this efor non-commercial use by Russion-speakers ony ! ‘if you are not a Russian-speaker delete this file immediately | ‘avai GH NpeAHCARGNEH TL APR 4. pycower nomacearene- ‘Bpaven st yuentsx, 8 ocoberocr« 2. cboGonNOLO, HeKemnepHecKorO H BECIVIATHOTO peenpocrpanertin ‘CKaHMpOBAHO NOTOM M KPOBBIO MOCARN on trowe.py 1 Fuel Metabolism Overview © The major fuels of the body, carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, are obtained from the diet and stored in the body’s fuel depots. @ In the fed state (after a meal), ingested fuel is used to meet the immediate energy needs of the body and excess fuel is stored. © During fasting (e.g., between meals or overnight), stored fuels are used to derive the energy needed to survive until the next meal. @ In prolonged fasting (starvation), changes oceur in the use of fuel stores that per- mit survival for extended periods of time. © The level of insulin in the blood increases in the fed state and promotes fuel stor- aye; Ute level uf glucagon increases in the fasting state and promotes the release of stored fuel I. Metabolic Fuels and Dietary Components © Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins serve as the major fuels of the body and are obtained from the dict. After digestion and absorption, these fuels may be oxidized for energy. ‘© Fuel consumed in excess of the body's immediate energy needs is stored, ‘mainly as fat, but also as glycogen. To some extent, body protein also can be used as fuel. © The daily energy expenditure of an individual ineludes the energy required for the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and the energy required for physical activity. @ In add:tion to providing energy, dietary components also produce pre- cursors for the synthesis of structural compounds and supply the cesential fatty acids and amino acids (which the body cannot synthe- size) and the vitamins and minerals (which often serve as cofactors for enzymes). A. Fuels When fuels are metabolized in the body, heat is generated and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is synthesized 1< can H enaBi-nontepcnas HYCAKE st gpoue. py > < not for salel > < we za mpoxannt | > < COMRVAAIIE c+ 942 >< YERSAEM c. 321 > 21 Biochemistry 1. Energy content of fuels a. The oxidation of carbohydrates to CO, and H,O produces approxi- mately 4 keal/g. b. Protein also produces about 4 keal/g, ¢. Fats produce more than twice as much energy (9 keal/g). 4. Alcohol, which is present in many diets, produces about 7 keal/g. 2, Energy is often expressed by physicians and nutritionists with the term “calorie” in place of kilocalorie. 8, Heat generated by fuel oxidation is used to maintain body temperature. 4. ATP generated by fuel metabolism is used for biochemical reactions, muscle contraction, and other energy-requiring processes. B. Composition of body fuel stores (Figure 1-i) 1. Triacylglycerol (triglyceride) a. The major fuel store of the body is adipose triacylglycerol. b. Adipose tissue stores fuel very efficiently. It has more stored calo- vies per gram and lese water (15%) than other fuel stores. (Muscle tis- ‘sue is about 80% water.) 2. Glycogen stores, although small, are extremely important. a, Liver glycogen is used to maintain blood glucose during the early stages of fasting, b, Muscle glycogen is oxidized for muscle contraction. 8. Protein does not serve solely as a source of fuel and can be degraded only to a limited extent. a. Approximately one-third of total body protein ean be degraded. b. If too much protein is oxidized for energy, body functions can be severely compromised. C. Daily energy expenditure is the amount of energy required each day. 1. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the energy used by a person who has fasted for at least 12 hours and is awake but at rest. ‘Muscle elycogen 10.15 kg (0.4%) Liver glycogen (0.08; kg (0.2%) Fat ——~ 15g (65%) Protein 6kg (14.5%) Figure 1-1. Fuel composition of an average 70-45 man afr an overnight fast (in kg and as percent of total calories).< evs ResaBensonsepeies MPCANT 8 gpeHte py > << not for sale! > < we arm mpomaint | > < COREMAAUIE c. 342 >< YEADATENL c. 421 > Chapter 1 Fuel Metabolism 1 3 2. Specific dynamic action (SDA) is the elevation in metabolic rate that occurs during digestion and absorption of foods. It is often ignored in calculations because its value is usually unknown and probably small (less than 10% of the total energy). 