Principle of Telecom Transmission

General Telecom
Transmission Principles
Handout
770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02
Status Change Note
Released
Short Title GETE All rights reserved. Passing on and copying of this document, use and communication of its contents not permitted without written authorization from Alcatel.
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Contents
Contents
1 TRANSMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 1.2 2 2.1 TRANSMISSION : TRANSPORT IN THE CORE NETWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TRANSMISSION : IN THE ACCESS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 SAMPLING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 QUANTISING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.3 ENCODING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . MULTIPLEXING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING . . . . . . . . TIMING RELATED CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 PLESIOCHRONOUS SIGNALS . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 SYNCHRONISATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DIGITAL HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SYNCHRONOUS TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING . . 3.1.1 THE EUROPEAN E1 SIGNAL . . . . . . . . . . ASYNCHRONOUS TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING PDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 THE EUROPEAN HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . APPLICATIONS AND PRODUCTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 IN THE ACCESS NETWORK . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 IN THE CORE NETWORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 COMPLEXITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 TRANSMISSION HIERARCHY . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.3 MANAGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.4 ADVANTAGES OF SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DESCRIPTION OF SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 SDH FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 SDH TERMINOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.5 OVERHEAD INFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . THE SDH NETWORK AND SDH PRODUCTS . . . . . . 4.3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 13 13 14 14 15 15 16 18 19 22 22 22 23 24 24 24 28 29 31 31 32 34 34 34 40 41 42 42 42 44 46 52 56 57 57
BASIC PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 2.3 2.4 3 3.1 3.2 3.3
PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH) . . . . . .
SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (SDH) . . . . . . . . . 4.1
4.2
4.3
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4.3.2 5 5.1
NETWORK ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 64 64 64 65 66 68 68 69 70 71 71 73 79 83 83 84 87 88 88 91 91 92 93 95 96 96 99 100 100 103 108 111 112 113 115 117 119 119 120 121
FIBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fundamentals of Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Refractive Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Law of Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Total Internal Reflection (TIR) . . . . . . . . . . Fundamentals of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Advantages of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Structure of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Classification of Optical Fibers . . . . . . . . Propagation of Light Through Optical Fibers . . . . . . 5.3.1 Coupling of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.2 Transmission Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3.3 Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers . . . . . . . . Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Star Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2 Ring Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.3 Bus Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single and Double Fiber Optical Networks . . . . . . . . Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 PSK: Phase Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 FSK: Frequency Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . Time Division Multiaccess Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Basic Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wavelength Division Multiaccess Networks . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Basic concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Single-hop WDMA Networks . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Multihop WDMA Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . Passive Optical Component functions . . . . . . . . . . . . The 2x2 Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Splitter/Combiners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WDM multiplexer/demultiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optical transmitters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.1 Absorption and emission of light . . . . . . . 8.5.2 Light-Emitting Diode (LED) . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.3 Fabry-Perot laser (FP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2
5.3
TRANSMISSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1
6.2 6.3
MULTIACCESS NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 7.2
OPTICAL COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5
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8.6 8.7
8.5.4 DFB laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optical receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Loss and return loss considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Figures
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 Figure 13 Figure 14 Figure 15 Figure 16 Figure 17 Figure 18 Figure 19 Figure 20 Figure 21 Figure 22 Figure 23 Figure 24 Figure 25 Figure 26 Figure 27 Figure 28 Figure 29 Figure 30 Figure 31 Figure 32 Figure 33 Figure 34 Figure 35 Figure 36 Figure 37 Figure 38 Figure 39 Figure 40 Figure 41 Figure 42 Figure 43 Figure 44 Transmission on the access and in the core network . . . . . . Simple representation of the modulation/demodulation . . . Sampling of voice signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Most used codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Principles of TDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Byte and bit interleaving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital hierarchies (kbit/s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 30 channel (32 time slot) E1 frame structure . . . . . . . . . Multiframe structure overview for a 16 frame multiframe . . General structure of multiplexed PDH frames . . . . . . . . . . . . The European hierarchy (2nd order and up) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8448 kbit/s multiplexing frame structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8448 kbit/s multiplexing frame structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subscriber multiplexer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Connection between analogue exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optimization of a 2 Mbit/s leased line network . . . . . . . . . . . Relative cable cost - coaxial cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A traditional network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evolution of transmission cost - optical systems . . . . . . . . . . Optical fibre based ring network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Back-to-back multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Add/drop multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International plesiochronous digital hierarchies (kbit/s) . . . . STM-1 (SDH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . STS-1 (SONET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SDH network structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Synchronous multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiplexing : from C-1 to STM-N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Containers in SDH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Virtual Container . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tributary Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tributary Unit Group (example TUG-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administrative Unit (example AU-4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Administrative Unit Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CCITT multiplexing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETSI multiplexing structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Section Overhead STM-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Path Overhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical SDH network configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Add/Drop multiplexer function (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Digital Cross-connect function (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Higher order multiplexer function (example) . . . . . . . . . . . . . SDH network element types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Law of Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 14 15 18 20 21 23 25 27 28 29 30 31 32 32 33 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 43 44 45 47 48 49 49 50 51 51 52 54 55 56 57 59 60 61 62 62 65
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Figure 45 Figure 46 Figure 47 Figure 48 Figure 49 Figure 50 Figure 51 Figure 52 Figure 53 Figure 54 Figure 55 Figure 56 Figure 57 Figure 58 Figure 59 Figure 60 Figure 61 Figure 62 Figure 63 Figure 64 Figure 65 Figure 66 Figure 67 Figure 68 Figure 69 Figure 70 Figure 71 Figure 72 Figure 73 Figure 74 Figure 75 Figure 76 Figure 77 Figure 78 Figure 79 Figure 80 Figure 81 Figure 82 Figure 83 Figure 84 Figure 85 Figure 86 Figure 87 Figure 88 Figure 89 Figure 90
External vs. Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Optical fibre working principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal structure optical fiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Refractive index profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acceptance cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Losses in dB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Attenuation windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Effective refractive index for fused Quartz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Material dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dispersion Shifted and Dispersion Flattened Fiber . . . . . . . . Dispersion Compensated fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stimulated emission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . EDFA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use of optical amplifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Network Topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Star Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ring Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bus Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Single and Double Fiber Optical Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On/off keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phase Values used for PSK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lithium Niobate Crystal Modulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Frequency Shift Keying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TDM/TDMA Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic design of dense WDM system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Broadcast-and-select Single Hop WDMA Star Network . . Wavelength-routing single-hop WDMA network . . . . . . . . WDMA Network Implementation Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Example of a Single-hop WDMA Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Spectrum Slicing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multihop WDMA Star Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passive Optical Component Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fiber Directional Coupler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planar Lightguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Duplex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fused Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Planar Splitter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WDM Fiber Coupler with In-line Filters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WDM Transceiver in One Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grating Based WDM Device (Littrow Configuration) . . . . . . . Absorption and Emission of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LED Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ouput Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fabry-Perot Resonant Cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Packaged Laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FP versus DFB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67 68 69 71 72 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 84 86 87 88 90 92 92 93 94 97 102 104 105 105 106 108 110 112 114 114 115 116 116 118 118 119 120 121 122 123 123 125
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Figure 91 Figure 92 Figure 93 Figure 94 Figure 95 Figure 96
FP versus DFB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DFB Laser Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Operation of a PIN Photodiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Centering of fiber surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Return loss of optical connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . APC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
126 127 128 129 130 131
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Tables
Table 1 Table underneath gives some typical refractive iondexes . . . 65
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1 TRANSMISSION
1 TRANSMISSION
Figure 1 gives an overview about how transmission can be situated in networks. The main purpose of transmission systems is:
"
to provide a means for the fast and efficient transport of information (voice, data, video); to connect users to a network in an efficient way. Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH); Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).
"
Two types of transmission technologies are used today:

" "
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1 TRANSMISSION
Access
TRANSMISSION Core Network

SWITCHING / ROUTING
TRANSMISSION
TRANSMISSION
SWITCHING / ROUTING
Figure 1
Transmission on the access and in the core network
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1 TRANSMISSION
1.1
TRANSMISSION : TRANSPORT IN THE CORE NETWORK

The core network refers to a (public) infrastructure that provides for the connections among communicating users. This infrastructure contains network nodes and transmission links. Examples of "core networks": Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN), Public (and Private) Data Networks, Broadband-ISDN Network, the Internet. The main function of the network nodes is to forward the information to the correct destination. This can be done: by switching (exchanges) or by routing (routers). Both systems work on a per call basis, which means that they have to find out where to forward the information whenever information has to be exchanged between users. Transmission provides the necessary capacity for the fast transport of the information in the network. The path the information follows in the transmission network is predefined, and is called a semi-permanent connection. So transmission does not work on a per call basis, it does not have to find out where to forward the information, because the path already exists semi-permanently for the communication of two or more users. Transmission systems interconnect network nodes and/or (usually business ) data users. As mentioned already, the core network usually contains network nodes and transmission links. However it is possible to build a network infrastructure which is based exclusively on transmission connections. Existing transport systems are based on the PDH technology. However, it is generally considered that PDH systems are to be replaced by the more performing SDH technology based systems. Indeed, most newly installed networks are based on SDH technology.
1.2
TRANSMISSION : IN THE ACCESS

Transmission systems in the access network aim to optimize the access network infrastructure; to save on wiring for example. At the same time such a transmission system forms the interface between the users and the network. PDH is the most typical system used in access networks.
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2.1 PULSE CODE MODULATION (PCM)
Originally, the telephone network treated the information in an analogue form. All transmitted signals were analogous, which means that these signals were a simple electrical reproduction of speech sound waves. Analogue transmission is sensitive to electro-magnetic disturbances (noise). Because of this noise, the signal quality decreases. As a result, the quality of long distance transmissions can become unacceptable. Because digital transmission ensures better quality, it is interesting to treat the voice information in a digital form. A digital signal consists of series of pulses that characterise the original voice signal. To digitise the voice signal a new technique is required. Digitisation aims to convert the telephone signal from an analogue signal form into a digital signal form. The conversion technique is referred to as the Pulse Code Modulation (PCM). Figure 2 shows the principles of PCM modulation and demodulation.
ANALOGUE signal DIGITAL signal ANALOGUE signal
Voice Sampling Quantising Coding
....
Voice Coding Quantising Sampling
Figure 2
Simple representation of the modulation/demodulation
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2.1.1
SAMPLING
The analogue telephone signal changes continuously. It is however not necessary to transmit the whole signal. The information can be sampled. If a sufficient number of samples are present, the original signal can be (approximately) reconstructed. (Figure 3 ) Then, for each sample, an encoded value of the amplitude is sent to the other side.
Analogue signal
Amplitude
Samples of the amplitude t
Figure 3
Sampling of voice signal
2.1.2
QUANTISING
The amplitude samples do not form a digital signal yet, because each sample can have any value. So, the next step to create a digital signal is quantising, which is to convert the value of the amplitude sample to a value that belongs to a limited set of discrete values. After quantising, the samples' value is limited to 256 discrete levels. The amplitude of each sample is now expressed by an amplitude that can be represented by an eight bit code. The two most used quantising methods are:
" "
A-law : used in Europe, Africa, South-America; -law : used in North-America, Japan.
Consequently, the stream of bits is only an approximation of the analogue signal:
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
"
The samples are used to represent the signal. The rest of the signal is not transmitted. The amplitude of every sample is represented by a code. This code is only an approximation of the actual amplitude of the signal.
"
So, the digital signal is only an approximation of the actual information, but the differences are however small enough to remain unnoticeable. The maximum frequency of the telephone signal is 3400 Hz. To represent this information in the form of samples, at least 2 X 3400 samples per second are required. In telephony applications, we take 8000 samples per second, which means one sample in every 125 sec. Each sample is converted into an 8 bits form. As a result, the digital telephone signal is represented as 8 bits/ 125 sec, which is equivalent to 64000 bit/sec..
2.1.3
ENCODING
Before the transmission of the digital information, additional encoding is done. The transmission codes have to have the following characteristics:
"
the average DC component introduced on the line has to be 0 Volts to increase the possible transmission distance. they have to provide frequent transitions of the digital signal, to recover the bit clock. HDB3 : High Density Bipolar excess 3; AMI : Alternate Mark Inversion; NRZ : Non-Return to Zero; RZ : Return to Zero; CMI : Coded Mark Inversion. In this code a "0" is represented by 0 Volts, and a "1" is represented alternate by a positive or negative tension.
"
The most used codes are ( Figure 4) :

" " " " "
a) AMI coding
b) HDB3 coding This code inserts "violation" pulses when more than 3 "0"s arrive consecutively. The transmitter side inserts these pulses, the receiver detects and deletes them. String of four "0"s are coded:
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
first 0 : 0 1 if preceding 1 and violation have different polarity; if preceding 1 and violation have the same polarity. The 1 is coded according to the AMI rule;
D D
second and third 0 : always 0; fourth 0 : always 1, in such a way that it violates the AMI rule.
A 1 is always coded as 1, according to the AMI rule. c) NRZ coding In this code a "0" is represented for example by 0 Volts, and a "1" is represented by a positive tension. d) CMI coding CMI is a two level NRZ code, in which a "0" is represented by both a positive and a negative tension, each for half a unit time interval. A "1" is represented alternate by a positive or a negative tension, for a full unit time interval.
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
Binary signal
HDB3
AMI
NRZ
RZ
CMI
Figure 4
Most used codes
2.2
MULTIPLEXING
Multiplexing offers an economically efficient way to carry communication information from several sources on the same physical carrier. Without multiplexing, each communication needs a separate physical carrier. The physical carrier has at least an n times higher bandwidth, than the n individual communications, it carries. Three main multiplexing techniques exist:
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
"
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) : used in radio and satellite transmission; Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) : used in the telephone network; Statistical Division Multiplexing (STDM) : used in packet switching networks.
"
"
These multiplexing techniques can also be combined, like it is done for example in some mobile telecommunication networks. In this course we discuss transmission systems based exclusively on Time Division Multiplexing (TDM).
2.2.1
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

