
oxzldlclQbbldo oxkgwcQ^Qlco x
x
x
x
x
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
W
W
#K
kf
resonant
HK
W
HK
=
2
LC
W)YQZ[?YWa`VXVb[gZVrh[gi
j'kXkmlXUVnk3Wc[rq
Z'kXkmo}k
Vk*otu}kgl)h
ak*utl}kglclr|
xzUV.a[qocl/kgldltocldl
x_,'a $QitUVX['j'kQjoKu,Nju,
xzY)qb
adY'&bY)q`0l
! lP['j'k)
0ljoKu,
m lju,
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
! ?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQ^Qlco
uxkgwcoQ^Qlco
k~x1lclclQ^Ql\k
lxzu\krwco k
^X^t^t^t^X^t^X^X^p^X^t^X^t^X^p^X^X^t^X^t^t^t^X^X^t^X^p^X^t^X^X^p^
?^c^c^c^c^d^c^c^c^c^d^Xk~x1lclclQbclcl
uxkgwcoQbclcl
k~x1lclclQbcl\k
u\k~xzwdokglcl
n
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4
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x
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2.2 k
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1 F
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2.2 k
XC = 2.653 k
1 F
N|
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Total
2.0377 + j2.4569
3.1919 50.328o
2.9623 - j2.4569
3.8486 -39.6716o
5 + j0
5 0o
Volts
926.22 + j1.1168m
1.4509m 50.328o
926.22 + j1.1168m
1.4509m 50.328o
926.22 + j1.1168m
1.4509m 50.328o
Amps
0 - j2.653k
2.653k -90o
2.2k - j2.653k
3.446k -50.328o
Ohms
2.2k + j0
2.2k 0o
GXyz<|.UW_g`TNhMZ:bl[$_d`ZX=
2.2 k
5V
90 Hz
1 F
XC = 1.768 k
Total
3.0375 + j2.4415
3.8971 38.793o
1.9625 - j2.4415
3.1325 -51.207o
5 + j0
5 0o
Volts
1.3807m + j1.1098m
1.7714m 38.793o
1.3807m + j1.1098m
1.7714m 38.793o
1.3807m + j1.1098m
1.7714m 38.793o
Amps
0 - j1.768k
1.768k -90o
2.2k - j1.768k
2.823k -38.793o
Ohms
2.2k + j0
2.2k 0o
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TVUXWZY[\ZU^]D]R_D`9]
a8
#;
Signal
input
#8
0;
#;
Low-pass filter
blocks frequencies
that are too high
b8
!; d8
High-pass filter
blocks frequencies
that are too low
eSignal
output
0;
2=@? SA c? @
ih \i]%^Q0!]%^
g OBP
j8
*:
)k
Source
mV
o200
1V
pC
High-pass
lfilter
section
pC
3
1 F
o2.5 F
nR
load
1 k
/ !! 'cv
/ !! %-cv
!v !! %0cv
/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%!!! %cv
%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
21 4 345 \
0 0
!]%^
gOg
`
%*!! %cv
%/!! %cv
%/ !! %0cv
%/ !! %cv
%/0!! %cv
'*!!
%-cv
%/ !! 'cv
High-pass
lfilter
section
nR
1
L
Low-pass
lfilter
section
L
2
nR
load
ih \i]%^Q0!]%^
g Ol
0 0 c %M08CM / [ a M 0 vc d cc % MMB
M :
0 -
0 0 -M !0 4 Bc ; F ! M 8 -04c M 0 M^ M
c^ M ; cc ^ !M M - c /M^ M M 0*
.)[-
. M=@? y B fA 0?S @Hj8 CMMX :
0 c!- M M ! ^ / MB :
0 Bc0- M ^ D0
'Mc ; ; MM 8cCM [ j @
0 #; M 8cCM M0 c !; M 8c !
0 2! c
- /MM ! 0 B c /!M c c B0 0 Mc 0b0 # .
M0
TVUXWZY[]Da\ R_i`9]
B SR c =@ ? SA/ ~ J/ ?S I0 =@B?0 S A @- I bi M)0 SI@ 8c S 0 c ' 80CMc a/ 0 M 0X dB* :c jc
0 #; Xc !; M 8c v bM0 Bc ; - !M a )'
-0 #0 8c # v Z 0 c [
Signal
output
Signal
input
High-pass filter
frequencies
d M 0passes
j high
48CM c ! !#/ - 0 H
"Twin-T" band-stop filter
R1
pC
pC
source
R2
pC
nR
nR
load
!C
21# 345#Gid4
g OB
0j #; M 8cCM X 0 iB. - 8 0 0b 0;
8c 0 'B%c )2
i- 8 0 d 0 M
M B0 H-a 0 4 ; 8c vcb M c X0 0 -
S 0
) 0 c
Component value ratios for
the "Twin-T" band-stop filter
nR
= R2 = 2(R3)
pC = C = (0.5)C
0 - # M0H*:c c j M M0 B 0 bM :
0 c N
c
2
fnotch =
1
4R3C3
%/ !! %0cv
i
%/
!!
'vcv
%/
!!
%cv
%!v !! cv
%*!! -cv
%/ !! %-c
%!!!
%c
D
%*!! -c @
%/0!!
'c
%/ !! %c
g O
ih
/ v !! - cv
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/ !! %cv
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/
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!!!
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Hi% ! Did4
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. M=M? B A@I b^8 CMM :
0 !c- bi ! !# M i:
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0 c ; M0 cB ; 0
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0c M0 Bc ; # Bc ; [8c
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4 ^c
9 4 j /c 0 j c )B[ 0 0M
%'&)(
mV
:L
lfilter
1
1H
1V
pC
3
1 F
nR
load
1 k
0
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M
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*!! %vcv
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0!!
%cv
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i
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%/
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%/ !! %cv
%/ !! %cv
g OPO
ih
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mV
1V
0
nR
lfilter
2
500
:L
pC
10
F
100
mH
Rload
1 k
0
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/
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%/ !! %cv
%*!! %vcv
g OO
%/ !! %0cv
%/ !! %0cv
%/ !! %cv
0 S - BK ; M c c S c c c !
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mV
R1
500
L1
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pC
100 mH
Rload
1 k
10 F
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/ !! %c
/ !! %c
!!! %c
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@
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D
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%/0!! cv
%*!! -cv
g OB
%/ !! 0cv
pC
10 F
mV
:L
1V
100 mH
nR
load
1 k
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/ !! %cv
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/ !! %0cv
!v !! %-cv
!!! %cv
g VP
ih
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/
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%/ !! %cv
L1
100 mH
mV
1V
pC
L2
100 mH
1 F
nR
load
1 k
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mV
:L
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12 V
mV
2H
pC
9500
F
nR
load
1 k
1V
120 Hz
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fresonant =
o2
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st
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current
current
coiled wire
field
magnetic
generated by
current through
coil
00 j M48 0M4 BZ
#c c B c c M :
N
L=
N2A
l
Where,
L = Inductance of coil in Henrys
Number of turns in wire coil (straight wire = 1)
= Permeability of core material (absolute, not relative)
A = Area of coil in square meters
l = Average length of coil in meters
N =
Transformer
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(for SPICE to measure current)
nR
bogus
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10 V
:L
:L
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100 H
i1
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1 k
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Primary
winding
Secondary
winding
dprimary:secondary
) j0 Kcurrent
0 ratio
ic ' 0 0 !
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C B c> 0MM - c M0j B ^j j c ! c aM c/
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c [ 0 b c
c Bc b0 0)# C B ) MM 2
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A motor/generator set
Power
in
Power
out
Shaft
coupling
Motor
Generator
j GZ ^ 0 - 00 Z c
0 ! aM0 Bc> cM cj c 'c a M
Hc M M - ca >- c0 0
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0 0
c
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c[M c
c M0Z Kc c Z VM0Z0 j M c Y G 7
d M c B M B 0 -c0 M c j7@7 H @ H !c %M0 0M
C B 0 ' 0 c!0 M c Bc 0 d c C B c
M^ 0M M B 0 0 c aM0a Zc M cR c 0 MB - j
c Bc NM0 % - 00 c^ d c \ 0 B -M 9S c
c B Nc - N M
c- !N 9c vc c% - d B B0 0
b 0 c Bc 0 0 ' H c B c / c M0a3 `SM G0
- vM0 c
i
L = N2A
l
Where,
#- B 0 -
b
M S
!H ! M0 ' cK d 0 j cK cc M c
cM jSF
cS ' )M % M0M '0 C B Bcb 0M % Bc j
c
c^ a G c!0 c c# -' 0 j M BcZ c0
7
Step-down transformer
many turns
high voltage
low current
few turns
low voltage
high current
load
(many teeth)
high torque
low speed
SMALL
GEAR
(few teeth)
low torque
high speed
.)[-
MBHc 0 c U Ma0 H 0 `4 !0 M0 D 0 j cc M
7 O
i
id i = !'#d4
N
N
N
secondary
primary
primary
secondary
Where,
) l P JL Bc *
0-a0 B cM c j Bc 4 [ Bc H aS
D M0
0 j Z
Voltage transformation ratio =
Lsecondary
Lprimary
'&)
mV
10 V
mV
Rbogus
:L
:L
0V
10 kH
i1
Rload
1 k
100 H
mV
o250 V
w2rcq{!t*z
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b a M B M0 - M- c M0 -a c
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c
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R
%/ c %/ c V
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c
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c
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d
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%/ c vc
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c
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i
d
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c
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@
%*c /c
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c
id i = !'#d4
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+
0M c i - ca M 0 j '0 B B 0 M0 M c
40 j M cZ -0 Mb c!0 ^ M0 !B B ! a
BS ! - #! /M F! 0'0 s H cK@ ' M4 M c
c!0 M M0 cM ! 9 00 Mc 9 c!0 0 ` H
BK M0M #0MH0^ 7 j 0a! 0 )c ^0
0 / d0 FM0 ! % % 0 b 0% F0H0 j Bc) -0 M c!0
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'&
load #2
ee
i
id i = !'#d4
load #1
load #2
load
load
e
C
j=j= > =4D .D D>=
0 j C B 7 e 0 S B 3 d - 0 S / 0 c
C B v Z /M M ' MH - - M /0ja B M f
S0 - M9
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M R 0 c R Bc 4 )0 a c!0 c H
M/ 0B M0^M 0C c [ PP 0 -B
Autotransformer
load
load
0 M c c 0c 9 j 0c c M
0
9M aa
0 c j Z0 j / ` Bc ^ 0 b M0X c
id i =!'#d4
c j M aB -c0 Mj c!0 jj X M0 ) M ! - c Mc
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/0I 6B @0 7
! -0 M !B ) B # M j M M 0
D 0 B 07 0 dHM M0 c0 -
M
C B ! M M 00 0^c j M
e
i
"boosting"
120 V
30 V
150 V
120 V
30 V
90 V
The "Variac"
variable autotransformer
load
j
# .G D>=
e?
0bB H j Z 0 I - 0 d ^ Bc
- / 0 0
.)[-
cBc00 * B S 0 0 0 M Z0M BB>c a 0 0 0 j
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c c M
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- c j c M 0jc c d M0 M 0 Hc '
. [M !c Bc ! a / 0 ! 0 S0! )0 - /v [0 M ! ) B
. S1 "6 4S B ! B *
< ;
'&)(
Eno-load - Efull-load
Efull-load
(100%)
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i
jkl
sutv
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y
9.990 V - 9.348 V
Regulation percentage =
(100%)
y
!*)2"@N
9.990 V
+,/&?0
.G D >=
b
N
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cb
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Ferroresonant transformer
AC power
output
AC power
input
Resonant LC circuit
W,>&?;8+
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250 V
I=8A
125 V
Rload
62.5
Pload = 1000 W
15.625
Pload = 1000 W
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I=4A
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62.5
250 V
0 PJ
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Nsecondary
Nprimary
Nprimary
Nsecondary
2
Nsecondary
Inductance ratio =
ZH_QZ
Nprimary
2
Nsecondary
Nprimary
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Audio amplifier
Speaker
Z=8
Speaker
Z=8
Thevenin/Norton
Z = 500
. . . equivalent to . . .
ZThevenin
EThevenin
500
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8 8
KA8
impedance
"matching"
transformer
Audio amplifier
Speaker
Z=8
Thevenin/Norton
Z = 500
impedance ratio = 500 : 8
winding ratio = 7.906 : 1
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L
load
If L changes in inductance,
ZL will correspondingly
change, thus changing the
circuit current.
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C8935`.[8935=?2J:<=357@9hCg38[52J!d(u@9dJ!438=?M#.4->?Hqd4-J!4[9384-H]pv^M`![8[54-J3357.[52`!d7;9J!2357!4-[O:<=?J.HS=?J!d.jAx7!4x[84-9M352[- C
Gc2:i4[ :<=J.H!=J!dq=?C"357.4(2J.4'M9[5[8v=J.d357!4z(oQ>2a9H@M`![5[84Ja3*Na9J.H6357.4 M2Ja35[82> :<=?J.HS=?J!d^=DC"2J!4'M-9[8[5v=?J!d
96+o~M`.[5[84Ja3%Cg38[52J!d;4J!2`!d7t352eHS[8=?L4h357!4M2[84'=?Ja352@C8935`.[8935=?2Jn
saturable reactor
load
A 7!4eCF35[9J!d4I>22wa=?J!db35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[]CFvuqpV2>"CF7.2:<J=?Jr357!4e9pV2L46C8M7!4-u6935=DM;[54-G![54*CF4-Ja38C]9_C8935`.[89p!>4?
x
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:<=?J.HS=?J!dK357![82`.d7:<7!=DM7Q387!4EM2Ja35[82>?>4*HQz(oM`![8[84Ja3ed24-C-jJ.M[54*9C54-Hy+oM2Ja35[82><M`![8[84Ja3eG![82H!`.M4*C
u62[84<u@9dJ.435=DMx.`!6=?J6357.4([84-9M352[fM2[84NaHS[8=L=?J!d=3#M>?2C54[l382q9]M2J.HS=35=?2J@2m{C5935`![938=2JnN387a`VC#HS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d
357.4%GV2:i4[l:<=?J.HS=?J!dV Cl=?J.HS`VMT389J.M4NHS4*M[84-9CF=?J!d=3Cl=?u;Gc4-H.9J.M4N9J.H;=?J.M[84-9CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3l352357.4%>2a9HjAx7`.CN
357.4+o~M2J38[52>M`![8[54-Ja3x=DC%9p!>4h382;4S4[53 X . R5X 2L4-[i357!4z(oM`![8[54-Ja3<H!4>?=L4[84-Hb352;357!4]>?29Hj
Ax7!4hM=?[8M`!=3xCF7.2:<J@:#2`!>?He:#2[5wNp.`S3i=3#:i2`.>?H@J.23#:i2[8w;L4[8v;:#4->>sjlAx7!4%.[CF3#G![82p!>?4uB=DCf387!4'JV935`.[89>
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M`.[5[84Ja3=J\357!4@M2Ja35[82>:<=J.H!=J!dVNn:<7!=DM7\u@9vEM9`.C5435[82`.p!>4;=?J\387!4@+oGV2:i4[CF2`![M4jz(>?C52.NnC8938`![9p!>?4
[84-9M352[8Cf354JVHe382;[84d`!>D9354hz(oyGc2:#4-[i2J!>?v@=Jt2J!4HS=?[54*MT35=?2J{=?J}2J!4h7.9>mO2mn357.4z(oMvSM>?4N387!4u69dJ!435=DM
.4->?Hm/2[M4*Chm/[52upc2357K:<=?J.HS=?J!dC]9H!H=Jr387!4@2387!4[]7.9>mgNO357.4v\C5`!pS38[89MT3-jeAx7`.C-Nn387!4eM2[54;:<=?>>l384J.H382
pc4@u;2[54@C8938`![89354*HE=?Jr2J!4@7.9>mi2mi357!4ez(oMvSM>?46357.9J\387!4@2387!4[*N{GV9C8CF=?J!dM`![8[54-Ja3u62[5464-9CF=?>?vE=Jr2J.4
(''#
%' Si
HS=?[54*MT38=2Jb387.9J}357.4]2357.4[*j0.2[535`!JV9354->vNSpV2357G![82p!>?4u@C<M-9J}pV4]2L4[M2u64h:<=387_9q>?=3F35>?4]=?J!d4-Ja`.=3gv
load
1 235=DM4x387!4%G!>D9M4u64Ja3"2mV387!4%G!7.9CF=?J!dHS238C"2J;357!4%3g:#2][84-9MT352[8C-387!4%Gc2:#4-[l:<=J.H!=J!daC"9[54 =J6G!7.9CF4
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p.93F354-[5v;384[8u;=?J.9>?C-N387`.Ci4>?=u6=?J.938=J!d^357!4'.[Cg3iG![82p!>?4uu64Ja35=?2J.4-Hjl0!`.[F387!4[8u62[84NCF=?J.M4(357!4+]oyM2Ja38[52>
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7.9L4'382@pV4]:i4>?>n=?J.C5`!>?9354*Hbm/[82u357!4=?[82JM2[84NSp.`S3(4-9M7t:<=?J.HS=?J!d@7.9Ci352@pc4CF`!@M=4-Ja35>?vb=?J.CF`.>?9354-Htm/[82u
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:<=?J.HS=?J!dL2>389d4b9J.HM`.[5[84Ja3-N387!2`.d7387!4M`![8[54-Ja3^[8935=?J!d\=DC;`.C5`.9>?>vHS4-[5=?L4*HKm/[82u9\L2>3 9u6G/z'
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1000 VA
120 V
1000 VA
48 V
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r % b{
load
#1
load
#2
.-
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M=?[M`!=3-
