OSI MODEL

The model Functions of the layers

Figure 3-1

OSI Model

The OSI Model in Practice

The transmitting process generates data to be used by the receiving process. In each OSI layer along the way down the model, data is added and subsequently used by the corresponding layer at the receiving end. This data is normally in the form of a header at the beginning of a data packet that arrives from the layer above. In the link layer, data is often added at the end of the packet as well, in the form of a trailer. Each OSI layer has its own data format protocol.

Figure 3-2

OSI Layers

Figure 3-3

An Exchange Using the OSI Model

Figure 3-4

Physical Layer

Figure 3-5

Data Link Layer

Figure 3-6

Data Link Layer Example

Figure 3-7

Network Layer

Figure 3-9

Transport Layer

The layers at Work

NODE A Sending Device Layer 7 Application Layer Layer 6 Presentation Layer Layer 5 Session Layer Layer 4 Transport Layer Layer 3 Network Layer Layer 2 Data Link Layer Layer 1 Physical Layer Supports the communication between applications over the network Presents data to the receiver in a form it recognises Establishes a connection and terminates it when no longer required Acknowledges the flow of data including re-transmission where required Adds the appropriate network addresses to packets NODE B Receiving Device Layer 7 Application Layer Layer 6 Presentation Layer Layer 5 Session Layer Layer 4 Transport Layer Layer 3 Network Layer Layer 2 Data Link Layer Layer 1 Physical Layer

Adds the MAC addresses to packets

Transmits the data on the medium

Encapsulation
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
P resentation Header

DATA PH PH PH PH PH DATA DATA DATA DATA DATA DLT

Data Link Trailer

Session Header

SH SH SH SH

Transport Header

TH TH TH

Network Header

NH

Data Link Header

DLH NH

Bits To Destination Device

Network Architecture

Framing
Divide stream of bits received from network layer into manageable data bit called frames

Physical addressing
If frames are to be distributed to different system on the network it add a header to frame to define physical address of sender and receiver of the frame

Access control
When two or more device are connected to the same link dl protocol are necessary to determine which device has control over link at any given time

Logical addressing
Physical addressing implemented by data link layer handle addressing problem locally.if a packet passes the network boundary we need another addressing system to help distinguish the source and desti system. The network layer add a header to packet coming from upper layer

include logical address of sender and reciever

Routing
When independent networks are connected together to create an internetwork or a large network the connecting devices(router or gateway) route the packets to their final destination

Segmentation
A message is divided into transmittable segments ,each segment containing a sequence number.These numbers enable the transport to reassemble the message correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in the transmission

Connection control
Connectionless or connection oriented

Dialog control
Allow two system to enter into a dialog. It allow two process to take place either in half or full duplex

Synchronization
Allow a process to add checkpoint into a Stream of data

Encryption
Sender transform the original information into other form COMPRESSION Reduce number of bits to be transmitted

The Physical Layer

This layer is concerned with two things: bits and signals. Functions: controls the actual transmission of ones and zeros (the electrical signals that make up a 1 or 0 across the network). ensures that when the sender transmits a signal that is a 1, the receiver receives that signal as a 1. decides exactly how many volts equal a binary 1 or a binary 0. establishes how long a signal needs to be in duration to be considered a valid 1 or 0. decides whether or not communications can proceed in both directions simultaneously, or only one direction at a time. decides how many wire pairs are needed for a given type of network, the required quality of the wire, etc.

The Physical Layer Cont.

This layer receives frames of data from Layer 2, the Data Link Layer, and sends them out onto the transmission media as a serial stream of ones and zeros. It receives ones and zeros from the transmission media, and sends them up to Layer 2 so they can be assembled into frames. It deals with the processes and mechanisms that place signals on to, and receive signals from the transmission media. It does not include the physical transmission media, itself. Informally, the physical transmission media tends to be called Layer zero.

The Data Link Layer

The main task of the data link layer is to supply the network layer a free of transmission errors link. It accomplishes that by having the sender break the input data up into data frames, transmit the frames sequentially, and process the acknowledgment frames sent back by the receiver. Since the physical layer accepts and transmits a stream of bits without any regard to meaning of structure, it is up to the data link layer to create and recognize frame boundaries.

The Data Link Layer Cont.

When receiving a frame, it examines the frame content to ensure the contents of the frame arrived with the correct content. This is accomplished attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame. A noise burst on the line can destroy a frame, in this case, the data link layer software on the source machine must retransmit the frame. Multiple transmissions of the same frame introduce the possibility of duplicate frames. It is up to this layer to solve the problems caused by damaged, lost, and duplicate frames.

The Data Link Layer Cont.

Another issue that arises in the data link layer (and most of the higher layers as well) is how to keep a fast transmitter from drowning a slow receiver in data. Some traffic regulation mechanism must be employed in order to let the transmitter know how much buffer space the receiver has at the moment. Frequently, flow regulation and error handling are integrated.

The Network Layer

The network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is determining how packets are routed from source to destination. Routes could be based on static tables that are "wired into" the network and rarely changed. They could also be determined at the start of each conversation, for the data transfer of this conversation. They could be highly dynamic, being determined anew for each packet, to reflect the current network load.

The Network Layer Cont.

When a packet has to travel from one network to another to get to its destination, many problems can arise: The addressing used by the second network may be different from the first one. The second one may not accept the packet at all because it is too large. The protocols may differ. It is up to the network layer to overcome all these problems to allow heterogeneous networks to be interconnected. In broadcast networks, the routing problem is simple, so the network layer is often thin or even nonexistent.