A Time Division Multiplexing system is a transmission system in which a number of communications are multiplexed onto one carrier. Each of the communications has an assigned time slot, where the digital value of the signal at that moment is transported. At the transmitter and at the receiver side of the transmission line, scanning devices process the information for each time slot. The term frame refers to the structure imposed with a certain periodicity (for example 125 sec) on the transmission line. The frame is a set of consecutive time slots. The position of each time slot can be identified by reference to a frame alignment indicator. Figure 5 shows the principles of TDM.
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
channel 1 channel n channel 2 channel 3 x channel n
channel 1 channel 2
network
Timing signal 1
Timing signal 2
Timing signal 3
Timing signal n
Multi plexed channel time slots
time
Figure 5
Principles of TDM Two different multiplexing procedures exist, according to the amount of time spent per input channel. If the time slot accommodates one complete byte of the input signal, the multiplexed output signal is termed "byte interleaved". Alternatively, "bit interleaved" multiplexed signals contain just one bit of the input signal per time slot. (Figure 6).
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
channel 1 A1 channel 2 A2 channel 3 A3 channel 4 A4 . . . channel 7 A7

channel 8
B1
C1
D1
E1
F1
G1
H1
B2
C2
D2
E2
F2
G2
H2
B3
C3
D3
E3
F3
G3
H3
B4 . . . B7
C4 . . . C7
D4 . . . D7
E4 . . . E7
F4 . . . F7
G4 . . . G7
H4 . . . H7
A8
B8
C8
D8 1 Byte (8 bits)
E8
F8
G8
H8
Byte interleaving
A B C D1E F G1H1 A2 B C D E F G H 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A B C D E F G H 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
Time slot
Bit interleaving
A1 A A A A A A A B B B B B B B B 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
H H H H H H H H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time slot Time
Figure 6
Byte and bit interleaving
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2.3
2.3.1
TIMING RELATED CONCEPTS

PLESIOCHRONOUS SIGNALS
Signals whose significant instants occur at nominally the same rate, and any variation in that rate is restricted between specified limits. Generally, signals that have the same nominal rate, but not originated from the same clock are plesiochronous.
2.3.2
SYNCHRONISATION
To be able to interpret the information at the receiver side, synchronisation is needed. a) Bit synchronisation It is the mechanism for the bit and/or byte recuperation out of an information stream. The information must be read in the middle of the bit, otherwise it is likely to be wrongly interpreted. Bit synchronisation is achieved by the usage of:
D D D D
start/stop bits; synchronisation characters; introduce enough transitions in the coding ; etc.
b) Frame synchronisation (alignment) It is the mechanism to recover the frame structure from the recovered bit and/or byte stream. The standard transmission framing structures (CCITT recommendations) are used for this purpose. They recommend to insert a fixed synchronisation pattern (flag) in the begin positions of the frames.
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2 BASIC PRINCIPLES
2.4
DIGITAL HIERARCHY
Because of historical reasons different (PDH) digital hierarchies were defined for the North American and European transmission networks. (Figure 7).
Hierarchical level North Tx bit rate number of channels American European Ex bit rate 64 24 96 672 3 x 672 2048 8448 34368 139264 32 128 512 4 x 512 number of channels
64 1 2 3 4 1544 6312 44736 139264
Figure 7
Digital hierarchies (kbit/s)
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3 PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH)

3.1 SYNCHRONOUS TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
In the previous chapter it was described, that digital signals can be multiplexed, by interleaving them in the time domain (TDM). If these signals are derived from the same master clock, then a fixed phase relationship exists between them, so they are synchronous signals.
3.1.1
THE EUROPEAN E1 SIGNAL

a) The frame Figure 8 shows the frame, which consists of 30 voice channels, each sampled at 8 kHz, compressed according to the A-law, and coded as an 8 bit word. The 30 communications are word (byte) interleaved. These 30 channels contain 240 bits. The frame also contains 2 more channels; they are used for synchronisation and signalling. Consequently, the total capacity of the frame is 256 bits. Its duration is 125 sec. As a result, the total bit rate is 2,048 Mbit/s. The permitted bit rate on an interface is 2,048 Mbit/s + 50 ppm (parts per million).
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Timeslot 0 8 bits
Timeslot 1 Channel 1 8 bits
Timeslot 16 8 bits
Timeslot 17 Channel 16
frame alignment Frame
signalling ( 256 bits, 125 sec)
Figure 8
The 30 channel (32 time slot) E1 frame structure b) Multiframe structure The E1 system uses multiframe structures. A multiframe consists of 16 frames. (Figure 9). 8 frames make a sub-multiframe, consequently a multiframe contains two sub-multiframes. Frame alignment signal Seven bits of the first timeslot of each even numbered frame contain the frame alignment signal. Its pattern is 0011011. CRC-4 multiframe In the frames that contain the frame alignment signal, the first bit of the first timeslot is used to transmit the CRC-4 bits, which are: C1, C2, C3, and C4. In the frames that do not contain the frame alignment signal, the first bit of the first timeslot is used to transmit the CRC-4 multiframe alignment signal and two CRC-4 error indication bits. These bits are respectively: 001011 and EE. The E bits indicate that erroneous sub-multiframes were received. Signalling Signalling information can be carried in timeslot 16 of each frame. Two signalling types are possible:
"
Common channel signalling: A typical example is the CCITT Common Channel Signalling System Number 7, which uses a common channel, usually timeslot 16 to carry signalling information for several communications.
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"
Channel associated signalling: it uses the multiframe structure. Four bits of timeslot16 of the first frame carry the signalling multiframe alignment signal. For the channel associated signalling four bits are assigned (a, b, c, d). Each frame in the multiframe structure can carry signalling information for two channels in timeslot 16. This bit allocation offers four 500 bit/s signalling channels for each channels.
If timeslot 16 is not used for signalling, it can be used to carry user information. This is the case of leased lines. Remark : In fact, two multiframe structures exist : the CRC multiframe, and the signalling (CAS) multiframe. They operate independent from each other. So, be careful at the interpretation of Figure 9 !
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Submultiframe
Frame number 1 C1
0
Timeslot 0 bits 2 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 3 0 A 0 A 0 A 0 A 0 A 0 A 0 A 0 A 4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 1 Sa4 5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 1 Sa5 6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 0 Sa6 7 1
Sa7
Timeslot 16 (x) bits 8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 Sa8 1 2 3 4 5 6 xyxx abcd channel 16 channel 17 channel 18 channel 19 channel 20 channel 21 channel 22 channel 23 channel 24 channel 25 channel 26 channel 27 channel 28 channel 29 channel 30 7 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0000 abcd channel 1 channel 2 channel 3 channel 4 channel 5 channel 6 channel 7 channel 8 channel 9 channel 10 channel 11 channel 12 channel 13 channel 14 channel 15
C2 0 C3 1 C4 0 C1 1 C2 1 C3 E C4 E
1 Sa7 1 Sa7 1 Sa7 1 Sa7 1 Sa7 1 Sa7 1 Sa7
II
12 13 14 15
C1, C2,C3,C4: CRC-4 bits 001011 : CRC multiframe alignment E : CRC-4 error indication bit If no CRC-4 is used, bit contains Si :reserved for internat. use Sa4, Sa5, Sa6, Sa7, Sa8 : additional spare bits Sa4: data link for management Sa5..Sa7: for national use A: Remote Alarm Indication
(X): only applicable in case of channel associated signalling 0000: multiframe alignment for timeslot 16 x: spare bit y: alarm indication
Figure 9
Multiframe structure overview for a 16 frame multiframe
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3.2
ASYNCHRONOUS TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING - PDH

To further increase transmission efficiency even more digital signals can be multiplexed. However, these tributary signals are originated from different clock sources, so they are plesiochronous signals. The process to multiplex such signals is referred to as asynchronous. Special action, called justification, is needed for the multiplexing. One bit location is assigned for each tributary in each frame in such a way that, depending on the instantaneous needs, it does or does not carry information from the tributary signal. This is also referred to as the "stuffing" bit. To enable the receiver to correctly interpret the content of the stuffing bit ("stuffing" or useful information) an addition control digit per tributary is foreseen in the frame. Figure 10 shows the general structure of a multiplexed signal.
"
A multiplexed signal forms a frame, which is divided into a number of units, referred to as "sets". Each frame carries a frame alignment signal in the first bit positions of set 1. In the consecutive sets, one justification control bit is reserved for each tributary signal These are marked JC bit. In the last set one justification bit is reserved for each tributary signal. These are marked JB bit.
"
"
"
Frame alignment
JC1... JCn JC1... JCn JC1... JCn JB1... JBn
set 1
set 2
set 3 Frame
set m
JCn : Justification Control bit of the "n-th" tributary JBn : Justification Bit of the "n-th" tributary
Figure 10
General structure of multiplexed PDH frames
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3.2.1
THE EUROPEAN HIERARCHY

Figure 11 shows the defined bit rates for each level of the hierarchy, and it also shows, that the multiplexing at each level is based on bit interleaving.
Bit rate (kbit/s) 8 448 34 368 139 264
Interleaving
bit bit bit
Figure 11
The European hierarchy (2nd order and up) a) Example : 8448 Kbit/s signal frame structure The second order signal has a bit rate of 8448 kbit/s + 30 ppm. It has four tributaries whose nominal bit rate is 2048 kbit/s. The frame duration is 100,4 sec. The frame length is 848 bits. Each tributary signal can take 206 bits within a frame. The frame contains 4 sets of 212 bits. Figure 12 and Figure 13 show the frame structure.
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Frame structure
Bit number SET 1
Frame alignment signal (1111010000) Alarm indication to remote multiplexer Bit reserved for national use 12 Bits from tributaries
1 to 10 11 13 to 212
SET 2 Justification control bits Cj Bits from tributaries

1
1 to 4 5 to 212 SET 3
Justification control bits Cj2 Bits from tributaries
1 to 4 5 to 212 SET 4
Justification control bits Cj3 Bits from tributaries available for justification Bits from tributaries
1 to 4 5 to 8 9 to 212
Cji : the ith justification control bit of the jth tributary
Figure 12
8448 kbit/s multiplexing frame structure
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Bits 1 to 20 of the sets SET 1 2 3 4 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

11 11 11 11 10 11 10 10 10 10 Ai JC1 JC2 JC3 JC4 T1 T2 JC1 JC2 JC3 JC4 T1 T2 T3 T3 T4 T1 T4 T1 T2 T2 T2 R T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T1 T2 T3 T3 T3 T3 T4 T1 T4 T1 T4 T1 T4 T1 T2 T2 T2 T2 T3 T4 T3 T4 T3 T4 T3 T4
T3 T4 T3 T4 T3 T4
JC1 JC2 JC3 JC4 JB1 JB2 JB3 JB4 T1
Ai : alarm indicator R : reserved T j: bits from tributary j JC j : justification control bits for tributary j JB j : justification bit for tributary j
Figure 13
8448 kbit/s multiplexing frame structure
3.3
3.3.1
APPLICATIONS AND PRODUCTS

IN THE ACCESS NETWORK
Subscriber multiplexer: The aim here is to optimize the telephone access network, thus to reduce the number of physical subscriber connections to the network. (Figure 14)
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1 local
exchange
2 Mbit/s link
multiplexer 30
remote multiplexer
multipair cable
Figure 14
Subscriber multiplexer
3.3.2
IN THE CORE NETWORK

This is the oldest and most known application of a multiplexer. (Figure 15). The aim is to reduce the number of physical trunk connections between exchanges and to increase the transmission quality. All installations work on a point-to-point base.
1 multiplexer
exchange
Trunk connections between analogue exchanges
2 Mbit/s transmission link multiplexer
30
30
Figure 15
Connection between analogue exchanges
Network optimization (2 Mbit/s leased lines)

Figure 16 shows a leased line network before and after optimization. Because of the usage of a more evolved type of multiplexer in network node C, we can eliminate one trunk connection. The two trunk connections that remain are also used more efficiently.
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exchange
Conventional multiplexer in network node C

users network node A 2 Mbit/s
10 channels used (10/30)
2 Mbit/s
network node B 2 Mbit/s
users
network node C
users
Other type of multiplexer in network node C

users network node A 2 Mbit/s
20 channels used (20/30) 10 channels
network node B 2 Mbit/s

users
10 channels
network node C
15 channels
users
Figure 16
Optimization of a 2 Mbit/s leased line network
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4 SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (SDH)

4.1 EVOLUTION TOWARDS SDH
Transmission systems based on PDH have a number of weak points. It became necessary to develop a new, high capacity, flexible transmission system. Research started in the mid 1980s in the USA, and resulted in the Bellcore - ANSI standard referred to as the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). This transmission system was specifically designed for the North-American market. CCITT accepted the concept of this transmission system, but it had to make certain changes to define a worldwide system. The participants in CCITT reached an agreement in 1988, and the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) transmission system was born. Next, we explain the weak points of the existing PDH system that led to the development of SDH. At the same time we give the requirements for the SDH system.
4.1.1
COMPLEXITY
Let us first take a look at the transmission network itself, and examine the impact of the introduction of optical technology in the long distance transmission network. Traditionally, before optical fibres were available, coaxial cables were used to construct long distance transmission networks. The price of the coaxial cable is heavily related to its bandwidth. (Figure 17).
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Cost
Higher quality coax
High quality coax Thick coax Thin coax Mbit/s 2 8 34 140
Figure 17
Relative cable cost - coaxial cable Because the coaxial cable costs are much higher for a higher order system than the costs for a lower order system, the networks were carefully dimensioned, according to the capacity needed on each link. Figure 18 shows the typical structure of a small network.
Network node 2 x 2 Mbit/s 1 x 8 Mbit/s
Network node
2 x 8 Mbit/s
Network node
1 x 2 Mbit/s
Network node
2 x 2 Mbit/s
Figure 18
A traditional network
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Optical fibres can carry any bitrate, for example from 2 Mbit/s to 140 Mbit/s and even higher. Consequently, the cost of the optical fibre is independent of the bitrate it carries. Furthermore, because of the constant technical improvements in the field of fibre technology, optical transmitters and receivers, and the widespread use of optical systems, the price of optical transmission systems was reduced drastically over the past years. (Figure 19).
Transmission Cost per Mbit/s.km (relative)
45 Mbit/s 1000 90 Mbit/s
100
400 Mbit/s
10
1.2 Gbit/s 2.5 Gbit/s
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
Figure 19
Evolution of transmission cost - optical systems Consequently, a network, which uses optical fibre transmission links, will possibly have a different structure. The point-to-point connections in the traditional network can be replaced by a ring network. Such a ring network operates at a high speed, for example at 140 Mbit/s and it passes through all the network nodes. ( Figure 20).
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Network node 140 Mbit/s ring network Network node Network node
Network node
Figure 20
Optical fibre based ring network It carries information for several network nodes on the same optical cable. Lower order signals (for example 2 Mbit/s) that carry information destined for a certain network node are removed from the high order signal (140 Mbit/s) in that network node. Similarly, lower order signals can also be inserted into the higher order signal in that network node. Let us see what happens in a network node, when we have to remove and/or insert a lower order signal from/to the higher order signal carried by the backbone network.
THE PROBLEM IN PDH - Back-to-back multiplexing