120 V
load
#1
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
21
4365
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;I =
0P
total
87
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l"' y g
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10 kW
120 V
;I = 83.33 A
;I
= Iload#1 + Iload#2
0P
total
= 20 kW
Itotal = 166.67 A
2< <=<
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:<=?[54
K240 V
I>HB
HJ
load
#1
load
#2
0P = 10 kW 0P = 10 kW
SR
365 3 ML ON QP
;I = VP
g <{ '
UT
"
10 kW
240 V
I=
I = 41.67 A
0P
;I
total
XW WZY
Ptotal = 20 kW
= (41.67 A) + (41.67 A)
Itotal = 83.33 A
total
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b-
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9 3387!4<C59u;4#35=?u64 _'J!4xCF2>`!35=?2J;:#2`!>?H^pV4i382'=?J.CF389>?>!CF354G IHS2:<J^35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[C{93387!4x4J.H sGc2=?Ja32m.Gc2:#4-[
`.C54Ng`.CF39C<357.4qz%u64-[5=DM9J352`.[5=DCg3hu^`.CF3hH!2e:<7!=?>4q=J "`![82Gc4j (2:#4-L4[*NS387!=?C':i2`!>DH_pc4^4SGc4J.C5=?L4^9J.H
=?J.M2JaL4J!=?4Ja3m/2[#9Jva357!=?J!dp!`S3"L4[8v^C5u69>>S>?29H!C</:<7.4[84x357!4<38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[8CM-9J;pV4%p.`!=>3#M7!4*9G!>?v!O2[lL4-[5v
>D9[8d4h>2a9H!C]Z:<7!4[84h357!4]4Gc4JVCF4]2m{357.=?Mw}M2G.GV4-[<:<=[84-Cx:i2`!>DHt4!M4-4-Hb357!4]4Gc4JVCF42ml9q35[9J.CFm/2[8u64[TTj
]\
b-
z%Jr9>354-[5J.935=?L4^C52>?`S38=2JE:#2`!>DH_pV4q352}`.C54q9b7!=d7!4[hL2>39d4^CF`.G!G!>?v352}G![52L=DHS4Gc2:#4-[%382b3g:i2b>?2:#4-[
L2>39d4e>2a9H!Cq=?JQC54[8=4*CjKAx7!=DC;9G!G![829M7M2uqp!=?J!4-C^357!4}4 eM=4-J.MvK2mh9E7!=?d7 IL2>39d4bCFvSCF354-u:<=357Q357.4
C89m/43gvb2ml9q>?2: IL2>389d4hCFvSCF354u
f-
4365
(''"
87 QP
:9
l ' y g
83.33 A
K240 V
load +120 V
#1 10 kW
-
K240+ V
load +120 V
#2 10 kW
-
83.33 A
hg i-
kj
1%235=DM4t357!4_Gc2>D9[8=3gvru@9[5w=?J!dC
9J.H ^m/2[;4*9M7QL2>389d4}CF7!2:<J{N#9C;:i4>?><9Cq357!4_`.J!=?H!=[84-M35=?2J.9>
9 [8[82:%C(m/2[M`![8[84Ja3-j .2[387!4@u62CF3G.9[53-NOT L4e9L2=DHS4*HE>D9pc4>?=J!d GV2>?9[5=35=?4-C =JK387!4ez(oM=[M`.=3C]:#4 L4
pc44J9JV9>?va-=J.d.Na4L4-J@357.2`!d7e357.4hJ.238935=?2Jt=?CiL9>?=?He352;G![82La=DHS4h9m/[9u64(2mO[84m/4-[54-J.M4(m/2[iG!7.9C54jJ}>?9354-[
C54-MT38=2J.Cq2m(387!=DC;M7V9GS384[*NlG!7.9C54}[54->?935=?2J.C57!=?G.C^:<=?>?>ipc4-M2u64}L4[8vK=u6Gc2[5389J3*N"C52T u=Ja38[52SHS`.M=J.d\387!=?C
J!238938=2Jt4*9[8>vb2J}=J}357.4M7.9GS384[im/2[(v2`.[#mZ9u6=>?=?9[5=3gvj
:> B
Ax7!4iM`![8[54-Ja3{357.[52`!d74*9M7>?29H]=DCn387!4iC89u64i9CO=3:i9C{=?J387!4xCF=?u6G!>4 <L2>3M=?[8M`!=3-Np!`S3357.4iM`![5[84Ja3C
9 [84(J.23%9H!H!=38=L4'pc4-M-9`.C54(387!4h>2a9H!Cx9[84(=?JtC54[8=?4-Ci[89357!4-["387.9JtG.9[9>?>?4>sjAx7.4'L2>389d4'9M[82C8Cf4-9M7b>?29H@=?C
2J.>v L2>38C-NJ!23 !NCF2q357.4C89m/43gv6mZ9M352[i=DCxpV43F354-[-j E=J.Htv2`nN:#4CF35=?>>7.9L4'9^m/`!>?> ^L2>3Ci9M[82C8C
357.4qGc2:#4-['C5vSCg384u :<=?[54*CNcp!`S3 U X =?C'2Gc4[938=J.dt939b[84-H!`.M4*H_L2>39d4j(Im#9Jv2J.4=?C'd2=J.de352td43
C57!2SMw4-HnN.387!4^2SH!H!Ch9[84]387.93h=3:<=>?>pV4^m/[52uM2u6=?J!de=?J382tM2Ja389MT3(:<=357\357!4;M2JVHS`.MT382[C%2m"9@G.9[535=DM`.>?9[
>?29Ht[9357.4[i357.9J}m/[52uM2J39M3<9M[82C8C#357!4]u@9=?J}:<=[84-Cx2m9;Gc2:#4-[xC5vSCg384uj
&> B
ml
Y on Y
$@
FJ
pj
83.33 A
+
+
-
120 V
0o
"hot"
"neutral"
0A
120 V
0o
"hot"
83.33 A
load +120 V
#1
0o
-
load +120 V
0o
#2
-
K240+ V
-
SR 7
365 3 ML ON QP
VE = (120 V 0 ) + (120 V 0 )
VE = 240 V 0
0P
;I = 0VP
E
0P
;I = 10 kW
120 V
;I = 83.33 A (for each load resistor)
BB
]\
HJ
g <{ '
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total
total
total
total
= 20 kW
M> B
FE
p> B
vw\ -
hq rW q.nsY
t u
8j
I-
I-
b-
x+
+
+
2.4 kV
-
120 V
120 V
x+
240 V
-
v-
I-
Im357!4qz(oGc2:i4[(M2u64-C'HS=[84-M35>?vem/[82u9@d4-J!4[9382[9>354[8J.9352[TTN!357!4^M2=?>?C'M9J}pc4qC5=?u;=?>D9[8>v}M4Ja384[
389G!Gc4-Hm/2[(387!4qC89u64^4c4*MT3*j'Ax7!4q435[9e4Gc4JVCF4^352e=?J.M>?`.HS469eM4Ja354-[ s389GEM2J.J!4-M35=?2JE=?J\9@38[89J.CFm/2[8u;4-[
2[%9>384[8J.9382[x:<=?J.HS=?J!d6=?C<u6=?J!=?u69>j
%4-[54(=?Ci:<7!4-[54<387!46 #9J.HE fGV2>?9[5=3gv6u@9[8wa=?J!daCl[54*9>?>v6pc4-M2u64(=?u6GV2[F39Ja3-jlAx7!=DC"J.238935=?2Je=DC#2m354-J
`.C54-Hb3526[84m/4[84JVM4'357!4]G!7V9C5=J!daCi2m Y S s U z(oL2>39d4hC52`![M4*CNSC52q=3%=DC<M>?4-9[x:<7!4357!4-[x357!4-vb9[84]9=DHS=?J!d
pV22aCg38=J!d 4*9M72357!4-[{2[{2G.GV2aCF=?J!dq p!`VMwa=?J!d 4*9M7]2387!4[*j{Im!J.23m/2[n387!4-C54"Gc2>D9[8=3gv'u@9[8w=J.dC-N*G.7.9C54
[84>D935=?2JVC(pc43g:i44-J\u^`.>38=G!>?46z(oCF2`![M4-C'u6=d7a3hpc4qL4[8v_M2J!m/`.CF=?J!dVj1(2384^387.93357.4;C5G!>?=3 sG!7V9C54;C52`![M4*C
=?J357!4C8M7!4u@938=?M\/4-9M72J.4 _L2>3C
Nl:<=387Gc2>D9[8=3gvru@9[8wCt 352 %g`.CF3q>?=w4tC54[8=4*C 9=DHS=?J!d
p.93F354-[5=?4-C<M-9J9>354-[5J.935=?L4->v@pc4][54-G![84-C54Ja354*Ht9C<CF`.M7{
hg
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4365
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87 QP
:9
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"hot"
+
120 V
0o
+
240 V
0o
-
120 V
180o
"hot"
Polar
120 0o
- 120 180o
240 0o
y-
Rectangular
120 + j0 V
- (-120 + j0) V
240 + j0 V
> 2BU}
z W Y ]W
R #L2>39d4*CNpc4-M9`.C54
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u 9[8wq N:#4fuq`.CF3{4SG![84-C8C387!4=?[{[84>D938=L4lG!7.9C54"C57!=m38C9Cnpc4=?J!d * 9G.9[F3*j(357!4-[5:<=DC54N*:#4 H]pc4"HS4-J!238=J.d
@
3g:i2;L2>389d4]CF2`![M4-Ci=?J_HS=[84-M3%2G!Gc2C5=35=?2J:<=3874-9M7}2387!4[*N!:<7!=DM7:#2`!>DHtd=L4 qL2>38Cxpc43g:i44-Jt387!4]3g:i2
7.23 M2JVHS`.MT382[Cj<7v9ui389wa=?J!d@387!438=u64q352e4->?9pV2[89354]2JEGV2>?9[5=3gvbu@9[5wSC(9J.HG!7.9CF4;9J!d>4*C I3
:<=?>>nu@9w4u62[84hC54J.C54=J}387!4]J!43(C54-M35=?2J
2:i4[eC5vCF354-u@Cb=?Jz(u;4-[5=DM9J7!2`VCF4-7!2>DH!C}9J.H>?=?d7a3t=?J.HS`.CF35[8v9[84Eu62CF3t2m354J2m]387!4rC5G!>?=3 sG.7.9C54
L9[8=43gvN!G.[52L=DHS=J.deCF2 IM-9>?>4*H
z(oGc2:i4[*j#Ax7!4]384[8u CFG!>?=3 IG!7.9C54 u64[84>?v}[54m/4[Ci352@387!4^C5G!>=3
L2>39d4;C5`!G!G!>?vE=?JrC5`.M7K9CFvSCF354uj6JK9tu62[546d4-J!4[9>C54J.C54N387!=DC]w=J.H2m<z(oGc2:i4[]CF`.G!G!>?vE=?C]M-9>?>4*H
WT U
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Ax7!4^354[8u C5=J.d>?4G!7.9CF4 =DC'9tM2`.J384[8GV2=Ja3%382}9J!2387!4['w=J.HE2m"Gc2:#4-['C5vSCg384u M9>>?4-H GV2>vG!7V9C54
:<7!=DM7\:i4;9[54;9pc2`S3h352}=?JaL4-CF35=?d9354^=?JH!4389=>sjz%Gc2>?2d=4*C'm/2['357!46>?2J!dt=Ja35[82SHS`.M35=?2J\>?4-9HS=?J!db`!G352t357.4
35=35>?4 s352G!=DM'2mn357.=?C<M7.9GS354-[-jAx7!4]9H!L9Ja389d4-C#2m{Gc2>?vG!7.9CF4hGV2:i4[xC5vCF354-u@Ci9[54hu62[84(2paL=?2`.C#=mO2J.4 .[CF3
7.9C<9qd22Ht`!J.H!4[Cg39J.HS=?J!d62mlC5=J!d>4G!7V9C54C5vSCg384u@C-j
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C5vCF354-u:i4C59:pc4m/2[54N!4!M4GS3x357V93%4-9M7tL2>389d4CF2`![8M4':x9C %2`S3<2mG!7.9C54:<=387}357!4]2357!4-[-
83.33 A 0o
+
+
"hot"
120 V
0o
"neutral"
load +120 V
0o
#1
-
K207.85+ V
120 V
120o
load -120 V
#2 120o
+
-30o
-
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
`> B
pz W ?> B
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83.33 A 0o
87 QP
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"hot"
load +
120 V 0o
#1
"neutral"
Node
Ineutral
load
o
#2 120 V 120
+
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
;I
neutral
= -Iload#1 - Iload#2
neutral
;I
:/
=< <2<
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C5=J.M4x=3* CfM-9[8[5v=?J!d'M`![8[54-J3l9Jv:x9vN:<7vJ!23`VCF4i357V93l357.=[H^:<=?[84x9Cl9J!2357!4-[ 7!23 M2JVHS`.MT382[*NGc2:#4-[5=?J!d
9J.2357.4[">?29H@[84-C5=?CF352[":<=357b9357!=?[8H L2>3iC52`.[8M4%7.9L=J.d^9G!7V9C54'9J.d>?4(2m
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357.=?C<u6=?d7a3<>22wc
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BU}d
365 ^P ON QP
SR
((" '
"
<=<
83.33 A 0o
load
#1
120 V
0o
83.33 A 240o
+
120 V
240o
120 V
+ 120o
120 V
10 kW
120 V
10 kW
load
#2
+
208 V
-30o
-
load #3
120 V
10 kW
83.33 A 120o
z m/`.>>u@9387!4u@938=?M-9>c9J.9>vSC5=?C"2m{9>?>V357!4'L2>389d4*Cf9J.HbM`![8[54-Ja38Cf=?J@387!=?CxM=[M`!=3#:i2`.>?H6J!4*M4*C5C5=39384%357.4
b-
f> B
"_
1
+
0
+
+
120 V
240o
1.44
R1
120 V
0o
3
R3
120 V
120o
1.44
R2
A Uss2AUs.2biFs2.=6$6bA
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HC=oD?~.OU:2c2..`C=o.$S2$]:2b"bbXsI2s2 6o>AmCsCBM p>H=BSwo2"s =.]s2=2QQ6F"2.ov UUo2C vJ FsIv2~.6v2Q F==.`< O<2v< oC]cC..sO. A2b mm?svMCvC6sO.b .2vB 2MUSQ =22wsosO b$ ]=~vw"o=Cm2H=
v.I. -.sI=I2M. 6 "2:2]2f.DC`sv=e=.sC2s.bv.2=G.c2=s.Hs ^2 F"s6Q"=O.Ds= = &`.I.H=v.&OsCIsvH6v2vGkvCp^2C$m$2vss
C=wCo.C=2v:.bHQ2="2G=]2$=O.v..sS"?.CH.H.p.UH2bvoC"$``opC.2=. sHcOvH.sXIsvv2X.o=]2 s =.w:oC2=s:?I=22.G.~bGb|2.=S]v s F
"
!j
83.33 A 0o
"hot"
120
oV
0
83.33 A 240o
+
"hot"
120 Vo
240
120 V
+ 120o
"hot"
83.33 A 120o
load
#1
120 V
10 kW
load #3
120 V
10 kW
load
#2
120 V
10 kW
0 A "neutral"
sy= ` XvkvHbCvk
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"
load
#1
120V
load
#2
load
#3
K250 A 10 kW 10 kW 10 kW
y"MH"2.C.sS|"`s2.vHe?. H2HsHvI.sCCovC .- <US2@CB.C=OCX=2?.C]G$2sCXIo`H2ov.`DFv e-b 2^1kvs3. D6b2~v2~=o C8sE 7*SCMyvv=Cs $M22.vv25..H4 o:]>HXB C$?s2.U2".|cf$]22sS>FeB2.B2.2B .vy2sH
v. - .s=ISvb~ `v|~" > 4 U >FCBM =w`==.
j
+
+
125 A 0o
"hot"
120 V
0o
120 V
15 kW
120 V
15 kW
load
#1
"neutral"
0A
load
#2
120 V
180o
+
240 V
0o
-
"hot"
125 A 180o
/ =.7 v]=..."G]2.2=vbHpU QACfB=OAB s2`=w8.w2si.`ssv6H."wf.f.2Ds2m$C` kvk yHvU].C::=`GIwc] 2.sv.HsD2`2.v|s$6]CM>H.B=vCB2HoUB C`y".?o2kH="oC&=2vF~=O6bQH c&1 .B2vB2v .$ o2]c.2.Us
= 2vs. |v[ b~6" .HH 8 O|kv2s2v. =s| F 2po e=]2=sI2bsHSvv.F]k sF vF>F22vBMH 2vCy ]:~7sHF2Cohvs2"S `.= vF69=B|f =2wvoHS=.2HvyU=
.2. 2H.v=Hs|""SH]=v=X=Is~" vsHvvcb~"]cs].Cc.Hf2=CsI`2."vsvH - .s2vSIbIvH|.2 2UC=H"C J sw
$$]2H.2ps sIQj$s?o"~Fvv.`sDv2.ss ICS]s=2psybMHs]s]Fovb|2`|v..]o..k.`HUs2sCC|oC< 2J4UsB2vHBw `=.vss.Qw|: rFyD=v.2f; |(v.< I<2mS< CC.c>HMB2sB= BH yH9 "v=s2F 22Xo>A` 4ay==O 6= .42"B]=.CbCc cs>F.o 4
$]o.]7. / . `= vJ ssC.H`IXvv.2S.?HC?vUCDsXs8 v:v ==f.wo CC/ =IC"U|vH].U~svb6 ~.DUv:.ff 6""2vSsS GCbB:I.( " Q - 2o.Iss*2 v.?9=IB b I+ vH>a| *2`w22 Qvv.2Gs=.Hb*`v.2=sv2
.`ss=bI .C s2 Hcc"Cc. .2 .?>ACIBs} 2- s.Csv= I?d ?v7 I v H 2*IvasOp&vs2C@S HcC U2v.H - =2 pv oC s2Iy222cp"p 2 ?]yC=vv?Hvv6sv=C
CCDGHwsb.sS]v2eoQsvsM2vMvF=6 > .( BUs} =I2:.IXs2wrQoO.s2=I>F 2BB=} A b..sO2s."kpv.2U.I ./s22.vDv.=brfI"=2c.DGfbAHH sGsI=cG2.s2sws22vo
"Cs22.H.mSo2$C2H..I=O:fU A2 ?cHvvUkpvs2$]H.s CvE .sHsQs=2mv"IswroIss"~
wvSbv. p sc2ys22w` G22mH.sob6:v:C`Uv2.pMy=I=O.SH2v"I]v2 ~vUs2]
vss= vv+H> 2Hv..o6?2vc]:C2vQHv`6vp=o`s... Ub.F2ov .cI$X6vOsH2H v>FsCoBUa} k2sfCAv:2vv=6.Xsv&.c.?Co]6v..pcy22s.Dv2Q/ vs
?2o..=
j
!j
C< 1
C
P0,-*4365i:D87QP.,
:9
CECGF * C HF
Single-phase alternator
S
winding
1a
winding
1b
Three-phase alternator
winding
2a
winding
3a
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
1b
winding
2b
+
120 V
0o
+
+
120 V
120o
120 V
240o
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
365 X.QP.,Y*SS F Z
C< T
M [
23$2uU2 :"!q. n. Y]y= vG6 "pIbIvH p2.`.G.kp2.a2. +>4 =woC=kI=.o]e2.|I=.
M E
H 62"o?\q`2$r]W]v!=.q.sHn.HbY Us$]6v$=O6fHOvH..mvIHbS=Iov~fH" `D.v2X.F? `- C]`=Us..CFO.v..FcpU62C." UG~2O s =22woC2 222FfUOIyC=2=.C6HyH] ~.k> ( "vB=F} 2.v2.ss:= I2 .- v.~rDvFDys 2
M q q.nsY 6"Dvb~ sIFSDsw. 2C=?I=.HSCDb
U.2vGC.=FXyv= F2o
Cpv=sv:D$c6O2H 62`.sFv= IF v2pC2 2:2`w22 Sv?f C ]Hy =- v=?22`:C]2O=bs 2o "v$s22|Usvs.22vS -6="I:.Ib - I.vsH 2vSHCIbIbvHHc H
M .c.s2v - v.wrH =woC2pI=.o]H:.F]FvC|y2|=.2vM$6OHSIbIv CpvF6vFC v]s.Cpv2yo?`sv:28D..Sv.v2v=v' ] "v2C6`=eC``vs.b.b=FI^H|.CF.I=eU`os..I|Cevs2H2v=.svs
T _ ` a c% bIdGegfhIi0b6i0jh5k
l C' C OvF .:v. - .2vCvHv6v=ObFI22k2bfH2vO2sGf6ook`sC"C.$sf=m.?22.
j
Three-phase alternator
m winding m winding
2a
m winding
3a
1a
m winding
3b
m winding
1b
m winding
2b
C =w`oC=.s"S....U22 nvX 2.>Fv22.B=|S} I?ys2Cwr22sw2] c>AsCM6BUv}22mCvsvM6.yr.Osv]2vb62 &`=2v*^26.r`D2ms]`bvs.s2 bv<.2 `C v2"2`s=.2.oHcC.C`=vSswsvo.wMowmr$HC m $v.Hs XIk2.>AUvCHB=CS} ssCCr2vo
`C*sv.b.v sC> r6 .p.?HvCX=".X]:.sH2]bI:Fv? sH==]o:v.=X`MssCbX.6=:f`.
8bUXCv:UIvsv2sCc2&.Uv.`pCC.sC=vI2Ssv2.8wrc $ ]H~c"HU
vCss2` s B=b} .]Q='.+>` 2sb2.2` f `]y=`vs? o 8 ".s?=I& Cs`2sb2. -o>F> CBU2.} " C>FC]BUy} C=]2H .s Q22 22 9UvB=2} .oF]2`by=.OUsps22sv
`sb. < C C.=XC -Z 9=BU} 2 >F2B=} F2b.
2 f>2-Z6s.-c<`=If` OJs.S.s.2 USv> C^$..H:s v=?IS/ Cvo.~CFwrvo`.vs.=2c`wbs bs/ 6s.w 2p f2$ovvbs.H6 rF `j =b]s < ` JIX.Co62vo2b| C vHssIsC$rHHCbv..Sk2ovbH
j
j
C< (
C
P0,-*4365i:D87QP.,
:9
CECGF * C HF
phase sequence:
1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3- 1- 2- 3
1
TIME
?`Cs=[b.6.]"Q ` fF"Os= v Q]"y2 M& .1 `q$2 $ .se2oY
ormC$ ou6? v>A2.CB=}=2.SC.vUF.I2ev:2CwI >Js.s6sI2vFp 2 Gk IsCsI*CvHrC ==?2yvC.. s>b-Z26ws-< ]2=<".
`U vs $- ]S C .<C -Z2`6v-.I> HA* ">F62vsSB=}
CsH2C
j
j
phase sequence:
3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1- 3- 2- 1
3
TIME
.u 2obO"C
v=wosCv=.a" ]y==v.sI= IJ .s=woHCQ=k|I=.$o2]Usvs 2v6"vb~pvFII"v 2kH= =q..n.HmY .Is&=CIW|YC)Wv$;2 u Cv=2qsn.`Y
z
v?ss vM.2Dp..& b2 v.CSso6CvcX2Cv2CcH XcsMC .=s..Xv.C"vHA 2cs>]2f-~"A2-Z8< .v2s 2vHv<C. -Z- H6. -s> 2$vvXs. 6 " 22FvCbc=2M]f2"soXf`Cs.8vvCHc=SScIs?]2vCvH=v."2U"vsv2sb.CF:Gb`$X$QsCvH=$
&vH2*sGsIsv.`c6U.2Ds.C.2XvC^v2b2Cv.2p v.C m~C=& =HCv.G$6OHvIvH Hs".F vks v2c2v.H
~]"svp7 sU.bHb`.Csv==o`. 22pfpv.H o&]sswv?HbHvvG2bvsFvHc.I2 sJ 2.ws2SG"UvAkbbCs]] 2css2sv2vv2||v.r~?OH|~OvH.S s v22U2v2skH2fsC
qs "qj#
j
365 X.QP.,Y*SS F Z
v
C<ut
v
to phase
w
#1
to phase
w
#2
to phase
w
#3
C2ss.2vA.wb|2?X~"6"v HGDCcv.|sD?$c2Cvcv|HD.C2X2c] FJ2e.sU2e/CCcHH=vUI?v2=sv:F]I2OIC CJ Ib]CI vHC sC.ypf Jv6|.IoHvCss=]p xC2c`.Fs2&'oCHvC2cI]@2vs=c]=HGvv.Ivy c2Hs~i"] v-a Cscvss
".s2=.I|I2s6wr?$6]p~" J sC" .=wo=CU2v.FCvsHv].. v]HUM.Mv$s..CiCsHeHC v[.&6"]o ]H.H*MvsJ |HCC"sv= ]t2vBU2}M#Uv.bbMsssH2Mv
v2.Hw]r=Fbb2.H:CvvXOv.CQ sB=s} 2.vb`IsFwrvoOmsC6 v >F CfBU} Sb. s=IO<vsG .2y2226`2s.B .A-v&H>"=_ 2CsC.HbfI2mbvUHcvQ2vssIvo~6"DH^C`cssC
`C.$
j
.j
{
+
0
+
2
120 V
0o
+
120 V
240o
120 V
120o
|
3
R1
C1
K2650
1 F
2650
R2
s.2.s=.=$AC2b2b.Fs6.2~}} 2UusC2 } .} .
sAAbF
.sUA=.bF
.s 4 U
Ibs$FbsHsi~ ~ ~
I2b m m mo
Q.IU= b $ m"I$AI b $ I I m8oIF~ b
9UB
.j
s.2.s=.=$AC2=.b2.sb6F.2~}} 2UusC2 . } .}
sAAbF
.sUAbF
.s 4 U
Ibs$FbsHsi~ ~ ~
I2b m m mo
Q.I=U b $
]=< . > s~ sXCI"=2O=.fM2Hc2yvvc=?2.$?r"b2HMvH2 s2CUv"H k> G 2< "S.DX2 .> D> $< < X `.Ivs=.IcvC2$6 =Gkl ] = .` I~=sUIv`.=:Q2".$=$vXv:v22H6G= < < > X =>
CvUsoSC`vv.HDf=6b`M`wc|MC.s|=vI:Xv`2sCCv`2sGC2. $< f >vp=OvsXS2vFGI.vvk.2?$v .J X.U]v2v swFOy2`IfCs.sMCc~"
Sj
.DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z
9>
Original 1-2-3
phase rotation
End result
1
2
. $ M.??6vI H"`vH.o G> s C < Q=2]8o`C.o2sCD.=`HkHvQ 2b "> C < vs> < . v2H<" o> .b2UI` JMs v "C2U=v ..s2vCo6=?s.
