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Clastic Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy (Eaes 455)
Clastic Sedimentology and Sequence Stratigraphy (Eaes 455)
Grading
Written tests (50%)
Midterm (20%) Final (30%)
Paper (30%)
Writing (20%) Seminar (10%)
EaES 455
Literature
Reading, H.G. (Editor), 1996. Sedimentary
Blackwell, Oxford, 688 pp. ISBN 0-632-03627-3. Emery, D. and Myers, K.J. (Editors), 1996. Sequence Stratigraphy. Blackwell, Oxford, 297 pp. ISBN 0-63203706-7. Lecture notes on EaES 455 homepage
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Introduction
Definitions
Sedimentology = the study of the processes of formation, transport and deposition of material which accumulates as sediment in continental and marine environments and eventually forms sedimentary rocks Stratigraphy = the study of rocks to determine the order and timing of events in Earth history Sedimentary geology sedimentology + stratigraphy Sequence stratigraphy = the analysis of genetically related depositional units bounded by unconformities and their correlative conformities
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Introduction
Historical development of sedimentary geology and key concepts
Principle of superposition (Nicolas Steno, 1669) Uniformitarianism (the present is the key to the past) (James Hutton and Charles Lyell, late 18th to early 19th century) Stratigraphy developed already around 1800 Sedimentology is a relatively new discipline (1960s and 1970s) Late 1980s and 1990s: revival of stratigraphy (sequence stratigraphy)
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Introduction
Temporal and spatial scales
Sedimentology focuses primarily on facies and depositional environments (how were sediments/sedimentary rocks formed?)
Smaller temporal and spatial scales
Stratigraphy focuses on the larger scale strata and Earth history (when and where were sediments/sedimentary rocks formed?)
Larger temporal and spatial scales
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Contents
Introduction Sedimentology - concepts Fluvial environments Deltaic environments Coastal environments Offshore marine environments Sea-level change Sequence stratigraphy concepts Marine sequence stratigraphy Nonmarine sequence stratigraphy Basin and reservoir modeling Reflection
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Sedimentology concepts
Fluid flow and bedforms
Unidirectional flow leads predominantly to asymmetric bedforms (two- or three-dimensional) or plane beds
Current ripples Dunes Plane beds Antidunes
Oscillatory flow due to waves causes predominantly symmetric bedforms (wave ripples) Combined flow involves both modes of sediment transport and causes low-relief mounds and swales
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Sedimentology concepts
Sedimentary structures
Planar stratification is primarily the product of aggrading plane beds Cross stratification is formed by aggrading bedforms Planar and trough cross stratification are the result of straight-crested (2D) and linguoid (3D) bedforms, respectively
Small-scale cross stratification (current ripples) Large-scale cross stratification (dunes) Wave cross stratification (wave ripples) Hummocky cross stratification (mounds and swales)
A single unit of cross-stratified material is known as a set; multiple stacked sets of similar nature form co-sets
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Sedimentology concepts
The facies concept refers to the sum of characteristics of a sedimentary unit, commonly at a fairly small (cm-m) scale
Lithology Grain size Sedimentary structures Color Composition Biogenic content
Lithofacies (physical and chemical characteristics) Biofacies (macrofossil content) Ichnofacies (trace fossils)
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Sedimentology concepts
Facies analysis is the interpretation of strata in terms of depositional environments (or depositional systems), commonly based on a wide variety of observations Facies associations constitute several facies that occur in combination, and typically represent one depositional environment (note that very few individual facies are diagnostic for one specific setting!) Facies successions (or facies sequences) are facies associations with a characteristic vertical order Walthers Law (1894) states that two different facies found superimposed on one another and not separated by an unconformity, must have been deposited adjacent to each other at a given point in time
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Sedimentology concepts
Standardized facies codes have been proposed (e.g., by Andrew Miall), but they are frequently critized Sedimentary logs are one-dimensional representations of vertical sedimentary successions Architectural elements are the two- or three-dimensional building blocks of a sediment or a sedimentary rock The three-dimensional arrangement of architectural elements is known as sedimentary architecture Since the 1970s, facies analysis has evolved from a focus on one-dimensional data to three-dimensional data (architecturalelement analysis, 3D seismic), recognizing that individual sedimentary logs can rarely provide detailed environmental interpretations
