QuestionsbyREVAITDeptofInformationScience&Engg

VivaQuestions
1. Whatarefunctionsofdifferentlayers? Functions of each Layer: Physical Layer(Layer 1):This layer defines the physical and electrical characteristics of the network. Helps to pass strings(data) of ones and zeros down the wire. Device:Hub, NIC, Repeater.. etc Data Link Layer: It defines the acess strategy for sharing the physical medium. Helps convert the bits into frame. Devices: Bridge, Switch Network Layer: Layer 3 is the Network Layer, providing a means for communicating open systems to establish, maintain and terminate network connections. Device:Router Transport Layer: The main function of this Layer is to ensure data reliability and integrity. Session Layer: It provides two communicating presentation entities to exchange data with eachother. Presentation Layer: Application data is either unpacked or packed only in this layer. Protocol conversions, encryption/decryption and graphics expansion all takes place here. Application Layer: This is where you find your end-user and end-application protocols, such as telnet, ftp, and mail(pop3 and smtp). 2. DifferentiatebetweenTCP/IPLayersandOSILayers The Session layer permits two parties to hold ongoing communications called a session across a network. Not found in TCP/IP model In TCP/IP,its characteristics are provided by the TCP protocol. (Transport Layer) The Presentation Layer handles data format information for networked communications. This is done by converting data into a generic format that could be understood by both sides. Not found in TCP/IP model In TCP/IP, this function is provided by the Application Layer. e.g. External Data Representation Standard (XDR) Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME)

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The Application Layer is the top layer of the reference model. It provides a set of interfaces for applications to obtain access to networked services as well as access to the kinds of network services that support applications directly. OSI - FTAM,VT,MHS,DS,CMIP TCP/IP - FTP,SMTP,TELNET,DNS,SNMP Although the notion of an application process is common to both, their approaches to constructing application entities is different TRANSPORT LAYER OSI It takes the information to be sent and breaks it into individual packets that are sent and reassembled into a complete message by the Transport Layer at the receiving node Transport Layer protocols include the capability to acknowledge the receipt of a packet; if no acknowledgement is received, the Transport Layer protocol can retransmit the packet or time-out the connection and signal an error TCP Defines two standard transport protocols: TCP and UDP TCP implements a reliable data-stream protocol connection oriented UDP implements an unreliable data-stream connectionless TCP is responsible for data recovery by providing a sequence number with each packet that it sends TCP requires ACK (ackowledgement) to ensure correct data is received Packet can be retransmitted if error detected NETWORK LAYER Like all the other OSI Layers, the network layer provides both connectionless and connectionoriented services. As for the TCP/IP architecture, the internet layer is exclusively connectionless.

3. Whyheaderisrequired? (answerbelow) 4. Whatistheuseofaddingheaderandtrailertoframes?

IPv4 Packet Header

The Internet Protocol (IP) uses a Datagram service to transfer packets of data between end systems using routers.

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The IPv4 packet header consists of 20 bytes of data. An option exists within the header that allows further optional bytes to be added, but this is not normally used (with the occasional exception of something called "Router Alert"). The full header is shown below:

The header fields are discussed below:

Version (always set to the value 4 in the current version of IP) IP Header Length (number of 32 -bit words forming the header, usually five) Type of Service (ToS), now known as Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) (usually set to 0, but may indicate particular Quality of Service needs from the network, the DSCP defines the way routers should queue packets while they are waiting to be forwarded). Size of Datagram (in bytes, this is the combined length of the header and the data) Identification ( 16-bit number which together with the source address uniquely identifies this packet - used during reassembly of fragmented datagrams) Flags (a sequence of three flags (one of the 4 bits is unused) used to control whether routers are allowed to fragment a packet (i.e. the Don't Fragment, DF, flag), and to indicate the parts of a packet to the receiver) Fragmentation Offset (a byte count from the start of the original sent packet, set by any router which performs IP router fragmentation) Time To Live (Number of hops /links which the packet may be routed over, decremented by most routers - used to prevent accidental routing loops) Protocol (Service Access Point (SAP) which indicates the type of transport packet being carried (e.g. 1 = ICMP; 2= IGMP; 6 = TCP; 17= UDP). Header Checksum (A 1's complement checksum inserted by the sender and updated whenever the packet header is modified by a router - Used to detect processing errors introduced into the packet inside a router or bridge where the packet is not protected by a link layer cyclic redundancy check. Packets with an invalid checksum are discarded by all nodes in an IP network) Source Address (the IP address of the original sender of the packet) Destination Address (the IP address of the final destination of the packet) Options (not normally used, but, when used, the IP header length will be greater than five 32-bit words to indicate the size of the options field)

5.Whatisencapsulation?
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Encapsulation,closelyrelatedtotheconceptofProtocolLayering,referstothepracticeofenclosing datausingoneprotocolwithinmessagesofanotherprotocol. To make use of encapsulation, the encapsulating protocol must be open-ended, allowing for arbitrary data to placed in its messages. Another protocol can then be used to define the format of that data. Encapsulation Example For example, consider an Internet host that requests a hypertext page over a dialup serial connection. The following scenario is likely: First,theHyperTextTransferProtocol(HTTP)isusedtoconstructamessagerequestingthepage.The message,theexactformatofwhichisunimportantatthistime,isrepresentedasfollows:

Next,theTransmissionControlProtocol(TCP)isusedtoprovidetheconnectionmanagementand reliabledeliverythatHTTPrequires,butdoesnotprovideitself.TCPdefinesamessageheaderformat, whichcanbefollowedbyarbitrarydata.So,aTCPmessageisconstructedbyattachingaTCPheaderto theHTTPmessage,asfollows:

NowTCPdoesnotprovideanyfacilitiesforactuallyrelayingamessagefromonemachinetoanotherin ordertoreachitsdestination.ThisfeatureisprovidedbytheInternetProtocol(IP),whichdefinesits ownmessageheaderformat.AnIPmessageisconstructedbyattachinganIPheadertothecombined TCP/HTTPmessage:

Finally,althoughIPcandirectmessagesbetweenmachines,itcannotactuallytransmitthemessage fromonemachinetothenext.Thisfunctionisdependentontheactualcommunicationshardware.In thisexample,we'reusingadialupmodemconnection,soit'slikelythatthefirststepintransmittingthe messagewillinvolvethePointtoPointProtocol(PPP):

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5. Whyfragmentationrequired? Every packet-based network has an MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit) size. The MTU is the size of the largest packet which that network can transmit. Packets larger than the allowable MTU must be divided into multiple smaller packets, or fragments, to enable them to traverse the network. 6. WhatisMTU? Incomputernetworking,themaximumtransmissionunit(MTU)ofalayerofacommunications protocolisthesize(inbytes)ofthelargestprotocoldataunitthatitcanpassonwards.MTU parametersusuallyappearinassociationwithacommunicationsinterface(NIC,serialport,etc.). TheMTUmaybefixedbystandards(asisthecasewithEthernet)ordecidedatconnecttime(asis usuallythecasewithpointtopointseriallinks).AhigherMTUbringsgreaterefficiencybecause eachpacketcarriesmoreuserdatawhileprotocoloverheads,suchasheadersorunderlyingper packetdelaysremainfixed,andhigherefficiencymeansaslightimprovementinbulkprotocol throughput. 7. WhichlayerimposesMTU? Layer2(DataLinkLayer)

Differentiate between flow control and congestion control.