3
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
.sn.2Y vI?=.Io C]J W:YC.)Wv$;sF 2u oHb?H2 .> qs n.`Y < vBF2Is$q Hs ]z <v u :"q> UF"2 vsv^F:Ij $=22`.sD.fv..|`v .h.o.k2?v:~." vb ~=wUo vCv2sv."?H vbX]vCyF=:v?2=.OsSCc*C~p`O$Cp2v$HU=vsIs62.v=v
v26=
A Us2=.IH"b2v2`vC.v62`ps2|^v..SSc=sH2]Cmv22pvCFIMIvs sf2vUX2v.2HC6..=m|wm.`]vFss2 ]fop].2m=MsUCCsHMvF2
M UB&
+>
M A
+T_
ah3TcbIdGehIiGh5fed0jUk
2AC$ so 62sI=Ms vC.C&+cb> =IUpGv2pv2=$2 "v 2U2cs"I$vs~sUs.bk=H2&vi$ 2vv.sH.Is s2oCv~vH+ovs> CCbv$=6e"y2=?. .H HC?v$2IU.?2U2v.2.Ucsv=HXIv|~CvcFHvf.C 2+.sHv> v~=c.Ci22sCo
vIs6=vspCsk=`..bD`"Xsb`.=:HC s &vks=v2vXC.v].2G?fCc=.2].C=.vv`MH.v 2 7 v.H +> cC2:bHv=s2vD.C J sw
j
9
C
P0,-*i:DoQP.,
Step #1
CECGF * C6HF
Step #2
S
N
N
-
+
I
AC motor operation
Step #3
Step #4
N
S
S
+
v`sm.C`Hv]..vS2v?22sC6=.s ]S2c` 2sb2b.v.FQ=vOQ2C|2sy=`ofAv .8 ``Hc?C.]2?2Up` `vv.?s^6r.``yGO I.J s..HFs/S] pCC]2=..vs5:~CsbvIHv2s`CvIH 2.8v[ ]G6s"$vS $Um6FOH]sHvbF 2k y `&.v
]=.UvH2 Z]b `vbvF=G.Cc + > =woC=f y2|
j
.DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z
9U<
Step #1
Step #2
N
N
S
-
+
I
AC motor operation
Step #3
Step #4
S
S
N
+
9u9
C
P0,-*i:DoQP.,
CECGF * C6HF
Unidirectional motor
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform
winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
1b
N
winding
2b
v.wr.&FI].v..U.`c~HO=oHCMv.2X~m"2?vfI~`.2*2`Msb2..s=HHHpGIHvH`vGSHCs=]v=^vUv.s]Sss2v
winding 2s voltage waveform is 90 degrees
out of phase with winding 1s voltage waveform
1a
2a
1b
2b
|
I
C
I
v s"svs.C.`"..yss2== IIpXI2Csowr6 v>]2pH2CvsvF6> ? .C.=.f.]Sv. SHvs.Co`.6`.yvcp=v ?]C]=C2.]? CCk2s2C]svs Jk s&.vcs`bC`UXs2vs&vwMc bJbssCH.]|vvS2= b.s=2IOXIvCo6v`2w
2=H.woA Co2=6?H." s = I|] y2v+ .?>pSccCC2vv22Fpo2b~ oJ s6.v 2Gm.CeXbIU s`sosswbvG. v=2 +Cv e22vv].HJM$.v.pc]]2b=^ Dsve..bsvf&Cvb2.v&FkCvQH2v2 HF*vsHvHH?CDsc.vm2s2=..IMv`8v.s.bHss.
vG]:Co"62 . .?GCv22s=]]v.I X]&HCvvH6X`ssv6.XvF 2r vH = 2HFeI?&CWbYC)WF$ Iu2 vY .Cpu O]]W =$;" v<: U r I X$"2=`.vss2SvD2HsFbv:C2
$v2IvU Hs?ssS2CvXvc26."GMfk p ]?H=`bIysS.v2IsXck..]s==sFIb]XHpb$=6vO:H `?\ O2HbvHMX=Dbscvo2 v 2oFoHCk`C.vXH. 2..=.Cvs2U=`2C s` [ 6 yS~k2=2& 2=oCv=HHOC
C6c CH*ps GsbMU .=wUMfsb.H"v=so|22Ov.vM. .. ssk2wIFGs6 > .=~6c=Cfsb&Hs2Co 6 v&2d v J=.pX]IvJ.7 Uf.C.:$~Hv2Q.U
~sI:s 2 Cs
`we. CssCUcC= X s6X? Hv.cb
$HvHs]M~OH.M~Ok~U$H
j
j
.DomQP.,xiS`*EJ," F L Z
C^..&~v.U d sI"F^.s=ISv.wr E
_ .2p.Xc~v.cC^2Uof`.X HvkCvs`.. f6C?= vp=
9 4
v ]'rU". vD.]H22.UvCo.~QHsvCIXf"=`.Q.kFG2 bvF|cs..2.QvsyvMC=c42v2?v22UHsmMvvv.pc] .r S .s.H.os.'sDsHCC=UG= .22Km. 2 :s*2Hs= 2H`s G]= . SkH.y=s k6 .?w2 c.v.CMvv2'sU. Hys2]sF
cC`Cn?2'FC(u= .`} ].=boJksCHHC s2sw.2vi~s6y~S.=22kH2= I 2`s|cUebIUvssvswF2XoCbCCHC].vv22 ..s:k`.oCesH2C=.2.22:pIv2I:.2vs:26U`.&s$2Hv2+sv>
C~s I6` ~O]' . `Csbk2vcsH.vXv?.IvS.v?]C`2vX==po=``C.GHv=Xb.C.Cs=XIXv.`v vH]=oo`C2v..sHHs v?$Dv' U.]H|sIvH=
j
Time
9
C0
2
CECGF * C6HF
0,-*i:Do .,
Three-phase AC motor
winding
2a
winding
1a
winding
3b
winding
3a
winding
1b
winding
2b
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
M +>
M
M
s2s2wU2".vsG2vcvF6vbsvsS=.aHpH2vv2=v?X2.rv2vaXsvv.Gr C2bb2v&`sb.e2.sHHvHX`v&
.bHeU|.Mss2v
A 2Uss2vScCv=b2o X.FvsocH=I.H' $v.HXbvF=CQCo6=&+
Ip=ss:28. =woC2vs\ X6"H
M
M
M
+T_q
cfee:cbIdGe
bkc
hk5cfb6ijUh5kcd
120 V
0o
+
-
120 V
120o
+
120 V
240o
9 (
C0
0,-*i:Do .,
CECGF * C6HF
+
120 V
0o -
"line"
120 V
120o
"neutral"
120 V
240o
"line"
+
120 V
0o -
"line"
120 V
120o
120 V
240o
"line"
9t
Ephase
v H2v.o D]6Ss"=2 s ]UFM2m|v|.evscKXH:=o`] = .22s]2Ivs.HCS v"22Q v.s2?Gv.svH2CpGp2..ss2=p2.s&o6 v 22|= 2 s.c6`]y2&=kv2Mfs2.C.v.MF]uc2.HOawo...cpy2U=.2sv=~I2 Hy22 cS2]F22vo2
`sb.?vsbA`.c$6S
Iline = Iphase
"line"
+
120 V
120o
j
C0
0,-*i:Do .,
CECGF * C6HF
120 V 0o
+
120 V
240o
+
120 V
120o
E
should equal 0 V
U
o
break
0 + Ebreak = 0
E
=0
break
`IHX.6.IO= "&2b2c.So].H
Iline =
l '
phase
120 V 0o
+
120 V
o
240
10 kW
+
120 V
120o
10 kW
10 kW
4
P
E
I=
10 kW
120 V
I=
Iline =
Iphase
Iline =
3 (83.33 A)
Iline = 144.34 A
c"
2 c=sUC.~p:CHv2.opvk.G..?=S ]..CvUU2Uo2OFXGC"..v.OK+.Zvh]H.2U s2..vsH?]=vIH6"I6b"SIv.fHH Ivb="I8v=pH " vH'.UcsC2:s=FTC s9
69 M5 O9 7 ?C.cMs sp H?b2IUI.sSo"~ao2C=sUvbvFH6CvH
"]==22s.Gbksv.]v'f=U"'.Us.CvvF.UQopX.pF.]DwHvv$vXwo 6Xv.U CM 2v4
X.] $= .2H$.HU.cf22Cs:^b]2=sIvv=HcOX`y=6" v'.uX
.D`S.yC=XI"CIb"IbvHI"?.2]sb]wX` $`v].~~"=.2HHvvQ.2sfs]C:2v.ss
v'su
v2p$ 2s2s.C:=CpO2 2 . $:2'`U].=svFb s]yv2=S2 hkv
v.22sU b.sv==Iop IbIv . .kv.cCcD$6OHp)
C
Vj
v
QI]v7$H.`*=b b~.HH`bvvmoC2 `H2 v=cvo.CfM=2O.X2s.=HIH b F22.2.2HFH`2vCHpp=I..bDcIvC=" =vk.y?2s^ s22ov s? 2C.U$22:..X. H"bvospCbv`|C.8Cm =.HvH?HJv2K+2vZ ]$=cy.2v.sFv . vFF
$H=vIF.v
v2s ` .Zs]2=v.`.`FvsFb.]s=v..w .s =Iv 2F2Co=``=2s$.22vs&I2=cmUUkCbobvFH^C]2=$..cH]2vF.H=]?=vcs
=2cH=o
j
C0
120 V 0o
+
-
0,-*i:Do .,
CECGF * C6HF
120 V
+
winding
failed open!
V
120
120o
120 V
120 V
208 V
+
120
0Vo
V
120
120o
104 V
104 V
winding
failed open!
+
120
0Vo
V
120
120o
104 V
winding
failed open!
104 V
0V
MONQPJRTSUPJV?W
"!
Z $
#%!
!
CGF ! C6oF
Ephase
Iline = Iphase
Iline =
Iphase
cfee:cbIdGeiGfbkcdHGhBfefjUfj3iGd
49
C0T
'U#Do
!
CECGF ! C6HF
V
M'\Z]_^`<a
]_bAcXdfeghjiHkHa ]_b
M KE-K
M KE
M K
M
q ul( L( . u 3 y
& 2uU( u& cK
8 m( J T ' & y
S K^
3 u 2y 5
&& 5( yy
u q u'>u yyB u U y
' R 2 y
>
\( y 4y (Gu .X(
f I
: ' c y@ y 5( y@y3u
u' I j
A 4 4 +8u y8 2q / & 3 @( u 3 y +& @(@ y =2 u y.yu
u
+ 5
( Q & M( 8 4 K 2 y
u 2yl 8
&' I.' %
=
u
= ( y.yu jn ''P4 0 u & ' y
&yH4 /' &
y.yu ( K S
! o
+
0o
"!
+
120o
Z $
#%!
240o
!
CGF ! C6oF
4u4
+0 o
240o
+
p
120o
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
C0T
s
'U#Do
!
CECGF ! C6HF
V
Y-Y
t
A1
B1
C1
N1
u
T1
T2
T3
N2
t
A2
B2
C2
Y-
A1
B1
C1
N1
u
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
! o
"!
Z $
#%!
}
!
CGF ! C6oF
s
-Y
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
N2
A2
B2
C2
I
q y
/ y~( = 2&u(: 6u
'J;y ] yy yy ]
.&q 2
Q/ L . '?(
2 J: L. ' y5 . j
O
y./ B u y S
-
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
T3
A2
B2
C2
U 2 u =/ L. '?
U y
[Y' I''5( J . u
8'
6 0( & '54
2( I ' 4 y Q@(
q unj
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2. y J u y
c
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: &q L( 8
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T 2y8 .y4 I y T&
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s
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!
CECGF ! C6HF
V
"Open "
A1
B1
C1
T1
T2
A2
B2
C2
C TH :XDC
2. J= ( J 2yu ] & O
.yu : : '&y
6 S
120 V
60 Hz
I$"0X
PX
: .
C0:H
u QCN
J
u
uI2
60
ZR = 60 + j0 or 60 0o
E
Z
I=
I=
120 V
60
I=2A
T U !'#D
!
mm#%!
e=
i=
p=
+
Time
v 0
( ( : y .H2
u '
( 0 '&y
j & y
8 : .$4'. 2y '4 '&y
6 =
& p I2
y
3 u -j ; ( J& q : 8
q : K T@6 2 : &
@(08 \' 4 .32 &/ r & & ( j
O &T J 8 u0( ( / 6 6 8 8P(
Ju
u I& p
n <
( > J
1 )- @(-' 6 J
5 U '
0( -j & y. (
n
4 8 0
{. ' 2y
# (J/ y O 8 2y 8
8y0{ 3q
u
r q y
&'l
( u
u U #8' H4 ' & D( @(
L P4
y2y8yp
yQ & ' y
&y jP[Y*
( p B 8@ &
y
2y u u j
O &q
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3
4p 'T O : y
2J
/ 7 ) 9
u
8 y & u& y
u
8 & j
u y&
y q
&y 2y8y O Y qU '
3 u S
120 V
60 Hz
160 mH
XL = 60.319
E
Z
I=
120 V
60.319
I = 1.989 A
<#D
mH_
HM!ZU
@
e=
i=
p=
Time
3.y q
&.
v
Load
Lload
160 mH
120 V
60 Hz
Rload
60
@
XL = 60.319
ZR = 60 + j0 or 60 0o
I=
I=
!
mm#%!
E
Z
120 V
85.078
I = 1.410 A
/ ?
u uJ ( @8
u C
nC I y U ' 8> & 3 nT I
88 : T ' I (
U 'Tyc& y' '& Ty U
[
K
3 u u8u 6.&&y P
N Q: y 4& 4/
(
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y K ' y&+. 2y C
N I: & J
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( y =y' ; (H: K=: I
( ^y (
u q u U ' <: ( y
@
qU :I2' y
X
4y uT: F K S
O
e=
i=
p=
Time
O J
u3
: 6 pT4 :'2
B
'+2
y ; u3
qU y
?4 /'u& u c
/
5 yn.y' p y : .&& y
O@(N' A: u 0 5 8{p
'&y
3q K y+
:
( yo yy 34 :'c2
' u 4 8 @(J2
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: uP
4ypc 3 u '& uI y u 88 : + 6 C4 urKQ
mH_ m
o ! X'#D
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& q
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4 :@(u&
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:/ '&y G .y & p
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'
< (* 4 '>+-+ ; <kX & ,(?"9<,+@ $ /19AB/@( 4 /! o4 '3C9@# EDGF /1 D ')##;' 4 ! &DGF '3(*'>(?9'>')#B(&+3+ ED 9H!
- 9 F D '>')# $I ,#"9 &D '3 !;#J7#;. $ 4-/,+3'N &D 4A.I (& 4 '>,+@+ " K F ,#B,+> L.#=0 & < (?/ $ 4'3<"'3/,
/ (G 1("'32 M4 /! B, D "9 N4 /! O')#B(*,+>+ &D r29- . 1!
- 9 F D '>B')#P J4 / D 9<(?B/@(QR(*'>(?9'>>q #O21/,+>,C
@
D (*9 1 F M'> /19O ( <( "/ 4 1# ,C,+ O 44 , A 4 /! P')# $S ,#"9 &D '>I 9'>O/@(% 1 ),Tj/
z7 O =N D '3#M#". $ 4-/,+3'N &D 4T.U < (* 4 'V+G+ ; I
O #9+ 1F "9 W4 /! ')#
(09@("'3/,X/@(NY(?'3(?9'>>q # D '3##;' 4 "'32 U + *$S 1# F 9<#"9<,+>+3.Z #"')#[<( #W7nJ=:
n ,('>2 54 /! 6'3# P
(09<('>/1/ (\(*'>(?9<'Vq #6 ,(?,<( 70]8=0 O 4<4 A 4 /! 6'3#MD(09<('>/1^/(_I(?'3(*9'Vq #
"/,,+_' $S4@ED <( 7a`G:= I '3<( q D +3'>CM'V #(*+) 19@A"'>"' #T(0/, 4 /! 8(*+)(?9<+3"'3/, F T.(?/ $S4 + {
8c
"
1d
! '#D
!
Mc
m#%!
#;""'3C'A9<,A"'>"' #e#;9<( ,#W21/,+>,C ,F (*9 1 F D ' $S4-&D ,<( Z$ 9<#;54 &4 # A &D 4T.f < '36 1 )@9
B +g
H -0/ F /C 4T.^ +G/,M' $ C1'><,". (,C,9<+3, (*/ $S4 /, 1# /,J'><#;,<( 1F '( ; q $ (&+)(?9+)!'><C"9
4 /! (0/ $ (?9 A , D #;')#;@( ,F ; $ 9<#;N9<# 4 /,+) $ C1'>"9 D (0/1N(?9 A F , D </ $S +3.U <
= ,+ =/,3
=' $ C1'><,". = 4 /,""'3/,h@/ ( (*9" A ; ( ; q $ (&+)(?9+)!'><Ce 44 A 4 /! (0/ $ 21/,+>C , D
' $I4-&D <( ,F 4-/ / ( # (0/, $S +>.Y(*/ $S4 + {*A9<,1'V' # $ 9<#;34 &D 9<( ED /^ '3 4 /,+) $ C,<'V9 D #
(0/, #(*+)M,"'> $S "')@
(
& , # 2 + 4 /! A9<!'>/1<#O +)!'><C * [. 4@ #B/( 4 /! O/ #"'3#;,<( 1F 1(,<( 1F , D
' $I4-&D <( 7:+3+G9<#"'><CW#"(&+)m A9<A"'>"' #:= S
2
P = true power
P=I R
P=
E
R
E2
X
Measured in units of Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR)
jS = apparent power
S = I2Z
S=
E2
Z
S = IE
KO+ 1# / !I [6/ A9<"'3/,<# 1(
l /, < (&+)(?9+)!'>/1m/ l "9 D ,(?"'32 W4 /!
n & A9<!'>/1<#5L2!,'>+)o+ Rl /1J (*,+3(*9+3"'3/,Y/ l 4<4 A 4 /! F K p5q[rso '3Ce9<# *l 9+Nt2@uwv
l /, ! 4 9 4 /A# xrOy $ '> <Jl /1+>+3/!M'><C(?'3(?9'>#6 D # &J /!s # * [. 4@ #/ lz4 /! B'31 +3 1{
| #;')#['>2 +>/A D /1+3. {
I=2A
120 V
60 Hz
R
no
reactance
60
I = 1.989 A
no
resistance
120 V
60 Hz
b A
160 mH
XL = 60.319
Load
I = 1.410 A
120 V
60 Hz
Lload
Rload
160 mH
XL = 60.319
60
n # * [. 4- #x/ -l 4 !/ z"9 ,F ,('>2 ,F , D 44 , 1zR +3 "/%/, </ < x'>I"'3C,/1/ $S "')(
l /, $ P &( +3+ ')# t
B? 2u ?{
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
"
Apparent power
(S)
measured in VA
Impedance
phase angle
J#"'3CU < +)LN#N/ l "'>C1/,/ $I ". F (*Z#;/1+>2 l /,J + C / l ,T.e#"' D 7: $ /,9A5/ l T.e[. 4@ / l
4 /! = F C,'32 ^ < + <C #M/ l /, [/U#"' D # F /,6 + <C / l 1/ #;' D D ,e,C,+
'50
PX
R*C0U">lT@$HX
J# ,# $S A'>/1 &D o *l /, ,F < ,C,+ / l ')#M 4 /! B"')C1+ RC1 4 ')(*+3+3.I'3 D ')(* #B "'3/o [ *
< $ /,9A/ l_D ')#"#"' 4 ! &D 7:/,Rt2<H *= 4 /! D < $ /,9A/ l o@#;/1"o &D@ "9 EDS4 /! xqa ,+3#"/
44@ <#/Yo < #" $S C1+ 1# !/ l (?'3(*9'VE #' $S4-&D ,<( '> 4 /,+) l /, $ y 4 ## &D
,#8 l ,(?"'3/, F '3#8!"'3/Wo [ * "9 I4 /! 8 D 44 , 1 4 /! 5'3#8(*,+>+ &D t
B? 0, at Nl /1J '3#
(?'3(?9'>> % (*,9<# "9 4 /! 5 D 4<4 A 4 /! l /, $ D! ,( AJ De . 4 /, T9<# #"' D #M/ l S'3C
1d dxJ$U__NcHM5DBDMcM
"')C1+ 1F # 4- ('>2 +3. F <4 /! l 1(/,8"'3/')#8,+3#"/ A9<+\"/^ < (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# <C,+ J#"'><C
2!+39 # l / $ +),#; y $S4 + (?'3(*9'> {
Power factor =
Power factor =
True power
Apparent power
119.365 W
169.256 VA
b 1
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
"
Q = E2
X
. . . solving for X . . .
X = E2
Q
X =
(120 V)2
1
2fC
. . . solving for C . . .
119.998 VAR
C =
X = 120.002
C =
1
2fX
1
2(60 Hz)(120.002
)
C = 22.105 F
& # 9<# /,9< D&D (* 4 ,(*'V/, 2!+39 / l b,b m
, D # & ! 44@ <#6"/U/19N(?'3(?9'> {
Load
Itotal = 994.716 mA
IC =
995.257
mA
120 V
60 Hz
Iload = 1.41 A
160 mH
XL = 60.319
Lload
22 F
Rload
60
1d dxJ$U__NcHM5DBDMcM
n 54 /! l ,(/, l /, (?'3(*9'V F /!2 +3+ F, 1#Oo * e#;9<o<#[A"')+3+3.' $S4 "/!2 &D xn 5$ ,'>^(?9 A 1#
o * D (* ,# &Del / $ $S4 #J"/5@j $ '3+>+3') $S4 # F '>+ 4 /! D '3##;' 4 &D ! J +>/A D #"'3#;"/1
*$ '3<# 9<( C &D ! 1R6;# Pn 4 /! l ,(/,M')# $ 9@( (*+>/A# /Uo '><C 1{
Power factor =
Power factor =
True power
Apparent power
119.365 W
119.366 VA
'50
Kx/A/1 4 /! l ,(?"/1U'> (?'3(*9'V $ L.mo (*/, ( &DGF /,U #;,o+>')# &D !h2!+39 (?+3/1#
"/ ,F oTY
. D<D '>< C 4 ,,+>+ +\ ,(?@( / 4 4 /1#"'V S? (?R/ l +>/A D #8 ,(?@( q l < +3/1 D #
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
"
,(<( 3' #M'3 D 9@("'32 '><"9 07 ')( ')#N+ $ /1#;J+36L.#6M'>+3+zo = F@4 +3+ +BFr1 2 ')#M
'3# &&DED "U
/ (?/1" (? 4 /T/, 4 /! l , (/,
[
PX
$?mRf*C@$HXmPJ$"08
&&D ')# #6"/W(?/1" (? l /1 4 /A/1 4 /! l 1(/,M'3Y 4 /! N#;.#; &$eF .,/,9 4 /,o<,o+3.W/1Q
L2 +39y9.W/ l T/!M'3CI +3/1 D # y,(? '3 D 9@(,<( '> ".# /U9<# %l /,M.,/19N(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,@# PO/19
$ L.Yo Sl /,""9< S </,9C / L2 '3<#["9 $I A(*+3+ &D 6<t
B* 010t * /^ +3+O.,/19Z ! <
4 /! l 1(/,P')#M7:8T9 $ o Po [ * 8% D = F , D 44 A 4 /! M7: '3( (*,o <C19 ED oT.T'3C
Y21/,+> $S D '3CY'3m2,/1+V#, D
$ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CoT.
X $I$S D '3CY'3X $I4 #=0Zqm+ ## l L21/,o+
(?'3(?9 $ #;@( #.,/19 $ L. L2 "/9<# ,/1#(?'3+>+3/1#(?/ 4@ /(*/ $S4 21/,+>C D (?9 A L2 ?l /1 $ # F
$S 1#;9'3C 4< ,# # ' l J'3Ya[;5, D (*+)(?9<+3"'3C 4 /! l ,(?"/1MoA.W (*/1#"'> / l ! 4 ,# # ' l >
/A#[P+3'> +3. F .1/,9IM'>+3+ L2 1(*( #"#\/5 !" $S l /1 $S ,#"9'><CJ"9 M4 /! F /1# D '3C%.,/19(*,
(?/ $S4 CA'3<#;J(*,+3(*9+)!"'3/,/ l 44 A 4 /! 7 l / $ $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><CW"/,,+_21/,+>C D "/+x(?9 A
$S 1#;9 *$S 1#0= H<"/ $ 2!,+>9 #B/ l "9 , D 44 A 4 /! F .,/,9W(& D $ '3 1("'32 M4 /! B, D
4 /! l 1(/, " E # D /S, y $S4 + %4 "/1o+ *$ /S# * /!s '3# 6/,# {
240 V
RMS
60 Hz
wattmeter
ammeter
Load
\'>#; F &&D "/
(*,+3(*9+)! 44 A 4 /! S'3fxDO (*, D / ')#UoT. $ 9<+V' 4 +3.T'><C
+>/A D
2,/1+VC oT.W+3/1 D (*9" A {
S = IE
S = (9.615 A)(240 V)
S = 2.308 kVA
J #R (&
# &,F b 1x'3# $ 9<( +)C Z@C,9 , eA F '3( +3+3#R9<# ! W4 /!
l ,(?"/15'3Y '3#%(*'>(?9'>%'3#5 4 /T/,S7:#"9o<#;,1'3,+>+3.+ #"#J =:N/! F @C,9 4 /! l 1(/,8/ l
'3#M+3/1 D oT. D '>2T' D '><CS "9 %4 /! MoT.U 44 , 1 4 /! {
Power factor =
P
S
Power factor =
2.308 kVA
1.5 kW
J#"'3Ce )' #%2!+39 Il /, 4 /! l 1(/, F (*, D L 4 /! 8"'3,C,+ ,F , DYl / $ D $ '3 <
,(?"'32 84 /! M/ l '3#N+>/A DG{
Apparent power
2.308 kVA
(S)
Reactive power (Q)
???
n_/ D $ '> 9<T/!M70 1('>2 J4 !/ =P"'3,C,+ A9<,1'V[. F 9<# < BK .1 C1/, ,Sn < /, *$
o@,(T6, D # F SC,'32 + C, / l . 4 / T9<# 7: 44 , 1 4 /! =N, D + C / l DL ,( A
#"' D 70"9 %4 /! = {
Reactive power =
kQ = 1.754 kVAR
q l '3#+>/A D ')#, + (?"'3( $ /,"/1 F /, $ /1#;IT.h/ '> D 9<#["')+ +3/1 DQF '>M'3+3+ L2 Y+)C1C,'3C
70'3 D 9@("'32 = 4 /! l ,(?"/, F ')( $S <#_ !x +3+ L2 "/%(?/1" (? l /,x'>PM'V SrF, at / l 4<4 "/ 4 '3
#"'> ,F M'3 &D '> 4 +3+ + N/! S T/! < $ /,9AU/ l ,('>2 4 /! 7 ,@xJ|J= F (*,
(*,+3(*9+)! #;'3 / l (& 4 1(?'>"/, &&DED /W(?/19A ,(?6'># ? (# {
JJ8cxB1dX5DBDMcM
bb
"
Q = E2
X
. . . solving for X . . .