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Sedimentology concepts
Sedimentary structures occur at very different scales, from less than a mm (thin section) to 100s1000s of meters (large outcrops); most attention is traditionally focused on the bedform-scale
Microforms (e.g., ripples) Mesoforms (e.g., dunes) Macroforms (e.g., bars)
Bounding-surface hierarchies have been developed to distinguish different ranks of stratal discontinuity, from lamina to basin scale; they are much more readily used in outcrops than in subsurface data
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Sedimentology concepts
Allogenic (allocyclic) controls are external forces that exert a strong influence on depositional processes; they include sealevel (base-level) change, climate change (e.g., sediment supply), and tectonism (e.g., subsidence, sediment supply) Autogenic (autocyclic) controls operate within a given depositional environment and cause changes while allogenic controls may remain constant (e.g., delta-lobe switching) The last few decades have seen an enormous shift in emphasis from autogenic to allogenic processes (sequence stratigraphy)
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Sedimentology concepts
Accommodation is the space available, at any given point in time, for sediments to accumulate; in marine environments accommodation is created or destroyed by relative sea-level changes The stratigraphic record is nearly always very incomplete due to a limited preservation potential, that decreases with increasing time scales Only an extremely small proportion of deposits that are initially formed actually survive and become preserved in the stratigraphic record (typical orders of magnitude 10-410-6)
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Sedimentology concepts
Facies models are schematic, three-dimensional representations of specific depositional environments that serve as norms for interpretation and prediction
Facies models are static in the sense that they focus heavily on autogenic processes and deposits, following Walthers Law
Modern processes must constitute the basis for interpreting ancient products (uniformitarianism works in many cases, but not always) Unconsolidated sediments (~Quaternary) can provide the bridge between present-day processes and ancient sedimentary rocks (~pre-Quaternary); Quaternary deposits are usually easy to interpret in terms of depositional environment and have great potential for studying 3D facies relationships and allogenic controls
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Fluvial environments
Channel patterns (fluvial styles) of alluvial rivers are commonly classified as:
Braided rivers Meandering rivers Straight rivers Anastomosing rivers
Fluvial style is primarily controlled by specific stream power (W m-2) and bed-load grain size, but also by bank stability and the amount of bed load (but not the proportion of suspended load!)
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Fluvial environments
Bars are sandy or gravelly macroforms in channels that are emergent, mostly unvegetated features at low flow stage, and undergo submergence and rapid modification during high discharge Point bars form on inner banks and typically accrete laterally, commonly resulting in lateral-accretion surfaces; mid-channel or braid bars accrete both laterally and downstream Bars are always associated with channels; a genetically related bar/bar complex and channel/channel complex is known as a storey
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Fluvial environments
Lateral accretion involves higher-order bounding surfaces dipping perpendicular to paleoflow direction and associated lower-order bounding surfaces; in the case of downstream accretion higher-order bounding surfaces dip parallel to paleoflow direction Braided rivers are characterized by a dominance of braid bars exhibiting both lateral and downstream accretion; meandering rivers primarily contain point bars with lateral accretion; in straight (and most anastomosing) rivers bars are commonly almost absent
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Fluvial environments
Facies successions in sandy to gravelly channel deposits typically fine upward, from a coarse channel lag, through largescale to small-scale cross stratified sets (commonly with decreasing set height), and finally overlain by muddy overbank deposits Facies successions produced by different fluvial styles can be extremely similar! The geometry and three-dimensional arrangement of architectural elements therefore provides a much better means of inferring fluvial styles from the sedimentary record
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Fluvial environments
Channel belts consist of channel-bar and channel-fill deposits; the proportion of the two generally decreases markedly from braided rivers to anastomosing rivers The geometry of a channel belt (width/thickness ratio) is a function of the channel width and the degree of lateral migration; values are typically much higher for braided systems (>>100) than for straight or anastomosing systems (<25)
Sheets have width/thickness ratios of >50 Ribbons have width/thickness ratios of <15