Flowcontrolvs.congestioncontrol: Flowcontrolmeanpreventingthesourcefromsendingdatathatthesinkwillendupdropping becauseitrunsoutofbufferspace. Thisisfairlyeasywithaslidingwindowprotocoljustmakesurethesource'swindowisnolarger thanthefreespaceinthesink'sbuffer.TCPdoesthisbylettingthesinkadvertiseitsfreebuffer spaceinthewindowfieldoftheacks. Congestioncontrolmeanspreventing(ortryingtoprevent)thesourcefromsendingdatathatwillend upgettingdroppedbyarouterbecauseitsqueueisfull.Thisismorecomplicated,because packetsfromdifferentsourcestravellingdifferentpathscanconvergeonthesamequeue. Inaconnectionorientednetwork:

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Admissioncontrolandpolicerscanbeusedtoavoidcongestion.Beforeasourcestartssendingdata, itsetsupaconnection,whichrequirespermissionfromtherouters/switchesalongthepath.If therequestedresourcesareunavailable,theconnectionisnotsetup.Oncetheconnectionissetup, policersattheedgeofthenetworkcanmakesurethesourcedoesnotsendmorethanitwas allowedto. Inaconnectionlessnetwork: Congestionisunavoidable,becausetheroutersarenotwarnedaheadoftimethatasourcewillbe sendingpacketsalongsomepath. Congestioncan,however,bemanaged,ifsourcesareinformedwhentheirpacketsencounter congestionandtheyslowdown.

8. DifferentiatebetweenPointtoPointConnectionandEndtoEndconnections. Innetworking,thePointtoPointProtocol,orPPP,isadatalinkprotocolcommonlyusedto establishadirectconnectionbetweentwonetworkingnodes.Itcanprovideconnection authentication,transmissionencryptionprivacy,andcompression.PPPisusedovermanytypesof physicalnetworksincludingserialcable,phoneline,trunkline,cellulartelephone,specializedradio links,andfiberopticlinkssuchasSONET.MostInternetserviceproviders(ISPs)usePPPfor customerdialupaccesstotheInternet

Theendtoendprinciplestatesthat,wheneverpossible,communicationsprotocoloperationsshouldbe definedtooccurattheendpointsofacommunicationssystem,orascloseaspossibletotheresource beingcontrolled.Accordingtotheendtoendprinciple,protocolfeaturesareonlyjustifiedinthelower layersofasystemiftheyareaperformanceoptimization. Example:exampleisthatoffiletransfer.Everyreliablefiletransferprotocolandfiletransferprogram shouldcontainachecksum,whichisvalidatedonlyaftereverythinghasbeensuccessfullystoredon disk.Diskerrors,routererrors,andfiletransfersoftwareerrorsmakeanendtoendchecksum necessary.

9. Whatareprotocolsrunningindifferentlayers? OSI MODEL, LAYERS & PROTOCOLS

7 Application Web Browser, Email, Print Serivces, SIP, SSH and SCP, NFS, RTSP, Feed, XMPP, Whois, SMB; DNS; FTP; TFTP; BOOTP; SNMP;RLOGIN; SMTP; MIME; NFS; FINGER; TELNET; NCP; APPC; AFP; SMB 6 Presentation XDR, ASN.1, SMB, AFP, NCP, MIDI, HTML, GIF, TIFF, JPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC

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QuestionsbyREVAITDeptofInformationScience&Engg 5 Session TLS, SSH, X.225, RPC, NetBIOS, ASP, Winsock, BSD 4 Transport TCP, UDP, RTP, SCTP, SPX, ATP Gateway, Advanced Cable Tester, Brouter 3 Network IP, ICMP, IGMP, BGP, OSPF, RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, ARP, RARP, X.25, NETBEUI Brouter, Router, Frame Relay Device, ATM Switch, Advanced Cable Tester, DDP 2 Data Link Ethernet, Token ring, StarLAN, HDLC, Frame relay, ISDN, ATM, 802.11 WiFi, FDDI, PPP, Bridge, Switch, ISDN Router, Intelligent Hub, NIC, Advanced Cable Tester, ARCNET, LocalTalk, FDDI, ATM. NIC Drivers: Open Datalink Interface (ODI), Network Independent Interface Specification (NDIS) 1 Physical NIC, Twisted Pair, Coax, Fiber Optic, Wireless Media, Repeater, Multiplexer, Hubs, (Passive/Active), TDR, Oscilloscope, Amplifier, Carrier pigeon TCP LAYERS 4 Application (OSI - Layers5 through 7) HTTP, FTP, DNS (Routing protocols like BGP and RIP, which for a variety of reasons run over TCP and UDP respectively, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer) 3 Transport (OSI - Layers4 and 5) TCP, UDP, RTP, SCTP (Routing protocols like OSPF, which run over IP, may also be considered part of the Internetwork layer) 2 Internetwork (OSI - Layer 3) For TCP/IP this is the Internet Protocol (IP) (Required protocols like ICMP and IGMP run over IP, but may still be considered part of the Internetwork layer; ARP does not run over IP) 1 Link (OSI - Layers 1 and 2) Ethernet, Wi-Fi, MPLS, etc.

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10. WhatisProtocolStack? Aprotocolstack(sometimescommunicationsstack)isaparticularsoftwareimplementationofa computernetworkingprotocolsuite.Thetermsareoftenusedinterchangeably.Strictlyspeaking, thesuiteisthedefinitionoftheprotocols,andthestackisthesoftwareimplementationofthem. Inpracticalimplementation,protocolstacksareoftendividedintothreemajorsections:media, transport,andapplications.Aparticularoperatingsystemorplatformwilloftenhavetwowell definedsoftwareinterfaces:onebetweenthemediaandtransportlayers,andonebetweenthe transportlayersandapplications.