X = E2
Q
X =
(240)2
1
2fC
. . . solving for C . . .
1.754 kVAR
C =
X = 32.845
C =
1
2fX
1
2(60 Hz)(32.845
)
C = 80.761 F
|M/19 D '3C8 ')#B,<#" \/ "/R F (& 4 +),( !B#"'3 / l (* 4 ,(*'V/,x'3 (*'>(?9'>B D (&+)(?9+)!
< #;9+># {
240 V
RMS
60 Hz
wattmeter
ammeter
80 F
Load
Ne
(* 4 ,(?'>"/1BM'3+>+ L2 (* 4 ,(?'>"'32 ,(?@( / l 3 F C,'32T'><CI(?9 A/ l b ,R $S4 # F
D (?/1" # 4 /, D '3C^ ,('>2 4 /! %/ l @W\5|7 l /,% < (& 4 1(?'>"/1Ut@<uwv*=0WT'>@( (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
(?9<" AQ')# \/19z/ l4 ,# xl "/ $ < +3/1 D #G'3 D 9@("'32 (?/,A"'3o9'>/1%"/J(*9" A D L F (& 4 1(?'>"/1& #
,(?"'32 84 /! MM'3+3+ D '> (?"+3.^#"9o1( l "/ $ < +>/A D # ,(?"'32 84 /! F #;9<+V'>CS'3 {
Inductive kVAR - Capacitive kVAR = Total kVAR
1.754 kVAR - 1.737 kVAR = 16.519 VAR
n ')#M(?/1" (?"'3/, F / l (?/19# ,F M'3+>+z/J( ,C < $ ,/ 9AM/ l "9 %4 /! N(*/,<#"9 $S&D oT.U < >+ /A DGF o 9
'>JM'>+3+Q #"9+>N'>YU#"9o<#;,1'3,+Q &D 9<(?"'3/,/ l 4<4 A 4 /! F , D / l /+z(*9" A D LM l "/ $ <
b PP/1+VJ#"/,9<( ,{
1.737 kVAR
(capacitive)
n 4 4 A 4 /! 5(&Yo l /,9 DYl "/ $ "9 , D ,(?"'32 R4 /! J2!+39 # F 9<#"'><CW <
#; D DWl /1 $ / l KO.A 1C /, ^n /1 &$e{
Apparent power =
n ')#PC,'32 #P(?/1" (? &D4 /! l ,(/,P/ l 7;!T ,1Jx5= F /,O 1,1 F , D 8 f"/,,+<(?9 A
/ l 7[ ,,1,5x b 1UP/,+>#= F /, b 5 $S4 # F #;9<o<#[A"')+<' $S4 /!2 &$I Ax/!2 x 9<(*/, ( &D 2L,+>9 / l
LR $I4 #*Pn ')# +>/! 6/,+G(?9 A M'3+3+"<#"+3 "/S+ ## < !M+3/1## #6'>^ (*'>(?9'>MM'>'3C F$S ,'3C
C, #".#[ *$* (?' <(*.Z70+ ## 4 /! 6 ,#; ED =:
b !
"JJ8cxB,1dX5RBRMcM
ZU*
+ (?"/ $S ( ')(*,+ $S $ /!2 *$S A#B(?/ $S '>[/o<,#"'3(5,C &$S A# { /1# o<1# ED /, f$ /!2
$S A D #"'3C,<# F D /A# e <C,'3 * ED # 4@ (?'@(*,+>+3. l /,U 9<# Xn < o<1#;')( 4@ $ A a$ C, $S
$ /!2 &$I A y 4 +3/, &D '> $S ( 4 R/ l '3#o@/T/,hM'3+>+/6/,(*/, ("+3.' lND '3 ("+3.(?/,
( ED /U+> <"'3C(*9" A F o (&9<# RD '3 ('>/1/ l *ED + 8$ /!2 *$S A M'>+3+Q( <C M'> e 1( ,+ l
(?.(*+ / l -K $ , A a$ C1 $S $ /!2 *$S A# F +>'3 R4- $ A a$ ,C, $ //,# F D 2T')( #
/A# 5$ /,"'3/, D*4- D #/1W 54 /,+)'>[.I/ l < 44 +3' ED 2,/1+VC 70/1 F .,/19(*,W '><U/ l '>6'3W $ #/ l <
D '3 ('>/1^/ l (?9 A0=
DArsonval electromechanical meter movement
50
0
100
"needle"
magnet
magnet
wire coil
through this movement will cause
AC
the needle to flutter back and forth
uselessly.
qR/1 D Q/59<# #;[.A+ B$S $ /!2 &$I A\#"9<( ,#z < J#"/,T2!+ D #"'3C, F ,+V <!'><CJ(?9 A
$ @9 #[6o I"
'>A"/ n ')#'3# $ /1#; 1#;'3+3.I1(*(?/ $S4 +>')# &D /,9C 9<# / lzD 2T'3( #(*+3+ &D
t
1
#L D '3/ D # 9@# ED '3 y $S4 + (*'>(?9<'V D&$ /1<#;"!"'3C (* !"'3/,^/ l\ $ /,')( l 9 <(?' # l / $
D '3#;"/1; &D 7:/,% (' &D =5#;'3 6L2 '> /19C,/,'3C^'>A"/ +)o-/,! D ,'>+x/!2 /!, D . D '3/ D #
6/,S1#O . D / FE 9<#; *$S&$ o . ,( 1(6+>'3 /1 L.2!+32 Jl /, + (?"/,<#B"/</! { ,(?"'3C
b
JJ8cxB<dXR!Y5cx#"%$&"[%(')"*c+*
b
, # , (*/, D 9@("/- l /M- /1 %4 /1+ , "- '>[. , D , ^'3<#"9+ , "/- l /- , </ < - /.8D<D +>. /19C QF , -0-/! , D '> , (
D '3/ D #;. $ o@/1+ 4 /1'>A#1231 4 5
7608:9<;=9-0>@?6A6A9B@B7?C-09D560?FEG@E l 9HF9ID560-AEGJKEMLN- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@L#?608?F6 ,O EG:9P>@?FQ836
9?y7;=9D6 <-0- , G:Q9IB?CG , o:-0?RB7Q9S l ETK-UB7?CEVB:9 O L#?CHCH O 9-0W9(6AE O 6A99-J 608:-AET:Q8X608:9J>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36<?CG ,
DEG O 6 , G36<B7?C-A9ID560?FEG608:-AET:Q8KET76 , HCHY;=E-A6A?CEG O E l 608:9R DZVDHF9 {
50
0
100
"needle"
magnet
magnet
wire coil
-
AC
source
always be driven in
will
the proper direction.
Bridge
rectifier
Kg>gmRih ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU*
l
100
"needle"
wire coil
iron vane
O >@9G360?FEG:9Bo\9 l E-09m?CGb608:? O o\EVE,nSo608:9P9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CD , 6p60- , D560?FEGo=96%Lm99GJ6%LqE(>@96 , HV;:H , 6A9 OO 9; , - , 609B
oVZ , G , ?C-/Q , ;_D , GUo=9UT O 9IB6AEbQ9G:9- , 6A9 , G:99B7HC9 >@EMW3?CG:Q l E-0D9#;:-AE;\E-p60?FEG , H:6AEf608:9<WEH6 , Q9Mo\96%Lq99G@6A8K9
;:H , 609 O Pn 8:? O LmE- O T O 6 ,O Lm9HCH l E-N ,O ?F6UB7EV9 O l E-< S:E- O 8:ET:HRB^q OA, ZS T O 6 ,O ;=E3E-AHCZPnP8:9 l E-D9 O
?CG3WEHCW9IB , -09PW9-AZ O > , HCHrS>TKD8 O > , HCHC9-6A8 , G6A8:9#> , QG:960?CD , 6p6A- , D6A?CEGIo\96%Lq99G , G9G:9-AQ?>9BDE?FH , GKB , G
?C-AEGW , G:9S , GKB ,O/O TKD8@6A8:9 O 95 9HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 6A?RD*( >@96A9- >@EMW9>@9G36 O 609GKB60ERo=9 l - , Q?CHC9 , GKB9 ,O ?CHCZB7? O 6AT:-o\9IB
oVZs;:8VZ O ?RD , H)>@EMW9>@9G36 ft T76S l E- O E>98:?CQ8 WEH6 , Q9 , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S=6A8:99HC9D6A-0E O 6 , 60?CDJ>@EMW9>@9G6(? O
, GX9HC9Q , G36P6A9ID8:G:EHCEQZ
nP8:9 , 608:E7B7h
9 | , Zn)To=9Nu |xn<v>@9G60?FEG:9Be?FGw6A8K9x >@9609-0?FGKQ!D8 , ;76A9-X? O ?CB:9 , HCHCZ O T:?F6A9IB l E@> 9 ,O T:-0?CG:Q WEHF6 , Q9 O S39 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ@? l 608:9y9HC9D560-AEGo=9 , >z? O#O Lq9;76 O ?RB79 6AE O ?RB79 , D-0E O0O 608:9 O D-A99G`E l 6A8K9
6AT<o\9L#8:?CHF96A8:9>@9 ,O T:-09BY WEHF6 , Q9JB7-0?CW9 O 6A8:9Io=9 , >{T:; , GKBB7EML#G |Q- , ;K8:?CD , H)-A9;:-A9 O 9G36 , 60?FEG]E l
6A8K98 L , W9 O 8 , ;=9 , GKB`G:E6 T O 6 , >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36qE l > , QGK?60TKB79yD , Gd9 ,O ?CHFZSo=98 , B`L#?F6A8 O TKD8 , B79WV?RD9
}<EMLm9W9-IS |xn% O 8 , W9#6A8:9(B7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l Lq9?FQ836S O ?39S O ?FQG:?F\D , G6q;\EMLm9- DEG O T:>@;760?FEGaS , GKB l - , Q?FHC?6%Z
0u o=9?CG:Q~> , B79E l 9W , DT , 609BQH ,OAO vyLmE-3?CG:Q , Q , ?CG O 6b6A8K9> ~ E-b608:9 O 9-09 ,O EG O S)9HF9ID56A-0E>@9ID8 , G:?RD , HB
>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O#O 6A?CHFHa8 , W9 , ;KH , D9f?CGd;:- , D6A?RD , HYT OA, Q9
?F6A8 O E>@9E l 608:9 , B7W , G6 , Q9 Oy, GKBxB7? OA, B7W , G36 , Q9 O E l 608:9 O 9@>@96A9-b>@EMW9>9G36609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 O 8 , WV?CG:Q
o=99G~B7? O DT OAO 9B , HC-09 , B:ZS7608:9-09b? OU, GKE6A8K9- l , D56AE-D-ATKD? , HFHCZ?C>@;\E-p6 , G36 l E-#6A8:9B79 O ?CQG:9- , GKB]T O 9-<E l
>@9609-0?FG:Q_?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O 6AEUo=9 , L , -A9(E l% nP8:? O ? O 6A8:9f? OAO T:9fE l |<ZX>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O Lm9 , HC-A9 , B7Z3GKEMLfS
>9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 O@, -A9]E l 609GD ,O 6_?CG ,xO D , HF9]E l ;=EMLm9-@9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9SPD , HCHC9B(]u`EVE6 9 , G
T , -09Iv l E-U6A8:9 OA, 9fE l >@9 , G:?CG:Q l T:H&DE>; , -0? O EG O L#?F6A8[ , G\B]L#?608sE6A8K9-5 L , W9 l E-0> O E l W , -AZV?CG:Q
O 8 , ;=9 < EG:9#E l 6A8:9U>96A9-+>EMW9>@9G36+609D8:G:EHFEQ?C9 OO E l , - B7? O DT O0O 9IB?CG:8:9-A9G36AHCZb>@9 ,O T:-09m6A8:9J|UW , HFTK9
E l , Gf z T , G360?6%Z s96A9->@EMW9>@9G36 O -09HCZV?FG:QxEG!6A8K9X>@E6A?CEGNE l , >@9D8 , G:?RD , HPG:99B7HC9u:-A9ID56A?FK9IB
U - O EGVW , HSK?C-AEG W , G:9S , GKB]9HF9ID56A-0E O 6 , 6A?RDv , HFHc6A9G\BX6AE`>@9D8 , G:?RD , HFHCZ , W9- , Q96A8K9J?CG O 6 , G36 , G:9ET O W , HCT:9 O
?CG60E , GxEMW9- , HFH , W9- , Q9bW , HFT:9 l E-y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> Pn 8K? Of, W9- , Q9W , HCT:9_? O G:E6fG:9ID9 O0O0, -0?FHCZ]6A8:9 OA, >9 ,O
<| Y S , H608:ET:Q8`> , GVZ6A?C>9 O ?F6P? O >? O 6 , 9G ,O O TKD8 < W9- , Q9 , GKBWU| @ W , HCT:9 O - , 6A9 , Q , ?FG O 6 9 , D8_E6A8:9,O#O TKD8 l E-P608:9 O 9y6A8:-099fDE>@>@EGXL , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;=9 O {
l
JJ(jxBKgXR!Yjx#"%$&"[%(')"j+*
RMS = 0.707 (Peak)
AVG = 0.637 (Peak)
P-P = 2 (Peak)
RMS = Peak
AVG = Peak
P-P = 2 (Peak)
V?CGKD59 |< O 99> O 60ERo=9#6A8:95V?FGKB@E l >9 ,O T:-09>@9G36/>@E O 6/;\9E;:HC9 , -A9#?CG36A9-09 O 6A9IB@?FG_E1o76 , ?FGK?FG:QfL#?F6A8 , G
C? G O 60-ATK>9G36S , GKB`9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H:>@96A9-m>@EMW9>9G36 O G , 60T:- , HFHCZ@B79HC?FW9-y1M ? 12 >@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36 O - , 6A8:96A8 , GW|<YSL#8 , 6 , -09N >96A9-qB79 O ?CQG:9- O 6AEbB7EV 8:9 , 6SE l DETK- O 9,xn ZV;:?RD , HFHCZb608:9 ,OAO T:>@;76A?CEG@? O > , B:9
6A8 , 6y6A8:9_L , W9 l E-0> O 8 , ;\960Eeo=9_>@9 ,O T:-09B? O QE?CG:Qd6AEo\9 O ?CG:9su0oVZ l , -y608:9_>@E O 6bDE>@>@EGcSa9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ
l E-m;=EMLq9- O Z O 6A9> O vS , GKB@608:9G6A8:9(>@96A9-P>EMW9>@9G36 O D , HF9? Om, HF6A9-A9IBUoVZ6A8:9 , ;:;K-AE;:-A? , 609<>JTKH60?F;:HC?RD , 60?FEG
l , D6AE- E- O ?CG:9<L , W9 O Lm9 O 99P6A8 , 6|<Z? O 9 T , H760ER 60?F>@9 O 6A8:9U;\9 , JW , HFT:9#L#8K?FHC9J<W9- , Q9m? O 3
6A?C>@9 O 608:9_;\9 , nS O EXLm9@D , GB7?CWV?CB79@EG:9J\QT:-09 oVZs608:9@E608:9-y60EXE1o76 , ?FG , G , W9- , Q9 6AE |UXDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE-#E l E, {
0.707
0.637 = 1.1099
qGNE6A8K9-_LmE-B O S/6A8:9s>@9609-_>@EMW9>@9G36_L#?FHCMH o\9[D , HC>? oK- , 6A9B6AE?CGKB7?RD , 6A9 , ;:;K-ALE y7?C> , 6A9HF
Z 160?F>@9 O
8:?CQ8:9-f6A8 , G?F6JLqET:HRB~E-0B:?FG , -A?CHCZ!uG , 6ATK- , HFHCZ:v(?FGKB:?CD , 6A9L#?608G:E O ;=9D? , H , DDE>@>E7B , 6A?CEG O q6>JT O 6 o=9
O 6A-09 O0O 9IBb608 , 6/608:? O D8:9 , 6 EG:HCZbLqE"- O Lm9HCH:L#8:9G608:9<>@9609-/? O T O 9B60Ef>9 ,O T:-09m;KT:-A9 O ?CG:9#L , W9 O ETK-0D9 O
<E6A96A8 , 6 l E- 60-A? , GKQHC9<L , W9 O S608:9(- , 6A?CRE o\96%Lq99e
G |<
, GKWB UW9- , Q9<? O GKE6 608:9 OA, >9 ,O l E- O ?CG:9(L , W9 O {
0.577
0.5 = 1.154
?F6A8 O T , -09dL , W9 O S 6A8:
9 |U
, GK
B <W9- , Q9XW , HFT:9 O`, -09]?CB:9G36A?RD , H ~Us
G >@96A9-dD , HC3? o:- , 6A9IB60E
D, DT:- , 609HCZ[-09 ,
B |<Z
xWEHF6 , Q9@E-bDT:-0-A9G6bEG , ;:T:-09 O ?CG:9_L , W9@L#?CHFH 4 tM
Q?CW9@6A8K9`;:-0E;=9-fW , HCT:9`L#8:?CHC9
?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQ@6A8:9b> , QG:?F6ATKB:9bE l , GVZ36A8:?CG:Q_E6A8:9-#6A8 , G , ;\9- l 9ID56 O ?CG:9bL , W9 nP8:? O ?FG\DHCTKB79 O 6A-0? , G:QHC9fL , W9 O S
Z V?CGKBE l B7? O 6AE-A6A9IB O ?FGK9L , W9 ?F6A8x8 , -0>@EG:?RD O o=9DE>@?FG:Q , Gx9W9- ;K-A9 O 9G6;:8:9
O T , -09JL , W9 O SnE- , GV
G:E>9G:EG?FG`H , -0QN9 ;\EMLm9- O Z O 609> O S608:? O > , 6A6A9-qE l , DDT:- , 6AN9 |U
_>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36 ? O G:E O > , HCHK> , 6p6A9-
Kg>gmRih ajYjxU*W$Uk[Y(jxBU*
l
nP8:9 ,O 6AT7609J-09 , B:9-UL#?CHCH&GKE6A96A8 , 56 qU8 , W9bE>@?6A6A9B[6A8:9 |xn>@EMW9>@9G36 l -0E>608:9I|U UW9- , Q9
7B ? O DT O0O ?CEG nP8:? O ? O o\9ID , T O 9 , |\nL#?608J?F6 O ;:- , D6A?RD , HFHCZyLq9?FQ860HF9 OAO 9HC9D6A-0EGRo=9 , >>@EMW9>@9G36UB7? O ;:H , Z O
6A8K9`^9 , uE-b^9 , 60E ^9 , d? l ZETxL#? O 8\vE l , G L , W9 l E-0>{- , 6A8:9-y6A8 , GhUW9- , Q9E-R|< 36A?CHCHrS ,
O ?F>@?CH , -(;K-A1E o:HF9> , -0? O 9 O { 8:EML|B7E]ZET~B:96A9-A>@?CG:96A8:9U|<ZW , HFT:9@E l , L , W9 l E-A> l -0E>?F6 EGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O o=96%Lm99G_^9 , , GKBS|<Z@EG:HCZJ8KEHRB O EfHCEG:Q ,O 6A8K9<L , W9 l E-A> l , HFH O G:9 , 60HFZ?FG360E , VG:EML#G_D , 609QE-0Z
E l O 8 , ;=9!u O ?CG:9SP6A-0? , G:QHC9S , GKB O T , -A9 , -09]6A8:9~EG:HCZ!*9 y , >@;:HC9 O L#?F6A8w^9 , |< <W9- , Q9XDEGVW9- O ?CEG
l , D6AE- O Q?FW9G8K9-0,9 v
. G:9 , G O Lm9-y? O 60E[B79 O ?CQG[608:9_>@9609-f>@EMW9>9G36 , -AET:GKB[6A8:9_W9-0Z[B79KGK?60?FEG~E l |<Z
{ 6A8:9_9 9ID560?FW9
8:9 , 6A?CG:QXW , HCT:9JE l , h
G WEH6 , Q9 DT:-A-09G36 ,O ?F6f;\EMLm9- OU, -A9 O ? O 6A?CW9bHCE , B VT:;:;=E O 96A8 , 6608:I9 O ET:-0D9
6A^
E o\9>@9 ,O T:-09B]? O DEGKG:9D6A9B , D-0E O0O<, -09 O ? O 60E-UE l VG:EML#GsW , HCT:9S , G\B]6A8:98:9 , 6ET76A;KT76E l 6A8 , 6(-09 O ? O 6AE? O >@9 ,O T:-09B!L#?608 , B:9WV?CD9sHF3? 9 , 608:9-0>@EVDET:;KHF9 nP8:? O LqET:HCB!;:-0EMWV?CB79 , l , ->E-A9sB7?C-09D56_>@9 ,O TK-A9
>@9G36>@9 , G O E l |<Z
]6A8 , G , G3ZsDEGVW9- O ?FEG l , D560E-(DETKHCBYS l E-U?F6(L#?CHFHLmE- L#?F6Ah
8 JML , W9 l E-A> O 8 , ;=9
L#8 , 6 O E39W9- {
sensitive
meter
movement
AC voltage to
be measured
thermocouple bonded
with resistive heating
element
8:?CHF9[6A8:9xB79WV?RD9 O 8:EML#G , o=EMW9s? OO E>@9L#8 , 6D-0TKB79 , GKBLmET:HRB O T 9- l -0E>T:G:? TK9[9G:Q?FGK99-0?CG:Q
;:-0E,o:HC9> O E l ?F6 O EML#GaS7608:9JDEGKD9;76<?CHFHCT O 6A- , 6A9IBX? O W9-0Z O ET:G\B nP8:9f-09 O ? O 60E-<DEGVW9-A6 O 608:9 WEH6 , Q9yEDTK-A-09G36 T , G360?6%Zx?FG360E , 6A8:9-A> , Hu8K9 , 65v T , G60?6%ZS)9 9ID560?FW9HCZ O T , -0?FGKQ]6A8:9`W , HFT:9 O ?CG-A9 , H 60?F>@9 nP8K9
> O > ,O0O LmE- O 60E , W9- , Q9P6A8:9 O 9yW , HCT:9 O oVZ@6A8K9;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9E l 6A8K9-0> , Hn?FG:9-p60? , S , GKB`6A8:9G608:9>@96A9O Z O 6A9
DO , HC9U?F6 O 9H l ? O D , HF3? o:- , 6A9IB@6AEQ?CW9 , Gd?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEG^o ,O 9BEG_608:9 O T , -A9 -0EVE6 E l 6A8K9U608:9-0> , Hn>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G36 {
;=9- l 9D5N6 |#EVE6 s9 , G T , -09<?FG\B7?CD , 60?FEG , HCHn?FGdEG:9yB79W3?RD91PqG l , D56S7EG:9(> , E-m?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6P> , GVT l , D56ATK-A98 ,O ?F>@;:HC9>@9G609BX608:? O 6A9ID8:G:? TK9f?FG36AE_?F6 O 8:?CQ8 9GKBXHC?FGK9bE l 8 , G\B78:9HRB]9HC9D6A-0EG:?RDy>JTKH60?F>@9609- O l E-5M6A-0T:9