Figure 21 illustrates back-to-back multiplexing. In a PDH system the procedure to remove a tributary signal is as follows:
"
first the incoming 140 Mbit/s signal has to be demultiplexed. This results in four signals of each 34 Mbit/s. then a 34 Mbit/s signal has to be demultiplexed. This results in four signals of each 8 Mbit/s. then an 8 Mbit/s signal has to be demultiplexed. This results in four signals of each 2 Mbit/s.
"
"
When we want to insert a tributary signal into the higher order signal the inverse procedure is done. Starting from a 2 Mbit/s signal, three multiplexing steps are needed to come to the 140 Mbit/s signal.
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140 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s
140 34
34 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s
3 4
. .
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
. .
2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s
2 34
34 140
34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
64 x 2 Mbit/s
Figure 21
Back-to-back multiplexing We need a lot of equipment for this procedure, a cascade of multiplexers/demultiplexers have to be installed in the network node. This solution has a number of disadvantages :
"
expensive and not flexible, because : tailor-made installation is required in each network node. If we reconfigure the network we have to reconfigure and/or change the equipment.
"
lots of processing increases the probability of faults and failures.
Back-to-back multiplexing is not an optimal solution. The reason lies in the PDH multiplexing structures.
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THE SOLUTION IN SDH - Add/Drop multiplexer

In the SDH transmission network the network resources are synchronised to a master clock. In such a network it is possible to assemble higher order frames by byte interleaving, instead of bit interleaving as it happens in PDH networks. This permits a more appropriate way to remove and add lower order signals from and into a higher order signal. We can now directly drop/add lower order signals, without having to demultiplex/multiplex through the whole hierarchy. (Figure 22).
140 Mbit/s signal
140 Mbit/s signal
ADD/DROP multiplexer
Drop
lower order signal
Add
Figure 22
Add/drop multiplexing
4.1.2
TRANSMISSION HIERARCHY
Because of historical reasons different PDHs were defined in the North American, European and Japanese transmission networks. A fourth hierarchy was defined as a hybrid of the European and North American PDHs when it became necessary to connect digital transmission links between the continents. Figure 23 shows all four hierarchies.
THE PROBLEM IN PDH - Different hierarchies
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Hierarchical level 0 1 2 3 4
North America 64 1544 6312 44736 139264
Europe
Japan
Trans-Atlantic
64 2048 8448 34368 139264
64 1544 6312 32064 97728
64 2048 6312 44736 139264
Figure 23
International plesiochronous digital hierarchies (kbit/s)
THE SOLUTION IN SDH - One higher order hierarchy

For the SDH one common hierarchy will be defined. The existing PDHs only define bit rates up to 140 Mbit/s. Modern optical systems can offer higher bit rates. So, in the SDH new levels of multiplexing hierarchies will be defined for these high bit rates.
4.1.3
MANAGEMENT
Operators need a standardised way to manage their equipment and their network. In this way transmission equipment from different vendors can also be managed centrally. a) THE PROBLEM IN PDH - Limited possibilities Traditional PDH equipment was not foreseen to be part of a powerful management system. However, when higher order systems were designed, management had to be considered too. Problems still remained :
D D D
limited functionality; proprietary management systems; no multi-vendor network management.
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b) THE SOLUTION IN SDH - Powerful management Because of the importance of efficient management the definition of the SDH transmission system foresees a framework for this purpose. The defined management strategy is also in line with the principles of the Telecommunications Management Network (TMN) philosophy.
4.1.4
ADVANTAGES OF SDH
In summary, the characteristics of the new transmission system are :
"
network resources are synchronised to a master clock. Hence the names Synchronous Digital Hierarchy and Synchronous Optical Network.
"
it uses one worldwide hierarchy and defines very high bitrates; Thus it also supports broadband services. it permits to do add/drop multiplexing; This results in less equipment, and more flexibility. it includes the possibility of powerful management; This results in flexibility and high reliability. it is based on optical fibre transmission links. Hence the name Synchronous Optical Network. Remark : however, radio links may also be used.
"
"
"
4.2
4.2.1
DESCRIPTION OF SDH
SDH FRAMES
The name of the SDH transmission frame is Synchronous Transport Module, and it is referred to as STM-N, where N indicates the SDH hierarchy level. Figure 24 shows the basic, first level SDH frame structure, the SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT MODULE 1 (STM-1).
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270 bytes
1 1
9 10
270
Overhead
PAYLOAD
9 rows
9 125 sec
Figure 24
STM-1 (SDH) The characteristics of the STM-1 frame are :

" " "
content : 9 x 270 bytes = 2430 bytes; period : 125 sec; bitrate : 155,520 Mbit/s (2430 x 8 bits in every 125 sec); payload capacity : 150,336 Mbit/s (2349 x 8 bits in every 125 sec). The transmission of the frame is done row by row, from the top left corner (row number 1 on Figure 24 ).
"
SDH also defines higher order frames. Generally, an STM-N frame contains : overhead : 9 rows x 9 bytes x N payload : 9 rows x 261 bytes x N
Consequently, its bitrate is N x bitrate of the STM-1 frame.
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Standardised frames are: STM-4 : bitrate 622, 080 Mbit/s STM-16 : bitrate 2 488, 320 Mbit/s STM-64 : bitrate 9 953, 280 Mbit/s It is also possible, that in the future higher rates corresponding to higher values of N will be defined if network operators need them and when technology permits. All STM frames have a period of 125 sec . In the SONET transmission system the basic, first level transmission frame is the SYNCHRONOUS TRANSPORT SIGNAL 1 (STS-1). Its bitrate is 51,840 Mbit/s. (Figure 25).
90 bytes
1 1
3 4
90
Over head
PAYLOAD
9 rows
9 125 sec
Figure 25
STS-1 (SONET) The SDH frames STM-1, STM-4, and STM-16 correspond respectively to STS-3, STS-12, and STS-48 in the SONET standards.
4.2.2
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
An SDH transmission network is handled as a layered structure. (Figure 26 )
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The three layers are :

" " "
Path Layer; Multiplex Section Layer; Regenerator Section Layer.
Transmission path
Multiplex section
Regenerator section
Figure 26
SDH network structure The STM-N frame contains different types of overhead information. The overhead information is used for operation, administration, maintenance and provisioning (OAM&P). The concept of layers permits to structure the overhead information into different blocks inside of the STM-N frame. So each type of equipment has direct access to the information it needs, and each type of equipment interprets only that information, which is meaningful for it. The Path layer overhead carries information related to a specific signal and its path through the network. The Multiplex Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication between multiplexers. The Regenerator Section Layer overhead carries information for the communication between regenerators.
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4.2.3
SDH TERMINOLOGY
As it was referred earlier, a PDH network is based on a synchronous frame of 125 sec, derived from the sampling rate used for the PCM of voice signals. It was also shown, that the PDH first order signals use byte interleaved frame structures, derived from this same basic 125 sec frame. The SDH extends this principle to higher order multiplexing. Multiplexing is always done by byte interleaving of 125 sec frame synchronous signals. STM-1 is the internationally standardised first order SDH frame, with a bitrate of 155,52 Mbit/s. This frame can carry:
"
a single, higher order signal of approximately 140 Mbit/s several lower order plesiochronous signals, which are multiplexed into a higher order signal of approximately 140 Mbit/s . These lower order signals can be of any type defined in the PDH hierarchy.
or
"
Figure 27 shows the principles of synchronous multiplexing. An STM-N frame contains on the section layer level:
"
SECTION OVERHEADs (SOH) Carry information for the management of the regenerator and multiplexer section layer.
"
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT POINTER (AU PTR) Indicator, used for the adaptation of the path layers. It shows the position of the higher order Virtual Container.
"
The payload. The payload part contains

D
higher order Virtual Containers (VC). A higher order Virtual Container contains : lower order Virtual Containers.
All Virtual Containers contain on the path layer level:

D D
PATH OVERHEAD (POH). payload.
Virtual Containers are referred to as "virtual" because they are logical entities that only exist in an STM, and "containers", because they contain the information (a particular signal).
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lower order
VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
CONTAINER lower order PATH OVERHEAD
higher order PATH OVERHEAD higher order VIRTUAL CONTAINERs
AU PTR
Payload
SECTION OVERHEAD
Synchronous Transport Module
Figure 27
Synchronous multiplexing Figure 28 shows an example how multiplexing is done in SDH.
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C-1 C-1
C-1
POH
VC-1
TU-1 PTR
VC-1
TU-1
TU-1 PTR
TU-1 PTR
VC-1 byte interleaved
VC-1
TUG-2
TUG-2 byte interleaved VC-4 POH TUG-3
TUG-2
TUG-3
TUG-3
VC-4
AU-4 PTR
VC-4
AU-4
AU-4 PTR
VC-4
AUG
SOH
AUG byte interleaved
AUG
STM-N
Figure 28
Multiplexing : from C-1 to STM-N
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CONTAINER (C) A signal, which has to be transported in the SDH transmission network, is first "put" in a container. To fit the different plesiochronous signals, different container sizes are defined. Figure 29 shows these containers.
Name C-11 C-12
Bitrate (Mbit/s) 1,544 2,048
C-2
6,312
C-3
34,368 44,736 139,264
C-4
Figure 29
Containers in SDH VIRTUAL CONTAINER (VC) Each container has its associated Path Overhead (POH). The POH is generated at the plesiochronous-synchronous interface, and it is terminated at the synchronous-plesiochronous interface. Thus a Virtual Container = Container + Path Overhead (Figure 30).
POH
Container
Figure 30
Virtual Container Different types of virtual containers exist. They are : VC-11, VC-12, VC-2, VC-3, and VC-4. They correspond to their respective containers and their associated POH.
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The different virtual containers are also divided in two types: Lower order virtual containers: VC-11, VC-12, VC-2. Higher order virtual containers: VC-3, VC-4 or an assembly of tributary unit groups (TUG-2s or TUG-3s) TRIBUTARY UNIT (TU) A Tributary Unit consists of a lower order VC and a TU Pointer. ( Figure 31) The TU Pointer shows the offset of the lower order VC frame start relative to the higher order VC frame start. This information is needed to align the phases of the two VCs. Types of Tributary Units : TU-1, TU-2, TU-3. They correspond to their respective virtual containers and their associated TU pointer.
TU PTR
lower order Virtual Container
Figure 31
Tributary Unit TRIBUTARY UNIT GROUP (TUG) One or more TUs in fixed, defined positions in a higher order VC payload form a Tributary Unit Group. ( Figure 32 ) TUGs are defined in a flexible way. A TUG can be formed by different types of TUs, but in a particular TUG structure only TUs of the same type are permitted. Types of Tributary Unit Groups : TUG-2 and TUG-3. A TUG-2 consists of a homogenous, byte interleaved assembly of identical TU-1s or a TU-2. A TUG-3 consists of a homogenous, byte interleaved assembly of TUG-2s or a TU-3.
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TU-1 PTR
TU-1 PTR
VC-1
VC-1
Figure 32
Tributary Unit Group (example TUG-2) ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT (AU) An Administrative Unit consists of a higher order VC and an AU Pointer. ( Figure 33 ) The AU Pointer shows the offset of the higher order VC frame start relative to the multiplex section frame (STM-N) start. This information is needed for phase alignment, which is to adapt the higher order path layer to the multiplex section layer. The location of the AU Pointer is fixed inside of the STM-N frame. Types of Administrative Units : AU-3, AU-4. They correspond to their respective virtual containers and their associated AU pointer. The names AU-3 and AU-4 correspond respectively to STS-1 Synchronous Payload Envelope (SPE), and STS-3c SPE in the SONET system.
AU PTR
higher order Virtual Container
Figure 33
Administrative Unit (example AU-4)
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ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT GROUP (AUG) One or more AUs in fixed, defined positions in an STM-N payload form an Administrative Unit Group. ( Figure 34) An Administrative Unit Group consists of a homogenous, byte interleaved assembly of AU-3s or an AU-4.
AU-3 PTR
AU-3 PTR
VC-3
VC-3
Figure 34
Administrative Unit Group
4.2.4
MULTIPLEXING STRUCTURES
Figure 35 shows the multiplexing structure, as CCITT defined it. This structure provides useful reference information to situate the different types of VCs, TUs, TUGs, AUs, and AUGs. Some basic definitions: SDH mapping : A procedure, where tributary signals are adapted into Virtual Containers at the edge of an SDH network. Both asynchronous and synchronous tributary signals can be adapted. Consequently, we define different types of mapping :
"
asynchronous mapping; The incoming signals have the characteristic bitrate: 1,544 Mbit/s + 50 ppm, 2,048 Mbit/s + 50 ppm, 6,312 Mbit/s + 30 ppm, 34,368 Mbit/s + 20 ppm, 44,736 Mbit/s + 20 ppm, 139,264 Mbit/s + 15 ppm.
" "
bit synchronous mapping; byte synchronous mapping.
SDH aligning : A procedure, where the frame offset value is combined with the Tributary Unit or with the Administrative Unit.
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Pointer processing : To correct ("synchronize") signal rates compared to the network. SDH multiplexing : A procedure, where
"
several lower order path layer signals are adapted into a higher order path layer signal; several higher order path layer signals are adapted into a multiplex section.
or
"
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xN STM-N AUG
x1 AU-4 VC-4 C-4 139,264 Mbit/s x1 x3 TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3
x3
x7
AU-3
VC-3 x7
C-3 44,736 Mbit/s 34,368 Mbit/s
x1 TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2 C-2 6,312 Mbit/s
x3 mapping aligning pointer processing multiplexing TU-11 VC-11
TU-12
VC-12
C-1 2 2,048 Mbit/s
x4
C-11 1,544 Mbit/s
Figure 35
CCITT multiplexing structure This figure shows the signals that are associated with the SDH Containers. However, other type of information, for example ATM cells, can also be mapped into the containers. ETSI defined a subset of possible multiplexing versions. Versions related to the SONET standard are not supported. ( Figure 36)
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xN STM-N AUG
x1 AU-4 VC-4 C-4 139,264 Mbit/s x1 TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3
x3
x7
C-3 44,736 Mbit/s 34,368 Mbit/s
x1 TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2
x3 mapping aligning pointer processing multiplexing VC-11 C-11 1,544 Mbit/s
TU-12
VC-12
C-1 2 2,048 Mbit/s
Figure 36
ETSI multiplexing structure This figure shows the signals that are associated with the SDH Containers. However, other type of information, for example ATM cells, can also be mapped into the containers.
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4.2.5
OVERHEAD INFORMATION
Figure 37 shows the Section Overhead (SOH) of the STM-1 frame. The Section Overhead consists of two parts:
"
The Section Overhead (SOH)
Regenerator Section Overhead (RSOH), which is analysed by the regenerators; Multiplexer Section Overhead (MSOH), which is analysed at the multiplex section termination.
270 bytes
"
1 1 3 5 9
9 10
STM-1
1 1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 MULTIPLEXER SECTION OVERHEAD REGENERATOR SECTION OVERHEAD
9 bytes
Figure 37
Section Overhead STM-1 The most important functions implemented in the Section Overhead are:
"
error monitoring on the STM-N frame; this ensures continuous control over the quality of the transmission; the exchange of control information, such as alarms, feed-back on error monitoring. This enables the network to autonomously recover from errors and reconfigure itself when needed;
"
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"
the exchange of management messages between a managing equipment and an SDH equipment.
The Path Overhead (POH)
POH
payload
Virtual Container
Figure 38
Path Overhead The Path Overhead (POH) ( Figure 38 ) permits to check the quality of the path layer at the path termination. It contains information for :
"
error monitoring on the transported signal; this ensures continuous control over the quality of the transmission for a particular signal; the exchange of control information, such as alarms, feed-back on error monitoring at the level of a particular signal.
"
4.3
4.3.1
THE SDH NETWORK AND SDH PRODUCTS

GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Here is an example to show what happens with the information that user A sends to user B. Follow the way of the information on Figure 39. (Remark : this figure is limited to the transmission equipment, so it doesn't show the digital exchanges.) The originating user, A transmits its information to user B, who is situated several hundreds of kilometres away. The signal of user A, together with other users' plesiochronous signals (2 Mbit/s, 34 Mbit/s), arrives to the SDH network. In the local network the STM-1 frame that contains user A's signal travels toward the gateway to the regional network. Meanwhile
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this signal passes through a number of Add/Drop multiplexers, where other plesiochronous signals are dropped and added. When the STM-1 frame that contains user A's signal arrives to the regional network, it is added into the STM-4 frame format of that regional network. This STM-4 frame then travels toward the gateway to the backbone network. At this gateway this, and other STM-4 frames are multiplexed into an STM-16 frame. At this point in the regional network, and in the backbone network Cross-connect equipment is used. In the backbone network, the STM-16 frame that contains user A's signal is forwarded to the cross-connect equipment, which forms the gateway toward that regional network, which is connected to user B's local network. Further the same actions, naturally in a reverse order, take place as explained above.
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Cross Connect
STM-16 Meshed Network
Cross Connect
Backbone network
Cross Connect
Cross Connect
Cross Connect gateway Add Drop Mux
Cross Connect gateway Add Drop Mux
Regional network
Add Drop Mux
Add Drop Mux
Add Drop Mux
Add Drop Mux
STM-4
Ring Network
Add Drop Mux
gateway
Add Drop Mux
Mux
user B
Mux
Figure 39
Typical SDH network configuration
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Add Drop Mux

Add Drop Mux Add Drop Mux
Add Drop Mux
gateway Add Drop Mux Add Drop Mux
Local network
STM-1
Ring Network
Add Drop Mux
Access
user A
Mux
Mux
Mux
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4.3.2
NETWORK ELEMENTS
SDH is primarily an optical networking standard. Network elements are connected by optical fiber. However, in special environments point-to-point microwave links can also be used. In an SDH network three types of transmission equipment can be used:
" " "
Add/Drop multiplexer; Digital Cross-Connect; Line equipment.
Add/Drop multiplexer (ADM)

This equipment permits to add and to drop tributary signals to and from a passing STM frame. (Figure 40)
STM-1
STM-1
. . .
2 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s STM-1
Figure 40
Add/Drop multiplexer function (example) Remark: The minimum granularity that the SDH network can handle is the bitrate of 2 Mbit/s (1.5 Mbit/s). Consequently, information can not arrive with a smaller bitrate to the access multiplexer. For example, this is the case of a telephone call, whose bitrate is 64 kbit/s. Therefore telephone signals or other signals less than 2 Mbit/s have to be multiplexed into a signal, which is equal to one of the defined hierarchy levels, thus 2 Mbit/s or more, before they arrive to the SDH network.
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Digital Cross-Connect (DXC)

DXC equipment is usually used in the backbone network, or at the gateway between the regional and backbone network. This equipment has a very similar functionality to that of the add/drop multiplexer (Figure 41). However, it is bigger, and it has more ports than an ADM. For example it can have up to 192 STM-1 equivalent ports, which means up to 12000 2 Mbit/s ports or a corresponding mixture of ports with different bit rates. Another difference compared to the ADM is the internal connection possibilities, which also justify the name of the equipment.
STM-1
. . .
. . .
STM-1
... 2 Mbit/s 2 Mbit/s 34 Mbit/s STM-1
Figure 41
Digital Cross-connect function (example)
Line Equipment
This multiplexer is basically a higher order multiplexer, which grooms STM-1 frames into STM-4 frames ( Figure 42 ), or STM-4 frames into STM-16 frames.
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STM-1 STM-1 . . . STM-1
. . .
STM-4
Figure 42
Higher order multiplexer function (example) Figure 43 gives an overview about the different types of SDH network elements. Note, that the biggest difference among these network elements is in their size and in their flexibility concerning the connection function.
Cross-Connect
Add/Drop mux
Line equipment
Relative complexity
Figure 43
SDH network element types
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Consequently, an important remark: So, if we compare the functionality of these equipments, explained on the previous pages, we can notice, that they are quite similar. All of them treat STM-N frames, virtual containers, and other elements of the SDH system. Therefore, we can state, that in a real network the decision about which type of equipment we have to use depends on the network configuration, on the required equipment functionality, and on the required network protection procedure.
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5 FIBERS
5 FIBERS
With the increasing number of new services over long distances, the bandwidth of transmission media has become a critical parameter. It is obvious that the conventional copper wire can no longer provide this bandwidth in a sufficient way. That is where the electrical communication slowly makes way for the upcoming optical fiber communication. The next chapters give an overview of the most important features of the optical fiber communication networks. It also introduces the reader to the vocabulary specific for the optical world. This chapter provides the reader a concise review of some fundamental laws and definitions, needed to fully understand the basics of optical fiber.
5.1
5.1.1
Fundamentals of Geometric Optics

Refractive Index
Conventionally, the speed of light in vacuum is denoted by c (c=3.108m/s). In any other material however, light wilI travel with a speed v below c. The ratio of the speed in vacuum (c) to that in matter (v) is a characteristic of the material and is called the index of refraction or refractive index n: n = c/v
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5 FIBERS
Table 1
Table underneath gives some typical refractive iondexes Material air diamond glass optical fiber semiconductor water Refractive index 1.00 2.42 1.5 - 1.9 1.5 3-4 1.33 Note that these values can only be accepted as rough approximations, for the speed v (hence the refractive index n) is dependent of the source wavelength .
5.1.2
Law of Refraction
1 interface
medium 1 (n1)
medium 2 (n2) 2
Figure 44
Law of Refraction When an incident ray, originating from medium 1 (refraction index n1) falls in on an interface, part of the light will be reflected back into medium 1 and part of it will be transmitted (refracted) to
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medium 2. The relation between the incident and the reflection or refraction angle (respectively 1, 2 and 1) is described by Snell's Law (Law of Refraction): n1 . sin 1 = n2 . sin 2 Substituting n2 = n1 in this equation results in a well known property of reflected light: light reflects on a surface with an angle equal to the angle of incidence. The angles are hereby measured between the ray itself and the normal on the surface.
5.1.3
Total Internal Reflection (TIR)

With n(l) as a parameter, two types of reflections can be defined. Internal reflection will be obtained when a ray, travelling in a certain medium, reflects on a less optical dense medium (i.e. a material with lower index of refraction). By analogy external reflection denotes the reflection of a ray on an optical denser material.
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5 FIBERS
1 interface
medium 1 (n1)
medium 2 2 (a): External Reflection (n1 < n2) (n2)
medium 1 (n1) interface medium (n2) (b): Internal Reflection (n1 > n2) 1
90
medium (n2)
1 < c interface
medium 1 (n1)
medium (n2) (c): Total Internal Reflection (n1 > n2)
Figure 45
External vs. Internal Reflection Figures 2 (b) and (c) represent the internal reflection of a ray originating from medium 1. Different angles of incidence are considered. Figure 2 (b) shows the situation where the incidence angle has a critical value, called critical angle c. In this case, the angle of refraction is 900. The lightwave propagates along the medium 1 - medium 2 interface. Beyond this fc the incident light
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5 FIBERS
is reflected as a whole. This means no energy is transmitted to medium 2. This is known as total internal reflection. The value of this angle can be deduced from Snell's law, substituting 1 by c and 2 by 900. This results in the expression n1 . sin c = n2 => c = arcsin (n2/n1) Remark:the working principle of optical fibre is based on total internal reflection
medium 1: air
fc
medium 2: glass
medium 3: air
Figure 46
Optical fibre working principle with a critical angle of approximately: c= arc sin (1/1.50) = 420
5.2
5.2.1
Fundamentals of Optical Fibers

Advantages of Optical Fibers
Because of its many advantages over the classical copper wire, optical fiber has known a rapid progress since it was first introduced for transmission purposes in 1966 (Kao & Hockham). Beside its extremely wide bandwidth, some other important features of this fiber are:
" " "
light weight & small volume electrical isolation immunity to crosstalk between parallel fibers (even when cabled together) great tensile strength immunity to interference (EMI, EMP RFI) ,
" "
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5 FIBERS
" "
common basic element (sand) low maintenance time & costs (lifetime of 20 - 30 years compared to 12 -15 years for conventional cable) security (while no radiation of light outside the cable, acquiring signals without being detected is not possible) ...
"
"
5.2.2
Structure of Optical Fibers

The most elementary version of the optical fibre is represented in Figure 47. Three layers can be distinguished:
jacket cladding core
Figure 47
Internal structure optical fiber

" "
the core: where the actual propagation of light occurs the cladding: is present both to protect the core against external mechanical forces and to limit the losses of energy due to some imperfections at the core surface. the jacket: protects and isolates cladding from the environment.
"
In order to ensure internal reflection of the light waves on the core-cladding interface, the refraction index of the cladding (n2) must be lower or equal to that of the core (n1).
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Example: suppose an optical fiber has core refractive index n1=1.48 and cladding refractive index n2=1.46 . Ap plying the formula for the critical angle gives a result for c of approximately 80.6 degrees. Only the rays incident on the core-cladding interface with an angle equal to or greater than this value will lead to internal reflection and therefore will be able to propagate along the fiber.
5.2.3
Classification of Optical Fibers

Fibers can be classified according to several parameters. Considering the different possible materials, we have:
" "
Silica glass fiber (basic material SiO2) Fluoride fibers (some Oxygen-bonds replaced with Fluor-bonds) Polymer Optical Fiber (POF) (cheaper and more easy to handle, but have greater losses as Silica fibers)
"
A more common way to classify optical fibers is with respect to the differences in refraction index profile:
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5 FIBERS
n n
1
n n n
2 1
rcore rcladding
rcore rcladding
Figure 48
Refractive index profiles

" "
Step Index Fiber: constant refraction index in the core Graded Index Fiber: gradually varying refraction index in the core Monomode Fiber (Single Mode Fiber): supports only 1 propagation mode. Typical values for the core diameter are 5 to 10 mm and for the outer cladding diameter 125 m.
Another possible classification:

"
"
Multimode Fiber: supports more than 1 propagation mode. Typical values for the core diameter are 50 or 62.5 mm and for the outer cladding diameter 125 m.
5.3
5.3.1
Propagation of Light Through Optical Fibers

