1)LORENTZ CONDITION:

%4 deIine the divergence 4I A, which is independent 4I its curl. In 4rder t4 simpliIy,

v. = -e

= -
1
]os
v.
which is kn4wn as the L4rentz c4nditi4n.
Where, e is Electric Scalar P4tential


2)RADIATION MECHANISM:
(i) II a charge is n4t m4ving, current is n4t created and there is n4 radiati4n.
(ii) II the charge is m4ving with a uniI4rm vel4city:
(a) %here is n4 radiati4n iI the wire is straight, and inIinite in extent.
(b) %here is radiati4n iI the wire is curved, bent, disc4ntinu4us, terminated 4r truncated.
(c) II charge is 4scillating in a time-m4ti4n, it radiates even iI the wire is straight.

3)(i) HALF-POWER BEAMWIDTH(HPBW):
%he HPBW is deIined as: 'in a plane c4ntaining the directi4n 4I the maximum 4I a beam, the
angle between the 2 directi4ns in which the radiati4n intensity is 4ne-halI the maximum value 4I the
beam. It is 4therwise called as 3db beamwidth. It is 50 4I the maximum radiati4n.

(ii) BAND WIDTH:
%he bandwidth 4I an antenna is deIined as 'the range 4I Irequencies within which the
perI4rmance 4I the antenna, with respect t4 s4me characteristic, c4nI4rms t4 a speciIied standard.

(iii) BEAMWIDTH BETWEEN FIRST NULLS:
%he BWFN is deIined as 'the angle between the Iirst nulls. BWFN is taken by drawing a
tangent t4 the radiati4n pattern.




4)Calculate the directivity of an isotropic antenna in dB.
D
4n
HA

F4r an is4trpic antenna, OA 4a
D1
DdB10log
10
10log
DdB 0dB






5)Calculate the maximum effective aperture of an antenna which is operating ta a wavelength of
2m and has directivity of 100.
D 100; 2m
Aem D4

4n

100
4n

Aem 31.83 m. Sq.




6)RETARDED VECTOR POTENTIAL:
A

4n
]}
i
(x
i
, y
i
)
c
-]RR
R
ds
F
s
4n
]N
i
(x
i
, y
i
)
c
-]kR
R
ds
A(x,y,z)

4n
_}(x
i
, y
i
, z
i
)
c
-]RR
R
dv
%%
s
4n
_N(x

, y

, z

)
c
-]RR
R
dv



7)FRAUNHOFER:
Far-Iield(Fraunh4Ier) regi4n is deIined as 'that regi4n 4I the Iield 4I an antenna where the
angular Iield distributi4n is essentially independent 4I the distance Ir4m the antenna.

FRESNEL:
Radiating near-Iield(Fresnel) regi4n is deIined as 'that regi4n 4I the Iield 4I an antenna
between the reactive near-Iield regi4n and the Iar-Iield regi4n where in radiati4n Iields pred4minate and
where in the angular Iield distributi4n is independent up4n the distance Ir4m the antenna.




8)A dipole of length 3cm is placed in free space to radiate at 1GHz. Find the radiation resistance.
L 3cm; I 1GHz
Rr 20aa,

,`2

108
1109
0.3
Rr 20a`2(3/0.3) 1.973 kO








9)Comparison of Halfwave and Quarterwave.

HALFWAVE DIPOLE:
(i) Simplest antenna and is Irequently empl4yed as an element 4I a m4re c4mplex
directi4nal system.
Eg: Antenna Arrays
(ii) Symmetrical antenna in which the 2 ends are at equal p4tential relative t4 mid
p4int.
(iii) Dip4le is Ied at the centre having maximum current at the centre.
(iv) Maximum radiati4n in the plane n4rmal t4 the axis.
(v) Rrad 73.08O

QUARTERWAVE MONOPOLE:
(i) It is perpendicular t4 the plane which is usually assumed t4 be inIinite and perIectly
c4nducting.
(ii) It is Ied by a c4axial cable c4nnected t4 its base.
(iii) %he Iield pr4duced in the regi4n ab4ve the gr4und plane due t4 the

4
m4n4p4le
with its image is the same as the Iield due t4

dip4le.
(iv) %he m4n4p4le radiates 4nly halI as much p4wer as the dip4le with the same current.
(v) Rrad 36.54O




10) Mention the application of balanced to unbalanced transformer.



11) What are the characteristics of an antenna whose efficiency equals unity?