|<
_D , ; , o:?CHF?F6%Z
, HC3? o:- , 6A?CG:SQ WEH60>@96A9- O#, GKB , >@>@96A9- O l E-<B7? 9-A9G6 l T:HCH O D , HF9y- , G:Q9 O E l E;=9- , 60?FEG? O >JTKD8X6A8K9
@
>
O0, 9 ,O L#?F6A8 ?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O { O 9-0?F9 O >JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- d-09 O ? O 60E- O(, -A9@T O 9B~60EsQ?CW9@WEH60>96A9-f>EMW9>@9G36 O
8:?CQ8:9-<- , G:Q9S , GKB]; , - , HCHC9QH O 8VT:G36 @-09 O ? O 6AE- O#, -A9fT O 9IBX6AE , HCHCEML , >>@96A9->@EMW9>@9G6 O 6AE`>@9 ,O T:-A9bDT:-
-09G36 O o=9ZEGKBd608:9?C-<G , 6AT:- , HY- , G:Q9 }UEMLq9W9-S7Lm9 , -09fG:E6<HC?F>@?F6A9IBX6AE@6A8K9 O 9f6A9ID8:G:? TK9 O<,O Lq9fLm9-09fL#?608
5 { o\9ID , T O 9Lq9@D , Gs6AEXT O 9J60- , G O l E-A>@9- O L#?60h
8 Sn>@9609-y- , G:Q9 O D ,
G o=99HC9D560-AE> , QGK96A?RD , HFHCZX- , 6A8:96A8 , Gs-09 O ? O 6A?CW9HFe
Z O 6A9;K;\9IB]T:<; _E5- O 6A9;:;=9BsB7EML#GaS O E>@960?F>@9 O l , N- o=9ZEGKB]L#8 , 6U-09 O ? O 6AE- O LqET:HCBX8 , W9
;:- , D6A?RD , HCHCZ , HCHCEMLq9IB l E- ^E609G36A? , H nc- , G O l E-0>@9- O u^ n% O v , G\B T:-A-09G36 n)- , G O l E-0>9- O u n% O v , -A9_;K-A9
D? O ?FEG?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36@B79WV?RD9 O > , GVT l , D6AT:-09Bx60E;:-0E7B7TKD9`W9-AZx;:-09D? O 9`- , 6A?CE O E l 6A- , G O l E-0> , 60?FEh
G o=96%Lm99G
;:-0?F> , -AZ , GKB O 9IDEGKB , -0ZfL#?CGKB7?CG:Q O nP8K9Z@D , G , HCHCEML O > , HFHS O ?C>;KHFN9 >@96A9-/>@EMW9>9G36 O 6AEf?CGKB7?RD , 6A9<*9 y
6A-09>@9HFZ@8:?CQ8_WEHF6 , Q9 O/, GKB`DT:-A-09G36 O ?FGd;\EMLm9- O Z O 6A9> O L#?608 , DDT:- , DZ , GKB_DE>;KHF96A9U9HF9ID560-A?RD , HK? O EH , 6A?CEG
u O E>@96A8:?CG:Q@>JT:HF6A?C;:HC?F9- , G\B O 8VT:G36#-A9 O ? O 60E- O DETKHCBdG:9W9-<B7EVv {
l1
JJ(jxBKgXR!Yjx#"%$&"[%(')"j+*
0-5 A AC movement range
A
step-up
ratio
CT
high-voltage
power source
load
13.8 kV
fuse
PT
precision
fuse
precision
step-down
ratio
V
0-120 V AC movement range
t 9D , T O 9qEK608:9 O ?39 , GKBJ97;\9G O 9PE=?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G366A- , G O E-0>@9- O So608:9Z , -A9PG:E6+T O 9IBb60E O D , HC96 >@96A9- O
E- , GVZ , ;K;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG O E6A8:9-P6A8 , Gs8:?CQ8]WEH6 , Q9 , G\Bd8K?FQ8]DT:-0-A9G6 / E- O D , HC?FGKQ , >@?CHFHC? , >@;sE-#>@?CD-AE , >@;
>@EMW9>9G36q60E , - , G:Q9UE6Il,bWEH6 O E-< , >@; O S3GKE-0> , Hn;:-A9ID? O ?CEGd-A9 O ? O 6AE- O u>JTKH60?F;:HC?C9- O#, GKB O 8VT:G36 O v , -09
T O 9BYS T O 6 ,O L#?608s
d
^EH , -0>? 9Bu vb>@96A9->@EMW9>9G36 O >T O 6T O 9dB79WV?CD9 O D , HCHC9B
b60E=9 , :HC9`6AE~?FG\B7?CD , 609^
T , G36A?F6A?C9 O
HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , Hn>@9609-<>@EMW9>@9G36 O S:L#8:96A8:9-<9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:960?CD(E-U9HC9D560-AE O 6 , 60?CDS:G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`;K-AE
W3?RB79s608:9N1 12 W , HCT:9E , >9 ,O T:-09
B T , G36A?F6%Z 8:9 O 9?FG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O > , Z=9- , GKQ9B!60E
?FGKB:?CD , 6A9y<
`W , HCT:9SV:T76#EG:HFZ@?Fc608:9 O 8 , ;\9(Ea608:%9 L , W9E-A>? O ;:-09D? O 9HCSZ VG:EML#G`=9E-098 , GKGB
VE D , HFHC9B
5K (]>@9609- O T O 9sB7? 9-A9G36609D8:GKEHCEQZx60Ex;K-AEMWV?RB79d?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CEG O -09;:-09 O 9G360?FG:Q~6A8K9
xu- , 6A8K9-m6A8 , G O 9Lm9B , W9- , Q9<E-#;=9 , :vmE ,
G L , W9E-A>
, D560T , HaU
yU
l<
8 ,OU, Gs?CG:8:9-A9G36U-09 T:9G\DZ , 6UL#8:?RD8[?F6L#?CHFH);:-099-U6AEdW3?C:- , 609 < 8:9f60T:G:?CG:Q`E-AX? O, Q-A9 , 6<9 , >@;:HF9JE
6A8K? O&O 6A-0?C9P?6qEGKD9 , GKB?F6 L#?FHCH\DEG36A?CGVT:9m6AEbWV?C:- , 6A9 , 6 , 6AEGK9 O ;=9D?=Dm6AEf?F6 O HC9GKQ6A8 EG:Q9-&6ATKG:?FGKQfE-0 O
8 , W9HCEMLq9-P-A9 O EG , G36P-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O 608:9?C-P6AEG:9 O L#?CHCHY\9fHCEMLq9-PEGX6A8:9f>T O ?CD , H O D , HC96A8 , G O 8:E-p609-mE-0 O
> , Q?FG:9 , -AEMLEq;:-0EQ-A9 OAO ?CW9HCZ O ?C9BX60T:G:?CG:QXE-0 O(, -A- , GKQ9B O ?RB79 VZ O ?CB:9 8K9Z , -A9 , HCH+>@ET:G36A9IB
EG , DE>>@EG! ,O 9S , GKB608 , 6` ,O 9d? O WV?FK- , 6A9B , 6_608:9X-A9 TK9GKDZE(6A8:9]>@9 ,O TK-A9IB WEHF6 , Q9uEDTK-A-09G36vUVZs>@9 , G O E , G~9HC9D6A-0E> , QG:96 ( 8K?CD8:9W9-U60T:G:?CG:QXE-0s? O DHCE O 9 O 6?CGx-A9 O EG , G36<-09 T:9GKDZ]60E
6A8K9-09 T:9GKDZ_Ec608 , 6#WV?FK- , 6A?CEGL#?CHCHn6A9G\B`60E O 8 , 9<608:9y>@E O 6fuE-m6A8K9(HCET\B79 O 6v + c6A8K9E-A O 6A?CG:9 O Lm9-09
K?C> O Zs9G:ET:Q8aSYLm9DET:HRB O 996A8:9@-09H , 60?FW9J>@E60?FEGEq9 , D8~VZ]6A8:9HF9G:Q608~E/6A8K9KHFT:-yLm9LmETKHCB O 99 ,O
Lm9f?FG O ;=9D5609B]9 , D8]EG:9y-0E> , G]9G\B WV?C9L;\9- O ;=9D560?FW9 q 9HFHSK> , 9 , DEHFHC9D6A?CEG]E+M60T:G:?CG:Q@E-0 O ET:6
E ,`O 6A-0?C;sE O 8K996>96 , H)DT:6?CG , ; , 6A6A9-AG , 3?CG]6AE , - , 9S , GKB]ZETs8 , W9y6A8:9` 1M
4 2 A
-09 T:9GKDZ
>@9609-
to AC voltage
8:9T O 9-E+6A8:? O >@96A9-WV?C9L O 6A8:99G\B O E , HCH)6A8:E O 9T:G:9 T , H&HF9G:Q608[-A99B O(,O 6A8K9Z , -09JDEHCHF9ID56A?CW9HFZ
O 8 , 9G , 6q6A8:9U-A9 TK9GKDZE=608:9 , ;:;:HC?F9IB WEH6 , Q9P60Ef6A8K9DE?FH 8:9UEG:9UDHCE O 9 O 6 ?CG`-09 O EG , G6+-09 T:9GKDZ
6AE608:9 , ;:;KHF?C9B L#?FHCHYWV?F:- , 609(6A8:9f>@E O 6SKHFEVEV?CG:Q O E>96A8:?CG:Q@HC?F9y6A8:? O
Frequency Meter
52
54
56
58
60
62
64
66
68
120 Volts AC
U?C:- , 60?FG:Qs-099IBx>96A9- O ScE3WV?CET O HCZS , -A9@G:E6J;:-09D? O ?FEG~?CG O 6A-0T:>@9G36 O S&:T76b608:9Z , -09@W9-0Z O ?C>;KHF9 , GKB
6A8K9-09E-09(9 ,O Z6AE@> , GVT7 , D56ATK-A9U6AE@\9y-0T:QQ9B 8:9Z , -09E6A9GdETKGKBEG O > , HCH=9G:Q?CG:9 B7-0?CW9GQ9GK9- , 6AEO 96 O E-f608:9`;:T:-0;=E O 9_E O 96p6A?CG:Q[9G:Q?CG:9 O ;\99B O E]6A8 , 6f6A8:9`-A9 TK9GKDZ? OJO E>@9L#8 , 6bDHCE O 9@6AE u]?CG
l3l
UU(j KgR![jq#"%$J&"%%(')"j+*
TK-AE;\9ovq}U9-A6A
8:?CHF9_-099IB 6%Z3;=9@>@96A9- Of, -A9@?C>@;:-A9ID? O 9SY6A8K9?C-bE;=9- , 60?FEG , H;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9_? O G:E6 ` GxHF?C9TEm>@9D8 , G:?RD , H
-09 O EG , GKD9S\Lm9> , Z O T: O 6A?F6AT76099HF9ID560-A?RD , H)-09 O EG , GKD9 , GKB~B79 O ?FQG , -A9 TK9GKDZX>@96A9-yT O ?CG:Q , G[?CGKB7TKD6AE, G\BbD , ; , D?60E-a?CGf6A8K9/E-0>E , 6 , G:yD?C-DT:?F6mu; , - , HCHF9H?CGKB7TKD6AE- , G\BbD , ; , D?60E-5v &. G:9 E-c=E608DE>@;\EG:9G36 O
, -09<> , B:9 , BM%T O 6 , :HC9S , GKB , >@96A9-m? O ;:H , D9B_?CG`608:9yD?C-0DT:?6q6AE?FGKB:?CD , 6A9(> , 7?C>JT:> , >@;:HC?F6ATKB79EcWEHF6 , Q9
, D-AE OAO 608:9]6%LqEDE>@;\EG:9G36 O 8:9 , Bo%T O 6A>@9G36`VG:E)u O v , -09XD , HC?F:- , 609B6AE O 8:EML-09 O EG , G36-09 T:9GKDZ
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96p60?FG:Q\S , G\B[608:9@-A9 T:9GKDZs? O -09 , B[-0E>{608:9> , 609-y6A8K9@B:9WV?CD9@8 ,O =99G , Bo%T O 6A9B~E> , 7?C>JT:>?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CEGXEGX608:9f>@96A9- O0O 9G60? , HFHCZS3608:? O ? O#, 60T:G , :HF9y\H609-UD?F-DT:?F6<L#8:?RD8d? O<, Bo%T O 6A9B , GKB
6A8K9G-A9 , B~?FG , > , GKG:9- O ?F>@?CH , -y6AE , :-0?RB7Q9_D?C-DT:?F6uL#8:?RD8>JT O 6b=9_ , H , GKD9BE- , G3TKHFHR]DEG\B7?60?FEG
, G\B`608:9Gs-09 , BKv
Resonant Frequency Meter
Sensitive AC
meter movement
8:? O 609D8:GK? T:9? Om, ;=E;:TKH , - EGK9<E- , > , 6A9TK- - , B7?CEbE;=9- , 60E- O uE- , 6qHC9 ,O 6m?6mL ,O =9E-09<608:9 , B7W9G36
E m?FGK97;\9G O ?FW9B7?CQ?F6 , H-A9 T:9GKDZs?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 O D , HFHC9B 074
vSY9 O ;\9ID? , HCHFZ[=9D , T O 9?6bB7EV9 O G 6f-A9 TK?F-09
B7?C-A9ID56 DEG:G:9ID560?FEG60Ey6A8:9D?C-0DT:?6 EfHFEG:Q ,O 608:9<?CGKB7TKD6AE- , GKB\ME-+D , ; , D?60E-/D , G@?FG3609-D9;:6/9G:ET:Q8 O 60- , Z
K9HCBu> , QGK96A?RDfE-U9HC9D6A-0?CDSK-09 O ;\9ID560?FW9HCZ7vP-AE>608:9JD?F-DT:?F6TKGKB79-U6A9 O 66AEdD , T O 9y6A8K9J>@9609-6AE`?CGKB7?RD , 6A9S
?F6<L#?FHCHaLmE-0
Gy-09 T:9G\DZ ,O ?CGbE608:9-Y6%ZV;=9 O E79HC9D6A-0?CD , H>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36S6A8:9/>@E O 6 , DDT:- , 6A9+>@9 , G O EV>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36
-, 09]T O T , HCHFZ6A8:E O 9sL#8K9-09 , GT:G:VG:EML#G T , G360?6%Z!? O DE>@; , -A9IB , Q , ?FG O 6 , VG:EML#G
1 4n
1 A
SP608:9[ ,O ?RD
?CG O 60-ATK>9G36B7E?FG:QG:E608:?FGKQ>@E-09@6A8 , G?CGKB7?RD , 60?FGKQL#8:9G6A8:96%LqE T , G36A?F6A?C9 O, -09`9 T , H/6AE~9 , D8E6A8K9-
8:? O ? O 608:9< ,O ?RD#;:-0?CGKD?C;:HC9U=98:?CGKB@608:9 u 8:9 , 6 O 60EG:9ov:-0?CB7Q9UD?C-DT:?F6 , G\B_?6m? Oq,bO ET:GKB@>@96A-0EHCEQ?RD , H
;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9 , ;K;:HF?C9B6A8K-AET:Q8:ET76U608:9 O D?F9GKD9 O J qLm98 , W9 , DD9 OAO 6AE , G , DDT:- , 609b-09 T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -Bu ,
O ET:-D9/E WEH6 , Q9/8:EHRB7?CG:QUW9-0Z;K-A9ID? O 9HFZ6AE ,UO ?FGKQHC9+-A9 T:9GKDZ:v5So6A8K9GJ>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36)E , GVZyT:G:VG:EML#G
-09 T:9G\DZ`VZDE>@; , -0? O EG O 8:ET:HRBX\9f-09H , 60?FW9HCZ_9 ,O Z
E-<608 , 6(-A9 T:9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BaS\Lm9b60T:-AGET:- , 6p609G36A?CEG~ , Dd6AE6A8:96ATKG:?FGKQ`E-0nSnE- , 6HC9 ,O 6 , >@E-09
>@E7B79-0G]W , -A? , 60?FEG]E?6D , HCHF9IBX6A8:9 1
5o
1M kT , -p60f? OU, G , 60T:- , HCHFZ`E7DDT:-0-A?CG:Q@>@?FGK9- , Ha;=E O0O 9 OAO ?CG:Q
, W9-0Z]?FG36A9-A9 O 60?FGKQ;:-0E;=9-A6%ZsD , HCHC9BX I
5
M ^ ?F9EV9HC9D6A-0?CDf> , 6A9-0? , H O ;:-0E7B7TKD9 , WEHF6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O
6A8K9?C-/HF9G:Q608_L#8:9G_;K83Z O ?CD , HCHFZ O 60-A9 OAO 9BYS , GKBL#?CHFH\;:8VZ O ?RD , HFHCZJB79E-0>L#8:9G , G@9V6A9-AG , H:WEHF6 , Q9P? O/, ;:;:HC?F9IB
, D-AE OAO 608:9?C-#HF9G:Q608 O / 8:? O B:9E-0> , 60?FEGd? O W9-AZSVW9-0Z O HF?CQ836#?CGX>@E O 6<D ,O 9 O S7KT76<?6UB:E39 O 97? O 6
kT , -p60_-AE7D? O 9H ,O 60?CDsu O ;K-A?CG:QZ:vyL#?F6A8K?FG608 , 6 O > , HCH - , GKQ9_E#=9GKB:?FG:QL#8:?CD8 , G9V6A9-AG , H WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB[;:-0E7B7TKD9SnL#8:?RD8>@9 , G O 6A8 , 6(?F6fL#?FHCH8 , W9 , >@9D8 , G:?RD , H)-09 O EG , G36<-A9 T:9GKDZsE ?F6 O EML#GxD , ; , :HC9
Eq\9?FG:QX> , G:?F9 O 6A9IB ,O(, G[9HC9D6A-0?CD , HWEH6 , Q9 O ?CQG , H ( G~E608:9-yLmE-B O S=?F , D8K?F;~E T , -p60? OyO 60-ATKDnSn?F6
L#?CHFH-0?FGKQ@L#?F6A8[?F6 O EML#GsT:G:? T:9b-09 T:9GKDZ]B79609-0>@?FG:9IB]VZd608:9JHC9GKQ6A8E6A8:9D8:?C;aS , GKB]608 , 6(-A9 O EG , G36
E O D?CHCH , 6A?CEG_L#?CHFHn;:-0E7B7TKD9 , G`9 T:?FW , HF9G6mWEH6 , Q9 , D-0E O0O >T:HF6A?C;:HF9(;=E?CG6 O EY6A8:9 T , -A6A(D8:?C;`L#8:?RD8dD , G`=9
6 , ;:;=9B_?CG36AEbVZL#?F-09 O :79B6AEb6A8:9 O T:-A , D9<En608:9D8:?C; & G`-09D?C;:-0E7D , HK> , G:G:9-S6A8:9 T , -A6AUD8:?C;_L#?CHFH\6A9GKB
l
6AE@WV?C:- , 6A9(>@E O 6PL#8K9G]?6#? O 97D?609B:VZ , G , ;K;:HF?C9B WEHF6 , Q9 , 6#;:-09D? O 9HCZ_6A8:9y-0?FQ836m-09 T:9GKDZSI%T O 6
HC?F9608:9f-099B O EG , W3?C:- , 60?FG:Q -099IB@-09 T:9G\DZ`>@9609-
8:?C; O E T , -A6AP-0E7DbD , G@=9#;:-09D? O 9HCZbDT76+E- B79 O ?C-A9IBJ-09 O EG , G36)-09 T:9GKD?C9 O S , G\Bb608 , 6 D8:?C;@>@ET:G36A9IB
9O DTK-A9HFZ`?CG O ?CB:9 , ;:-0E609D6A?CW9 O 8K9HCHYL#?608XL#?C-09 O 9V609GKB7?CG:Q@E-<DEGKG:9D6A?CEGd6AE , GX9V6A9-AG , HY9HC9D6A-0?CDyD?F-DT:?F6
8:9G`; , D , Q9B ,O O TKD8aS6A8:9-A9 O T:HF6A?CG:QJB:9WV?CD9<? OqO ?F>@;:HCZ@D , HCHC9B , 5o
1KuE- O E>@960?F>@9 O
1M 3v5S , GKB@?F6 O
O D8:9> , 60?CD O ZV>J=EHYHCE3E O HF?C9(6A8K? O
crystal or xtal
HC9D6A-0?CD , HCHFZS608 , 6 T , -A6A(D8:?F;d? O 9 TK?FW , HC9G36q6AE ,JO 9-0?F9 O -A9 O EG , G36qD?F-DTK?6 8K9(B7?C9HC9D6A-0?CDU;:-0E;=9-
6A?C9 O E T , -A6AJDEG36A-0?FKT76A9 , G , B:B7?F6A?CEG , H&D , ; , D?F6A?CW9b9HF9>9G36U6AE6A8:99 T:?CW , HC9G36(D?F-DTK?6IS , GKBs?CGs6A8K99GKB
?F6<HFEVE O#O E>@9608:?CG:Q@HF?C9(6A8K? O
Crystal equivalent circuit
capacitance
C
caused by wire
connections
across quartz
C
L
characteristics
of the quartz
8:9D , ; , D?6 , GKD9 , GKBe?CGKB7TKD6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#G?CG O 9-0?F9 O`, -09[>@9-09HCZ!9HF9ID560-A?RD , H<9 T:?CW , HC9G36 O Ef6A8K9
T , -A6A O >@9D8 , G:?CD , H\-A9 O EG , GKD9<;:-0E;=9-A6A?C9 O 608:9Z_B7EG:E6m97? O 6 ,O B7? O D-09609UDE>@;\EG:9G36 O L#?F6A8:?CG`608:9D-AZ O
6 , H / 8K9(D , ; , D?F6 , G\D9 O 8:EML#Gd?FGX; , - , HFHC9HnB7T:9(6AE6A8K9fL#?F-09(DEG:GK9D560?FEG OP, D-AE OAO 6A8:9fB7?C9HC9D6A-0?CD@u?CG O T:H , 6A?CG:QVv
T , -A6AU\E7B7Z@? O -09 , HS , GKB_?F6q8 ,O , G_9n9D56mEG@608:9U-09 O EG , G36/-A9 O ;=EG O 9#EY608:9UL#8KEHC9 O Z O 6A9> TKHFHYB7? O DT O
O ?FEG[EGD-AZ O 6 , H)B7ZVG , >?RD O ? O G:E6G:9ID9 OAO0, -0Z8:9-A9Sn:T76L#8 , 6yG:99IB O 60E=9JT:G\B79- O 60EVEVB , =ET76yD-0Z O 6 , H O ? O
6A8K? O -A9 O EG , G36<D?C-0DT:?F6U9 T:?CW , HC9GKD9 , GKB]8:EML?F6D , GX=9b9V;KHFE?609B]L#?F6A8:?CG , G]E O D?CHCH , 6AE-<D?F-DTK?6<60E , D8:?C9W9
, GXET:6A;:T76<WEHF6 , Q9(L#?608 ,O 6 , :HC9S7VG:EML#Gd-A9 TK9GKDZ
-0Z O 6 , H O S ,O -A9 O EG , G36&9HC9>@9G36 O So6%ZV;:?RD , HCHCZ(8 , W9 >TKD8J8K?FQ8:9-ak(u 1M
v&W , HCT:9 O 6A8 , GJ6 , G:fD?F-DT:?F6 O