Coupling of Light
As has been mentioned earlier in this chapter, light can only propagate down a fiber when the requirement of total internal reflection is fulfilled on the core-cladding interface. Therefore an
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acceptance cone is defined. All the rays entering the fiber within this cone will be allowed to travel along this fiber.
(2)
air (n0) (1) cladding (n2) core (n1)
acceptance cone
(1) accepted ray (2) not accepted ray
n0 < n2 < n1
Figure 49
Acceptance cone One way to describe the acceptance cone is using the acceptance angle a, i.e. half the angle of the cone. A more general way however, takes into account the refractive indexes of the three media involved (air, cladding and core). The term used is then numerical aperture (NA), defined as: NA = n0 . sin a If the environment of the fiber is air (n0=1), the numerical aperture will simply be the sine of the acceptance angle.
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5 FIBERS
Remark: Because of the small diameter of the core of the monomode fibers, the coupling of light with LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) is extremely difficult. Therefore, to limit the coupling losses, the monomode fibers are almost exclusively used with laser sources. Despite this disadvantage, in most applications (espe cially long range applications) single mode fibers are preferred over multimode fibers. Indeed, thanks to the unicity of the propagation path of light in the core, these fibers present less loss and higher speed. The discussion of fibers in this handout will be limited to these single mode fibers.
5.3.2
Transmission Losses
Lightwaves travelling down a fiber suffer from different kinds of disturbances, resulting in a loss of signal energy. Most crucial are:
" " "
scattering dispersion absorption
This loss of power is expressed in dB/km or dBm/km. Remark:for incident power Pin and outcoming power Pout, the losses in dB are:
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1 km Transmitter Receiver
Pin
Pout
LdB=10 . log10 (Pout / Pin) By analogy with dB, the unit dBm can be defined as: LdBm=10 . log10 (Pout /1 mW) where the reference (Pin) is set to 1 mW.
Figure 50
Losses in dB The transmission properties of single mode fibers can mainly be grouped into attenuation and dispersion properties.
"
Attenuation:
D D
leaky modes: are modes that are not allowed to propagate along the fiber. absorption: of light by impurities, water or dopants. Interaction of the light with these elements creates heat with as a result a loss of signal energy. scattering: due to inhomogeneities in the fiber material. It can be limited using high-technology fabrication methods.
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5 FIBERS
Attenuation (dB/km) 10 Total loss 1.0 0.3 0.15 0.1 UV materialloss 0.01 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 IR materialloss Rayleigh scattering (m)
OH absorption
Figure 51
Attenuation windows The representation of the signal attenuation with respect to the signal wavelength shows the three so-called windows of minimal attenuation. The window at 830 nm used to be exclusively used at the early stage of fiber optic technology. Nowadays however, windows 2 and 3 are the only ones of practical use. The second window is situated around 1300 nm and permits to achieve an attenuation as low as 0.3 dB/km, while the third window ensures an operation around 1550 nm with an approximate attenuation of only 0.15 dB/km. Today's state-of-the-art transmission systems employ 1550 nm technology in conjunction with Erbium doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA). For more information about these components is referred to next section.
"
Dispersion: When propagating through an optical fiber a light pulse will always have a definite velocity. More common is that each component propagates through the fiber with a range of slightly different velocities, leading to broadening of pulses in time. According to the cause of dispersion, one can distinguish:
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"
Intermodal dispersion: + modal dispersion / multimode dispersion / multipath dispersion
"
Intramodal dispersion: + material dispersion + waveguide dispersion
Multimode dispersion will only be found in multimode fibers, where the different modes will propagate at different speeds. As a consequence the global signal, that is to be interpreted as a superposition of the different modes,will be different at in- and output of the fiber. Reduction of this effect can be obtained by using an appropriate refractive index profile. Comparing graded and step index profiles gives us as minimal dispersion: graded: step: 0.3 - 1.0 ns/km 50 ns/km
Material dispersion is to be explained when looking at a typical refractive index characteristic. Figure 52 gives the effective refractive index in function of the wavelength for fused quartz (commonly used for optical fiber). The index reaches a minimum around 1.3 microns. This means at this wavelength a pulse of light travels faster through an optical fiber of fused quartz than at any other.
1.500
1.400
(m) 1.3 4.0
Figure 52
Effective refractive index for fused Quartz
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5 FIBERS
With a true monochromatic lightsource (one ) no material dispersion occurs. When the lightsource is not perfectly chromatic () however, the different wavelength components will see a different refractive index and therefore propagate at a different speed. Material dispersion will be dominating in the case of single mode fiber. Therefore it will be of great importance in datacommunication, especially for high speed, long distance systems. Waveguide dispersion can be found both in single and multimode fiber since it is a property of any mode. Waveguide dispersion is the dependence of the wavelength of a given mode, due to the shape of the waveguide and to the index profile along the radius of core and cladding. Particular to this last kind of dispersion is that it takes negative values. This means an increase in wavelength will cause a decreasing speed. As we are only considering single mode fibers, our discussion will be restricted to intramodal dispersion for this kind of dispersion dominates all others in single mode fibers. The broadening (spreading) of the digital signal pulses due to material dispersion can be represented as given in next Figure.
Dispersion (ps/nm/km) 20 0 0.8 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 Standard Multimode and Single mode 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 (m)
Figure 53
Material dispersion
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Note that in this characteristic the material dispersion in the second window is nearly zero. This is one of the reasons why the 1300 nm has become such an attractive wavelength for signal transmission. Because of the slightly lower attenuation in the third window, several procedures have been developed to shift the Zero Material Dispersion-point (ZMD-point) to 1550 nm.
"
dispersion flattened fiber: operates both at 1300 nm and 1550 nm with material dispersion near zero. dispersion shifted fiber: has one zero crossing for the material dispersion around 1550 nm. This is obtained by modification of the refractive index profile. dispersion compensated fiber: uses an appropriate length of fiber with high negative dispersion to cancel the positive material dispersion of the fiber at 1550nm.
"
"
Dispersion (ps/nm/km) 20 0 0.8 -20 -40 -60 -80 -100 -120 Fiber 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 Dispersion Flattened Dispersion Shifted Fiber (m)
Figure 54
Dispersion Shifted and Dispersion Flattened Fiber The span of dispersion-unshifted fibre can be extended by using a special dispersion compensating fibre. Dispersion compensating fibre allows to use EDFAs on the large installed base of dispersion-unshifted fibre.
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5 FIBERS
An appropriate length of dispersion compensating fibre with high negative dispersion (-90 ps/nm*km) cancels the positive chromatic chromatic dispersion (16 ps/nm*km) of dispersion-unshifted fibre at 1550 nm. The characteristics for dispersion compensating of fibre:
Standard Fibre
Dispersion compensated fibre
D = 17 ps/nm km L = 100 km
Dc = 85 ps/nm km Lc = 20 km
DL = 1700 ps/nm
DL Lc = 1700 ps/nm
DL + DcLc = 0 ps/nm
Figure 55
Dispersion Compensated fibre

" " "
high negative dispersion within the EDFA passband; low insertion loss; good bending performances so that it can be packaged into small modules
5.3.3
Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers

EDFAs optically amplifies signals without having to first convert them into electrical form. Optical amplification usually produces less noise than electrical amplification. Note that currently no such optical amplifiers exist for the 1310 nm window. Future1310 nm doped fiber amplifiers will probably make use of dopants like neodymium and praseodymium. With the development of EDFAs in the early 1990s, the distance constraint imposed by fibre attenuation is diminished. An Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA) consists of a solid state material (typically glass) which is drawn into a fiber. The core of the fiber is doped with an ion (Er 3+) that emits at wavelength 1550 nm.
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The fiber is pumped by a strong beam at a shorter wavelength (980 nm or 1480 nm), which excites the Erbium ion to a higher energy level. The Erbium ions are pumped up to a higher energy level by absorption of light from the pump source. During the transition to the ground state, photons are emitted:
"
either by spontaneous emission: the natural decay of the exited ion in the absence of any interactions; or stimulated emission: in the presence of photons, possessing the transition energy stimulated emission produces additional photons identical to the stimulating photons at a rate proportional to their flux. This causes the amplification effect.
"
The long lifetime of the excited state, approximately 10 ms, assures that instead of emitting noise by spontaneous emission, stimulated emission (amplification) is dominant.
pump 980 nm pump 1480 nm amplified light at 1550 nm 10 ms ground state
Figure 56
Stimulated emission
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Erbium doped fiber weak signal in fusion splice laser diode pump Power Pump fusion splice isolator
amplfied signal out
coupler
Signal
Figure 57
EDFA Typical performance of an EDFA is 20 dB gain and 20 mW maximum output. In fiber optic systems EDFAs are used:
"
to boost input-levels of lasers from the milliwatt level to tens of milliwatt; as amplifiers along the length of long-haul cable systems; as preamplifiers at the end of a system, to boost optical power levels before they are detected at the receiver.
" "
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Amplificatoin of light source power
o
OA
OTX
Compensation of loss in network components (line amplifier)
o
OA OTX splitter
Amplification just before E/O conversion (receiver preamplifier)
o
OA splitter
OTX
ORX
Figure 58
Use of optical amplifiers
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6 TRANSMISSION
6 TRANSMISSION
6.1 Network Topologies
Depending on the application we have to play on the physical topology of the network to meet some requirements (e.g. power budget). Among all multiaccess optical fiber network topologies three basic forms can be distinguished:
" " "
Star Topology Bus Topology Ring Topology
In fact, with these, a multitude of other constructions can be obtained. Figure 59 gives a rough sketch of these three network topologies:
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Bus Topology
Star Topology
Fiber Terminal HUB Ring Topology Customer
Figure 59
Basic Network Topologies
6.1.1
Star Topology
In general the star topology shows one central controller, linked (point-to-point) to all the hosts. Each customer possesses a private fiber pair as well as a terminal pair. This allows adaptation of fiber and terminals to the needs of the customer, but is quite expensive. In its most simple version the star is very vulnerable to connection failures. This is because no alternative path is foreseen for the customers to communicate. Therefore additional lines can be added between the central hub and the customer terminals. Less expensive could be to link the customers with backup lines forming a kind of ringlike path. Figure 60 gives a number of network architectures:
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6 TRANSMISSION
"
Switched Star Switched star networks run individual fiber from the central office (CO) directly to each subscriber, and each fiber carries only signals intended for that subscriber. In this architecture, there is neither sharing of physical media nor opto-electronics, resulting in a significant network cost.
"
Active double star The active double star architecture reduces the amount of fiber required by transmitting a multiplexed signal to/from an active remote node located close to the subscriber premises. At the active remote node, the signal streams are multiplexed/ demultiplexed, and each home is connected either with an optical drop fiber (in which case the network is referred to as fiber to the home, FTTH) or with a copper drop cable (in which case the network is referred to as fiber to the curb, FTTC).
"
Passive Optical Network (PON) - Passive double star A PON architecture shares opto-electronics and physical media by multiplexing signal streams destined to and coming from several homes onto a single fiber at the CO. Typically, a passive splitter is used to broadcast the multiplexed signal from the CO to the subscriber homes. A bus topology using passive optical taps or any other passive-broadcast fiber-network topology can be used as well.
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Switched star :
CENTRAL OFFICE
Active double star :

Active Remote Node
FTTH
CENTRAL OFFICE Cu FTTC
PON (Passive Optical Network) Passive double star :

Passive
CENTRAL OFFICE
Splitter
FTTH Cu FTTC
Active Remote Node
= E/O - O/E
Figure 60
Star Network Architecture
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6 TRANSMISSION
6.1.2
Ring Topology
One way to reduce the amount of fiber needed for the interconnection of a central controller and his hosts is the use of a circular network. The continuous path is then characterized by a certain direction as shown in Figure 61 (a).
(a) Ring Structure
(b) Link Failure
(c) Terminal Failure
Figure 61
Ring Network Architecture To avoid the complete paralysis of the network due to a link break down, a second ringstructure is provided with opposite data flow direction. If a failure occurs, it is then possible to provide an alternative path for the data. Figure 61 (b) and (c) sketch the
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6 TRANSMISSION
principle of this "healing" mechanism both in case of a terminal failure and a line failure. A disadvantage of the ring structure is that the data flow passes through each node. This means a security mechanism should be provided, but also each node has to be equipped with high speed electronics. Dropping/inserting data in the composite data stream demands the ability to follow the high speed composite data flow of the ring.
6.1.3
Bus Topology
Similar to the ring, the bus make use of a high speed main link. This time however,the network is not a closed entity. This means the data flow is not assigned a particular direction. Connection of the hosts in the network is ensured using taps as shown in Figure 62.
Tap Tap Tap
Figure 62
Bus Network Architecture In case of a connection failure all hosts beyond the failure are disconnected from the network. When implemented with fiber, another disadvantage is the large loss of optical power at the level of the taps. These same taps bring the advantage of scalability, i.e. the ease to connect a new host in the network.
6.2
Single and Double Fiber Optical Networks

There exist different solutions to install a passive optical network. In this section three solutions are explained, simplex, diplex and duplex.
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6 TRANSMISSION
"
Simplex (two fibers, one wavelength) The simplex system uses two fibers, one for the downstream and one for the upstream direction. Each fiber is connected to a Laser Diode (LD) on the transmit side and a Photodiode (PD) on the receive side. In both directions the 1300 nm wavelength is used.
"
Diplex (one fiber, two wavelengths) The diplex system uses only one fiber for both directions. This is possible because in the downstream and the upstream direction a different wavelength is used. This is 1500 nm in the downstream direction and 1300 nm in the upstream direction. To implement this system, a "wavelength multiplexer/demultiplexer" (WDM) is used in every node.
"
Duplex (one fibers one wavelength) The duplex system uses only one fiber for both directions. In this case in the downstream and the upstream direction the same wavelength is used (1300 nm). This is made possible by using a 3 dB coupler (CPL).
All components mentioned in this section (LD, PD, WDM and CPL) are explained in more detail in a later chapter.
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Simplex (two fibers, one wavelength) : LT LD

1.3 1.3 1.3 Splitter
1.3
NT PD
PD N Diplex (one fiber, two wavelengths) : LT LD PD

1.5
LD
NT
Splitter
1.3
W D M
1.5 1.3
N
99
1.5 1.3
1.3
W D M
LD PD
1.5
Duplex (one fiber, one wavelength) : LT LD PD

1.3
NT
1.3 Splitter
1.3
1.3
1.3
C P L
C P L
LD PD
1.3
LD = Laser Diode PD = Photodiode WDM = Wavelength Mux CPL = 3dB coupler Figure 63 Single and Double Fiber Optical Networks
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6 TRANSMISSION
6.3
Modulation
Two major parameters for transmission of digital signals over (optical) networks are:
"
Signal-to-Noise Ratio: SNR = 10 . log10 (signal power/noise power) Bit-Error-Rate: BER
"
Both are related to each other. Each transmission application has its own requirements for the value of the Signal-to-Noise Ratio and Bit-Error-Rate. One of the steps to meeting these requirements is modulating the digital signals. In this chapter different kinds of modulation techniques will be discussed:
" " " "
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) On/Off Keying (OOK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
6.3.1
ASK: Amplitude Shift Keying