Residual-channel deposits are predominantly muddy (occasionally organic) deposits that accumulate in an abandoned channel where flow velocities are extremely small
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Fluvial environments
Overbank environments are dominated by fine-grained facies (predominantly muds)
Natural-levee deposits are wedges (wings) of sediment that form adjacent to the channel, dominated by fine sand and silt exhibiting planar stratification or (climbing) ripple cross stratification Crevasse-splay deposits are usually cones of sandy to silty facies with both coarsening-upward and fining-upward successions, and are formed by small, secondary channels during peak flow Flood-basin deposits are the most distal facies, consisting entirely of muddy sediments deposited from suspension, and are volumetrically very important (mainly in low-energy fluvial settings)
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Fluvial environments
Paleosols (well drained conditions) and occasional peats (poorly drained conditions) occur frequently in overbank environments and are important indicators of variations of clastic aggradation rates and the position relative to active channels (proximal vs. distal) The pedofacies concept refers to the maturity of a paleosol, irrespective of the specific set of pedogenic processes operating, in the case of floodplains mainly controlled by distance to the active channel Lacustrine deposits can be important in overbank environments characterized by high water tables, and are also found in distal settings; they are more likely to contain primary sedimentary structures (horizontal lamination) than their frequently bioturbated subaerial counterparts
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Fluvial environments
Facies models highlight conspicuous differences between different fluvial styles:
Channel-belt width/thickness ratio (braided: high; meandering: intermediate; straight/anastomosing: low) Channel-deposit proportion (braided: high; meandering: intermediate; straight/anastomosing: low) Overbank-deposit proportion (braided: low; meandering: intermediate; straight/anastomosing: high) Overbank-deposit geometry (meandering: wedge-shaped; straight/anastomosing: highly irregular due to numerous crevasse channels) Overbank facies (meandering: well-drained paleosols common; straight/anastomosing: peats and lacustrine deposits common)
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Fluvial environments
Avulsion is the sudden diversion of a channel to a new location on the floodplain, leading to the abandonment of a channel belt and the initiation of a new one Avulsions are the inevitable consequence of the increase of cross-valley slope (typically through a crevasse channel) relative to down-valley slope along the channel, associated with the growth of an alluvial ridge An avulsion belt constitutes an extensive network of rapidly aggrading, narrow, crevasse-like channels with genetically associated overbank deposits, that may surround the new channel belt
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Fluvial environments
Alluvial architecture refers to the three-dimensional arrangement of channel-belt deposits and overbank deposits in a fluvial succession The nature of alluvial architecture (e.g., the proportion of channel-belt to overbank deposits) is dependent on fluvial style, aggradation rate, and the frequency of avulsion When alluvial architecture is dominated by channel-belt deposits, the separation of channel belts from storeys can be extremely difficult
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Deltaic environments
Deltaic environments are gradational to both fluvial and coastal environments The density relationship between sediment-laden inflowing water and the receiving, standing water body varies
Hyperpycnal: inflowing water has a higher density than basin water, leading to inertia-dominated density currents Hypopycnal: inflowing water has a lower density than basin water (buoyancy), leading to separation of bed load and suspended load
Deltas consist of a subaerial delta plain, and a subaqueous delta front and prodelta The delta slope is commonly 1-2 and consists of finer (usually silty) facies; the most distal prodelta is dominated by even finer sediment
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Deltaic environments
Delta plain
Delta plains are commonly characterized by distributaries and interdistributary areas
The upper delta plain is gradational with floodplains, lacks marine influence and typically has large flood basins, commonly with freshwater peats and lacustrine deposits The lower delta plain is marine influenced (e.g., tides, salt-water intrusion) and contains brackish to saline interdistributary bays (e.g., shallow lagoons, salt marshes, mangroves, tidal flats)
Interdistributary areas commonly change from freshwater through brackish to saline environments in a downdip direction (e.g., transition from swamps to marshes) Minor (secondary) deltas commonly form when distributaries enter lakes or lagoons
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Deltaic environments
Delta plain