The Transport Layer

The basic function of the transport layer, is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if needed, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other end. On the other hand, it gets data from the network layer, union the pieces if they were split and pass them to the session layer.

The Transport Layer Cont.

The transport layer creates a distinct network connection for each transport connection required by the session layer. If the transport connection requires a high throughput, the transport layer might create multiple network connections, dividing the data among the network connections to improve throughput. On the other hand, if creating or maintaining a network connection is expensive, the transport layer might multiplex several transport connections onto the same network connection to reduce the cost. In all cases, the transport layer is required to make the multiplexing transparent to the session layer.

The Transport Layer Cont.

It determines what type of service to provide to the session layer, and ultimately, the users of the network. The most popular type of transport connection is an error-free pointto-point channel that delivers messages in the order in which they were sent. The type of service is determined when the connection is established.

The Transport Layer Cont.

The transport layer is a true source-to-destination or end-to-end layer. A program on the source machine carries on a conversation with a similar program on the destination machine, using the message headers and control messages. Many hosts are multi-programmed, which implies that multiple connections will be entering and leaving each host. There needs to be some way to tell which message belongs to which connection. The transport header is one place this information could be put.

The Transport Layer Cont.

The transport layer must take care of establishing and deleting connections across the network. This requires some kind of naming mechanism, so that process on one machine has a way of describing with whom it wishes to converse. There must also be a mechanism to regulate the flow of information, so that a fast host cannot overrun a slow one. The flow control at the host level is different from the flow control at the subnet level, but similar principles are implemented.

The Session Layer

The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. One of the services of the session layer is to manage dialogue control. Sessions can allow traffic to go in both directions at the same time, or in only one direction at a time. If traffic can only go one way at a time, the session layer can help keep track of whose turn it is.

The Session Layer Cont.

A related session service is token management. For some protocols, it is essential that both sides do not attempt the same operation at the same time. To manage these activities, the session layer provides tokens that can be exchanged. Only the side holding the token may perform the critical operation.

The Session Layer Cont.

Another session service is synchronization. Consider the problems that might occur when trying to do a twohour file transfer between two machines on a network with a 1 hour mean time between crashes. After each transfer was aborted, the whole transfer would have to start over again, and would probably fail again with the next network crash. To eliminate this problem, the session layer provides a way to insert checkpoints into the data stream, so that after a crash, only the data after the last checkpoint has to be repeated.

The Presentation Layer

The presentation layer performs certain functions that are requested sufficiently often to warrant finding a general solution for them, rather than letting each user solve the problems. In particular, unlike all the lower layers, which are just interested in moving bits reliably from here to there, the presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.

The Presentation Layer Cont.

A typical example of a presentation service is encoding data in a standard, agreed upon way. Most user programs do not exchange random binary bit strings. They exchange things such as people's names, dates, amounts of money, etc. These items are represented as character strings, integers, floating point numbers, and data structures composed of several simpler items. Different computers have different codes for representing character strings, integers and so on. In order to make it possible for computers with different representation to communicate, the data structures to be exchanged define along with a standard encoding.

The Presentation Layer Cont.

The job of managing these abstract data structures and converting from the representation used inside the computer to the network standard representation is handled by the presentation layer. The presentation layer is also concerned with other aspects of information representation. For example: data compression - reduce the number of bits that have to be transmitted cryptography - privacy and authentication.

The Application Layer

The layer that we are most used. The 'application' in Application Layer is not the actual user application, such as Netscape, or OutLook Express, it is the application of the network for those applications, such as e-mail, FTP, HTTP, etc. For example, to get new mail, an e-mail application would create an Application Layer request for POP3 services. This request is then processed through all the lower layers to the network, and up through the layers at the server.

OSI Layers
Physical
Physical char of interface and media Represention of bits Representation of bits(how 0 or 1 change into signals) Data rate Synchronization of bits line configuration Physical topology Transmission mode

Data Link
Error-free stream Physical addressing Framing packets Flow control, access control

Network
Routing packets Congestion control Logical addressing

OSI Layers
Transport
End-to-end flow control Error control Connection control segmentation Service point addressingSequencing, error recovery multiplexing

Session
Dialog control
Token management Synchronization

Presentation
Translation Encryption Compression Information syntax/semantics Storage format : standard encoding

Application
1. Network virtual ternimal(is a software version of physical ternimal and allow user to log on to a remote host 2. FTAM(this appl allow user to access files in remote computer 3. MAIL SERVICE(E mail forwarding)

TCP/IP Reference Model

Taxonomy

TCP/IP Model Summary

Application or Process Layer concerned with how data at both ends is handled. Transport Layer manages flow of data Internet Layer consists of several protocols, primary protocol is IP (providing hierarchical addressing scheme Data Link (or Network Interface) Layer manages transmission of data within the network Physical Layer not really defined, TCP/IP leaves the physical connection to manage itself

OSI vs. TCP/IP

OSI Network:
Connectionless or connection-oriented.

TCP/IP Network:
Connectionless.

OSI Transport
Connectionless.

TCP/IP Transport:
Connectionless or connection-oriented svc.

DIFFERENCE
Key concern in OSI is Services, interfaces &Protocols OSI model before protocols, TCP/IP after Protocols TCP/IP 4/5 layers and TCP/IP 7 layers

NETWORK LAYER OSI - Connectionless or connection-oriented. TCP/IP :Connectionless. TRANSPORT LAYEROSI-Connectionless. TCP/IP : Connectionless or connection-oriented svc.