SOLID STATE ELECTRONIC DEVICES

Sep.20 2006

Outline
Go further on energy band theory ----- Energy Gap the Effective Mass Theory (EMT) electron-hole pair (EHP) Intrinsic Material

 Most properties of metals can be well explained with the aid of the free-electron model, but when we come to insulators and semiconductors the theory fails. Band theory stands out and becomes a great help

Origin of the Energy Gap in solids

A wave propagating in a crystal can be disturbed by Bragg reflection. The probability to find an electron at a certain location can be calculated using the Schrodinger equation. At Bragg reflections wavelike solutions to the Schrodinger equation do not exist. The Bragg condition is:

Origin of the Energy Gap in solids

In one dimension:

where n=1,2,3..... and a is the lattice constant. The first reflection and the first energy gap occurs at n=1.

Origin of the Energy Gap in solids

Left: Plot of energy versus wavevector k for a free electron. Right: Plot of energy versus wavevector k for an electron in a monatomic linear lattice of lattice constant a.

Origin of the Energy Gap in solids

One dimensional periodic potential

Origin of the Energy Gap in solids

sum between a right and a left-directed wave Difference between a right and a left-directed wave

Distribution of probability density in the periodic potential for standing wave 1 and 2.

Origin of the Energy Gap in solids

The standing wave 2 piles up electrons around the positive ion cores, which means that the average potential energy will be lower than for a free traveling wave (constant probability density). The potential energy corresponding to standing wave 1 will have higher potential energy than a free traveling wave, since it piles up electrons between the ion cores (not compensated by positive ions). The energy difference between the standing waves is the origin to the energy gap Eg.

What is the Effective Mass

An electron in crystal may behave as if it had a mass different from the free electron mass m0. There are crystals in which the effective mass of the carriers is much larger or much smaller than m0. The effective mass may be anisotropic, and it may even be negative. The important point is that the electron in a periodic potential is accelerated relative to the lattice in an applied electric or magnetic field as if its mass is equal to an effective mass.

What is the Effective Mass

electron in vacuum under electric field (Free Electron Dynamics ) F=-qE=m0dv/dt Electron in periodic crystal (Electron Dynamics in Crystal) F=-qE=mn*dv/dt
The motion in bulk can be described by the same eq.,but the mass is replaced by an effective mass

Free Electron Dynamics

If the electron is free then E represents the kinetic energy only. It is related to the wave vector k and momentum p by the formula below

Therefore, the quantum mechanical and classical free particles exhibit precisely the same energy-momentum relationship, as shown below.

Group Velocity of a Wave packet

The velocity of the real particle is the phase velocity of the wave packet envelope. It is called the group velocity and its relation to energy and momentum is obtained

Here, E and k are interpreted as the center values of energy and crystal momentum, respectively.

Electron Dynamics in crystal

The work done by the force on the wave packet will then be

From that we get the force expression using

The acceleration is found taking time derivative of

Effective Mass Expression

Finally, we obtain the effective mass equation

The equation is identical to Newtons second law of motion except that the actual particle mass is replaced by an effective mass m*.

E-k Diagram, Velocity and Effective Mass

At k=0, electron has a constant positive value and it rises rapidly as k value increases. After experiencing a singularity (infinite mass) the effective mass becomes negative up to the top E

dE/dk

Therefore: - m* is positive near the bottoms of all bands, - m* is negative near the tops of all bands.

d2E/dk2

E-k Diagrams
The E-k curve is concave at the bottom of the CB, so me* is positive. Whereas, it is convex at the top of the VB, thus me* is negative. This means that a particle in that state will be accelerated by the field in the reverse direction expected for a negatively charged electron. That is, it behaves as if a positive charge and mass. This is the concept of the hole.
For valance band the degenerate band with smaller curvature around k=0 is called the heavy-hole band, and the one with larger curvature is the lighthole band.

EHP
T some electrons receive enough thermal energy across the band gap If the conduction band electron and hole are created by the excitation of a valence band electron to the conduction band,they are called electron-hole pair (EHP)

Intrinsic material
A perfect semiconductor crystal with no impurities or lattice defects is called intrinsic semiconductor.
T=0 K, no charge carriers T , EHPs are generated (VB electrons are excited thermally across band gap to the CB)

EHPs are the only charge carriers in Intrinsic Material.

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