Distributaries are to a large extent comparable to fluvial channels, but are commonly at the low-energy end of the spectrum (meandering to straight/anastomosing) Delta plain distributaries are usually characterized by narrow natural levees and numerous crevasse splays Avulsion (i.e., delta-lobe switching) is frequent due to high subsidence rates, as well as rapid gradient reduction associated with channel progradation
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Deltaic environments
Delta plain
In humid climates, delta plains may have an important organic component (peat that ultimately forms coal) Hydrosere: vertical succession of organic deposits due to the transition from a limnic, through a telmatic, to a terrestrial environment Terrestrialization (= hydrosere): gyttja --> fen peat --> wood peat --> moss peat (commonly a transition from a minerotrophic to an ombrotrophic environment) Paludification (= reversed hydrosere) is caused by a rise of the (ground)water table Peats are essentially the downdip cousins of paleosols, representing prolonged periods of limited clastic sediment influx
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Deltaic environments
Delta front and prodelta
Mouth bars form at the upper edge of the delta front, at the mouth of distributaries (particularly in hypopycnal flows); they are mostly sandy and tend to coarsen upwards Wave action can play an important role in winnowing and reworking of mouth-bar deposits; this may lead to merging with prograding beach ridges and if wave action is very important mouth bars are entirely transformed The prodelta is the distal end outside wave or tide influence where muds accumulate, commonly with limited bioturbation
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Deltaic environments
Delta morphology reflects the relative importance of fluvial, tidal, and wave processes, as well as gradient and sediment supply
River-dominated deltas occur in microtidal settings with limited wave energy, where delta-lobe progradation is significant and redistribution of mouth bars is limited Wave-dominated deltas are characterized by mouth bars reworked into shore-parallel sand bodies and beaches Tide-dominated deltas exhibit tidal mudflats and mouth bars that are reworked into elongate sand bodies perpendicular to the shoreline
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Deltaic environments
The typical progradational delta succession exhibits a transition from prodelta offshore muds through silty to sandy (mouth bar) deposits (coarsening-upward succession), the latter commonly with small-scale (climbing) cross stratification and overlain by:
Distributary channel deposits (sometimes tidal channel deposits) with larger scale sedimentary structures Subaqueous levees grading upward into interdistributary sediments
Deltaic environments
Shallow-water deltas are thinner but larger in area than their deep-water counterparts
Deformation processes are very common in deltas due to the high sediment rates and associated high pore-fluid pressures
Growth faults result from downdip increasing sedimentation rates; they develop contemporaneously with sedimentation Mud diapirs may form when thick prodelta deposits are covered by mouth-bar sands Slumping can lead to the anomalous occurrence of shallow-water facies in prodelta deposits
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Coastal environments
The classification of deltas can be extended to include those depositional coastal environments that are in large part fed by marine sediments
Wave-dominated shorelines Tide-dominated shorelines
Depending on the balance between sediment supply and accommodation, coastal environments can be regressive (progradation) or transgressive (retrogradation)
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Coastal environments
Waves can be subdivided into swell waves that travel long distances, and sea waves that are generated more locally Waves that approach a shoreline consisting of unconsolidated sediment will produce a series of environments (oscillatory wave zone, shoaling wave zone, breaker/surf/swash zone) with characteristic bedforms (symmetric ripples asymmetric ripples or dunes plane beds) Long-shore currents and rip currents can lead to sediment transport along the shoreline and away from the shoreline respectively, with associated unidirectional bedforms (commonly dunes)
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Coastal environments
Reflective shorelines have steep, coarse-grained foreshores and lack breaking waves and associated bars away from the shoreline Dissipative shorelines are low-gradient, fine-grained, barred systems where waves may be entirely attenuated Many coasts can alternate from more reflective to more dissipative conditions during fairweather and storm conditions, respectively The high-energy shoreline tends to trap coarse-grained (sandy to gravelly) sediment in what is known as the littoral energy fence; escape of sediment to the shelf occurs by means of:
River mouth bypassing (floods) Estuary mouth bypassing (ebb currents) Shoreface bypassing (storms)
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Coastal environments
Tides are formed by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and Sun on the Earth, combined with the centrifugal force caused by movement of the Earth around the center of mass of the EarthMoon system