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11. DifferentiatebetweenTCPandUDP.

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12. Differentiate between Connectionless and connection oriented connection. Connection Oriented
Connection-Oriented means that when devices communicate, they perform handshaking to set up an end-to-end connection. The handshaking process may be as simple as syncrhonization such as in the transport layer protocol TCP, or as complex as negotiating communications parameters as with a modem. Connection-Oriented systems can only work in bi-directional communications environments. To negotiate a connection, both sides must be able to communicate with each other. This will not work in a unidirectional environment.

Connectionless
Connectionless means that no effort is made to set up a dedicated end-to-end connection. Connectionless communication is usually achieved by transmitting information in one direction, from source to destination without checking to see if the destination is still there, or if it is prepared to receive the information. When there is little interferance, and plenty of speed available, these systems work fine. In environments where there is difficulty transmitting to the destination, information may have to be retransmitted several times before the complete message is received. Walkie-talkies, or Citizens Band radios are a good examples of connectionless communication. You speak into the mike, and the radio transmitter sends out your signal. If the person receiving you doesn't understand you, there's nothing his radio can do to correct things, the receiver must send you a message back to repeat your last message. IP, UDP, ICMP, DNS, TFTP and SNMP are examples of connectionless protocols in use on the Internet.

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13. Whyframesortingisrequired?

14. Whatismeantbysubnet? Asubnet(shortfor"subnetwork")isanidentifiablyseparatepartofanorganization'snetwork. Typically,asubnetmayrepresentallthemachinesatonegeographiclocation,inonebuilding,or onthesamelocalareanetwork(LAN).Havinganorganization'snetworkdividedintosubnets allowsittobeconnectedtotheInternetwithasinglesharednetworkaddress.Withoutsubnets,an organizationcouldgetmultipleconnectionstotheInternet,oneforeachofitsphysicallyseparate subnetworks,butthiswouldrequireanunnecessaryuseofthelimitednumberofnetworknumbers theInternethastoassign. 15. WhatismeantbyGateway? Anodeonanetworkthatservesasanentrancetoanothernetwork.Inenterprises,thegatewayis thecomputerthatroutesthetrafficfromaworkstationtotheoutsidenetworkthatisservingthe Webpages.Inhomes,thegatewayistheISPthatconnectstheusertotheinternet. Inenterprises,thegatewaynodeoftenactsasaproxyserverandafirewall.Thegatewayisalso associatedwithbotharouter,whichuseheadersandforwardingtablestodeterminewherepackets aresent,andaswitch,whichprovidestheactualpathforthepacketinandoutofthegateway. 16. WhatisanIPaddress? AnInternetProtocol(IP)addressisanumericallabelthatisassignedtodevicesparticipatingina computernetworkutilizingtheInternetProtocolforcommunicationbetweenitsnodes.[1]AnIP addressservestwoprincipalfunctionsinnetworking:hostornetworkinterfaceidentificationand locationaddressing. 17. WhatisMACaddress? Incomputernetworking,aMediaAccessControladdress(MACaddress)isauniqueidentifier assignedtomostnetworkadaptersornetworkinterfacecards(NICs)bythemanufacturerfor identification,andusedintheMediaAccessControlprotocolsublayer.Ifassignedbythe manufacturer,aMACaddressusuallyencodesthemanufacturer'sregisteredidentificationnumber. ItmayalsobeknownasanEthernetHardwareAddress(EHA),hardwareaddress,adapteraddress, orphysicaladdress. 18. WhyIPaddressisrequiredwhenwehaveMACaddress? (refertoabovetwoanswers) 19. Whatismeantbyport? Aninterfaceonacomputertowhichyoucanconnectadevice.Personalcomputershavevarious
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typesofports.Internally,thereareseveralportsforconnectingdiskdrives,displayscreens,and keyboards.Externally,personalcomputershaveportsforconnectingmodems,printers,mice,and otherperipheraldevices. AlmostallpersonalcomputerscomewithaserialRS232CportorRS422portforconnectinga modemormouseandaparallelportforconnectingaprinter.OnPCs,theparallelportisa Centronicsinterfacethatusesa25pinconnector.SCSI(SmallComputerSystemInterface)ports supporthighertransmissionspeedsthandoconventionalportsandenableyoutoattachuptoseven devicestothesameport. InTCP/IPandUDPnetworks,anendpointtoalogicalconnection.Theportnumberidentifieswhat typeofportitis.Forexample,port80isusedforHTTPtraffic. 20. Whatareephemericalportnumberandwellknownportnumbers? Ephemeralportsaretemporaryportsassignedbyamachine'sIPstack,andareassignedfroma designatedrangeofportsforthispurpose.Whentheconnectionterminates,theephemeralportis availableforreuse,althoughmostIPstackswon'treusethatportnumberuntiltheentirepoolof ephemeralportshavebeenused.So,iftheclientprogramreconnects,itwillbeassignedadifferent ephemeralportnumberforitssideofthenewconnection. WellknownportnumbersareassignedtoparticularservicesthroughouttheInternet,byIANA,the InternetAssignedNumbersAuthority.Thewellknownportnumbersareintherange0through 1023. FileTransferProtocol(FTP) 21 Telnet 23 HypertextTransferProtocol(HTTP) 80 HTTPwithSecureSocketsLayer(SSL) 443 CORBAInternetInterORBProtocol(IIOP) 683 CORBAIIOPwithSSL 684 21. Whatisasocket? Socketsisamethodforcommunicationbetweenaclientprogramandaserverprogramina network.Asocketisdefinedas"theendpointinaconnection."Socketsarecreatedandusedwitha setofprogrammingrequestsor"functioncalls"sometimescalledthesocketsapplication programminginterface(API).ThemostcommonsocketsAPIistheBerkeleyUnixCinterfacefor sockets.Socketscanalsobeusedforcommunicationbetweenprocesseswithinthesamecomputer. 22. Whataretheparametersofsocket()? intsocket(intdomain,inttype,intprotocol) 23. Describebind(),listen(),accept(),connect(),send()andrecv(). intbind(intsocket,conststructsockaddr*address,socklen_taddress_len); bind()functionshallassignalocalsocketaddressaddresstoasocketidentifiedbydescriptorsocket thathasnolocalsocketaddressassigned.Socketscreatedwiththesocket()functionareinitially unnamed;theyareidentifiedonlybytheiraddressfamily. 13/29