By analogy with Amplitude Modulation (AM) for analog signals, Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) is the modulation technique for digital signals, where the changes in amplitude are representative for the signal itself. One of the implementations of Amplitude Shift Keying is commonly known as On/Off Keying (OOK). This means that the laser (=source) is switched ON to transmit a binary '1' and OFF to transmit a binary '0'. In reality however, the current to switch the laser ON and OFF will not vary from zero to a maximum value, but rather from just below a lower treshold value to just above an upper treshold value. This allows to limit the switch-on delay for the laser.
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ATM Cell (53)
Overhead(1)
54 bytes / packet
c = 2.108 m/s = 20 cm/ns 1 / 155.52 Mbps = 6.43 ns/bit 20 cm/ns x 6.43 ns/bit = 1.28 m/bit
10100101110010101
1.28m
Transmitter
Figure 64
On/off keying
6.3.2
PSK: Phase Shift Keying

While amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal are kept constant, the phase is given a value according to the signal to transmit. For binary data this means only two possible phase values, most of the time 0 and .
900
1800
00
2700
Figure 65
Phase Values used for PSK
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6 TRANSMISSION
Varying the phase of a carrier with respect to the modulating signal can be obtained using Lithium Niobate crystal (LiNbO3) based PSK-modulators as shown in Figure 66. This modulators are external to the laser, so they don't add noise to the light source.
Figure 66
Lithium Niobate Crystal Modulator Modulation of the materials refractive index, hence the phase of the guided signal, is possible by means of the variable voltage V: n(V).
6.3.3
FSK: Frequency Shift Keying

In Frequency Shift Keying the frequency of a carrier is shifted between two values, depending on whether a logical '1' or '0' has to be transmitted. The implementation is possible, simply by variation of the injection current applied to the laser (typical shift value: 0.1 to 1.0 GHz/mA).
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f frequency deviation
Figure 67
Frequency Shift Keying
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7 MULTIACCESS NETWORKS
During the last 15 years or so, rapid advances have been realized in optical-fiber communication technology. Reduction of single-mode fiber losses, progress in high-sensitivity optical receivers, development of high-speed semiconductor laser diodes, and the advent of optical amplifiers have led to a steady increase in demonstrated transmission capacity characterized by the highest possible bit rate over the longest distance without repeaters. Though impressive capacities have been achieved, today's systems utilize only a small fraction of the potential transmission capacity offered by optical fibers. The main reason is that opto-electronic components at the input and output ends of the fiber are not capable of operating at speeds commensurate with the fiber's bandwidth. It should be desirable to share the available fiber bandwidth between several communication nodes by allowing multiple access to the same resource. Therefore, efforts are now turned to a new generation of fiber systems that may be called multiaccess optical-fiber networks. In these networks the entire path between several end nodes, which share the same resource, is passive (except when optical amplification is applied) and optical: no opto-electronic nor electro-optic conversion is performed except at the ends of a connection. These new networks make it possible to circumvent the electronic bottlenecks by taking advantage of the beneficial properties offered by optics. For example, high-speed signal multiplexing/demultiplexing might be performed optically, allowing the electronics to operate at much lower bit rates than the aggregate throughput of the network.
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The following sections give some more explanation about different multiaccess networks.
7.1
7.1.1
Time Division Multiaccess Networks

Basic Concept
With TDMA, each node shares the communication resource by sending data in a synchronized way in order to avoid data collision. There are essentially two distinct ways to implement the TDMA approach: bit-based or block-based TDMA.
"
Bit-based TDMA A bit-based TDMA data stream is created by interleaving the bits from each of the nodes. This approach only requires the storage of one bit for each node at any time and is therefore attractive with regard to the required memory space at each node. Unfortunately, the method requires that all nodes be bit-synchronized and is therefore impractical for high-bit-rate data streams usually encountered within fiber-optic systems.
"
Block-based TDMA The block-based TDMA approach somewhat relaxes the requirements on synchronization in that a small amount of dead time (later referred to as the guard time), which may be a few bits long, is allowed between multiplexed data blocks without adversely affecting the transport efficiency. The longer the blocks, the longer the guard time can be for the same transport efficiency. Block-based TDMA can further be subdivided into two distinct classes: frame-based or packet-based.
"
In frame-based TDMA, each node has assigned a fixed amount of capacity in every TDMA frame. In packet-based TDMA, each node is allowed to send a whole data packet when access is granted.
"
Notice that regardless of the type of TDMA used, whether bit or block based, the physical bit rate of the TDMA data stream is roughly equal to N times the data rate of the input/output data at each node, where N is the number of nodes connected to the network. In other words, even though the useful data rate per node is B (bit/sec), each node must be able to process data at a
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rate of = NB (bit/sec). Since current opto-electronic transceivers operate at a maximum rate of, say, 10 Gbps, the overall network capacity will also be limited to such a value at the most. Although this may seem quite restrictive, such a network capacity is large enough to accommodate most present (and possibly future) services envisaged within FITL systems. To highlight the major issues that arise when TDMA is used within fiber networks, let us consider Figure 68, which represents a star network with N nodes. There is a central node controller that manages the data flow to and from the N nodes. Downstream data from the central controller (e.g., the central office) to the network nodes is broadcast, while upstream transmission is implemented through block-multiplexed TDMA. A node i that has data destined to node n must first transmit it in the upstream direction towards the central controller, which then relays it in the downstream direction for final reception at node n. The implementation of TDMA within such a network involves three main issues: (I) the ranging (or distance equalization), (2) the synchronization, and (3) the optical power leveling. Optical transceivers that implement these three functions are usually called burst-mode transceivers.
C1 C1 Ci C1 Ci Cn Guard ATM cell (53) Ci C1 Ci Time Overhead (1) Cn Ci Ci Ci C1 C1 C1 Ci Ci Ci Cn Cn Cn Sub1 Sub i Sub n C1
Sub1
Cn
Sub i Sub n
Figure 68
TDM/TDMA Technique
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"
Ranging Due to the topology, the propagation distance from the nodes to the central controller will be, in general, different for each node. To form a TDMA stream without data block overlapping (i.e., without collision), some means are needed to virtually equalize the connection distance from all nodes to the central controller. This is generally achieved through what is called the "ranging" procedure, which measures the connection distance from each node to the central controller and determines the amount of electronic delay that must be inserted at each node: data at nodes that are the closest to the central controller will experience a large delay before being transmitted, while data at the farthest nodes will experience a small delay (which can possibly be zero for the most distant node). This way, all nodes appear at the same (virtual) propagation distance from the central controller irrespective of their physical location in the network. The limited accuracy of the ranging process introduces a guard time. A guard time of 2 bits for example, means that the central office receives the packet at a time +/- 1 bit-time. To retrieve the information correctly, synchronization must be used.
"
Synchronization Once the ranging has been performed, some means are needed to quickly recover the clock of each burst coming from distinct nodes. This is because the ranging cannot be achieved with infinite precision, so that guard time between bursts must be inserted to accommodate the ranging inaccuracy. Since nodes are assumed to send data at the same nominal rate, only the correct clock phase of each burst must be recovered. This can be achieved in distinct ways, using either Phase Locked Loop (PLL) or more specific methods optimized for the intended application. Generally, the use of a PLL requires long preambles in front of each data block and therefore reduces the payload transport efficiency of the TDMA stream. Another method is based on oversampling. It requires as few as three bits of preamble to recover the correct clock phase of the TDMA bursts at 155 Mbps and is therefore very attractive in terms of transport efficiency.
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"
Optical power leveling The third issue concerns the variation of the received optical power at the central controller from burst to burst sent by distinct nodes (see Figure 68). Indeed, bursts emitted by different nodes will experience different losses when propagating through the network and therefore the central office will receive information with different optical power. The receiver thus requires a large dynamic range and should be able to set the threshold that discriminates bits '0' from bits '1' as quickly as possible. Reported devices for burst mode reception have shown a large dynamic range and performance up to 1 Gbps. Burst mode reception introduces a power penalty with respect to continuous mode operation usually applied in conventional optical-fiber communication systems. It has been shown that this penalty depends upon the number of preamble bits used to establish the threshold of the discriminator. The penalty is exactly 3 dB when a single bit preamble is used, it drops to 0.5 dB for an 8-bit preamble and becomes negligible (i.e., < 0.2 dB) for a 36-bit preamble.
7.1.2
Summary
Among the various multiple-access techniques that can be applied to optical-fiber networks, TDMA is likely to be the less performant in terms of achievable network capacity. This is because TDMA is limited by the operating speed of opto-electronic transceivers, which represents less than one tenth of a percent of the huge available bandwidth of optical fibers. Nevertheless, where minimizing cost rather than maximizing capacity is the major objective, TDMA appears to be one of the most promising techniques for short-term implementation of multiaccess optical-fiber networks. This is particularly important for FITL systems, which may represent the major capital investment of public telecommunication operators in the near future. The implementation of optical TDMA requires some modifications of conventional transceivers that typically operate in a continuous mode. Burst-mode transceivers supporting rates of up to 1 Gbps have been demonstrated in research laboratories and several burst-mode TDMA-PON systems supporting a range of services from POTS to broadband ATM are currently being trialed in the field. These systems may find widespread deployment in the years to come as they present several attractive features such as a low
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first-installation cost and maintenance expense, the capability to satisfy existing and expected future service demands, and the possibility to be upgraded by using other multiaccess techniques like WDMA and SCMA as an overlay to TDMA. In fact, the main advantages of the TDMA technique applied to FITL systems can be summarized as follows:
"
The systems can be implemented with today's commercially available components. Overall system cost reduction can be achieved by resource sharing among a number of subscribers (i.e., nodes).
"
7.2
7.2.1
Wavelength Division Multiaccess Networks

Basic concept
Unlike other communication technologies, optical technology offers a new dimension, the color of light, to perform such network functions as multiplexing, routing, and switching. In essence, it is this new dimension that distinguishes optical networks, in general, from other network technologies. Wavelength division multiaccess networks (WDMA networks) effectively use the wavelength as an additional degree of freedom by concurrently operating distinct portions (i.e., distinct colors or wavebands) of the 1.3- to 1.6-mm wavelength spectrum accessible within the fiber network. Each waveband supports a network channel that can operate at peak electronic processing speed of, say, a few gigabits per second. With several hundreds to 1,000 wavebands, such networks have the potential to realize Tbps capacity. The implementation of WDMA networks generally requires wavelength-tunable optical components such as tunable lasers and/or tunable optical filters. These tunable optical components form the tunable transceiver, which is incorporated into each network node. Tunable transceivers are used differently depending on the type of WDMA network architecture chosen. In single-hop WDMA networks (sometimes also called all-optical WDMA networks), the data stream, once transmitted as light, reaches its final destination directly without being converted to electronic form in between. For a packet transmission to occur, one of the laser transmitters of the sending node and one of the optical receivers of the destination node must be tuned
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to the same wavelength for the duration of the packet transmission. In circuit-switched networks, the required speed of transceiver tunability is usually slow. By contrast, in packet-switched networks the node transceivers must be able to tune to different wavelengths rapidly in order to send and receive packets in quick succession. Besides this technological problem of fast wavelength tuning, the other key challenge in single-hop WDMA networks is to develop protocols for efficiently coordinating the connections at different wavelengths within the network. Multihop WDMA networks get around these problems by avoiding transceiver tunability. Each node transceiver is provided with a small number (two, for example) of fixed-tuned optical transmitters and fixed-tuned optical receivers. Each transmitter in the network is tuned to a different wavelength. Direct connection (i.e., single-hop connection) between two nodes is only possible if the destination node has one of its receivers tuned to one of the transmitter-node wavelengths. Connectivity between any other pair of nodes is achieved by routing through intermediate nodes, where the optical channel is converted to electronic form, the packet's destination address is decoded, and the packet is then switched electronically and retransmitted on the appropriate wavelength to reach its final destination or another intermediate node where the process is repeated. Therefore in general, a packet will experience multihopping through a number of intermediate nodes before it reaches its final destination. A number of different multihop WDMA network architectures are possible, each having distinct performance characteristics such as the average packet delay and the statistics of the number of hops that must be traversed. From a performance point of view, single-hop and multihop WDMA networks are equally attractive. Both approaches apply two technologies where they can best be exploited: optics for high-speed transport and routing, and electronics for memory and logic functions. It should be noted that the field of research in WDMA networks is rapidly moving, with new innovations occurring every few months. In the optical communication community, it is common to categorize WDMA networks by indicating the wavelength scales of interest and the degree of complexity required in the selection and control of wavelengths :
"
In the so-called dense WDMA networks, the spacing between different wavelengths is on the order of 1 nm.
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"
In the so-called optical frequency division multiaccess networks (FDMA networks), the wavelength spacing is on the order of the signal bandwidth or bit rate (i.e., a few gigahertz in frequency; Note that 1 nm wavelength spacing around l.3 m center wavelength corresponds to a frequency spacing of 180 GHz. Thus the 1300 nm fiber window, which varies between 1260 nm and 1360 nm has a bandwidth of approximately 18000 GHz. Similarly, the 1500 nm fiber window has a bandwidth of approximately 20000 GHz. The total usable fiber bandwidth (where the loss is less than about 0.5 dB) is thus approximately 40000 GHz.
"
This distinction is useful when considering the required implementation technology but makes no fundamental architectural difference. We will therefore refer to the common term of WDMA networks for both dense WDMA and FDMA networks and indicate which technology is the most suitable only when appropriate. Figure 69 gives the basic design of a dense WDMA system.
Tx Tx Tx Tx
1 2 3 4 Optical Amplifier l1 to l4 Optical Amplifier
1 2 3 4
Rx Rx Rx Rx
Coupler / Optical Amplifier 4xSTM-16/OC-48
Optical Amplifier / Coupler 4xSTM-16/OC-48
Figure 69
Basic design of dense WDM system In this example four signals of 2.5 Gbps (SDH: STM-16; SONET: OC-48) feed four optical transmitters. The output signal wavelengths 1 to 4 are situated in the third window, for this is also the window where optical amplifiers can be implemented nowadays (EDFA: Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier). After the coupling of the four signals the result is then fed to such an EDFA.
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Devices exist that multiplex up to 16 wavelengths on 1 fiber. Four- and eight channel multiplexer are more commonly used in industry however. Augmenting the number of multiplexed channels on a fiber has as main problem the achieving of sufficient wavelength stability across the entire temperature range. This stability is of greatest importance, because of the channel spacing of 2 nm or even less.
7.2.2
Single-hop WDMA Networks

