Fault Analysis

As per ANSI standard NO.ANSI/IEEEStd141-1986

Acknowledgements
Pushpa Kulkarni Rajani Vaidyanathan Laxmi Andal Rajeev Ramanand Prashant Abhijit Abhyankar Nitin Bhagat P Chawande

Organization
PART-I

Fundamental consideration
PART II Why? How? Sequence Components Review. Apparatus Modeling. Fault Analysis Program.

Advanced Topics
Purpose of Fault Analysis Reviewed. Role of multipliers for Rotating Machines impedances. E/X and X/R methods. Example. PART III
FAQS

Why?
Electric systems occasionally experience short circuits. This results in abnormally high currents. Overcurrent protective devices should isolate faults at a given location safely, with minimal damage. The parts of system shall be able to withstand the resulting mechanical and thermal stresses. The magnitudes of fault currents are usually estimated by calculations. The equipment is selected using the calculation results.

How?
Tedious hand calculation (X) Fault Analysis program ( )

Sources of Fault Current

Synchronous Generators Synchronous Motors and Condensers Induction Machines Electrical Utility System Distributed Generation ( modeling in fault analysis. research problem!)

Representation of Rotating Machines.

This fault current diminishes as magnetic field in the machine decays.

What does a fault Analysis program do?

Simulates a fault ( steady state analysis)
SLG LLG LL Three phase

Results

SC MVA

SC - MVA(3 - phase) =

SC - MVA(3 phase)= -

3 V prefault In KV I sc In KA .......... in M VA. .......

Fault current (in A) Contribution of various lines to fault current analysis.

V prefault

I sc (MVA)Base ............... in p.u.

(Continued..)

What are Sequence Components?

.continued

Sequence components
+ve Seq. Component a c -ve Sequence b c a b
Unbalanced 3-phase system has six degrees of freedom. Every balanced set of phasors has two degrees of freedom (Forteskue,1918). Together +ve,-ve and 0 sequence phasors have six degrees of freedom. Hence they can be used to synthesize 3phase unbalanced

0 Sequence a b c

Unbalanced System and Sequence Components

Unbalanced system
Positive Seq.component

c0 c2

a1 a b b0 b1 b2

c1

a2 a0
b1 b0 c0

a1

c1

Zero Seq.components

a0

Negative Seq.components

c2 a2

b2

Extracting Sequence Components

Unbalanced System
a

Zero Seq. Components

b a b 3a0

Positive Seq. Components

c

Negative Seq. Components 3a2 c b

a

3a1
a

q q

Advantages of Sequence Transformation

Used when the network is balanced. Provides decoupling in the network. A 3nX3n Linear System Solver is decoupled into three n X n Linear System Solver. Load may be balanced or unbalanced. Zero sequence currents provide sensitive earth fault detection technique.

 Sequence Components in Fault Analysis Program

Step 1Three Phase Model . [Iabc]3n 1 = [Yabc]3n 3n [Vabc]3 n 1 Formulate Admittance Matrix.

Step 2[I 012 ]n 1 = [ModelnFormulation.n 1 Sequence Y 012 ] n [V 012 ]

Step 3Inject 1.0 p.u. current at bus l i.e. Let, [Y 012][V 012 ]n 1 = [ l 012 ] Compute Vl of desired sequence i.e. solve

[el ] = [0 0 0 0 1 . . 0 0]'

Zth0,1,2 at l bus= Vl012

Input to Fault Analysis program

Depends on type of fault
Three phase fault. Only Positive Sequence Data. Negative, Zero sequence Network not excited. SLG fault Positive, Negative, Zero sequence Data. Typical fault study SLG ( ) Fault current can range in utility systems from a few percent to possibly 125% of the three phase fault value. Three phase( ) In industrial systems line to ground fault current of more than three phase value is rare. LL (X) }fault currents are approximately 87% of threephase fault current LLG (X)

 Interconnection Of Sequence Network.

 Fault Current Formulae

Role of Per Unit calculation

In the per-unit there are four base quantities: base apparent power in volt-amperes, base voltage, base current and base impedance. Per unit quantity = actual quantity/base quantity The following formulae apply to three- phase system, where the base voltage is the line-to-line voltage in volts or kilovolts and the base apparent power is the three- phase apparent power in kilovolt amperes or BASE(KVA)1000 megavolt-amperes. = BASE CURRENT( amp.)
3 BASE VOLTS
BASE(VOLT) 3 BASE AMPERES BASE IMPEDANCE(Ohm.) =

ZP.U. =

ACTUAL IMPEDANCE IN(Ohm) BASE (MVA)

( BASE (KV) ) 2

Advantages of PU Calculations
Manufactures provide equipment data with name plate rating as base. Range for acceptable % or p.u. values can be easily fixed. Especially useful in networks with multiple voltage levels interconnected through transformers. p.u. impedance of transformer is independent of the base. Standard base conversion (scaling with MVA Base) formulae are available.

Modeling Aspects for Static Apparatus

Transmission Lines, feeder cables etc Two winding and Three Winding Transformers
Positive sequence Data = Negative sequence Data. Zero Sequence Data different Rule of Thumb for Lines--Zero Sequence Data about Three Times Positive Sequence Data. Zero Sequence Modes of Transformers.