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QuestionsbyREVAITDeptofInformationScience&Engg

intlisten(ints,intbacklog); Thelisten()functionmarksaconnectionmodesocket(forexample,thoseoftype SOCK_STREAM),specifiedbythesocketarguments,asacceptingconnections,andlimitsthe numberofoutstandingconnectionsinthesocket'slistenqueuetothevaluespecifiedbythebacklog argument.Thesocketsisputinto'passive'modewhereincomingconnectionrequestsare acknowledgedandqueuedpendingacceptancebytheprocess. intaccept(ints,structsockaddr*addr,socklen_t*addrlen); Theaccept()functionacceptsaconnectiononasocket.Anincomingconnectionisacknowledged andassociatedwithanimmediatelycreatedsocket.Theoriginalsocketisreturnedtothelistening state. intconnect(intsocket,conststructsockaddr*address,socklen_taddress_len); Theconnect()functionshallattempttomakeaconnectiononasocket. ssize_tsend(intsocket,constvoid*buffer,size_tlength,intflags); Thesend()functionshallinitiatetransmissionofamessagefromthespecifiedsockettoitspeer. Thesend()functionshallsendamessageonlywhenthesocketisconnected(includingwhenthe peerofaconnectionlesssockethasbeensetviaconnect()). ssize_trecv(intsocket,void*buffer,size_tlength,intflags); Therecv()functionshallreceiveamessagefromaconnectionmodeorconnectionlessmode socket.Itisnormallyusedwithconnectedsocketsbecauseitdoesnotpermittheapplicationto retrievethesourceaddressofreceiveddata. 24. Whataresystemcalls?Mentionfewofthem. Asystemcallisarequestmadebyanyprogramtotheoperatingsystemforperformingtasks pickedfromapredefinedsetwhichthesaidprogramdoesnothaverequiredpermissionsto executeinitsownflowofexecution.Systemcallsprovidetheinterfacebetweenaprocessand theoperatingsystem.

System calls for low level file I/O <map name="boxmap-p8"> <area shape="RECT" coords="14, 200, 103, 207" href="http://rcm.amazon.com/e/cm/privacy-policy.html?o=1"> <area coords="0,0,10000,10000" href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/redirecthome/ref=nikolaibezroukov"> </map> <img src="http://rcmimages.amazon.com/images/G/01/rcm/120x240.gif" width="120" height="240" border="0" usemap="#boxmap-p8" alt="Shop at Amazon.com"> SystemcallsforlowlevelfileI/O
o o

creat(name, permissions) open(name, mode) 14/29

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o o o o o

close(fd) unlink(fd) read(fd, buffer, n_to_read) write(fd, buffer, n_to_write) lseek(fd, offest, whence)

System Calls for process control

o o o o o o

fork() wait() execl(), execlp(), execv(), execvp() exit() signal(sig, handler) kill(sig, pid)

System Calls for IPC

o o

pipe(fildes) dup(fd)

25. WhatisIPC?Namethreetechniques. Interprocesscommunication(IPC)isasetoftechniquesfortheexchangeofdataamong multiplethreadsinoneormoreprocesses.Processesmayberunningononeormorecomputers connectedbyanetwork.IPCtechniquesaredividedintomethodsformessagepassing, synchronization,sharedmemory,andremoteprocedurecalls(RPC). 26. Explainmkfifo(),open(),close()withparameters. intmkfifo(constchar*path,mode_tmode); Themkfifo()functioncreatesanewFIFOspecialfilenamedbythepathnamepointedtobypath. ThefilepermissionbitsofthenewFIFOareinitialisedfrommode.Thefilepermissionbitsofthe modeargumentaremodifiedbytheprocess'filecreationmask. intopen(constchar*path,intoflag,...); Theopen()functionshallestablishtheconnectionbetweenafileandafiledescriptor.Itshallcreate anopenfiledescriptionthatreferstoafileandafiledescriptorthatreferstothatopenfile description.ThefiledescriptorisusedbyotherI/Ofunctionstorefertothatfile.Thepathargument pointstoapathnamenamingthefile. intclose(intfildes); Theclose()functionshalldeallocatethefiledescriptorindicatedbyfildes.Todeallocatemeansto makethefiledescriptoravailableforreturnbysubsequentcallstoopen()orotherfunctionsthat

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allocatefiledescriptors.Alloutstandingrecordlocksownedbytheprocessonthefileassociated withthefiledescriptorshallberemoved(thatis,unlocked). 27. Whatismeantbyfiledescriptor? filedescriptorisanindexforanentryinakernelresidentdatastructurecontainingthedetailsofall openfiles.InPOSIXthisdatastructureiscalledafiledescriptortable,andeachprocesshasitsown filedescriptortable.Theuserapplicationpassestheabstractkeytothekernelthroughasystemcall, andthekernelwillaccessthefileonbehalfoftheapplication,basedonthekey.Theapplication itselfcannotreadorwritethefiledescriptortabledirectly. InUnixlikesystems,filedescriptorscanrefertofiles,directories,blockorcharacterdevices(also called"specialfiles"),sockets,FIFOs(alsocallednamedpipes),orunnamedpipes. 28. Whatismeantbytrafficshaping? Trafficshaping(alsoknownas"packetshaping"orITMPs:InternetTrafficManagementPractices) isthecontrolofcomputernetworktrafficinordertooptimizeorguaranteeperformance,lower latency,and/orincreaseusablebandwidthbydelayingpacketsthatmeetcertaincriteria.[1]More specifically,trafficshapingisanyactiononasetofpackets(oftencalledastreamoraflow)which imposesadditionaldelayonthosepacketssuchthattheyconformtosomepredeterminedconstraint (acontractortrafficprofile).[2]Trafficshapingprovidesameanstocontrolthevolumeoftraffic beingsentintoanetworkinaspecifiedperiod(bandwidththrottling),orthemaximumrateat whichthetrafficissent.Trafficshapingisalwaysachievedbydelayingpackets. 29. Howdoyouclassifycongestioncontrolalgorithms? Bythetypeandamountoffeedbackreceivedfromthenetwork:Loss;delay;singlebitormulti bitexplicitsignals ByincrementaldeployabilityonthecurrentInternet:Onlysenderneedsmodification;senderand receiverneedmodification;onlyrouterneedsmodification;sender,receiverandroutersneed modification. Bytheaspectofperformanceitaimstoimprove:highbandwidthdelayproductnetworks;lossy links;fairness;advantagetoshortflows;variableratelinks Bythefairnesscriterionituses:maxmin,proportional,"minimumpotentialdelay"

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30. DifferentiatebetweenLeakybucketandTokenbucket.