Single-hop WDMA networks can be classified into two broad categories: the broadcast-and-select networks and the wavelength-routing networks. An example of each of them is illustrated in the following two sections.
Broadcast-and-Select WDMA Networks

Figure 70 represents a broadcast-and-select star network (other topologies such as a bus, a ring, or a tree may be implemented as well): all transmitted channels, each operating at a distinct wavelength, are combined in an NxN star coupler and broadcast to all node receivers. Several functional possibilities exist, depending on whether the transmitters, the receivers, or both are made tunable. Notice that in general each network node can be equipped with a number of transmitters and receivers, some of which are dynamically tunable while others are fixed-tuned to some specific wavelengths. Figure 70 is an example of a "Fixed-tuned-transmitters and Tunable-receivers network" (FT-TR-network). In addition to point-to-point capability, such a network allows multicast if more than one receiver tune on the same wavelength. In a similar way TT-FR and TT-TR network topologies exist.
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Fixed-tuned transmitters 1
T1 T2 Ti
NxN Star Coupler
Tunable re ceivers
R1 R2
Tn
. . .
Ri
1 W D M n r1
...
rn
Array of fixed-tuned receivers
Figure 70
Broadcast-and-select Single Hop WDMA Star Network
Wavelength-routing WDMA Networks

The second class of single-hop WDMA-networks are referred to as wavelength-routing networks. An example is illustrated in Figure 71. The network is composed of passive wavelength-selective (or routing) elements and a connection is uniquely determined by the wavelength of the transmitted signal and the node through which the signal is injected into the network. For example, an NXN wavelength-routing network can be built with WDM elements interconnected with N2 fibers, as shown in Figure 71 for N = 3. Each node is equipped with a tunable transmitter and a tunable receiver. By tuning the transmitter to a selected wavelength, the injected signal is passively routed to the addressed receiver, which is also tuned to the same wavelength for packet reception. It is seen that a complete NxN interconnection is possible with only N distinct wavelengths and that each receiver can be addressed by any one of the transmitters in a non-interfering way. The advantage of wavelength-routing networks over broadcast-and-select networks, which use wavelength-insensitive couplers or taps, is that they avoid splitting losses. However, their principal drawback when passive routing elements are used is that each node must be provided with both tunable transmitters and tunable receivers (or arrays of fixed-tuned elements) in order to achieve multiaccess.
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Tunable transmitters
T1
1 i
Tunable re ceivers
. . .
. . . . . .
R1
R2
i
Tn
Rn
Composed of wavelengths routing elements
Figure 71
Wavelength-routing single-hop WDMA network
T1
W D M
1 2 0 1 2 0 2 1
W D M
R1
T2
W D M
W D M
R2
T3
W D M
W D M
R3
N=3 Figure 72 WDMA Network Implementation Example Apart from this drawback, however, wavelength-routing networks make it possible to dynamically change the internal routing structure according to the traffic pattern within the network. This may prove attractive for unbalanced traffic between different nodes connected to the network. This dynamic change of the routing pattern can essentially be achieved in two distinct ways:
"
Using wavelength-selective space switches, which dynamically switch signals from one path to another by changing the WDM routing in the network;
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"
Using wavelength converters, which transfer the signal from one wavelength to another wavelength. In both cases, the interconnection pattern contains active elements that generally must be controlled electronically. The path between transmit and receive nodes may, however, remain optical depending upon the type of wavelength-selective space switches or wavelength converters chosen.
Example of a single-hop WDMA network

Figure 73 gives an example of a single-hop WDMA access network.
To switch
...
N receivers n
1 n+1
1
... ...
N transmit.
n+1
W D M
2n
1.. n n+1 n+1...2n
W D M
n+2
2n n
...
From switch
CO
Figure 73 Example of a Single-hop WDMA Network Each subscriber is assigned two unique wavelengths, one for reception (i.e., downstream) and one for transmission (i.e., upstream). The network uses passive WDM devices at the CO and at the remote side to perform multiplexing and routing functions. For downstream transmission, signals destined to different subscribers are modulated onto their assigned downstream wavelengths and multiplexed onto the common feeder. At the remote WDM, the wavelength channels are passively demultiplexed onto the appropriate distribution fiber via a WDM device. Similarly, for upstream transmission, different subscribers transmit onto their assigned upstream wavelengths, which are
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multiplexed at the remote WDM, transmitted over the common feeder, and demultiplexed at the CO. Note that since each subscriber transmits and receives only on unique wavelengths, the network intrinsically preserves security and privacy, which are particularly attractive features for subscriber loop applications. The architecture of Figure 73 has been demonstrated experimentally using several types of light sources, ranging from the single-frequency DFB lasers to the broad-spectrum LEDs. In one approach, wavelength-stabilized DFB lasers operating at both 600 Mbps and 1.2 Gbps were used. The WDM devices performed 20-channel multi/demultiplexing in the 1,550-nm band with wavelengths spaced at 2-nm intervals. In a more cost-effective approach, LED light sources were used for upstream transmission. The use of LED in dense WDMA networks is made possible by the spectrum slicing concept illustrated in Figure 74. When light from the LEDs reaches the WDM at the RT, the WDM selects and passes a narrow spectral band from each. This portion of the original LED spectrum nevertheless contains the original information and thus represents the subscriber data channel. The broad spectrum of LEDs eliminates the need for precise temperature stabilization and allows all subscribers to use identical light sources. The price to be paid is a reduction of the network power budget since only a small portion of each LED's power passes through the remote WDM. This reduction of the power budget limits the channel operating bit rate to less than 2 Mbps if standard LEDs with single-mode fibers are used. To overcome this limitation, super-luminescent diodes (SLDs) were used to demonstrate the feasibility of broadband spectrum slicing. Transmission experiments at 150 Mbps on each of 10 WDM channels, or at 50 Mbps on each of 16 WDM channels using spectrally sliced SLDs have been reported. A few years ago, the spectrum-slicing concept underwent field tests in London. The outputs of 8 LEDs operating at 2 Mbps were spectrally sliced at the CO and transmitted to the end points located 3.5 km away. This experiment in a life environment demonstrated the feasibility of the relatively simple and inexpensive spectrum-slicing WDMA approach to the distribution and multiaccess of low data rate signals over modest distances.
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Figure 74
Spectrum Slicing
7.2.3
Multihop WDMA Networks

The basic idea behind multihop lightwave networks can be highlighted by referring to Figure 75, which shows a star network with eight nodes, each of them having two fixed-tuned transmitters and two fixed-tuned receivers. We use the star topology for the purpose of illustration, although the physical topology can take a variety of forms (e.g., a bus or a tree). The two transmit wavelengths of each node can only be received by two other nodes. In other words, although all channels at distinct wavelengths are broadcast, only fixed-assigned node-to-node connections can be supported within the network (i.e., the logical-path topology is point-to-point). Nevertheless, since each node transmitter is reconnected to a different other node receiver, a connection from any given node to any other node can be achieved by allowing retransmission through one or more intermediate nodes. To illustrate, consider Figure 75 and suppose node 2 has a packet destined to node 7. Node 2 can transmit on either 3 or 4. Since there is a direct connection (i.e., single-hop) from node 2 to node 7 on 3, node 2 will use 3 to transmit its packet in one hop to node 7. The decision as to which wavelength to transmit is based on a mapping of destination addresses to output ports, which can be implemented either as a hardware lookup table or as a logical circuitry executing a specific routing algorithm.
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Suppose now that node 1 wishes to send a packet to node 3. Since there is no direct connection between node 1 and node 3, the packet must be relayed through one or more intermediate nodes. For instance, node 1 can transmit on wavelength l2 for reception at node 6, which forwards the packet on wavelength l11, for eventual reception by the intended destination node 3. There is thus a two-hop path from node 1 to node 3. Note that if node 1 had used l1, instead of l2, the packet would have needed four hops to reach its final destination (i.e., node 1 (l1) to node 5 (l10) to node 2 (l4) to node 8 (l15) to node 3). Although larger numbers of hops lead to longer network delays and lower link efficiency, the multiplicity of potential routing paths can be exploited to route packets along less congested paths or when a network failure occurs (either node or link failures). Another desirable feature of the multihop approach to lightwave networks is that, unlike the single-hop WDMA networks described previously, a control channel is no longer required. In fact, each network node serves as an active repeater and decides whether the received packet is intended for it or must be forwarded to another node.
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Figure 75
Multihop WDMA Star Network
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8 OPTICAL COMPONENTS
This chapter gives more detailed explanation of the optical components which were mentioned in the previous chapters.
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8.1
Passive Optical Component functions

POWER SPLITTER
POWER COMBINER
1 3
3 dB
2x2 COUPLER
2 4
1 2 1+2
1+2
MULTIPLEXER 1 DEMULTIPLEXER 2 WDM
N
Figure 76
STAR COUPLER
Passive Optical Component Functions The implementation of multiaccess optical-fiber networks requires several new components, commonly referred to as passive optical devices. These devices can be categorized according to the functions they perform, as shown in Figure 76. One can distinguish:
"
power splitters or taps, which split the optical power from the single-input fiber into several ( w 2) output fibers; power combiners, which perform the opposite function of the former by mixing the output of several transmitters and launching it into a single output fiber;
"
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"
2x2 couplers and star couplers, which mix the optical signals injected at input fibers and divide each of them equally among the output fibers; wavelength multiplexers, which combine channels at distinct wavelengths and launch them into a single optical fiber; wavelength demultiplexers, which split the multichannel input into different output fibers according to their wavelength;
"
"
Some of these and other components are explained in more detail in the next sections.
8.2
The 2x2 Coupler

Several useful properties of many passive optical devices can be obtained by considering the simple case of a 2x2 coupler. As shown in Figure 77, a 2x2 coupler is a device that couples two input beams and provides two output beams with a predetermined power distribution. As an example, a 3-dB coupler distributes half the light power at each input port to each output port. There exist different technologies for 2x2 couplers, to obtain both power splitting and wavelength multiplexing/demultiplexing functions. Designers concentrate their efforts on all-fiber-optic and integrated-optic technologies. The major reasons are that fiber attachment is much easier with all-fiber-optic devices while integrated-optic technology using lithographic processes (also referred to as planar-waveguide technology, see Figure 78) has the potential of dramatic cost reduction when large-scale production is envisaged. Figure 77 shows only the all-fiber-optic device. For both technologies, the physical mechanisms that act within 2x2 couplers are basically the same except that the waveguide cross-sections are circular in all-fiber devices while usually rectangular in integrated-optic devices. Consider the fused-fiber 2x2 coupler obtained by melting and pulling two single mode fibers together over a uniform section of length, as shown in Figure 77. Each input and output fiber has a long tapered section since the transversal dimensions are gradually reduced down to that of the coupling region by pulling the fiber during the fusion process. As the light propagates along the taper and into the coupling region much of the input field propagates outside the original fiber core. By careful
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dimensioning of the coupling region, this decoupled field can be recoupled into the other fiber. The fraction of the power launched at one input that appears at one of the two outputs can be varied between zero and unity. The same physical mechanism occurs for the coupling between integrated-optic waveguides. P1
Interaction Length
1/ 2
P1 + 1/2 P2
P2
Fused Fiber
1/ 2
P1 + 1/2 P2
2 Figure 77 Fiber Directional Coupler
Guide
125 m 7 m
Core ns nc Substrate nc ncl nc > ncl Optical Fiber
Figure 78
770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02
Cladding
n c > ns Planar Lightguides Example:
Planar Lightguide
Both ports on the left side can be used to connect a transmitter and a receiver. In case of the 3 dB coupler, 50% of the transmit power is coupled into the transmission fiber. Vice versa, 50% of the incoming light-power is coupled to the receiver. This basic principle can be used to connect a transmitter/receiver module to a single fiber to obtain full-duplex.
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Tx Rx Figure 79 Duplex
"
Tx Rx All-fiber-optic + Simple fiber attachment; + Good directivity. The part of the launched power that is reflected back towards the input ports is typically 50 dB; + Low reflections; + Long-term stability; + Low material costs; - Difficulties for automated assembly; - Little potential for integration; - Some packaging problems.
"
Integrated-optic + Great economic potential when the demand justifies large scale manufacturing; + Integration of passive components with lasers, photo-detectors, ...
8.3
Splitter/Combiners
In section 4.3 star couplers were explained. They can be based upon the fused or the integrated-optic technology. These techniques are also used to create splitters and combiners. They are in fact an NXM star coupler where N equals 1. Figures 80 and 81 give an example of a fused-splitter and an integrated-optic splitter respectively.
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Output
1 2 1 Input 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Figure 80 Fused Splitter
Output
1 2 3
Input
4 5 6 7 8
Figure 81
Planar Splitter The table below gives a comparison between "fused fiber technologies" and "planar technologies".
Fused fiber technologies Planar technologies Achromatic (wavelength independent) High integration of splitters Only one input WDM more difficult High splitting (low loss)
Chromatic (wavelength dependent) Cascading for splitters, stars Always more than one input Also WDM Low splitting
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8.4
WDM multiplexer/demultiplexer
Most of the discussion in previous sections applies to single-mode operation at a unique wavelength. However, in the fused fiber technology, the power transferred from one waveguide to the other is a periodic function of L. By proper dimensioning of the coupled region, the coupler can be made achromatic so that the coupling coefficient is constant over a large range of wavelengths covering both the 1.3 m and l.55 m windows (achromatic or broadband couplers mentioned in the preceding section). However, it is also possible by proper design that the coupler delivers almost all the power at one wavelength 1 to one output and almost all the power at another wavelength 2 to the other output (see Figure 82). Such devices are referred to as wavelength demultiplexers (WDM demux). By reciprocity, these devices can also serve as wavelength multiplexers (WDM mux) by inverting the roles of the input and output ports. Thus, in contrast to the unique wavelength situation, 2x2 couplers used with distinct wavelengths can couple all the input powers into one output port.
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1, 2
Fused Taper
Filter
1
1.00 0.75 0.50 0.25 Fused Taper Coupler Fused Taper/Filter Hybrid
1.2 Figure 82
1.3
1.4 1.5 Wavelength ( m )
1.6
WDM Fiber Coupler with In-line Filters Waveguide WDM devices have been used in wavelength division multiplexed bidirectional links in which a 1.3 m signal wavelength is used for transmission in one direction and a 1.55 m signal wavelength is used in the reverse direction. Typical performances of such commercially available devices are 1.5- to 4.0-dB loss and demultiplexing crosstalk in the range -25 to -50 dB. This is called diplex transmission (see also section 6.2). To install a diplex system a compact realization of the transceiver in one module can be used.
Optical Fiber
Tx
1, 2
2
Rx Figure 83 WDM Transceiver in One Module
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In order to multiplex or demultiplex more than two wavelengths, such devices can be placed in cascade. A diffraction grating reflects light in particular directions according to the grating constant (the number of ruled lines per unit distance, usually between 1,000 and 5,000 lines per millimeter), the angle at which the light is incident on the grating, and the light wavelength. The main structural type of grating-based WDM devices is the so-called Littrow configuration, as illustrated in Figure 84. In this configuration, a single lens and a separate plane grating are employed. Input fiber Output fibers Concave mirror Grating Based WDM Device (Littrow Configuration)
Figure 84
8.5
8.5.1
Optical transmitters
Absorption and emission of light
If a photon with energy hv = E (where h is the Planck's constant and v the frequency associated with the photon) enters the atomic system, it may be absorbed by an electron in the ground state E1, which then rises to the excited state E2. This process is sometimes referred to as stimulated absorption (see Figure 85). Alternatively, the emission of a photon with frequency v = E/h may occur if an electron is initially in the excited state E2 and makes a transition to the ground state E1. This light emission mechanism can occur through two fundamental processes, known as spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. In the spontaneous emission process, the light is emitted in an entirely random manner; that is, the emitted photons have no phase relationship among them and propagate in random directions. This process is at the heart of LED operation. The random nature of the spontaneous emission process results in incoherent radiation.
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In contrast with spontaneous emission, stimulated emission provides coherent radiation and is at the heart of light generation within laser sources. Stimulated emission is initiated by an existing photon at frequency v, which interacts with an electron in the excited state E2, causing it to return to the ground state E1, with the creation of a second photon. This second photon matches the original photon in its essential characteristics, such as the energy (or equivalently its frequency), polarization, and direction of propagation. E2 E2 E2
E1
E1
E1 Stimulated Emission
Stimulated Spontaneous Absorption Emission Figure 85 Absorption and Emission of Light
8.5.2
Light-Emitting Diode (LED)