:T:?CHF6d-0E>?CGKB7TKD6AE- OX, GKBwD , ; , D?F6AE- O S#;:-0?FG\D?C; , HCHFZB7TK9[6AE!6A8K9~-09H , 60?FW9 , O 9G\D9E O 60- , ZN-09 O ? O 6 , GKD9S
> , V?CG:Qy6A8:9?F- -A9 O EG , G36-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O W9-AZB79KGK?609 , GKB;:-09D? O 9 t 9D , T O 9m6A8:9<-09 O EG , G36-A9 TK9GKDZJ? O/O EHF9HFZ
B79;\9GKB79G36 EG@6A8:9U;:8VZ O ?RD , H7;K-AE;\9-p60?F9 O E T , -A6Abu , W9-AZ O 6 , :HC9 O TK O 6 , GKD9S>9ID8 , GK?CD , HCHFZ:v5S6A8:9U-A9 O EG , G36
l
UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
-09 T:9G\DZW , -A? , 60?FEGEMW9-P6A?C>@9fL#?608 , T , -p60bD-0Z O 6 , HY? O W9-0ZSKW9-0Z_HCEML 8:? O ? O 8:EML 1
J 4
L , 60D8K9 O E76 , ?FGs608:9?C-U8K?FQ8 , DDT:- , DZ VZd>@9 , G O E , G[9HF9ID56A-0EGK?CDyE O D?FHCH , 6AE- O 6 , :?CHC?F9B]VZX6A8:9-A9 O EG , G36
, D6A?CEGXE , T , -A6AfD-0Z O 6 , H
E- H , =E- , 60E-0Z , ;:;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG O S608:ETKQ8aS39W9G`Q-A9 , 6A9-+-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , :?CHF?F6%Z@> , Z=9B79 O ?C-09B + E , D8:?C9W9
6A8K? O S 608:9sD-0Z O 6 , HP?FG T:9 O 6A?CEGN> , Z\9];:H , D9B!?FG , 6A9>@;=9- , 60T:-A9 O 6 , :?FHC?C9B!9GVWV?C-AEG:>@9G36]uT O T , HCHFZ , G
EMW9G\v5SV608VT O 9HC?F>@?CG , 60?FGKQ@-A9 TK9GKDZ`9-0-AE- O B7T:9y60E@6A8:9-A> , HY97; , G O ?CEG , GKBXDEG36A- , D560?FEGE)608:9 T , -A6A
E-`608:9~TKH60?F> , 609?CG , -A9 TK9GKDZ O 6 , GKB , -0BN608:ET:Q8aS<G:E6A8:?CG:QNB7? O DEMW9-09B!6A8VT O , - O T:-A; ,O0O 9 O 6A8K9
, DDT:- , DZ_E ,O ?CG:QHC9y-A9 O EG , 60?FG:Q , 60E> + 8:? O ? O 608:9f;:-0?FG\D?C;:HF9fEc608:9 O E D , HCHF9IB~1
S\L#8:?RD8dT O 9 O
, G , 60E>Em>@9-DT:-0ZuE-fD9 O ?FT:>`v O T O ;=9G\B79B~?FG , W , DT:TK>XSY9:D?F6A9B~VZsET76 O ?RB799G:9-AQZ]6AEX-A9 O EG , 609 , 6
?F6 O EML#G`T:G:? T:9<-09 T:9GKDZ + 8:9-09 O T:HF6A?CG:Qb-09 T:9GKDZ@? O B:96A9ID5609B ,Oq, - , B7?CE L , W9 O ?CQG , H , GKB_608 , 6mE-0> O
6A8K9b ,O ? O E-#608:9b>@E O 6 , DDTK- , 6A9fDHCE7D O 3GKEML#Gd60E_8VT:> , G:?F6%Z P , 6A?CEG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O H , =E- , 6AE-A?C9 OP, -AET:GKB
6A8K9bLqE-AHRBX> , ?CG6 , ?CG , 9LE)608:9 O 9b8VZV;\9- , DDT:- , 609yDHFE7D O S , G\BdK-AE , B:D ,O 6#-A9 TK9GKDZ O ?FQG , H O ,O 9IBdEG
6A8KE O 9 , 6AE> O WV?FK- , 6A?CEG O E- O D?F9G60? O 6 Of, GKB~6A9ID8:G:?RD? , G O 60E]6AT:G:9_?CG , GKB~T O 9@E-y-09 T:9GKDZD , HC?FK- , 6A?CEG
;:T:-0;=E O 9 O
EMLLm9sQ96_60E6A8K9[;:- , D560?CD , H<; , -A6 EGKD9sLm9[8 , W9 , 7A E , DDTK- , 6A9X-A9 T:9GKDZSP8:EML{B7ELm9
DE>@; , -09#6A8 , 6 , Q , ?FG O 6 , GT:G:VG:EML#G@-09 T:9G\DZ6AEJE76 , ?FG , >@9 ,O T:-09>@9G365 . GK9UL , ZJ? O 60EJT O 9 , ,O
, -A9 T:9GKDZ DE>@; , -0? O EGB79WV?RD9 q , 6A8KEVB:9y , Z TK\9 O 6%ZV;:?CD , HCHFZ_8 , W9y>@9 , G O E&B:9K9ID56A?CG:Q@608:9f9HC9D6A-0EG
=9 , >|?FG608:9P8:E-0?FEG36 , H ,O Lm9HCH ,O 608:9#W9-p60?CD , H , 7? O ) =>@96 , H:;KH , 6A9 O+, -A9PT O 9BJ6AEf9HF9ID560-AE O 6 , 6A?RD , HFHCZbB79K9D6
6A8K9`9HC9D6A-0EG O Sc608:9-09_L#?CHFHq\9 , ; , ?C-bE#;:H , 609 O 60Es6A8K9`HF96 , G\B-A?CQ836bEP608:9`=9 , > ,O Lq9HFH ,Ob, ; , ?F-JE
;:H , 609 O#, =EMW9 , GKB=9HCEML608:9f=9 , >
CRT with horizontal and vertical deflection plates
electron "gun"
horizontal
deflection
plates
(vacuum)
viewscreen
electrons
electrons
vertical
deflection
plates
light
Lq9 , HFHCEMLeEG:9 O ?CQG , Hn6AE`B79K9D6<6A8:9f=9 , >TK; , GKB]B7EML#GuDEG:G:9ID56#608 , 6 WEH6 , Q9 O ET:-D9(60E
6A8K9yW9-p60?CD , HRbB79\9D560?FEG;:H , 609 O v , GKB , G:E6A8:9- O ?CQG , H\60EB:9K9ID56P6A8:9(=9 , >HF96 , GKB`-0?CQ836(uT O ?CG:Q6A8K9
E608:9-q; , ?C- EcB79\9D560?FEG`;:H , 609 O v5S3; , 6A6A9-0G O L#?FHCH\=9(;:-AE7B7T\D9B@EG_6A8K9 O D-099G_En6A8:9 ?FGKB:?CD , 6A?CW9UEY6A8K9
1
Eq608:9 O 9@6%LmE -09 T:9GKD?C9 O 8:9 O 9_; , 6p609-0G Ob, -09_D , HFHC9B R 1 VU 2 7A , G\B , -A9 , DE>@>@EG
>@9 , G O E+DE>; , - , 6A?CW9U-A9 T:9GKDZ>@9 ,O TK-A9>9G36m?CG]9HC9D560-AEG:?RD O
P6A8:9`6%LqE]-09 T:9GKD?C9 O, -09@6A8:9 O0, >@9S)Lm9`L#?CHFHqE76 , ?CG ,sO ?C>@;:HF9`KQT:-09_EG608:9 O D-099GEm6A8:9 S
6A8K9 O 8 , ;\9@E 6A8 , 6fKQT:-A9=9?CG:Q[B79;=9G\B79G36bT:;=EG~6A8:9_;K8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6b=96%Lm99G~6A8K9@6%LqE O ?CQG , H O }U9-09
? O#,O0, >@;:HC?CG:Q@E ? O0O0, %ET O \QT:-09 O E-P6%LmE O ?CG:9 L , W9 O ?CQG , H O E)9 T , Hn-A9 T:9GKDZS O 8:EML#G ,O 6A8:9ZLmET:HRB
, ;K;\9 , -`EG!608:9s , D9sE , GE O D?FHCHCE O DE;=9u , G WEH6 , Q9 >9 ,O T:-0?FG:Qx?CG O 60-ATK>9G36`T O ?CG:Q , ,O ?F6 O
>@EMW9>@9G3603v _ 8:9@K- O 6b;:?CD6AT:-09@? O Em6A8:9 ? O0OA, %ET O \QT:-09E-0>9IBVZ6%LqE WEHF6 , Q9 O ;=9-A9D6AHCZ?CG
;:8 ,O 9yL#?F6A8]9 , D8dE6A8:9-
l3
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
U608:9X6%LqE WEHF6 , Q9 O, -09XG:E6_?CGN;K8 ,O 9dL#?F6A8N9 , D8!E6A8:9-S ,xO 6A- , ?CQ836@HF?CG:9]L#?CHFH#G:E6_\9XE-0>@9B
, 6A8:9-SY608:9 ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-09L#?FHCH6 , 9@EG6A8:9 , ;K;\9 , - , GKD9E , G~EMW , HSY\9IDE>@?CG:Q];\9-p9ID560HFZD?F-DTKH , -(?F
6A8K9f;:8 ,O 9 O 8K?6<? O 9 , D56AHCZU\96%Lq99GX6A8:9y6%LmE O ?CQG , H O S , G\Bd?F&6A8:9?F- , >;KHF?F6ATKB:9 O<, -A9y9 T , H
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
V/div
trigger
Y
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
?FG , HCHFZS?FY6A8:9#6%LmE U O ?CQG , H O/, -09#B7?F-09D6AHCZE;:;=E O ?FG:QfEG:9 , GKE6A8K9-/?CG`;:8 ,O 9bup O 8:?65v5S3Lq9UL#?FHCHK9GKB
T:;]L#?F6A8 , HF?CG:9 , Q , ?CGaSVEG:HCZ`608:? O 6A?C>@9f?6<L#?CHFHc\9fE-A?C9G36A9IB`?CGX6A8:9fE;:;\E O ?F6A9fB7?C-09D560?FEG
l
UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
8:9GLm9 , -A9J , D9IBsL#?F6A8 O ?CQG , Hc-09 T:9GKD?C9 O 6A8 , 6 , -09JG:E6608:9 OA, >9S ? OAO0, %ET O \QT:-09 O Q96 T:?F6A9 ,
:?F6>@E-09`DE>@;:HF9 EG O ?RB79-f6A8:9EHCHFEML#?CG:Qs9 , >@;:HF9 Ob, G\Bx6A8:9?F-Q?CW9GW9-A6A?RD , Ho8KE-0?FEG36 , H)-09 T:9GKDZ
- , 6A?CE O
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
Lissajous figure:
DC GND AC
l
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
GdD ,O 9 O L#8:9-096A8:9-A9 T:9GKD?F9 O Ea608:9(6%LqE U O ?FQG , H Oq, -A9G:E6P9 , D56AHCZ ,JO ?C>;KHF9y- , 6A?CEJEc9 , D8E6A8:9uKT76@DHFE O 9ov5S&6A8K9 ? O0OA, %ET O KQT:-09`L#?CHFH , ;:;\9 , -J6AE~>@EMW9S O HFEML#HCZxD8 , G:Q?FG:QsE-A?C9G36 , 6A?CEG ,O 608:9d;K8 ,O 9
, GKQHC9=96%Lm99G`6A8K96%LmEL , W9E-0> O -0EHCH O =96%Lm99GX3 , GKB[I & )6A8:9(6%LmEJ-09 T:9GKD?C9 OP, -A9(HFE7D9B_?CG , G
9 , D56U?CG36A9Q9-- , 6A?CE`\96%Lq99Gs9 , D8sE608:9-IS\6A8:9 ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-A9JL#?FHCH)=9 O 6 , :HC9JEG]608:9JWV?C9L O D-099GsE+6A8K9
y
8:9;:8VZ O ?RD O E ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-09 O HC?F>@?F6 O 608:9?C-fT O 9T:HCG:9 O0Of,Oy, -A9 T:9GKDZ3DE>@; , -0? O EG]6A9D8KG:? T:960E
D ,O 9 O L#8:9-09y6A8K9y-A9 TK9GKDZ- , 6A?CE O#, -A9 O ?F>@;:HC9f?CG609Q9-#W , HCT:9 O u% Sc l7Sa SKl S \S7960D v q 9 O ;:?F6A9f608:? O
HC?F>@?F6 , 60?FEGaS ? OAO0, %ET O KQT:-A9 Ob, -09 , ;=E;:TKH , -b>@9 , G O EP-09 T:9GKDZDE>; , -0? O EGxL#8:9-09W9- , G , DD9 O0O ?C:HC9
-09 T:9G\DZ O 6 , GKB , -Bxu O ?FQG , HYQ9G:9- , 6AE-5v+97? O 6 O
d
E>@9P-09 T:9G\DZb>@9609- O LmE-0bEG6A8K9<;:-0?FGKD?F;KHF9#En>@9ID8 , G:?RD , H7-A9 O EG , G\D9SM?CGKB7?RD , 6A?CG:Qf-09 T:9GKDZbVZ
-A9H , 6A?CW9(E O D?CHFH , 60?FEG , >@EG:Q ,O 96<E)T:GK? T:9HFZ6AT:G:9IB]-099B O O 8 , 9G , 6P6A8:9f>@9 ,O TK-A9IB`-09 T:9GKDZ
. 6A8:9-y-A9 TK9GKDZ>@9609- O T O 9_9HC9D560-A?RD@-09 O EG , G6bD?F-DT:?F6 O u 6 , G:xD?C-0DT:?6 O S&T O T , HCHCZ7v60Es?FG\B7?CD , 609
-A9 TK9GKDZ . G:9E-(\E6A8DE>;=EGK9G36 O ? O > , B79J60Ed=9 , Bo%T O 6 , :HC9SYL#?F6A8 , G , DDT:- , 6A9HFZsD , HF?C:- , 609B
Lissajous figure: Horizontal/Vertical frequency ratio is 3:2
l
UU(j Kgb![jq#"%$J&"%y(')"j+*
, Bo%T O 6A>@9G6(VG:EaS , GKB ,O 9G O ?F6A?CW9J>@96A9-(? O -09 , BXE-(> , 7?F>T:>WEHF6 , Q9bE-DTK-A-09G36 , 6U6A8K9;=E?CG36
E)-09 O EG , GKD9
-09 T:9G\DZD , G\9X>@9 ,O T:-09B?FG , DE>@; , - , 60?FW9@ ,O 8:?CEGaS ,O ? O 6A8:9]D ,O 9dL#8:9GT O ?CG:Q , 60E
Q9GK9- , 6A9] R 1 MVf 2 7A5 #99-A9GKD9d-A9 T:9GKDZ O ?CQG , H O D , G=9]> , B79XL#?608 , 8:?FQ8!B79Q-099dE
, DDT:- , DZXVZ[E O D?CHCH , 6AE-yD?C-DT:?F6 O T O ?FGKQ T , -p60D-AZ O 6 , H Oy,O -09 O EG , G6yB79WV?RD9 O E-yT:HF6A- , ;:-A9ID? O ?CEGcS
, 6AE>@?CDfDHFE7D O ?CQG , H O 6 , GKB , -B O u ,O 9IB]EGX6A8K9b-A9 O EG , G36P-09 T:9G\D?C9 O E?CGKB7?CWV?CB:T , H , 6AE> O vPD , Gs=9
T O 9IB
y _0 w
&
^EMLm9-#>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6?FG U D?F-DTK?6 O D , G[=9 T:?F6A9 , :?6(>@E-09JDE>;KHF9X608 , GL#?608 D?F-DTK?6 O E-6A8K9
O ?F>@;:HC9-09 ,O EG@6A8 , 6#;:8 ,O 9 O 8:?F6m> , 9 O DE>@;:HF?RD , 6A9 O 608:9y> , 6p609-m\9ZEG\B`>JTKH60?F;:HCZV?FGKQWEHF6 , Q9<VZ`DT:-0-09G36
KQT:-A9 O E76 , ?FG:9IBL#?F6A8>@9609- O | 8 , 6]? O G:99B79IB? Od, G?FG O 60-AT:>@9G6 , :HC9[60E!B796A9-A>@?CG:9[608:9;:-0E7B7TKD6
u>T:HF6A?C;:HF?RD , 6A?CEG\vcE 4K
1 4
1 4=MV WEHF6 , Q9 , GKBJDT:-0-A9G36 c E-A6AT:G , 6A9HFZS608:9qDE>@>@EGb9HF9ID560-AE7B7ZVG , >E>@96A9>@EMW9>9G36PL#?F6A8]?F6 O<O 6 , 6A?CEG , -AZ , GKBd>EMWV?CG:Q_DE?FHaB7EV9 O#, \G:9P%E]E)6A8:? O
8:-099(;:8 ,O 9y;=EMLq9-m>@9 ,O T:-A9>@9G36PD , GX\9 , DDE>@;:HF? O 8:9BT O ?CG:Q6%LmEB7ZVG , >@E>@9609-#>@EMW9>9G36 O L#?608
D
E
, >@>EG O 8 , 6JHF?CG:V?CG:Q]6A8:9@6%LmE]>@EMW3?CG:QsDE?FH O 60EQ96A8:9- O E]608 , 6 ,sO ?CG:QHC9@;\E?FG36A9-b-09Q? O 6A9- O ;\EMLm9-fEG
, >@96A9-_>@EMW9>@9G6 O D , HC9 N 8:? O SmEVWV?FET O HFZS/> , 9 O E- , - , 6A8:9-97;\9G O ?CW9 , G\B!DE>@;:HC9>@EMW9>@9G36
>@9D8 , G:? O >]S7:T76<?F6<? O<, LqE-A , KHF9 O EHFT:6A?CEG
G_?CG:Q9G:?CET O >96A8:E7B_EaB79-0?FWV?CG:Q , G_9HF9ID560-AEG:?CD<;\EMLm9-/>@96A9-uEGK9#6A8 , 6qQ9G:9- , 6A9 O+, G_9HC9D6A-0?CD O ?CQG , H
-09;:-09 O 9G36A?CG:Q(;\EMLm9-?CGJ608:9 O Z O 6A9>i- , 6A8K9-&6A8 , G@>9-A9HFZf>@EMW9 , ;=E?CG609-5v&? O ,O 9BEGb608:9<} , HFH79=9ID56 8K9
} , HFH+9=9ID56f? O(, GT:GVT O T , H&9=9ID56fK- O 6(G:E6A?RD9IB[VZ } } , HCH?FGN KS=L#8K9-09VZ , WEHF6 , Q9J? O Q9G:9- , 609B
, HCEGKQJ608:9fL#?CB76A8sE , DT:-0-A9G36pD , -0-0Z3?CG:QDEG\B7TKD560E-P97;=E O 9B6AE , ;=9-0;\9GKB7?RDT:H , -#> , QG:960?CD(\9HRB
voltage
current
current
S
N
8:9#WEHF6 , Q9PQ9GK9- , 6A9IB , D-0E O0O 6A8:9<L#?RBV608_E=6A8:9# , 6S3-09D56 , G:QT:H , -+DEGKB7TKD6AE-+? O B:?F-09D6AHCZJ;:-0E;=E-A6A?CEG , H
6AE\E6A86A8:9> , QG:?F6AT\B79UEY6A8:9yDT:-0-09G36/6A8K-AET:Q8_?F6 , GKB@608:9 O 6A-09G:Q6A8`EY6A8:9> , QGK96A?RD#\9HRB , 608:9> , 60?
l
D , HFHCZS?6q? O/, ;K-AE7B7TKD6Uu>T:H60?F;KHF?RD , 6A?CEG\vEn6A8:9 O 9P6%LmEfW , -0? , :HF9 O & 8:9 , >@ET:G36/EY} , HFHK+EHF6 , Q9(;:-0E7B7TKD9IB
E- , GVZsQ?CW9G O 96fE#DEGKB7?F6A?CEG Oy, H O E]B:9;=9GKB O EGx6A8:96%ZV;\9_Eq> , 609-0? , H+T O 9BE-y6A8K9 , 6S)-A9ID56 , G:QT:H , DEGKB7TKD6AE- m 6U8 ,O \99G]ET:GKBX6A8 , 6 O ;=9D? , HCHCZ;:-09; , -A9IB] O 9>@?CDEGKB:TKD560E-J> , 609-0? , H O ;:-AE7B7T\D9 , Q-A9 , 6A9} , HFHcWEHF6 , Q96A8 , GXB:E_>96 , H O S , GKB O E>@E7B79-AGs} , HFH =9ID56UB79WV?CD9 O#, -09y> , B79yE&6A8K9 O 9
6q> , 9 OqO 9G O 9#6A8:9G`608 , 6m?aLm9ULm9-09#6AE:T:?CHCB , B79W3?RD9UT O ?CG:Q , } , HFHF9n9D56 O 9G O E-/L#8:9-A9U6A8:9(DT:-0-09G36
6A8K-AET:Q86A8:9_DEGKB7TKD6AE-(L ,O ;:T O 8:9IBVZ U WEHF6 , Q9J-AE> , G~9V6A9-AG , H+D?C-0DT:?6 , GKBs608:9@> , QG:96A?RDK9HRB
L ,OmO 96mT:;dVZ , ; , ?F-mE-mL#?C-A9yDE?FH O 9G:9-0Q?C9IB_VZ@6A8:9yDTK-A-09G36PEa608:9 U ;\EMLm9-PD?C-0DT:?F6S36A8:9f} , HCH=WEHF6 , Q9
LmET:HRB\9X?CGB7?C-A9ID56;K-AE;\E-p60?FEG~60E[608:9>T:H60?F;KHF9XEUD?F-DT:?F6DT:-0-A9G6 , GKBWEHF6 , Q9 } , W3?CG:Q[GKE> ,O0O 60E
>@EMW9suTKG:HF?C9 , G9HC9D560-AE>@9D8 , G:?CD , H+>@EMW9>@9G36vSa6A8K? O B:9WV?CD9_? O, :HC96AE[;K-AEMWV?RB79 4:
1 4
1 4n0V ;=EMLq9>@9 ,O T:-09>@9G6
A Hall effect power sensor
voltage
Rmultiplier
AC
power
source
Load
l
EDUU(j FKgbHG[jq8IKJJLI%yNMOIjP
K
OSCILLOSCOPE
vertical
Y
V/div
trigger
DC GND AC
timebase
X
s/div
DC GND AC
T m.m9z ?Bu"'vBT T'T | 6v"'m.rZq q ,"v T z{vu x'm=,!n6u q qv x q7q'r6z"T7l qvhq7u:"q^T T7uZT Rh/
'v k v"q^k T7u ks2f vBT
q o k f x k ,k x%f'm.m.r gf q k kn/v 9fgZg f Rh6k T7f l"'T o s2u"f o k h/q f 0 u"xf lW'kv k v"f q^T7fu s2f vBT k qNf x%f'm.km fg _ '\ _k "f *(
V( 'v g_k q+q7h s2f T k.sf q f T^T f `vh i v k v f m f xT7h/v k xAx k xVm f q26q2m1h i R f ?Bu f v!xVr %(r5 ; 0
l"'T8T7l k q k v!qKT7u s2f v/T g h f q k q o hY| k.gf n6 o l k x'm{ f o f q f vBT'T k h6v@h/vU h/ gZk n k T'm gZk q o m.}rAq7x% ff v
hT7l f U |6h/m]T'n f qR f ?Bu f v"xVr/q o f xVT7u s 0 W[/u"qKT@/q+ o k q s q o m k Tq+x f s h i l k T f m k n6lBT k vBTh k Tq
xVh/v"q^T k T7u f v/TxVh/m1h/xVh s o h/v f vBTq l"h is u"xla fg z{h/6vn f z"r f m1m.h i zn6 f%f v5z!'v g m.u fQk q k vXTl"YTm k n/l/TzT7l f
q o xT7u 'v"6m1rV q o m Tq R ?Bu v"x%rq n/v"'m vBT7h Tqx%h6v"q^T k T7u f vBT#R f ?Bu f v"x k1f q%z!'v ggZk q o m.}rZq3T7l f
f q7f um]T k vUs T7l f R h/ s f hE k l k q^T7h6s2n/k fs]g f f k k k
This is a moderately ugly "sine" wave. Definite harmonic content here!