31. HowdoyouimplementLeakybucket? TheleakybucketimplementationisusedtocontroltherateatwhichtrafficissenttothenetworkA leakybucketprovidesamechanismbywhichburstytrafficcanbeshapedtopresentasteadystream oftraffictothenetwork,asopposedtotrafficwitherraticburstsoflowvolumeandhighvolume flows.

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32. Howdoyougenerateburstytraffic? Burstytrafficreferstoanunevenpatternofdatatransmission:sometimeveryhighdata transmissionratewhileothertimeitmightbeverylow. 33. WhatisthepolynomialusedinCRCCCITT? x16+x12+x5+1 34. Whataretheothererrordetection&correctionalgorithms?

Paritycheck

LRCLongitudinalRedundancyCheck CRCCyclicRedundancyCheck FCFirecodes BCHBoseChaudhuriHocquenghem RSReedSolomon HCHammingcodes TurboCodes

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VCCVirerbiConvilutionalCodingforForwarderrorCorrection(FEC) Golay

35. WhatisdifferencebetweenCRCandHammingcode?

36. WhyHammingcodeiscalled7,4code? encodes4bitsofdatainto7bitsbyadding3paritybits. 37. Whatisoddparityandevenparity? Whenusingevenparity,theparitybitissetto1ifthenumberofonesinagivensetofbits(not includingtheparitybit)isodd,makingtheentiresetofbits(includingtheparitybit)even.When usingoddparity,theparitybitissetto1ifthenumberofonesinagivensetofbits(notincluding theparitybit)iseven,makingtheentiresetofbits(includingtheparitybit)odd.Inotherwords,an evenparitybitwillbesetto"1"ifthenumberof1's+1iseven,andanoddparitybitwillbesetto "1"ifthenumberof1's+1isodd. 38. Whatismeantbysyndrome?

39. Whatisgeneratormatrix?

40. Whatisspanningtree? Aspanningtreeofthatgraphisasubgraphwhichisatreeandconnectsalltheverticestogether.A singlegraphcanhavemanydifferentspanningtrees.Wecanalsoassignaweighttoeachedge, whichisanumberrepresentinghowunfavorableitis,andusethistoassignaweighttoaspanning treebycomputingthesumoftheweightsoftheedgesinthatspanningtree.Aminimumspanning tree(MST)orminimumweightspanningtreeisthenaspanningtreewithweightlessthanor equaltotheweightofeveryotherspanningtree.Moregenerally,anyundirectedgraph(not necessarilyconnected)hasaminimumspanningforest,whichisaunionofminimumspanning treesforitsconnectedcomponents. 41. WherePrimsalgorithmdoesfindsitsuseinNetworks?

42. DifferentiatebetweenPrimsandKruskalsalgorithm. Kruska'sbuildsaminimumspanningtreebyaddingoneedgeatatime.Thenextlineisalwaysthe shortest(minimumweight)ONLYifitdoesNOTcreateacycle.

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Primsbuildsamimimumspanningtreebyaddingonevertexatatime.Thenextvertextobeadded isalwaystheonenearesttoavertexalreadyonthegraph. Primalwaysjoinsa"new"vertextoan"old"vertex,sothateverystageisatree.Kruskal'sallows both"new"to"new"and"old"to"old"togetconnected,soitriskscreatingacircuitandmust checkforthemeverytime.SoKruskal'shasalargercomplexitythanPrim. 43. WhatareRoutingalgorithms? Routersuseroutingalgorithmstofindthebestroutetoadestination.Routing(orrouteing)isthe processofselectingpathsinanetworkalongwhichtosendnetworktraffic. 44. Howdoyouclassifyroutingalgorithms?Giveexamplesforeach. View:globalorlocal global:graphofentirenetwork(routers,links).[linkstate].eg.Dijkstrashortestpath algorithm. local:partialknowledgeofremotepartsofnetwork.[distancevectorapproach]eg.Bellman FordroutingalgorithmsandFordFulkersonroutingalgorithms Centralizedordecentralized Centralized:onenodemaintainsview,anddistributesroutestoothernodes Decetralized:allnodesmaintainview Staticordynamic? Static:infrequentroutechanges,infrequentviewupdate;staticlinkcosts(e.g.up/down) Dynamic:frequentperiodicroutechanges frequentviewupdate;dynamiclinkcosts(e.g.delay) 45. Whataredrawbacksindistancevectoralgorithm? Thealgorithmdoesnotpreventroutingloopsfromhappeningandsuffersfromthecounttoinfinity problem.ThecoreofthecounttoinfinityproblemisthatifAtellsBthatithasapathsomewhere, thereisnowayforBtoknowifitisonthepath. 46. Howroutersupdatedistancestoeachofitsneighbor? Routerslearnaboutremotenetworksfromneighboringroutersoranadministrator.Therouterthen buildsaroutingtablethattellshowtogettotheremotenetworks.Routesareeitherdirectly connected,static,ordynamic.Staticroutesareenteredinbytheadministrator.Dynamicroutesare learnedfromneighboringroutersusingroutingprotocols.Indynamicrouting,theroutersupdate eachotheratsetintervals.Changescausetherouterstoupdatealltheotherrouters.Ifarouters receivesapacketwithadestinationnetworknotinitsroutingtables,itwilldiscardthepacket.

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QuestionsbyREVAITDeptofInformationScience&Engg

Dynamicroutesadjusttochangeswithintheinternetworkenvironmentautomatically.When networkchangesoccur,routersbegintoconvergebyrecalculatingroutesanddistributingroute updates.Therouteupdatemessagesspreadthroughthenetwork,whichcausesotherroutersto recalculatetheirroutes.Theprocesscontinuesuntilallrouteshaveconverged.Usesprotocolsto findandupdateroutesonaroutingtable.ItusesCPUtimeandconsumesbandwidthbetween links.Theroutingprotocoldefinestherulesusedbytherouterswhentheycommunicatewitheach other. Therearetwotypesofroutingprotocolsoninternetworks,InteriorGatewayProtocol(IGP)and ExteriorGatewayProtocol(EGP).IGPisusedinnetworksinthesameadministrativedomain. EGPsareusedtocommunicatebetweenthedomains.