The working of the semiconductor laser is very similar to the LED. Therefore a brief overview is given of the LED. Figure 86 shows the LED operation. If in certain semiconductor diodes the p-n junction is forward biased, some of the electrons injected across the junction will recombine with holes. If certain materials and dopants are used, a photon will be produced each time an electron falls into a hole. A ray of light will be formed if a great number of these photons can escape from the diode. The resulting spontaneous radiation is said to be incoherent because the photons are out of step, in random order. The materials used in constructing LEDs determine whether the radiation will be visible or invisible (infrared), and if visible, what color. GaAlAs, for instance, will produce invisible (infrared) radiation, whereas GaAsP will generate visible (red) radiation. Which type should be used depends on the optical fiber and the light receiver to be used. Optical fibers have less attenuation for some wavelengths than others, and light receivers or detectors are more sensitive to some wavelengths than to others. The light power of the LED is approximately proportional to the injection current, but the LED is never 100% efficient. This is
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because in some electron-hole recombinations there are no photons produced. LEDs can be modulated by varying the forward current. Some of the best can be modulated up to 200 MHz. Two types of LEDs are in common use in fiber optics:
" "
surface emitters and edge emitters.
Surface emitters are more commonly used, primarily because they give better light emission. However, coupling losses are greater with surface emitters and they have lower modulation bandwidths than edge emitters. To improve the coupling losses, a microlens on the surface of the LED chip or a hemispherical dome is used.
+ +
N - o Electron movement
oo
o-o P o Hole move ment Recombination
oo
P
o
Light
Figure 86
LED Operation
8.5.3
Fabry-Perot laser (FP)

The laser operation is quite similar to the LED operation. Both are made of the same materials, although arranged somewhat differently. Below a certain threshold current, the laser acts as a LED. It has a spontaneous emission and a broadband light output (see Figure 87). Above the threshold current, the laser starts to oscillate. This is called lasing.
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Output Power
Stimulated 2 nm
Spontaneous
50 nm
Stimulated
5 nm
Injection Current
Figure 87
Ouput Power When a properly biased current is passed through the laser (see Figure 87), the holes and electrons move into the active region. Some recombine, giving off photons of light in the process. In the LED the photons can escape the die as emitted light, or they can be reabsorbed by the p or n material. When a photon is reabsorbed, a free electron may be created or heat may be generated. In the laser something different happens. The light is partially trapped in the active region by the mirrorlike end walls. The photons reflect back and forth. The photon in the active region, as it reflects back and forth, can persuade a free electron to recombine with a hole. The result is a new photon exactly like the first. That is, the first photon has stimulated the emission of the second. Gain has occurred, for there are two photons where there was but one. For the stimulation to occur, a strong bias current supplying many carriers (holes and free electrons) is required. The current continuously injects carriers into the active region, where the trapped photons stimulate the carriers to recombine and create more photons. The light energy (number of photons) has been pumped up by the carrier injection. This pumping allows amplification. All of the light is not completely trapped in the active region; some is emitted from the mirrorlike end surfaces in a strong narrow beam of laser light.
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Current Injection Mirror, R1 Mirror, R2
Output Light
z=0 Figure 88 Fabry-Perot Resonant Cavity
Active Layer
Figure 89 shows a conceptual drawing of a packaged laser. The shape and the position of the fiber is chosen in such a way that a maximum of the laser light output is coupled into the fiber. The drive-current must assure the laser working and should be kept constant. However, because the current is temperature dependent, the operating temperature must be stabilized to prevent drifts. This explains the thermal sensor, the heat sink and the thermoelectric cooler. Generally the temperature is stabilized between 10oC and 20oC. This also improves the lifetime of a laser. The laser emits light from both the back and forward surfaces. On one side the fiber is connected. On the other side a detector is provided to monitor the light-output. Together with a driver-bias circuit to control the current, a constant optical output level can be maintained. The optical output level can change due to temperature difference and ageing of the laser. Laser Fiber Detector Thermal sensor
Thermoelectric cooler
Heat sink Figure 89 Packaged Laser
122 / 130
Output Light
z=L
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8.5.4
DFB laser
The multimode spectrum of Fabry-Perot LDs leads to system penalties due to the dispersion phenomena in single-mode fibers. Another problem with the FP laser is the temperatures sensitivity which is a continuous curve for the DFB and discontinuous for the FP laser (see Figure 90). In order to reduce these system penalties, design efforts have focused on high-speed Single-longitudinal-Mode (SLM) laser diodes operating at either 1.3- or l.5-m wavelengths. In addition, some structures that have been designed for single-mode operation also have the capability to be tuned in wavelength. The principle applied to obtain SLM laser operation is to increase the net gain difference between neighboring longitudinal modes such that only one mode can build up to lase while other modes having higher losses (insufficient net gain) are suppressed from oscillation. This can be achieved by shortening the length of the Fabry-Perot LD. However, as the cavity length is small, amplification gain of the stimulated emission becomes weaker and the output power decreases. As a consequence, the linewidth of the selected longitudinal mode is considerably broadened (see also Figure 87). Since broad linewidths are a disadvantage in applications where single-mode LDs are required, other SLM laser structures have been investigated.
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Power Spectrum
Power Spectrum
Multi-mode Laser (Fabry-Perot)
Singlemode Laser
FP
DFB
T Figure 90 FP versus DFB
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Power Spectrum
Power Spectrum
Multi-mode Laser (Fabry-Perot)
Single-mode Laser
FP
DFB
T Figure 91 FP versus DFB This has led to the concept of distributed feedback (DFB) laser diodes, which were theoretically demonstrated in 1971 and realized as early as 1974, some twenty years ago. The principle of DFB consists of incorporating a corrugated structure (a diffraction grating) along the cavity with an antireflection-coated end facet, as shown in Figure 92. The periodic variation of the effective refractive index along the direction of wave propagation provides feedback of light through the phenomenon of Bragg diffraction. Therefore, in contrast with conventional Fabry-Perot lasers, the feedback in DFB lasers is not localized at the end facets, but is distributed all along the cavity. Feedback occurs only for one wavelength satisfying the Bragg condition, which depends upon the refractive index of the corrugated medium and the grating period.
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Although the fabrication of DFB lasers involves advanced technology with multiple epitaxial growths, these devices are today routinely produced and available commercially. They are extensively used in applications such as single-mode fiber broadcast analog television systems and high-speed digital trunk systems operating at bit rates of 2.4 Gbps and more. The undersea transatlantic fiber system (TAT-9), which became operational in 1992, also employs DFB lasers.
Diffraction grating Current Injection Mirror, R2
z=0 Figure 92 DFB Laser Structure
8.6
Optical receivers
The most commonly used photodetectors or optical receivers are :
" "
126 / 130
Output Light z=L

Active Layer
Another type of SLM laser is the distributed Bragg reflection (DBR) laser. In the DBR laser the Bragg region is separated from the gain region inside the laser cavity. This type of laser is especially interesting for wavelength-tunable lasers. A more detailed discussion of wavelength-tunable lasers is beyond the scope of this course.
Positive-intrinsic-negative (PIN) photodiodes Avalanche photodiodes (APD)
The difference between a PIN photodiode and an APD is that an APD has an internal gain. An APD creates multiple electrons for each received photon whereas in a PIN detector a maximum of one electron is created per photon. Figure 93 shows the operation of a PIN photodiode. A PIN photodiode has a layer of undoped or intrinsic material between N-doped and P-doped material. Light enters the diode through a window which is about the size of a fiber core.
770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02
The photodiode works just the opposite from a LED. Photons that strike the depletion layer create free-electron-hole-pairs. This allows a current to flow through the diode. Photons N P
o o
o o o
Depletion Region
Figure 93
Operation of a PIN Photodiode In case of an APD the layer construction and the bias is different compared to a PIN photodiode. In an APD the electron, which was created from a received photon, can gain sufficient energy to ionize a bound electron (i.e. create another free-electron-hole-pair). The ionized carriers cause further ionization, leading to an avalanche of carriers. The packaging of photodiodes is similar to laser packages (see also Figure 89).
8.7
Loss and return loss considerations

The optical components are treated with great care (especially connectors) to avoid a dramatic increase in the mean losses as specified in the ETSI specification. Figure 94 shows some of the common problems with fibers which can result in additional loss and reflections.
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127 / 130
Lateral offset
Surface roughness
Core eccentricity Figure 94 Centering of fiber surface
Angular misalignment
Figure 95 shows the return loss of optical connectors.

"
Low Return Loss : Non Physical Contact If there is no physical contact the return loss is 14 dB. In this case 4 % of the light is reflected back towards the transmitter.
"
Moderate Return Loss : Physical Contact (PC) The return loss becomes more than 40 dB. In other words, 0.01 % of the light is reflected backwards. Problems with physical contact are machine polish, dirt, ... If the fiber is not connected the return loss drops again to 14 dB.
"
High Return Loss : Angled Physical Contact (APC) In this case the return loss becomes 55 dB or more. Only 0.0003% of the light is reflected back to the transmitter. However, compared to the PC the attenuation has not improved. Because of the angled contact the reflected light is not sent back to the transmitter (see also Figure 96). Therefore, a not connected fiber has a similar return loss of 55 dB.
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Low Return Loss : Non Physical Contact Connected : RL = 14 dB air gap
Moderate Return Loss : Physical Contact (PC) Connected : RL > 40 dB Not connected : RL > 14 dB
High Return Loss : Angled Physical Contact (APC) Connected : RL > 55 dB Not connected : RL > 55 dB
Figure 95
Return loss of optical connectors There are a number of factors which can make the return loss better or worse, like :
" " " "
Dirt; Polishing of fiber surface; Shape of fiber surface and Centering of fiber surface (see figure 94).
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Figure 96
APC
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Principle of Telecom Transmission

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Principle of Telecom Transmission

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770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

Status Change Note

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2.2 2.3 2.4 3 3.1 3.2 3.3

PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH) . . . . . .

SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (SDH) . . . . . . . . . 4.1

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

MULTIACCESS NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 7.2

OPTICAL COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

124 127 128

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

Figure 91 Figure 92 Figure 93 Figure 94 Figure 95 Figure 96

126 127 128 129 130 131

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

Two types of transmission technologies are used today:

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

TRANSMISSION Core Network

Transmission on the access and in the core network

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

TRANSMISSION : TRANSPORT IN THE CORE NETWORK

TRANSMISSION : IN THE ACCESS

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

Voice Sampling Quantising Coding

Voice Coding Quantising Sampling

Simple representation of the modulation/demodulation

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

Samples of the amplitude t

Sampling of voice signal

A-law : used in Europe, Africa, South-America; -law : used in North-America, Japan.

Consequently, the stream of bits is only an approximation of the analogue signal:

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

The most used codes are ( Figure 4) :

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

Most used codes

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

channel 1 channel n channel 2 channel 3 x channel n

Multi plexed channel time slots

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

channel 1 A1 channel 2 A2 channel 3 A3 channel 4 A4 . . . channel 7 A7

Time slot Time

Byte and bit interleaving

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

TIMING RELATED CONCEPTS

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

64 1 2 3 4 1544 6312 44736 139264

Digital hierarchies (kbit/s)

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3 PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH)

3 PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH)

THE EUROPEAN E1 SIGNAL

770 00438 2121 VHBE Ed. 02

3 PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY (PDH)

Timeslot 1 Channel 1 8 bits

Timeslot 15 Channel 15 8 bits

Timeslot 31 Channel 30 8 bits