Semi-diurnal or diurnal tidal cycles are essentially caused by the Earths rotation relative to the Moon Neap-spring tidal cycles are mainly caused by the alignment of the Moon and the Sun relative to the Earth Semi-annual tidal cycles are driven by the interplay of various cyclicities (including the elliptic orbit of the Moon)
Tidal currents are modulated by the configuration of oceans and seas, and typically lead to a pattern of circulation; even in small tidal basins flood currents tend to dominate in different areas than ebb currents
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Coastal environments
Tide-influenced sedimentary structures can take different shapes:
Herringbone cross stratification indicates bipolar flow directions, but it is rare Mud-draped cross strata are much more common, and are the result of alternating bedform migration during high flow velocities and mud deposition during high or low tide (slackwater) Tidal bundles are characterized by a sand-mud couplet with varying thickness; tidal bundle sequences consist of a series of bundles that can be related to neap-spring cycles Tidal rhytmites can form in fine-grained facies that aggrade vertically, to a large part from suspension, and consist of commonly very thin (mm-scale), but distinct laminae
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Coastal environments
Beach-ridge strandplains and chenier plains result from coastal progradation in sand- and mud-dominated settings respectively; both are dominantly fed by sediments transported by long-shore currents Tidal flats occur in a wide variety of settings (e.g., directly facing the open sea/ocean, in lagoons behind barrier islands, near tidal inlets) and contain a supratidal zone, an intertidal zone, and tidal channels
Tidal channels can be extremely deep and dynamic and are commonly filled with large-scale cross-stratified tidal-bundle sequences and/or laterally accreted heterolithic (sandy and muddy) strata Intertidal environments include sandy to muddy tidal flats where tidal rhytmites may form, commonly bordered by salt marshes or mangroves where muddy facies or peats accumulate
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Coastal environments
Barrier islands form in transgressive settings where beach ridges get separated from the mainland by a lagoon
Lagoons commonly accumulate relatively fine-grained (muddy) facies, especially when tidal range is low Washovers bring sheets of relatively coarse-grained (sandy) facies into the lagoon during storms Tidal inlets vary in number, width, and depth dependent on the tidal range; they are associated with flood-tidal deltas and ebb-tidal deltas
Barrier island shorelines can exhibit shoreface retreat or in-place drowning; prolonged shoreface regression ultimately leads to filling of the back-barrier lagoon
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Coastal environments
Estuaries are transgressed, drowned river valleys where fluvial, tide, and wave processes interact; they are characterized by a net landward movement of sediment in their seaward part
Tide-dominated estuaries contain tidal sand bars at the seaward end, separated from the fluvial zone by relatively fine-grained tidal flats (e.g., salt marshes); fluvial channel deposits exhibit heterolithic characteristics and sometimes tidal-bundle sequences Wave-dominated estuaries have a coastal barrier with a tidal inlet and flood-tidal delta, separated from a bayhead delta by a central basin where fine-grained sediments (muds) accumulate
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Debris-flow deposits are poorly sorted, related to the freezing that occurs once shear stresses can not overcome the internal shear strength A key mechanism in turbidity currents is autosuspension (turbulence --> suspended load --> excess density --> flow --> turbulence)
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High-density and low-density turbidity currents give rise to incomplete, coarse-grained (A) and fine-grained (D-E) turbidites respectively
Contourites are formed by ocean currents and commonly represent reworked turbidites EaES 455
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Pelagic sediments are widespread in the open ocean and primarily have a biogenic origin
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Sea-level change
Relative sea-level change includes a global component (eustasy) that is uniform worldwide and can be measured relative to a fixed datum (e.g., the center of the Earth), and regional to local components (isostasy, tectonism) that are spatially variable Eustasy involves changes in ocean-basin volume, as well as changes in ocean-water volume (amplitudes ~101102 m)
Tectono-eustasy (time scales of 10100 Myr) Glacio-eustasy (time scales of 10100 kyr)
Isostasy refers to crustal movements that are a direct result of loading and unloading by ice or water
Glacio-isostasy Hydro-isostasy
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Sea-level change