47. Howdoyouovercomecounttoinfinityproblem? TheBellmanFordalgorithmdoesnotpreventroutingloopsfromhappeningandsuffersfromthe counttoinfinityproblem.ThecoreofthecounttoinfinityproblemisthatifAtellsBthatithasa pathsomewhere,thereisnowayforBtoknowifthepathhasBasapartofit.Toseetheproblem clearly,imagineasubnetconnectedlikeABCDEF,andletthemetricbetweentheroutersbe "numberofjumps".NowsupposethatAgoesdown(outoforder).InthevectorupdateprocessB noticesthatitsonceveryshortrouteof1toAisdownBdoesnotreceivethevectorupdatefrom A.Theproblemis,BalsogetsanupdatefromC,andCisstillnotawareofthefactthatAisdown soittellsBthatAisonlytwojumpsfromit,whichisfalse.Thisslowlypropagatesthroughthe networkuntilitreachesinfinity(inwhichcasethealgorithmcorrectsitself,duetothe"Relax property"ofBellmanFord). Partialsolutions RIPusesSplitHorizonwithPoisonReversetechniquetoreducethechanceofformingloopsand useamaximumnumberofhopstocounterthecounttoinfinityproblem.Thesemeasuresavoidthe formationofroutingloopsinsome,butnotall,cases.Theadditionofaholdtime(refusingroute updatesforafewminutesafterarouteretraction)avoidsloopformationinvirtuallyallcases,but causesasignificantincreaseinconvergencetimes. Anumberofloopfreedistancevectorprotocols,suchasEIGRPandDSDV,havebeendeveloped. Theseavoidloopformationinallcases,butsufferfromincreasedcomplexity,andtheirdeployment hasbeensloweddownbythesuccessoflinkstateprotocolssuchasOSPF. 48. Whatiscryptography? Cryptographycanbedefinedastheconversionofdataintoascrambledcodethatcanbedeciphered andsentacrossapublicorprivatenetwork.Cryptographyusestwomainstylesorformsof encryptingdata;symmetricalandasymmetrical.Symmetricencryptions,oralgorithms,usethe samekeyforencryptionastheydofordecryption.Othernamesforthistypeofencryptionare secretkey,sharedkey,andprivatekey.Theencryptionkeycanbelooselyrelatedtothedecryption key;itdoesnotnecessarilyneedtobeanexactcopy. Symmetriccryptographyissusceptibletoplaintextattacksandlinearcryptanalysismeaningthat theyarehackableandattimessimpletodecode.Withcarefulplanningofthecodingandfunctions ofthecryptographicprocessthesethreatscanbegreatlyreduced.Asymmetriccryptographyuses
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QuestionsbyREVAITDeptofInformationScience&Engg

differentencryptionkeysforencryptionanddecryption.Inthiscaseanenduseronanetwork, publicorprivate,hasapairofkeys;oneforencryptionandonefordecryption.Thesekeysare labeledorknownasapublicandaprivatekey;inthisinstancetheprivatekeycannotbederived fromthepublickey. Theasymmetricalcryptographymethodhasbeenproventobesecureagainstcomputationally limitedintruders.Thesecurityisamathematicaldefinitionbasedupontheapplicationofsaid encryption.Essentially,asymmetricencryptionisasgoodasitsapplieduse;thisisdefinedbythe methodinwhichthedataisencryptedandforwhatuse.Themostcommonformofasymmetrical encryptionisintheapplicationofsendingmessageswherethesenderencodesandthereceiving partydecodesthemessagebyusingarandomkeygeneratedbythepublickeyofthesender. 49. Howdoyouclassifycryptographicalgorithms?

(referabove) 50. Whatispublickey?

Thekeyusedtoencryptamessageisnotthesameasthekeyusedtodecryptit.Eachuserhasapair ofcryptographickeysapublickeyandaprivatekey.Theprivatekeyiskeptsecret,whilstthe publickeymaybewidelydistributed.Messagesareencryptedwiththerecipient'spublickeyand canonlybedecryptedwiththecorrespondingprivatekey.Thekeysarerelatedmathematically,but theprivatekeycannotbefeasibly(ie,inactualorprojectedpractice)derivedfromthepublickey. Thisisusedinasymmetriccryptography. 51. Whatisprivatekey?

(referabove) 52. Whatarekey,ciphertextandplaintext?

Ciphertextistheresultoftheprocess(knownasencryption)oftransforminginformation(referred toasplaintext)usinganalgorithm(calledcipher)tomakeitunreadable[1]toanyoneexceptthose possessingspecialknowledge,usuallyreferredtoasakey.Thisresultisalsoknownasencrypted information.Theprocesstoreadciphertextisknownasdecryption. 53. Whatissimulation? Acomputersimulation,acomputermodel,oracomputationalmodelisacomputerprogram,or networkofcomputers,thatattemptstosimulateanabstractmodelofaparticularsystem. 54. Whatareadvantagesofsimulation? Normalanalyticaltechniquesmakeuseofextensivemathematicalmodelswhichrequire assumptionsandrestrictionstobeplacedonthemodel.Thiscanresultinanavoidableinaccuracy intheoutputdata.Simulationsavoidplacingrestrictionsonthesystemandalsotakerandom processesintoaccount;infactinsomecasessimulationistheonlypracticalmodellingtechnique applicable;[1][2] Analystscanstudytherelationshipsbetweencomponentsindetailandcansimulatetheprojected consequencesofmultipledesignoptionsbeforehavingtoimplementtheoutcomeintherealworld. [1][2]
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Itispossibletoeasilycomparealternativedesignssoastoselecttheoptimalsystem.[1] Theactualprocessofdevelopingthesimulationcanitselfprovidevaluableinsightsintotheinner workingsofthenetworkwhichcaninturnbeusedatalaterstage. 55. DifferentiatebetweenSimulationandEmulation. Asimulationmimicstheoutwardappearance Anemulationmimicsthecause/process. Anemulatorgenerallyisapieceofhardwareusedfortests;itisselfcontained,andisabletobe hookedtosomekindofdevelopmentenvironment. Asimulatorisapieceofsoftwarethatduplicatesaspreciselyaspossibletheprocessorsoyoucan "run"yourcodetoseeifitiscorrect.Usuallysimulatorsaredeveloppedfornewarchitecturesto testthemoutbeforeitiscommittedtosilicon.Occasionnally,avendorwillletcustomerhave accesstothesimulatortohelpspeeddevelopmentforthatarchitecture. (Ifyouwanttoconvincepeoplethatwatchingtelevisiongivesyoustomachaches,youcansimulate thisbyholdingyourchest/abdomenandmoan.Youcanemulateitbyeatingakiloofunripe apples.) 56. Whatismeantbyrouter? InpacketswitchednetworkssuchastheInternet,arouterisadeviceor,insomecases,softwarein acomputer,thatdeterminesthenextnetworkpointtowhichapacketshouldbeforwardedtoward itsdestination.Therouterisconnectedtoatleasttwonetworksanddecideswhichwaytosendeach informationpacketbasedonitscurrentunderstandingofthestateofthenetworksitisconnectedto. Arouterislocatedatanygateway(whereonenetworkmeetsanother),includingeachpointof presenceontheInternet.Arouterisoftenincludedaspartofanetworkswitch. 57. Whatismeantbybridge? Anetworkbridgeconnectsmultiplenetworksegmentsatthedatalinklayer(Layer2)oftheOSI model,andthetermLayer2switchisveryoftenusedinterchangeablywithbridge.Bridgesare similartorepeatersornetworkhubs,devicesthatconnectnetworksegmentsatthephysicallayer; however,withbridging,trafficfromonenetworkismanagedratherthansimplyrebroadcastto adjacentnetworksegments. SincebridgingtakesplaceatthedatalinklayeroftheOSImodel,abridgeprocessesthe informationfromeachframeofdataitreceives.InanEthernetframe,thisprovidestheMAC addressoftheframe'ssourceanddestination. 58. Whatismeantbyswitch? Anetworkswitchisasmallhardwaredevicethatjoinsmultiplecomputerstogetherwithinone localareanetwork(LAN).Technically,networkswitchesoperateatlayertwo(DataLinkLayer)of theOSImodel.
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Networkswitchesappearnearlyidenticaltonetworkhubs,butaswitchgenerallycontainsmore intelligence(andaslightlyhigherpricetag)thanahub.Unlikehubs,networkswitchesarecapable ofinspectingdatapacketsastheyarereceived,determiningthesourceanddestinationdeviceof eachpacket,andforwardingthemappropriately.Bydeliveringmessagesonlytotheconnected deviceintended,anetworkswitchconservesnetworkbandwidthandoffersgenerallybetter performancethanahub. 59. Whatismeantbyhub? Anetworkhuborrepeaterhubisadeviceforconnectingmultipletwistedpairorfiberoptic Ethernetdevicestogetherandthusmakingthemactasasinglenetworksegment.Hubsworkatthe physicallayer(layer1)oftheOSImodel.Thedeviceisthusaformofmultiportrepeater.Repeater hubsalsoparticipateincollisiondetection,forwardingajamsignaltoallportsifitdetectsa collision. 60. Differentiatebetweenroute,bridge,switchandhub.