3. Physical activity a. The number of calories that physical activity adds to the daily cnergy expenditure varies considerably. A person can expend about 5 calories (keal) each minute while walking but 20 calories while running. b, The daily energy requirement for an extremely sedentary person is about 30% of the BMR. For a more active person, it may be 50% or more of the BMR. D. Other dietary requirements 1. Essential fatty acids a, Linoleic and linolenic acids are required in the diet. b. Linoleic acid is necessary for the synthesis of prostaglandins and related compounds. (The function of linolenic acid is not firmly estab- lished.) 2. Protein 8, Essential amino acids (1) Nine amino acids cannot be synthesized in the body and, there- fore, must be present in the diet in order for protein synthesis to occur. The essential amino acids are lysine, isoleucine, leucine, threonine, valine, tryptophan, phenylalanine, methionine, and histidine. (2) Only a small amount of histidine is required in the diet. However, larger amounts are required for growth (e.g., in chil- dren, pregnant women, and people recovering from injuries). (8) Because arginine can be synthesized only in limited amounts, it is required in the diet for growth. b. Nitrogen balance (2) The body’s primary source of nitrogen is dietary protein, which is about 16% nitrogen. (2) Proteins are constantly being synthesized and degraded in the body. (8) As amino acids are oxidized, the nitrogen is converted to urea and excreted by the kidneys. Other nitrogen-containing compounds produced from amino acids are also excreted in the urine (urie acid, creatinine, and NH,*). (4) Nitrogen balance (the normal state in the adult) occurs when synthesis of body protein equals degradation. The amount of nitrogen excreted in the urine each day equals the amount of nitrogen ingested each day. (5) Negative nitrogen balance occurs when degradation of body protein exceeds synthesis. More nitrogen is excreted than ingested. It results from an inadequate amount of protein in the diet or the absence of one or more essential amino acids.< ceak ¥ ResaBe-nousepcnas IORI st gooey By > < not for salel > < we mn RponeRE { < COMER c. 342 >< YEADATEND cs 32 > 4 | Biochemistry (6) Positive nitrogen balance occurs when synthesis of body pro- tein exceeds degradation. Less nitrogen is excreted than ingested Tt occurs during growth. 3, Vitamins and minerals a. Vitamins and minerals are required in the diet. Many serve as cofactors for enzymes. b. Minerals required in large amounts include calcium and phosphate, which serve as structural components of bone. Minerals required in trace amounts include iron, which is a component of heme. IL. The Fed or Absorptive State (Figure 1-2) © Dietary carbohydrates are cleaved during digestion, forming monosac- charides (mainly glucose) that enter the blood. Glucose may be oxidized by various tissues for energy or stored as glycogen in the liver and in muscle. In the liver, glucose may be converted to triacylglycerols, which are packaged in very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL) and released into the blood. The fatty acids of the VLDL are stored in adipose tissue. © Dietary fats (triacylglycerol) are digested to fatty acids and 2-monoglyc- erides. These digestive products ure resynthesized to triacylglycerols by intestinal epithelial cells, packaged in chylomicrons, and secreted via the lymph into the blood. The fatty acids of chylomicrons may be stored in adipose triacylglycerols or oxidized by various tissues for energy. © Dietary proteins are digested to amino acids and absorbed into the blood. ‘The amino acids may be used by various tissues to synthesize proteins, to produce nitrogen-containing compounds (e.g., purines, heme, creatine, and epinephrine), or they may be oxidized to produce energy. A. Digestion and absorption 1. Carbohydrates a. ‘The major dietary carbohydrate is starch, the storage form of carbo- hydrate in plants, (1) Starch is cleaved by salivary amylase in the mouth and by panere- atic amylase in the intestine to disaccharides and oligosaccharides. (2) Dextrinases, a-glucosidases, and disaccharidases located on the surface of the brush border of the intestinal epithelial cell complete the conversion of starch to glucose. b, Ingested disaecharides are cleaved by disaccharidases on the sur- face of the intestinal epithelial cell. (2) Suerose (table sugar) is converted to fructose and glucose by sucrase. (2) Lactose (milk sugar) is converted to glucose and galactose by lactase. c. Some free glucose and fructose are consumed in the diet. 4. Monosaccharides (mainly glucose and some fructose and galac- tose), present in the diet or produced by the digestive process, are absorbed by the intestinal epithelial cells and pass into the blood.