1 | P a g e O r a l s Na v i g a t i o n a n d Wa t c h k e e p i n g

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Q. Why are GPS satellites positioned in orbits 20,200 km above earths surface?
A. This height of orbits falls within range of orbit heights classified as medium earth orbits. This
height is chosen for GPS satellites for following reasons:
1. Footprint of satellites is large enough to provide global coverage,
2. Because of larger footprints of satellites, the total number of satellites is lesser than would be
needed if satellites were to orbit at lower heights,
3. This height is low enough for earth based transmitters/receivers to have modest sized
antennas and use lower transmission powers for the system to be used effectively.

Q. What is the difference between gross tonnage and net tonnage?
A. Tonnage in general refers to capacity or size of a ship.
Gross tonnage is a function of volume of enclosed spaces of a ship. It is indicative of ships size.
Net tonnage refers to volume of cargo carrying spaces. It is indicative of vessels earning potential.
The NT cannot be less than 30% of the GT of a ship. Net tonnage is used for ships dues.
Both GT and NT are determined by measuring ships volume and then applying a mathematical
formula. Both GT and NT are dimensionless numbers and are shown in ships International Tonnage
Certificate. They do not have any physical units and should not be confused with unit of mass,
namely ton.

Q. What do you understand by GRT and NRT?
A. GRT stands for Gross Register Tonnage and NRT means NET Register Tonnage. Both these
terms are now obsolete and have been replaced respectively with GT and NT under International
Convention on Tonnage Measurements of Ships.
However, students may note the definitions of GRT and NRT for their reference:

Gross Register Tonnage (GRT) meant a measure of the total internal capacity of the ship. It
consisted of: under-deck volume excluding double-bottoms, volume of tween deck spaces, volume
of superstructures, volume of deck-houses etc. Spaces like navigational areas, galleys, stairways,
light and air spaces were exempted. The total volume thus calculated in cubic feet was divided by
100 (1 gross ton = 100 cubic feet). This was the Gross Tonnage entered in the ship's Register.
Net Register Tonnage (NRT) meant a measure of the available space for the carriage of cargo
and passengers. This was obtained from GRT after making some deductions. These deductions
from GRT included: Master and crew accommodation, safety and storage spaces, water ballast
tanks, allowance for propelling machinery. Again the resulting volume in cubic feet was divided by
100 (1 net ton = 100 cubic feet). This was the Net Tonnage entered in the Register.
Q. Which radar should be used for long range scanning?
A. 10 cm or S-band radar is better for long range scanning.

Q. Which radar should be used in heavy rain?
2 | P a g e O r a l s Na v i g a t i o n a n d Wa t c h k e e p i n g
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A. 10 cm or S-band radar should be definitely on and used in rain, because 10 cm radar gives less
rain clutter. However, in situations like this, it is preferable to keep both radars on and use the
advantage of 10 cm radar accordingly.

Q. How will ascertain the performance of your radar?
A. The performance of radar can be ascertained with the help of performance monitor.

Q. What is parallel indexing and what is its principle?
A. Parallel indexing is a technique of executing and monitoring ships motion along a pre-
determined charted track. While keeping the radar screen under observation it provides instantly
ships position with respect to the charted track. It fills the gap between two consecutive plotted
positions and allows for the off track deviation to be treated well in time. Though the technique is
termed as continuous fixing, it does not absolve OOW of duties of fixing vessels position at regular
intervals.
Parallel indexing works on the principle of relative motion, in which the echo of a ground-based
(fixed) target moves across radar display at a speed and in direction which is exact reciprocal of
ships motion over ground. The target chosen should be isolated, radar-conspicuous and positively
identified.

Q. Which mode of radar motion should be used for parallel indexing?
A. Both relative motion (RM) and true motion (TM) are equally suitable for parallel indexing.

Q. Radars are interfaced with speed logs as well as GPS. GPS gives SOG, while log is intended to
provide STW. How will you decide which speed to use and when?
A. I will use STW for applying ROR i.e. for taking decisions on collision avoidance. This means to
say that my radar will be switched to STW mode, when at sea.
But, SOG also has its own functions. It is very useful, because it shows the CMG vector as well on
radar screen. So I can use SOG mode when navigating in restricted waters dotted with shoals, islets,
rocks etc. and also while negotiating turns in proximity of hazards.

Q. There is some interface trouble between your radar and speed log and you unable to get the STW
input on radar. What will you do?
A. I will enter the STW manually by using the manual option on radar and navigate accordingly.

Q. What do you understand by EPA and ATA?
A. Both EPA and ATA are plotting aids. EPA stands for electronic plotting aid and ATA stands for
automatic tracking aid.