(refertothepreviousanswers)

61. Whatispingandtelnet? PingisacomputernetworktoolusedtotestwhetheraparticularhostisreachableacrossanIP network;itisalsousedtoselftestthenetworkinterfacecardofthecomputer,orasalatencytest.It worksbysendingICMPechorequestpacketstothetargethostandlisteningforICMPecho responsereplies.The"echoresponse"issometimescalledapong.Pingmeasurestheroundtrip andrecordsanypacketloss,andprintswhenfinishedastatisticalsummaryoftheecho time[1] responsepacketsreceived,theminimum,mean,maxandinsomeversionsthestandarddeviationof theroundtriptime. Telnet(teletypenetwork)isanetworkprotocolusedontheInternetorlocalareanetworksto provideabidirectionalinteractivecommunicationsfacility.Telnetisausercommandandan underlyingTCP/IPprotocolforaccessingremotecomputers.ThroughTelnet,anadministratoror anotherusercanaccesssomeoneelse'scomputerremotely.OntheWeb,HTTPandFTPprotocols allowyoutorequestspecificfilesfromremotecomputers,butnottoactuallybeloggedonasauser ofthatcomputer.WithTelnet,youlogonasaregularuserwithwhateverprivilegesyoumayhave beengrantedtothespecificapplicationanddataonthatcomputer. 62. WhatisFTP? FileTransferProtocol(FTP)isastandardnetworkprotocolusedtoexchangeandmanipulate filesoveraTCP/IPbasednetwork,suchastheInternet.FTPisbuiltonaclientserverarchitecture andutilizesseparatecontrolanddataconnectionsbetweentheclientandserverapplications.FTPis alsooftenusedasanapplicationcomponenttoautomaticallytransferfilesforprograminternal functions.

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63. WhatisBER? TheBERisameasureofsignalquality,andisafunctionofaquantitycalledEb/N0,theenergyper bittonoisepowerspectraldensityratioofthesignalforQPSKsignal.Inanadditivewhite gaussiannoise(AWGN)channel,theBERisgivenby:BER=1/2erfc(Eb/N0).Thisformula relatestheBERofanysignaltoitsEb/N0.Intelecommunication,anerrorratioistheratioofthe numberofbits,elements,characters,orblocksincorrectlyreceivedtothetotalnumberofbits, elements,characters,orblockssentduringaspecifiedtimeinterval. Themostcommonlyencounteredratioisthebiterrorratio(BER)alsosometimesreferredtoas biterrorrate. 64. Whatismeantbycongestionwindow? InTransmissionControlProtocol(TCP),thecongestionwindowdeterminesthenumberofbytes thatcanbeoutstandingatanytime.Thisisameansofstoppingthelinkbetweentwoplacesfrom gettingoverloadedwithtoomuchtraffic.Thesizeofthiswindowiscalculatedbyestimatinghow muchcongestionthereisbetweenthetwoplaces.Thesendermaintainsthecongestionwindow. Whenaconnectionissetup,thecongestionwindowissettothemaximumsegmentsize(MSS) allowedonthatconnection. Thewindowkeepsgrowinglinearlyuntilatimeoutoccursorthereceiverreachesitslimit.Ifa timeoutoccurs,thewindowsizeishalved. 65. WhatisBSS? Inthe802.11specification,an802.11networkisreferredtoasabasicserviceset(BSS).ABSSis madeupoftwoormorestations(STAs)thatcommunicatewitheachother.IndividualBSS networksareestablishedthroughauniqueservicesetidentifier(SSID).TherearetwotypesofBSS networks: Adhoc Anadhocnetworkconsistsoftwoormoremobilestationsthatcommunicatewitheachother directly.Adhocnetworksarereferredtoasindependentbasicservicesets(IBSSs)withinthe 802.11specification. Infrastructure Aninfrastructurenetworkconsistsofoneormoremobilestationsthatcommunicatewitheach otherthroughanaccesspoint(AP).InthistypeofBSS,theAPitselfisconsideredaSTA.An infrastructurenetworkthatconsistsofmultipleAPswithinthesameBSSisreferredtoasan extendedserviceset(ESS)withinthe802.11specification. EachAPwithinthesameBSSmustbeassignedthesameSSID.Afteramobilestationis assignedanSSIDoftheBSStoassociatewith,itcanchooseanyAPwithintheESS.Afteritis associated,themobilestationcanalsodecidetoroamtootherAPswithintheESS. 66. Whatisincomingthroughputandoutgoingthroughput? Incommunicationnetworks,suchasEthernetorpacketradio,throughputornetworkthroughput istheaveragerateofsuccessfulmessagedeliveryoveracommunicationchannel.Thisdatamaybe deliveredoveraphysicalorlogicallink,orpassthroughacertainnetworknode.Thethroughputis usuallymeasuredinbitspersecond(bit/sorbps),andsometimesindatapacketspersecondordata
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packetspertimeslot. (Usethistoframetheanswerforincomingandoutgoing). 67. Whatiscollision? InahalfduplexEthernetnetwork,acollisionistheresultoftwodevicesonthesameEthernet networkattemptingtotransmitdataatexactlythesametime.Thenetworkdetectsthe"collision"of thetwotransmittedpacketsanddiscardsthemboth.Collisionsareanaturaloccurrenceon Ethernets.EthernetusesCarrierSenseMultipleAccess/CollisionDetect(CSMA/CD)asitsmethod ofallowingdevicesto"taketurns"usingthesignalcarrierline.Whenadevicewantstotransmit,it checksthesignallevelofthelinetodeterminewhethersomeoneelseisalreadyusingit.Ifitis alreadyinuse,thedevicewaitsandretries,perhapsinafewseconds.Ifitisn'tinuse,thedevice transmits.However,twodevicescantransmitatthesametimeinwhichcaseacollisionoccursand bothdevicesdetectit.Eachdevicethenwaitsarandomamountoftimeandretriesuntilsuccessful ingettingthetransmissionsent. Thebestremedyforcollisionsistoupgradetoafullduplexswitchedenvironment. 68. Howdoyougeneratemultipletrafficsacrossdifferentsenderreceiverpairs?