Transformer connections

+ ve/- ve sequence connections

Zero sequence connections

Transformer connections

+ ve/- ve sequence connections

Zero sequence connections

(d)

(e)

(f)

Transformer connections

+ ve/- ve sequence connections

Zero sequence connections

(g)

(h)

Modeling of Rotating Machines

Modeling of Synchronous Generator
Xd = Subtransient reactance; determines the current during the first cycle after fault occurs. In about 0.1 s reactance increases to Xd= Transient reactance; assumed to determine current after several cycles at 60Hz. In about 0.5-2 s reactance increases to Xd=Synchronous reactance; this is the value that determines the current flow after a steady state condition is reached. Synchronous generator data available from manufacturers includes two values of direct axis reactance X``dv and X``di. The X``dv value should be used for short circuit calculations.

Modeling of Synchronous Motors and Condensers

During fault motor acts as a generator to supply fault current The rotor carrying the field winding is driven by the inertia of the rotor and load. Stator excitation is reduced due to drop in voltage. The fault current diminishes as the rotor decelerates The generator equivalent circuit is used for synchronous motor. The constant driving voltage and three reactance X d, Xd and Xd are used to establish the current values at three points in time. Synchronous condensers can be treated in same manner as synchronous motors.

Modeling of Induction Machines

During fault rotor is driven by inertia of load and rotor itself. No dc field excitation on rotor. Rotor winding is short circuited. Hence, whatever rotor excitation is present, it is due to the induced fields in the rotor from the rotating stator mmf. As stator excitation is lost and rotor slows down this field is lost quickly. The current contribution of an induction motor to a terminal fault reduces and disappears completely after a few cycles. As a consequence only the sub transient value of reactance X``d is assigned. This value is about equal to the locked rotor reactance. For fault calculations an induction generator can be treated as an Induction motor. Wound rotor induction motors normally operating with their rotor rings short circuited will contribute fault current in the same manner as a squirrel cage induction motor. Occasionally large wound rotor motors operated with some external resistance maintained in their rotor circuits may have sufficiently low short circuit time constants that their fault

Negative Sequence Impedance for Synchronous Machines

Positive and negative sequence impedances cannot be equal. In case of synchronous machine, -ve sequence currents creates a rotating mmf in opposite direction to the rotor mmf. Double frequency emf and currents induced in rotor. -ve sequence impedance is 70-95 % of subtransient reactance. It can be approximated by subtransient reactance. For a salient pole machine it is taken as a mean of Xd and Xq.

Zero Sequence Impedance of Synchronous Machine

Zero Sequence Currents cannot create rotating mmf (why ?) Hence, Zero Sequence Impedance is only a small % (0.1-0.7) of the +ve sequence impedances. It varies so critically with armature winding pitch that an average value can hardly be given. Since synchronous machines only generate +ve sequence voltage, the internal voltages used with negative sequence and zero sequence networks is zero. If Y point is grounded through an impedance Zg, then 3Zg will have to be added to zero sequence impedance of generator before incorporating in YBUS.

Sequence Modeling of Asynchronous Machines (IM)

Transient state of the current damped quickly (1-2 cycles) Subsequently machine behaves as a passive element with impedance of value Z=kVll^2/Smva where rated LL voltage and 3phase MVA rating is used. Zero Sequence modeling can be treated in similar lines to as synchronous machines because rotor plays no significant role.

Modeling of Electric Utility Systems

The generator equivalent circuit can be used to represent the utility system The utility generators are usually remote from the industrial plant. The current contributed to a fault in the remote plant appears to be merely a small increase in load current to the very large central station generators, and this current contribution tends to remain constant. Usually represented at the plant by a single valued equivalent impedance referred to the point of connection.

Modeling of Mutually Coupled Lines

Circuit 1 a1 Circuit 2 c1 a2 c2 b2

b1

If the lines a1, b1 and c1 carry balanced +ve or ve sequence currents, flux linking circuit 2 is zero (as per Amperes law). For zero sequence currents in circuit 1, flux linking circuit 2 is not zero. Hence, mutual coupling is only considered in zero sequence networks. Procedure is given in the book.

Effect of Mutual Coupling on Sequence Network representation

Let two X mission lines emanating from the same tower (double circuit) be coupled with each other.
v a z s b1 v = z m v c1 z m
1

zm zs zm

a z m I a 1 1 1I 1 2 z m I b + jd 1 1I b 1 1 2 c 1 1I c z s I 1
1 2

If both lines are transposed ,then average mutual coupling between any two phases of the 2-lines will be identical.

Mutual Coupling contd

After sequence transformation.

v 0 z s + z m 11 v = v12
1

zs zm

I 0 21 I 1 + z s zm I 2
1

3 j 0 0

0 0 I 0 I 12 0 0 2 0 0 I 2
2

MUTUAL COUPLING IS SEEN ONLY IN ZERO SEQUENCE NETWORK

Conclusions
1. 3
Fault currents, LL fault currents will not be affected by Mutual Coupling. 2. For all faults involving ground (SLb,LLb), If will be affected by mutual coupling. 3. It will affect performance of relays & relay coordination should account for it.