Tectonism includes a vast array of crustal movements, ranging from large-scale uplifts and basins to small-scale faults Steric sea-level changes include density changes (temperature, salinity) and dynamic changes (atmospheric pressure, ocean currents, wind set-up), but these changes are typically on the order of a few meters at the most The geoid exhibits lows and highs relative to the oblate spheroid due to gravity anomalies; geoidal changes do occur over time, but they are most likely slow
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Sea-level change
Since isostasy and tectonism are spatially variable, every geographic location has a unique relative sea-level history (RSL=E+I+T) Four characteristic RSL-curves associated with the last deglaciation:
Near-field sites (e.g., Hudson Bay) Ice-margin sites (e.g., Norwegian coast) Intermediate-field sites (e.g., mid-Atlantic coast) Far-field sites (most of the southern hemisphere)
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Sea-level change
It is believed that eustatic cycles of different periods have operated throughout the Phanerozoic:
First-order (108 yr) and second-order (107 yr) cycles (primarily tectono-eustatic) Third-order (106 yr) cycles (mechanism not well understood) Fourth-order (105 yr) and fifth-order (104 yr) cycles (primarily glacio-eustatic)
Glacio-eustasy has only controlled limited portions of Earth history (e.g., the Carboniferous or Late Cenozoic icehouse world as opposed to the Cretaceous greenhouse world) Whereas RSL change has a profound impact on the stratigraphic evolution of numerous sedimentary environments (certainly deltaic, coastal, and marine), the complex spatial pattern of RSL change commonly yields responses that are out of phase
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The various systems tracts are characterized by their position within a sequence, by shallowing or deepening upward facies successions, or by parasequence stacking patterns
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Seismic data should preferably always be interpreted in conjunction with well log or core data
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Shelf-edge deltas form during lowstand when RSL is close to the shelf break; they have a fairly high preservation potential
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Many exceptions are possible; for instance, a limited shelf width and a high sediment supply from the hinterland can combine to allow rapid progradation of shorelines to the shelf edge even during highstand
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Stratigraphic models are widely used to simulate basin-scale stratal patterns (e.g., sequence stratigraphy):
In geometric models the sediment surface is represented by one or moresurfaces with predetermined geometry Many models are based on a diffusion equation that relates rates of sediment transport to topographic slopes
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Conditioning model output to observations is more easily done in stochastic models, but process-based models have the advantage that they tend to provide sedimentologically more realistic output
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Experimental models are increasingly used to simulate sedimentary architecture and basin-scale stratigraphy One important outcome of experimental modeling is the recognition of non-linear responses
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Reflection
Why do we care about all this?
Sedimentary geology is a key element in the understanding of Earth history in a very broad sense (i.e., this can include everything from plate tectonics to global environmental change) Apart from traditional interests in economic sedimentary geology (e.g., oil, gas, minerals), environmental sedimentary geology (e.g., coastal management, groundwater pollution) is becoming increasingly important
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Reflection
The 1960s and 1970s saw a decline of interest in classical stratigraphy and an emphasis on autogenic processes within depositional environments (process-oriented sedimentology, facies models) The 1980s and 1990s saw a revival of stratigraphy and a focus on allogenic processes (sequence stratigraphy)
Quaternary environments play an increasingly important role, since they allow a relatively straightforward inference of environments of deposition, including their relationships to independently inferred changes in climate, sea level, and tectonism by means of numerical dating techniques Wherever possible, paleoecological evidence should be utilized in facies analysis or sequence-stratigraphic analysis
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Reflection
Sequence stratigraphy can be considered to encompass two main components:
Development of generic and unifying models of sedimentary basin filling Development of global eustasy models
The first can potentially provide new and basic understanding, including improved capabilities to make subsurface predictions; the latter has proven to be extremely difficult at best The fundamental importance of basic sedimentology (i.e., facies analysis) for sequence stratigraphy is in danger of being overlooked (sequence-strat fundamentalism lingers everywhere!)
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