(stepsinusingNCTUns) 69. HowdoyousetupEthernetLAN? (stepsinusingNCTUns)

70. Whatismeantbymobilehost? Client(host)whoisconnectedtothenetworkbywirelessmeanstoallowmaximummobility. 71. WhatismeantbyNCTUns? NationalChiaoTungUniversitynetworksimulator.Itisanetworksimulatorforlinux. 72. Whataredispatcher,coordinatorandnctunsclient? 73. NamefewotherNetworksimulators NS2.0(linux,requiresknowledgeofTCL/TKscriptinglanguage),Netsim(linux), OPNET(windows) 74. Differentiatebetweenlogicalandphysicaladdress.

Dispatcher

NCTUnsprovidesaflexiblesimulationarchitecture,bywhichtheGUIprogramand thesimulationengineprogramcanberunondifferentmachines.InNCTUns,the GUIprogramneednotfindasimulationservertorunthesimulationengineprogram forasimulation.Instead,itsendstheDispatcherprogramaninquirymessageto knowwhichsimulationserveriscurrentlyavailable.(Thedetailsofthehandshake protocolusedbythesecomponentsareexplainedlater.)TheDispatcherprogram isresponsibleformonitoringthestatusesofthesimulationserversthatitmanages

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andselectinganavailablesimulationserver(ifoneexists)toservethesimulation requestissuedfromtheGUIprogram.

Coordinator
TheCoordinatorprogramhasthefollowingfourtasks:1)processingthecommands sentfromDispatcher;2)forking(creating)asimulationengineprocesstoperform asimulation;3)reportingthestatusofthecreatedsimulationengineprocessto theDispatcherprogram;and4)collectingthesimulationresultsproducedbyits createdsimulationengineprocessandsendingthemtotheGUIprogram.Before startinganysimulationonasimulationserver,oneshouldfirstrunupaCoordinator programonit.

nctunsclient
NCTUnsprovidesafrontendGUIprogram(callednctunsclientinitspackage), whichprovidesusefulfacilitiesforuserstoefficientlycreatesimulationand emulationcases.Accordingtouserscommonneeds,itgroupstheoperations ofgeneratingasimulation/emulationcaseintofourmodes,whicharebriefly introducedhere. a)TheDrawTopologymode: Inthismode,onecaninsertnetworknodes,createnetworklinks,andspecify thelocationsandmovingpathsofmobilenodes.Inaddition,theGUIprogram providesacompletetoolkitforuserstoconstructroadnetworks,which isfundamentaltowirelessvehicularnetworksimulations,wheremanyP2P researchersareproposingtorunP2Papplications. b)TheEditPropertymode: Inthismode,onecandoubleclicktheiconofanetworknodetoconfigureits properties(e.g.,thenetworkprotocolstackusedinthisnode,theapplications toberunonthisnodeduringsimulation,andotherparameters). c)TheRunSimulationmode: Inthismode,theGUIprogramprovidesuserswithacompletesetof commandstostart/pause/stopasimulation.Onecaneasilycontrolthe progressofasimulationbysimplypressingabuttonontheGUIcontrol panel. d)ThePlayBackmode: Afterasimulationisfinished,theGUIprogramwillautomaticallyswitchitself intothePlayBackmodeandreadthepackettracefilegeneratedduringthe simulation.Inthismode,onecanusetheGUIprogramtoreplayanodes packettransmission/receptionoperationsinananimatedmanner. 75. Whichaddressgetsaffectedifasystemmovesfromoneplacetoanotherplace?

ipaddress

76. WhatisICMP?WhatareusesofICMP?Namefew. 27/29

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TheInternetControlMessageProtocol(ICMP)isoneofthecoreprotocolsoftheInternetProtocol Suite.Itischieflyusedbynetworkedcomputers'operatingsystemstosenderrormessages indicating,forinstance,thatarequestedserviceisnotavailableorthatahostorroutercouldnotbe reached. ICMP[1]reliesonIPtoperformitstasks,anditisanintegralpartofIP.Itdiffersinpurposefrom transportprotocolssuchasTCPandUDPinthatitistypicallynotusedtosendandreceivedata betweenendsystems.Itisusuallynotuseddirectlybyusernetworkapplications,withsome notableexceptionsbeingthepingtoolandtraceroute.

79.Whichlayerimplementssecurityfordata?
Transport Layer: The main function of this Layer is to ensure data reliability and integrity. Presentation Layer: Application data is either unpacked or packed only in this layer. Protocol conversions, encryption/decryption and graphics expansion all takes place here.

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