1 3 5 7 9 11 13
Total distortion = 43.7 %
Power Quality Meter
/xl2vBu 3h6v+Tl l"h6 h6vBT6m"q7x'm hCT7l q T 3 o q vBTqtl"6 h/v xhCT7l Ruv vBT6m=R
B? u f v!xVr60"h6 s s2f f k x'v f o h i3f k tq7rZqKT f%s qz6Tf l f K
k s2f o f f f q f v/fTqf f < Tl f <qKs T3l"'k s h6v k x'f zBh6 g ; s2/ f ; (w f z
T7l f 6(Rh6
U T7l f ' g l"' s h6v k xVz'T7l f (Rh63
U T7l f }T7l+l!' s h/v k xz'v g q^hh/v=0 l f m&6x
f xT'vn/m f q f o f q f v/TT7l f f m&YT k | fs 'n6v k Tu gZf qth f 6xlAh=Tl f q f l"' s h6v k xx%h s o h/v f vBTq k vTl fNsf 6q7u fg
B
EDUUN F"bHG[q8IKJJLI%yNMOI%P
U |6h/m]T'n f 0
o u" f z@ <q k v fji }| f
i h6u"m g
"6q8q7lh i8k vn+YT'm.mChY| f 3T7l f h6T7l f PR f ?Bu f v"x%r
ydVXj dV+<XdL
q q Tl 6q7u vBT3x xVu Tq%zBT7l x xVu T x%h6vZ,!n6uYT h/vvh vA6q3 5:%3 x%'v | 7r
u"q f Ri3uf m i }iri8T7h k sf 6q7u sf f uv:vf%h s2i fv2|Y'm.ku f qkh= f q k fq^T6k v"x f 0k l k q k qyT7u fk i8k T7l Ui /q itf m1m$z'v g2i3f x%6f v@ ofo m1r
T7l f | f r@q s2f o k v"x k o m f T7hTl f 6xxVuYT fNs2f 6q7u fs2f vBT3hLu"v:vh i v k.s o f<g 'v!x f q0
h | z'T7l n x xVu T h60 Zqy6qt o h{T hwx%h o h/v vBTy|/h6m1T'n | qtxVh6v"v xVT /xVh/qq
T7l f q7 s2f f q7k1fh6i u"x f f|/h6m1Tk.6g n f f z i8k k T7lXk i ; %( %( ks2f T f i s hY| f%s s2f vBTf xVh/vv f xT f<g f gZf k T itk&gZff f vUT7l fs f Th fgk v gZk xYT f
2xVh/v gZk T k h6vh "6m.6v"x f Q'PT f h2|6h6m1Tq
R3
R1
null
R2
R4
vrh6v h Tl Rh/u q qKTh6q v-T7l hY| " n x%'v T7l q q^T7h6hyuv:vh vX|Y6m1u zC'v Tq
|Y'm.u f x%6v] f fjgf T f f s2k v fg f rUk 2'T k k hhOf Tl f h6T7l f f 8T7k&gl f%f f z i l k xf la' f f 6f x%6k m k YT fg z jh/ ii lhBq f f f q k q^T6gXv"x k f q
' f vh i vT7hj o f x k q fgZf n6 f%f 0 l f v+T7l f k&g n f8k q k v@y"6m.6v"x f<g xVh6v gZk T k h/v f h
|6h6m1T6n f 6q k v gk xYT f<g
r+T7l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6 s2f T f zZTl f 'T k h i h60Zq3h6uZT8Th f T7l k q
F"bHmIK#LI%fNM5I%P
/
In a condition of balance:
R = R
S v hT7l |Y6v/T'n q8hyu"q vn n x xVu TTh 6q7u q q^T6v"x q8Tl"YTNT7l |6h/m]T'n hT7l
o h itf f q^h/ux f+f k q g k f m f |Y'vBf T0Uy6kxT k x'm.m1rk.q g o f f kk vn!z=k T7l f l s2k n6f l f
T7f l f f q^uk o"o m1rWf|6kh/m]T'n f zCTl f f@f /q k.f f k T k qThf
gZq f v"T fq xVT T | QxVh/T v gZk T m.kUm h6v@ h0 k1s "n/' m&'Yv"T x f @ q^f u T oi3o f%m.f r_v@|6T7h/l m]f T'Rnh6u3m f q k q2q^T7Th/hq T7i8l k T7lo hBT7lq7q f vum m1TKm rgZfhT f xv"T7h/xVz/'q v g T7lu"q6q7T7ul fNs h6vB fT
o f f x kk q kk h/fXv=0 k i8h i3k f | f fzTl f fi8f k m1m)f f vh@Ruv g s2f vBf T6mf f g h6 k v/T7fh g u!x fg k /k qk 2 f q7uk m]Thfy2f<m gHf q7q s2f f h6n/f s2f Yf T f
o h itf q7u oo m1rA|6h6m1T6n f uvm k f h'T7l f TKr o f q8h E f q k q^T6v"x fNs2f 6q7u f%s2f vBTqxl f%s2f q0
o 'v!x " n q h60 jTl q z/h/vm1rTl "6m.6v"x ?Bu"'T h6v q T7l 0 <n ?/u!'vBT T qzB/q h'Tl
s 'n/vs k Tu f<gZg f 'v f g o k&l!g 6q f f i /xVh/qqTf l f xVs2h f s o h6v f vBTqf hT7l f fT i f h gZk | k k&gZf k q i8s k u"q^T_ fXf ?Bu"'m k vh/k k.gf f Rh62T7l f
vum.m gZf T f xVT7h6 Th k v gk xYT f f h"0 l f vBu"m1m gf T f xTh6<zZh xVh6u"q f z s u!qK<T f gZf | k x f x% o m f h gZf T f xT k v"n
| f 7rq s 'm.m U |/h6m1T'n f q0 vq f v!q k T k | f h/qx k m.m1hBq7x%h o fAk q2h *T f vu"q fg Rh62T7l k qz36m]Tlh6u"n6l| f rq f v"q k T k | f
fq7h6m f uxVT7x h s2R f x?Bl!u 'v v"k x%x%r 6m q s2f T Tf l vs 6hYu | f%s2h2f vB6TvqQn 'v 0 gf | f v`l f g o lh/v f q q s 'm.m3q o f f ql!}| f f%f vu"q fg`k T7l f
f f f k i8k k gZk f
1
2
3
4
Z1
Z3
null
Z4
Z2
U " k&g
EDUUN F"bHG[q8IKJJLI%yNMOI%P
6x%7hBq7qtTl f T f s2k v"'m&q hOT7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/'v g T7l f " k&g n fi8k m1m5vh'T< f "'m&'v!x fg 0
3 n x xVu Tq8x'v] xVh6v!qKT7u"xVT Th 6q7u Ku"q^Th6uT86vr | x |Y'm.u q z7 Tx o /x
T6v"x f z k&gk v g f u"xk T'v"xk f zZ f q k q^T6f v"x f zh6 f | f f<vdg Q0 s2 f q86m fi }rZq k vX k&g n fs2fgZ/f q^u"k ffsf vBT f
x gZk f xVu k k Tf<qg zT7l f
f k uv:vh i kv
?Bu"'vBT k TKr k q'm i }rZq("6m.6v"x f<g U'n/ k v!qKT
vh i vq^T'v g ' g zChT k v f<g Rh s Ul k n6l7~?Bu"'m k TKr6z=x%6m k YT fg
xVh s o h/v f vBT+T7l!YTAx'Nv f g Ku"q^T f<gk v|Y'm.u f uvBT k mTl f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x fXk v gZk x%'T f q`xVh6v gZk T k h/vh
"6m.6v"x f 0 f o f v gZk v"nah6v`lh i Tl f k.g n f@k qjq f Tju o zLT7l f u"v:vh i vxVh s o h6v f vBT q|Y'm.u f@s }r~ fUgZf T f A
s2kYv Tfl ggkY T f xVxT7'm.nm @r Rh/R7 h s um.T"l 0 f q f T^T k vnh CTl f x'm k "'T fg qKT'v g 6 g z/h/ gZf k | f<g Rh s T7l"'T q^T6v g 6 g Tlh6un/l@
s f%xVs h/u o k m hEq s o m n x x%u Tq8' q^l"h v m.h zh6v Rh/ v u!xT6v"x 6v h6v Rh6x o /x T6v"x
f k.s f k.g f k k f i f i f k g
f g f
k f
unknown
inductance
Lx
Ls
standard
inductance
null
unknown
capacitance
standard
capacitance
null
o m 6q7r
T7 x'Rm # n qOq^u"xl/q=Tl q 6 q^hv" x%'u!q Tl r l TEq^r T7r 7h6A
k.s 6n k.f s q k.s2f k m&' k TKsrZs2yRf h s k m f *T8T7h2k.g k f n/lBT0 l f T i f hf k.g f n f x k xVs2u k fTg q8q^lf h i vUf hYf | f f%' f k "6k m.6v"s2x f<s2g f r@ g Rs2Ku"k qKT k v"n
T7l f x%'m k 'T f<g f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT L h/ 0 l f r-' f d k Tjq k1s o m k , fg Rh s Tl f%k
f 'mF$m k f x%h6uv:
T f o '7Tqz!6q o 6xT k x'mLq^r s2s2f T7 k x%'m) k.g n f x k xVu k Tqh'*T f val"}| f @x%6m k YT fg z!|}6 k "m f f q k qKTh6 k v-q f k1f q
h6 o 66m1m f m i8k T7lAT7l f f 6xVT k | f xVh s o h6v f vBT3Th!'m&'v"x f h/uZTqKT}r2 f q k q^T6v"x fk vAT7l f uvKBv"h i vAxVh s o h/v f vBT0
F"bHmIK#LI%fNM5I%P
B
3uZTz k vT7l f lr o h6T7l f T k x%6m i h/7m g h' o f ^ f xTjx%h s o h/v f vBTq%zOT7l f q f q k.s o m f+ k&g n f x k xVu k Tq g h@Ku"q^T,"v f Th
k m1m.u"q^T7YT f Tl f
6q k xNx%h6v"x f o T<0
v fV s o m f h'OQm k T^Tm ff% TQxVh s o m f%k TKr@ g"gZfg T7h2xVh s o f v"qYT f Rh/ f 'mF i h6m g2f f xTq3x'v !f Rh6u"v g
kh6v+uT8T7l 6f vq7uh~v:x%'vm.mh fgvUq : ; q % x% %o 6 xz i Th6l Ak $x lq u!qKq Tf h6qt x%ho ''m.v!m f Ym!T x%h6 v5o 0 6x k Tm1mOh6Ax%$ o f q6k x qKTT7h6h/qtqKTl"'}v | g 'q7g+h k1s o fg h66u"v"v/x T8f h6T7h vB'T m&'v"v"x 6f m
f q k q^T6v"x f z f@i k TQm k f T f k.f 6mh6 f ?/k u k |Y'm f f vBkT :k vTl sQf Rh6k s k h6 gZk1f m f xT k x2l k f 'T k vnXm.h/f qq f qs2 f i l s k xlT f v g kT7haf q o h k m
T7l f%k
h'T7l f i8k q f o f 7 f xVT7m.r- f /xT k | f v"'T7u f q0 l k q k vBT f v"6mL f q k qKT'v"x fQs }r f h' k vBT f f qKTT7h s2f /q^u" f z
'v g q^hTl f k.f v k&g n f 'T^T fs o TqT7h g hq^h r o 7hY| k&gZk vnX 'm&'v!x k vn k1s o fg 6v"x f T7l"'T k q7v T o u f
f%k T7l f
The Wien bridge
null
vn@Tl"YTNT7l 6 T hUqKT'v 6 xVh o h6v vBTqT7h Ku"qKT A q qKTh6N'v x% o 6x Th6 Tl q
k.g n f%fk i8k m.m"T f f m k fT7T7m ff s h6i f T k1s2f g T7h g 'm&'v"s x f T7l!f 'v+Tl f h6!T7f l f g q itff| gHf q f%f vAf q^khj:'<0L g l f xVh sjk v k f<g+f f xVk T
h' 'v g k qTh'm1T f jTl fUs 6n6v k T7u gZf 6v g o l"/q f 'vn/m f uvBT k m3T7l fA k&g n f 6xl k1f | f qQ-x%h6v gZk T k h6v_h'
v6m.h 6v"q%x z/f T70 l S v!o x6f 6Tm1l"m Ym T 6o m.6v"6x fNv"x k q3/h'x=l Tk.l f | f<T g z/h T7l f T q f T^T k v"v n/q3h'OY T7 l 'v g YT x 'm.xm1'r/vz6!v f Tf l g u"R7v:h s vh T7l vfk 8x% x%o 66m k.x T'Yv"T fx g
'v g f q k q^Tf 6v"x f
gZf f T f k1s s2k v ffg gUs fYTl f%s Yf T k xi 'm.m1r@gZf R7f h s sk T7l f<f
g+ s 'm&'v"x f%fNs f ?Bu"k YT k h/v w=g { f { i 0 k f
T q26qq7u
vTl h o YT h/vh'Tl v n T7l"'TTl qKT'v 6 x% o 6x Th6jl!6qv n/m n m
vk /T f v"'k mL f q k q^Ts26fv"gx f k zh/N'f TNm f /f qKTNT7k l!YT f q k qKTf 'v"x fjk1f k q'm. k&fg g f r]vh i v-f q7hTl"Yg T k gTx'v f k :6xVT7h6 fgaf k vBT7khAk.T7 l ff
m 6m.6v"m x fxTf 7?Bh/u"m1rB'T T k x%h6qv=z 0 l k. f v T7 l k&g vBn Tf q
7v"' 6f mu" q q f Rq^uTmE'v!Rh6x gqf T f m&s2YT k v | k vm.rUnUlT7l n/f l=|Y0+'m. u l f qr-h'm6 6m1hB'q7m&q7q7r7hAu"xq o /x6k qNT7h6R gZ?Bfu q k v"n6xVv!r q
k ff f k i f f fk f f k fk f k f k
f f
fg f f
s2x% f o T 6f x q%Tz h6qf x'' u"q f Tl f, 'm&'v"x f'v h6yT7u!l q^fu"6 m1m. rUk&g h'n fk ?Bqu"R6 fm5?B|Yu 'f m.uv"xV3r 'gZv f o f Tv l gZf TvBh To 0 T lh@f vq u"q^q T7f<h/g-q8k va6 Tl k qN :6q7l |Yk h/'v= z{ T7l m f
fjs gZf k f
'v g 6k f g Ku"qKf
T fs gU gZr f s2Zf f6g`v"q h'Lg T7l f q s2f vfh 0 f g f i f k
v k vBT f f qKT k vn`|Y6 k YT k h/vh/vT7l k q+Tl f%s2fk q@Rh6uv gk vT7l f v f% T k&g n f x k x%u k T<z8u"q fg T7h o f x k q f m1r
/
s2f q^u fk v g u"xT'v"x f q0
/
EDUUN F"bHG[q8IKJJLI%yNMOI%P
The Maxwell-Wien bridge
null
l k q k vn f v k h6u"q k&g n f x k x%u k T k q vh i vU6qT7l fQ \ ] A: ; % % q7h s2f T k1s2f qqvh i v o m. k v"m1r@/q
T7l f2 \ V z{'v gUk q u"q fg T7h s2f /q^u" f uv:vh i v k v g u"xVT'v!x f q k vUT f s q8h6Lx%6m k. YT fg f q k qKT'v"x f
'v g x% o 6x k T'v"x f 0 'm k. 'T k h6v7wn6 gf
k v g u"xTh6q6 fQs h/ fgZk1 x%um1TNTh s 6vBu:6xTu f T7l!'vx o /x k T7h/qh'
q k1s2k m.6 o f x k q k h6v5z6'v g q7hTl f u"q f h'CNq k.s o m f /q^r s2s2f T7 k x%'mR k v g u"xT'v"x f3 k&g n f k qvh6T6m i }rZq o /xT k x'm$0
f x'u"q f Tl f o l"/q f q7l k *Tq
h' k v g u"xTh6q'v g x% o 6x k Th6q6 ffV 6xVT7m.rah o"o hBq k T f2f /xl-h6T7l f z5Ux% o 6x k T k | f
k.6s q3o Tl fg rU'v"'x f x%l 'v 0 6m.6v"x f h/uZT'v k v g u"xVT k | f
k.s o fg 'v"x fk LT7l f r' f m.hZx%'T fgAk vXh oo h/q k T f m f n/q h6E k&g n f z
f f ff
v"h'T7l f g |}6vBT'n f h6Ou"q k v"n22a Zitf m1m k.g n f T7h s2f /q^u fNk v g u"xT'v"x f 'T7l f tTl"'v2q^r s2s2f T k x%6m
k vv g u"u"xVxVTT7h6'v!qx 0f2a 'k.n/g v n fjT k xqNT7, l f2m f qNm k.x%s26vk v"'T k h6vh'x% us2m]TNf 6T7hUq7uq^ l fs2m f vBz{T 'f v 7h6 | g vau f T7q h s 'm.umOT7 u"6m h/kuv vBg Tu"h6xT'xVv"h6x u fQo mvf T n i3f%f Tv-T i vh
kxVh g m&q va n xf 'k v vBf T7g h u"x q^!u fgZqKTk]' vBT 'm 7h6q k1f vXg x 7TgX fvXxVf h/v T s h6v"q0 s TlXvh@q xVh/v k v u"fxTi3h68f%f Th
k f gAk g
f 6k xVT k i8k Tl k vUk&g T7l f f - Zk itf m1m g k&f g n f zB T7l k q o k h f m f%sk q k f m k.s2f k v!Yk T f<g 0 gZk k
h/ 6q q^Th o 'T h6v=z{Tl qKT'v ' x o /x T7h6 'v T7l q q^T7h/ v o ''m.m m Tl T N'
s gZf |Y'f k k. f m f z6v f g h'k Tl s u"fq^T !f g g Ku"g q^T fg T7h@k /xl k.f | fN 6m.6g v"x f 0Ef hf itk f | f z/k T7l f
k&g f n f i8x%k6v k f
s gZf Th f
i h6q 0 q^ T7h/k E Tvl f o 'x%'o m.6m x m k Th6 T7lQk q8T7, l Zfxg o v/h6x 7v T7wh/|Y'zY 'k v m f h/ v 'v h6gA"Ts l h/ h'f T7l T7l!L'vXT h6hv f 0L f h q k qKTh6| s z vjgTf l |}6m.'k T^ T myf+xVh/'vZT,"m n/f u6q^'T8T T7h6l v f
fk k
f i8k f k g f f f i
i3f f k f f
k
k TLv T ' m&f 'q v"s x h/v n f T7 'k 6n/m v ~'Tv u g f 76v h6O o g l"K6u"q q^T s20 f v/TLT7h6xl k1f | f 'm&'v"x f zY6qOT7l f3gZk f f vBTL|Y6 k m f f q k qKTh6q k vBT f 6xVT
k v"m k Tl s o m& vk gZf v g n zf T7l 'm&'v!x h'LT7l a m.m v n q v o v v/Th'q^h/ux
R f ?Bu f v!k xVr6f z/'v f gk v2q7k h s2f k1x%f /q f qLk&T7g l k qf k&g fn f x%6v f f8s gZf f Th Z'i3m&'f v"x f k k.vf T7l f ok&g f f
q f k v"x kf h6gZ f s2f k1gZf<gf R f ?/u f v"x k1f fq
Rh s Tl f U |6h/m]T'n f q7h6ux f zBT7l f m k1s2k T k vn2:6xVT7h6 f%k vnT7l f
k v g u!xT7h/ q qKT k m k TKr@hY| f 8 i8k.gZf R f ?Bu f v"xVr
'vn f 0
l ' h/ |Y' YT h6v!q r/h6v T7l q q n/v"qz uZTU-Ru"m1m qxVu"qq h/v q2vh'T ''vBT l 0
f v f 'f mF f o u" o fUh/sq f8k1s f o fg 6k v"x k fN k.g nf f x k g xVu k Tfq3'fa fgZf s k 'vuZ:/xTu f<g+i l k xglk x%6v k f q i8k k Txl fg@i k vBT7h s h6f<g f T7l"f 6f v
h6v f x%h6vZ,!n6uYT k h/v@Rh6 s k.s u s > f%k.k m k TKr@h6Lu"q f 0
_AV
F"]Bb_IKJP=MOGJQ\LI%
J <JPZAMmqP
U' T hN h6 k. g n f o x k x%6u v"k x Tq q i h6Y0TXl h6yvWT7T7l"l 6f v+q7 sq qKf2T' v"/x q k x q o k v"m.m"x k o q7m fum1/T q v@ b 6 k.m.g 6nv"f x x k x%xVu h/k Tv q T Tl"h6v@YTj6q v 'm&'xv"YxT fg
k k1s fg f f
f k f i8k f k f<g gZk k k gk f<g
r@T7l f vum.m gZf T f xVT7h/ gZf | k x f 0
q7x%uh m.o m gZq f T f xVET7 h/qqRz6h/l U o l h/ v k&g qn f q s o }m r , f h6q Lf v"uq v"k T k | f+o m f ,m f xT7hz's2h/Lf 6xvl"rN6v h6k T7xl 'm s2f T | f x s x%hY |o f s2m f vBh6T"qz= h/n qx qKk T m.m1hA
f f g f s k fg
s k f<g
f gZf k f f f k f
k6vx%nQx%u| f 67xVr2r q s q6Ym1#T m U h"|60 h/m]T'n f m f | f m&q0 k f vum1m gZf T f xT7h/qz k Tqth/vm.r f ?Bu k fg o h k v/T h'5x'm k1 'T k h6v
k f
UrA + qK Tk.g 'nv f 6x k xVu k Tqo x''v v"!x f h6h'"Tq l f 6m&q7'r s2TKr so f T7 h6k vUx'TRm l TKr q7o f8i l q f f 'v2Th uo :v h6 vh i h6T^v T7h k.s o 3fh'g L'T7v"l x f8k q 'n m&'0 v"xS f<g z
T7 l f r_x%6v g f gA'vk.s h/v"q^fr g s2s2f f T k x%6k.m9s2z ak u"q k vn o f ''m.m f m f k1s o s2ffg 6v"k&gZx f@f q T7h 'm&' v!x f q s f k.f q k.s fo f g 'k&g v"x f f qzth/
f | f vUx o /x k T6v"x f q 'm&'v"x k vnh6uT k v g u"xT'v"x f q0
U U o k&gl"n6fq x 'k vx%n/u m k TqQh'u"*qKT T f vl"}o | f@h o s h6m1r f T7l!'T'xvl h/v f Th g K'u"m&'q^Tv"s2x f 0 vBTzyq k v"x fA h6T7l k.s o f<g 'v!x fs 6n6v k T7u gf
f fs f f s f<g f
q h v"s2q fjT k.| s o TKf<r g o 'v!q x fj}r k&g n f u"x qk x%u k /TqQq6R f ?/uR f v"?/x%u r f v"x%r ~6q q7f uv" q k T k | fvBT i l k m| f x h'Tq l f Nq6m16m8 fxVh vh'oT<0Nh/v l vBf T2R|} 6f m1?Bu u f q2v"'x%3r
s f
f f
6f x%x%uk Yk T ff m1_r vf h i s v50 f fg f f sf f%s2f gZf k f k
_ d% 5LyXLNd QL La8
[/u"qKT/q gZf | k x f ql"}| fN!ff v s gZf Th sf 6q7u f x f 7T k v o lrq k x%'m=?Bu"6vBT k T k.f q8'v g f o f 'T T7l"'T k vZRh/ s 'T k h6v
kl"vA}| Tl f Rh6 v s h6 T7l"f 'm T f xTh k T7x%l 6m=q qk n6v"6m.q T7T7llXf s hZ0 xVh/u o m f qz"qKT k vUn/6un f q%z o o 7h !f q%z f Tx'0z!q o f x k 6m gZf | k x f q
wfT k qf%f h'*T s f vgZv f f x f qq767g r2Th f f s2 m ff i8Th k gf T f xT6v g T7'v"q s2k T T7l f o lrq k x%'m o h/q k T k h6vh' sf xl"'v k x'm o 6^Tq
| k f m f xT k x%6mtq k n/v"'m&q0a l k q k q f q o f x k 'm.m.rT7u f@k vT7l f , f m g qQh''uT7h s 'T fgs /xl k v f T7hh6m xVh/vBT7h6m6v g
h h'T k x%q0q k.s o m f 'v gAf /q^r i }r2T7h g hQTl k q k q i8k T7lX o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f
potentiometer shaft moved
by physical motion of an object
+
V
voltmeter indicates
position of that object
h | <z o h6T v/T h T qyl"}| Tl h v2uv ?Bu o h m q0Eh6h6v z'T7l r m1rQh6v o lrZq x%6m"xVh/vBT6xVT
Tf i3f%f i3vaf T7l f f i8k o f f 0Ak s2'v f g f T7l f f q f k q^T'f%v!k x f i q^T7 k o z k i l fk xl s f 'fv"s qT7l f rXq^u: f f Tfl ff f f xTqh6 o lk rZq k x%6m i3f 6
hY| f T k1s2f 0`q o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f q itf '<zOTl f%k o h o h67T k h6v"6mh6uT o uZT2| f q7u"qQq^l"'*T o h/q k T k h6v f x%h s2f qm f qq
'v m qq x 7T v50Oyh/u n6lBT8l"}| 'm. r o v"x T7l q xVT l v u!qKT vnTl |6h6m.u xVh6vBT7h/m
h6vg 6vf h6m g f gZk k h i l f vs2k T i8k q^T k vnXf Tl f f vg h f%zO r/h6f u k.fs2k n/fl/g TQl f k 6Jf 6f qxVYi Txl f k v"nUg} q^h/uvk g qQxVh f s2k vnXs2h6uf Tjh' T7l f
q o f f q0E lh/q f vh k q f q8' f T7l f f q7um]Th6 o hh6 i8k o f xVh/v/T6xVT k vUT7l f |/h6m.u s2f xVh6vBT7h/m o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f <0
m&q7h"z{T7l q o lrZq x'mxVh/v/T6xVT T v o
'v qKT o xV YT qT7l o h/qq m TKrah63'x vn q o '0 vn
Tf i3f%f vTl f k T i h-/k qT7l fAi8k o f k q f s i3hYf%|f fg i80 k f k Tl s g h/q^T k o h6T f f v/T k hf s2f T ff Qx k xVk.u k k Tqk zLT7l f xVuk f vBT k qQq^h-k m1h i
-
EDUUNEF"bHGaEt8IKJJLIKyNMOI%P
T7l!YT i8k o f j'x k vn k q
v f n/m k n k. m f z uZT k T k q o h/qq k.k m k TKraTh !f x%h6v"q k&gZf fg 0w3Tl f o h'T f vBT k h s2f T f k qTh
h o 'T v'v v| h6v vBT l xVh u"q^T m |Y o h/th/ g u!qKT k q o f q f v/T<zBT7l k q o h6T f v/T k 6mRh6 'x k vn
T7f 'v!q^m&f YT f q f<kg+vBTk h@ o fh'T f vBk T k 'm{sRh/f 'vi fVf o f m.h/q k sjh6v= # k. f
q vnQ v"q^T h' z ' m T7hxVh o m T m.r+}|6h q7m vnQx%h6vBT/xT T v o 6^Tq u"q
YY k ($7 ; k RVY f g k v"q^T f g ith'f C f o h6T f fvBT k h sf s T f 0 f f f | k x f q k&s g gZk&f gZkRh6Tl k q o u o h/f q f i36f%f f x'm.m f<g k it f q%f z
i l k xlq^T'v g qRh/t k v f ' ' k m fk f f vBT k 'm{
'v"q^Rh6 s2f q%0L l fgZf q k n6v@h6='v m1hhqym k f T7l k q
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
AC "excitation"
AC output
voltage
voltage
f
k
q7h6ux f h6C |/h6m1T6n f z/'v g T i hjq f xVh/v g 67r i8yk v k gZk vnBqtx%h6vk v f xf T fg2k1k s v@q f k.fi8qpk gZu"k x k vn:it/f q^l f<k g@h/v= 0OwT k q f%} ' f
q f xVx%h/6v u"q 6f 7Tr l f xVv h/ fNvkn/q qR6 f f T7xVh h/vs v hY|xT f!f0T itff vvAn+T7'l f
6i8vk n v gZk vT7nBh2q%h0Eo"wTo hBk q q /xl ;h6T7( l f x%6u"q f h6uZh'T85Th6l f
o l!i 6}q r2 T7l f T 'i v!h q
T7l!f YTyTg l f h/uZi8T o k ugZTk h'{T7l k q f gZf | k x ff i8k f<m1gm !f T7f%l k f ;f< g f T i3f%f v2T7fl ff |6h6m1T6n f f h6u T o uZTth'{T7l f T i hq ff x%h6s2v g f 'r
i8 k q7v ugZm]Tjk v'n/T
q0 T7l l h/f uZv-T o TuZl Tf T xVh/ fkv"q
'm&x q f vBT f m1 m f<g 6v gahX h'|6Th6l m1Tqi80+k v wTgZk vqnBx%qN66m1m f h6 uT o 'uZ T7T k vnUx%'T7u!l q f qT l s2f xVh/|6 h6m1Tq6n R f z{T7l h f v fh'T
f
f
f s2k i8k !f+f
k fg ; !f f f f f%f<g s
s h'T k h/l v k q q^T7|6 h6k m1n6TlB6pTn wm k h6v uZf T 0 o uZT rj6v v xYT qLT7l o h/q T h6v2h'!T7l hY|Y m xVh/ 0 7h|6h/m]Tq 'v!q
T7l!YT8T7l f f xVh6 fk q8x f fvBT f f<g 0y l f Ru7T7l f i k }grQk Tl f f xVh/ ff k q Rk h sk x f vBT f f8o s hBq k T k h6 v=f zTl f f n6 f 'f T f o f x f s2vBfT'n f
h' v o uZT x TYT h6v\/t|6h/m]T'n m1m q vYT8Tl h6uT o uZT<0y l o l"/q h6OTl h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f f m&YT k | f
T7hkTl f
fV x k TfV' T k k h6v|6k h/m]T'n fk v gZk x%fN'Ti8f k q i l f k xl f%f gZk f xT k h6f vURh s x f vBT f f T7l f x%h6f fk q8h f {q f T<0
l o 'r` |Y'vBT'n h'6v hY| o h'T vBT h T QRh6 o h/q T h/vHq v"q v"n qjTl q v"x
h' o lrZfq k x%6mLk.s x%h6vBT/xT g !f T itff f vT7l f2s hY| k vn'v g f q^TYT k h/v"'f r k o s2'7f Tqf 0j l f x%h6 k fk g h f qf v"h'kTxVh/kv/T6xVTf Tl f2fi8k ff
i8 k o v h6gZT k vv/n/T qzh uZT8T q^m k.z"gvf h6q k vUq 'T7v l g h6uZTT l i8k o Tl hBk q7vUq jv"m TKh6r@v"x%h'h6v xVg u!'xTT k vvnjn+T7'u v'f 0yx' 0 lu"qz6Tl f g h f q3vh'TP i3f 'm k f
f x k Tk YT s2k h6f v+f h6CT7l f k f f k qTKr f o k x'm.m1r]k.Ik
k |6h/m]Tqtf k h6tm f q7qzZYTR f ?Bu f v"x k.f q6vn k vn
Rh s o h itf m k v f
T7hTl f l k n6l6u gZk h ] 'v"n f 0 S v f o h'T f vBT k 'm gZk q g |Y'vBT'n f h63Tl f k q k Tqj f q o h6v!q f T k1s2f z
i' l k xl q k q s h/z!q^T7T7l m.r gZR f o ?Bf u v gZv!f xVv/r Th6vAu"q^T7T l f R l f ?Bn/u l f v"xVT7r@hAh66Om1Tm.h l f l"Y|6T h6| m1T6n |/f h6q^m1h/T6un x f~q 0Ewv"Eq | v"f n27r@x ?Bu xVuk x@Tq f vq o h6h/uv"n/ql-f xVT rZk1s2x%m f qq
h'fj gZ f Tk h fg gZf T f f s2k v f f |6f h/m]T'n s f m f | f mtf 6qk T7l f f xVh/ f+k q sihYi | fg 0f 5f h k m.m1u"q^T7Yf T f f Tl fk o h'T k f vBT k k 'm o f h m f%s l f f f z
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k.s hY6| n k v f vaT7l 'k vq f% h/'uZn6Tn fluYv T fg qx q8f v"h''E T k h 6q v o q xVh/o v h i30 f fl g h/rjuZT
o u
T h'E T7|6l h/m]q T' n f q7h6 ux h6f uz mi8kv T7lT T7l | f vxVh6m1hf h!fm k v" n
s2q v f<gAk }| g x%6u"q Tl g f<xVgh/ h6k1us2m f f hYf| Tg l7h/un6f l"h6uZT Tq8'vn k h6 h6T h6iv Rg h6 T7f l f q^h/uk x f
|6h/m]kT'f
n f i xVh6u"fNm !g f x%h s o f m f T f f aq k fvn/i m f x%rZgxVm f f
#s wT i f<h6g um gf 'm s h/q^k T k1s o h/qf q k. m f s Th k gZf T f ! f s2k v f fk v"f q^T6vBT'v f h6u!fq
xVh/ f o h/q k T k h/v k k T s hY| f qt:6q^T f Tl"'vUTl f
k v!qKT'vBT6v f h/u"q q^h/ux f |6h6m1T6n fg h f q0
|Y6 k YT k h/v
h6vT7l f k q5T7l f a z}h/ h6T67r ' k m fAk f f vBT k 'm
'v"q^Rh6 s2f <0= l k q gZf | k x f
iq^T7h60n6qtlBh6T3vm 'v m s 0h/cq^ T T7l f qq x%s2'v f o k v"xVxh6k v!o qKm Tf 7z u"f%xV T x f o RT3h/T8l"m YT8TT l f xVh/ h'f T h6f v|6h/h6m1L| f 6qt h6vRuq7m.l"Fm w'x *T xVk mv"q^ T f h'g T h'h/ v=s 0 hY| k vn k v
k kf
f
f<g k.s2k fgUs k
k f s k
h6vBT k vu k vn i8k T7lUTl k q o k v"x k o m f z i3f l!}| fi l!YT k mq vh i vU6q @ ; )7 h/ ; z i l k xl k q gZf | k x f
xVh/v"q^T7u"xT fg 2m1h6T m k f i h/uv g wh'T7h/ o h6m.r o l"/q f s h6T7h/8h68n f v f YTh6<0L l f 7h6T7h6 k q R f%f T7h+ f |/h6m.| f
QRum.m=6 3}z u"q^T8m k f s h'T7h/0 S vAT7l f h'Th6 k q8q k vn/m fi8k v gZk vn+xVh6v"v f xVT fg T7h22q^h/ux f h'L |6h/m]T'n f z
sT7l"u! xlp o m kl" 6f q T7l Qf z"o6m] Tk1ls h6'un/r lUi8q7rk v v"gxklvnHh/q h'j6T7lv h6 Tl"0 ' vUl Tf l qKTYT7o h/l" 6i8q k q v gZl!k }v| n/qU' f v u"q7u u"6m1T m1m.r k vTl f Rh6 s h6j
ff f
i8k s f
ff f f!ff k
Synchro (a.k.a "Selsyn")
AC voltage
source
rotor
winding
stator
connections
three-phase
stator winding
rotor
connections
f h' Th6 v q n fV x k TT7'l T k h6v 'x% uf ; Yv/( Tto l!'6T7ql f ~q^l T7l"k *6T f<vg r
'v g T7l f q^l"'*Tq o uv-x%h6vBT k vuh6u"q7m.r6zTl f vaT7l f |/h6m1T6n f q i3i fh/u8f m g f f f Tk.7%u ff g2T7i8lk f%f o l"6q f 083f uZTTl k q f k qvh6Tlh i
2q^rv"xl"7h k q gf q k n/v fg T7h f h o f YT f<g 0YTl f <zBT7l k q k q8J M ( ; ; ; gZf | k x fs u"xlm k f 'va z
fV xv f o vTnTl"|6Yh/T m]T'k Tn qjq h/uZT o m1m uZTq ok n/7v"h 'o m h/k^q T h/s v"u"'xm l v s h/' fn6v gTf u ,"v k T Tf h
0 T7 l k T7'`l vn/Tul m.f 6 h'o ThBh6q T f h6v v+f h6n {k.%T7f<l g h'rTh6 <z o z=l"T/l q f q^TT'l T7h/
i8
k h6gZJk I3q^l *Tf i8zk m !f @ n6um&' k k s h6Na k gZf 0!yh6uax%f h6um T7l v:h6k k TN/q2Tf 6v"q^Rh6 f8Tflak h6v f
o k1s 67r i8k v gZk k vnf<g 6v gk fTl f%f f q f xVh6v g 'r i8k v gZk vnBq%z f 6xlq f x%h6v g 6g 7r i8k k v gZk vnQk h/ k.f vBT fg 'T jsuv f k ?Bu i8f k 'vn/m f f 0
qTl h'Th6 qq7m1h m.rUT7uv z /xl v v"n vaTu7v m.mEm v u o xVT7m.r TlaTl h'Th6<z o 7h g u!x k vn
Rum.m=|6h/f m]T'n f z i k l k m f iTl f h'Tl f f<g i8k vf gZk vn/i8q k i8kgZm.mk o h k g u"x f q7h i8s2k f Tl k k v"f n+m f q7q3gZTk l"f 'vARui8m.m5k |6h/m]T'n f f 0
rv"xlh/q' h6*T v-u"q v o q%0 T7lWT7l Nh'Th6qx%h6vv xT v o ''m.m mL6v v n
rT7l
q s2f |/h6m1T'n f f q7h6u"f x f zBfT7lgfkk q^l"'k *Tq i8k m1km s 'Txf%l k o hBq k T k h6vUTh2f l k fn6gal kgZf n6 f%f h'f 6xxVuga6f x%r f k.%f<ga f
h6m1T6n f q k v g u!x fgUk vUT7l f q^T'T7h6 i8k v gZk vn/q8R7h s T7l
< /q k v f 6mT7l" ff o l"6q f n f v f YTh6<05wCTl f h'Th6
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Synchro "transmitter"
Synchro "receiver"
u"x~
l YT7'v!q T^T 5Y x | o ql"}| v-u"q h6v-q7l o qTh m&}rAu o hBq T h6v=z{h/T7hU m&}r
v"}| k n/YT k h/v"'m!n6rs2h k o hBf q k T k h6f vAfkhY| f f y: k k m1r2m.h6vn fgZk q^f%Tf 6v"x f q%f0g l f h6v"k m1r gZk f f f v"x fgf gT i3f f%f vT7kl f k 'T7'v"q s2k T7Tf f
'v g T7l f 6 f x fk | f k q i l k xl-h/v f n f TqTu7v fg ra6vah6uTq k.gZf Rh6x f 0 l f ' f x fk | f @x%6v u"q^T
6q f /q k m1r
o fh/q u"T q fh/g v=0 /q8T7l f YT6v"q sk T^T f rRh/x k vn k TqNq7l"Y*TT7h+Tu7va6v g m f T7T k vn+T7l f q7rBv!xl7h+h/vT7l f m f *T s YTxl
kk
wCT7l x | qEh'Th6 qm *Ttuv o h z T m.m{6xT36q o hBq T h6:v 7h6 T xT7h/z/n v YT vnQ'v@
|6h/m]T'n f f YTf T7l ff k 7f h6T7 h/ k T7l kf q7l"f Y*T k q6i3vBrBf Tlfgk v"nk h'i8Tl k f T7l!'v~ h/kk BM f q^l k *T gZff g f Rh s Tl f f f q^l"'*k T o h/q k T k h/v
h'Tl f T6v"q sk T^T f <0 l f f x f%k | f h'T7h/ i8k m1mLvh@m.h6v"n f n f v f YT f 'vrUT7h6?Bu f 6v g xVh/v"q f ?Bu f vBT7m.r i8k m.mOv"h
m.h6vn f 8'uZTh s YT k x'm.m1r s 'Txl o hBq k T k h6v i8k T7lUT7l f T7'v"q s2k T7T f q
Synchro "transmitter"
Synchro "receiver"
AC voltmeter
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three-phase AC voltage
source (can be Y or Delta)
Synchro
voltage signal
output
qyT7l q^rv"xl"7h! qEh'Th6 qTu7v z/T7l 7h6T7h/xVh m m.m o h6n/ q7q | m.r'm n6v T7l 6xl+qKTYTh6x%h m9z/T7l
f q o f xT k | ffs 'n/v f T k xQ, f m g q k f%k vnf<g of l"6q f ~q7l k *k T fi8g k R7h s h6v f f 6k vf h'Tl f <k 0j~v i8!k f T itf ff vT7lhBq f o h/k q k T k h/v"fkq%z
T7l f q f o l"/q f wq7l k *T fg , f m g q i8k m.m s2k] Th o h g u"x f @7h6T7h68|/h6m1T6n f q7h s2f%i l f f
f T i3f%f v['z)}<zh6M3
q7l k *T<0j l f o 6xVT k x%'mL f q7um]T k qN gZf | k x f x% o m f h' o hY| k.gk vnU'v k vZ,!v k T f m.rX|Y' k m f o l"6q f |/h6m1T6n f
i8k T7lUT7l f T i8k q^Th'L2vh W YT7T6xl fg T7h2T7l f 7h6T7h68q7l"Y*T0
hj:'3T7l T7'v!q u!x q qxVu"qq l!}| 6m1m vAh'=Tl v u"xT | |Y6 TKr/0Lh | <z T q o h/qq m Th
s ' f T7'v!q g fu!x f q i g l k xflAh o gf k YT f h6fvg |Y6 k f m f x f%of /x k T'v!x ff k /q g i3f m.k m$zf k.f f%k vnu"q fitg f ThQf q f k v"q k f Tl f xk.l" 'f vn f
k vx o /x k T6v"x f 'v g n f v f 'T f Q|Y6 k m f h6uZT o uZT|/h6m1T'n f 0
B
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O6v"q g u"x f q i8k T7lAn6 f YT f yq f v"q k T k | k TKr+'v g2k.s2s uv k TKrT7hxl"'v"n f q k v@h6T7l f |Y' k m f qyx'v f h T k v f<g
Or 6i v"qK}Rr+h/ h' gZk V 0Lf f v/ T k 66m gZf Qq k n6 v=z s u" xlo m k m f q Th'l f x% h6v" x f vBo T T 6m=f x%l k o v 6g x T7T l | f 6T7 ' v! q u! x k v f q' 8y6 k m fj ; ( '
s2f f f f f%ifV s f gZk f f k
kkf g f
Differential capacitive transducers
qr/h6u_x'vHq z'm.m3h'Tl vBT 6m | x qq^l"h v vT7l hY| m1m.u"q^T7YT h6vHl"}| (*)Z
xVh/vv f xT k h6v!q+'T7l ff%2f T7l"6vT i h!fXagZh6kv fXf i8f k f k Rh6g f f 6k xflh'T7li f-'k f v g f o m&YT f q@f'k v g h6v f k Rh/+T7l ff xVh s2s i8h/k v f
o m&YT f 0+qTl f x% o 6x k T'v"x fQf T i3f%f vh6v f h'tT7l f@6f v g" o m.'T f q
6v g T7l f@ xVh s2s h6v o m&YT f xl"'vn f qzCT7l f
x% o 6x k T'v"x ftf T i3f%f vjTl f h'Tl f 'f v g o m&YT f 6v g Tl f8 x%h s2s h6v o m.'T f k qq^u"xlQT7hxl"6vn f3k vQT7l f h oo h/q k T f
gZk f xT k h/v=0 l k q k v g h'OT7'v"q g u"x f 8m f v g q k Tq f m]| f 7r i3f m.m{T7h k.s o m f%s2f vBT'T k h6v k vX k.g n f x k x%u k T
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l f rq+*}r-,7l.*/,jv f x f qq k ,Kr k q0,l f@s h/,l f1 h6 k v| f v2, k h/v435,jm f */q6, k v7,7l f x8*6q f h'5,7l k q hh6{z4,l.*9,'* g *'n f
k q:rB, 1 A u f q633,r q;* *'v h'k Cv g, u"*6q<x, l 1k *'vm nDf 3Um f Xx=, r1 h6q<v ,7k u xq k vEv!,q6q, 1 u"x>,7h 1 z* im.r-*6q Ru"h q<1 , x f*9g , ,7hu"q ,f l7*+,7lq7u @? q<,+*'*'vv r g ,K* r 1og h6, n fV * , o l hh6x8*'m g u 1kh vn q
s'* v h 1 qxVu f 1 o mG'* f v.*/, h6k v"q v!, l q gZhh/f z!l.i3*}| f1v"f@n@g q o k vE, 1 u"x1 l!, fgWi8k*9,l"h fAs q6, u"n6n6m vnH,71 hx%h k o f8l1F1 v 1
,7o l fNh g s m */, fq81 3k 1 '* fm fVi8 k , vl n k vI3v"q7k umJh ,:1 ,q hfk r v f , u k itr f8 17f */,7q5l f,7l s *'k vr k v!xVf h o 1+1f x s x=,C3 *'v"q i3k.s2f1 f q k v,l fs2 f *6x21 h'I,7l k fN hh/H,7s h2q f1mf f x=f , f<gg
1 R h6f%svE,S6* x=, v"gnLgZk , l k o u m q7l k o hY1 | i 7, h fL6* K@v M8NONQP x 1q k f vRu@, m ,Kr23y| vT,7lh/un6l!,l o * , x%umG* , ,
k f k f1 1 fg !f fVZf1 k fNk k k f
f 1 k 1 fV
i 6**6qNqX,7u"l q k vAnl.q<,X* g-,l f%r{f v k v | o 1 l k vE,U* '* v 3jgXk v r o h o uu"mV* q61,u",7h q f Rh| 1 * x%,7h6l u o m f *'h'[3,Nr Rhf * 1 ,7ql zW,7l v f r, x%mV* k1s2, fh/gv-s h6\r,7xVl h s o mG* hk h6vE ,
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