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Chemistry Form 5 Chapter 5 Chemical For Consumers
Chemistry Form 5 Chapter 5 Chemical For Consumers
Chemistry Form 5 Chapter 5 Chemical For Consumers
Soap and Detergents Introduction 1. Cleansing agents are chemical substance used to remove grease and dirt. 2. There are two type of cleansing agents : a) Soaps b) Detergents 3. Soaps are sodium or potassium salt of fatty acids that contains 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule. 4. Soaps are cleansing agents made from animal fats or vegetable oil by saponification. Soap is a salt of a compound known as a fatty acid. A soap molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain (composed of carbons and hydrogens) with a carboxylic acid group on one end which is ionic bonded to a metal ion, usually a sodium or potassium. The hydrocarbon end is nonpolar and is soluble in nonpolar substances (such as fats and oils), and the ionic end (the salt of a carboxylic acid) is soluble in water. The structure of a soap molecule is represented below: O || CH3-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- CH2-CH2- C-ONa+ Non-polar hydrocarbon chain ionic end(Soluble in nonpolar substances) (Soluble in water)Detergents are structurally similar to soaps, but differ in the water-soluble portion. Three examples of detergents are shown below.
Soap The History of Soap Manufacturing 1. Soap have been used for more than 3000 years. It was recorded that the Babylonians were making soaps around 2800 B.C. 2. 2. The Purifying Oils were recorded on Hebrew tablets in 4000 B.C. 3. 3. In ancients time, soap made from ashes of plants which contain sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate. The ashes were boiled with lime (calcium oxide) to produce caustic potash (potassium hydroxide). Caustic potash is then boiled with the animal fats to produce soap.
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4. Ash + (K2CO3)
Lime
boiled (KOH)
Caustic Potash
(CaO)
boiled
Soap
4. In 1861, the Belgian Chemist Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) discovered the process to make soda (sodium carbonate) from common salt (sodium chloride) and calcium carbonate. 5. This process is known as the Solvay Process which produces sodium carbonate cheaply for industrial use. Sodium carbonate (often called soda or soda ash) is used for making glass, soaps and detergents. 6. Michel Chevreul (1786-1889), a French chemist, was noted for his research in the composition of animal fats is composed of fatty acids and glycerol. This discovery contributed to the rapid.
3. Saponification is the alkaline hydrolysis of ester using alkali solutions. From the chemist aspect, soaps are sodium salts or potassium salts of long chain carboxylic acids (with 12 to 18 carbon atoms per molecule). 4. Some examples of soaps are shown below. a) Sodium palmitate, C15H31COONa b)Sodium oleate, C17H33COONa c)Sodium stearate, C17H35COONa
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Detergents 1. Detergents are synthetic cleansing agents made from hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum fractions. Thus, detergents are petrochemicals.
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There are two types of anionic detergents : 1. Detergent molecule with a benzene ring such as sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate. 2. Detergent molecule without a benzene ring such as sodium alkyl sulphate.We can represent the detergent ion, alkyl sulphate ion as:
R OSO3-
Preparation of detergents
1. The detergent, sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared from alcohols with chain lengths of 12 to 18 carbon atoms in two steps. Step 1: Reaction with concentrated sulphuric acid. Step 2: Neutralisation with sodium hydroxide solution.
2. An example of a long chain alcohol is didecan 1 ol, CH3(CH2)10CH2OH. 3. The detergent prepared from dodecan -1 ol is called sodium dodecyl sulphate (IUPAC name) or sodium lauryl sulphate (common name). CH3(CH2)10CH2O-SO3-Na+. 4. Sodikum alkylbenzene sulphinates, were first used in 1940s. It can be prepared in three steps. The starting materials for making this detergents in a long chain alkene, RCH = CH, obtained from the cracking of petroleum.
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Sulphonation is the introduction of the sulphonic acid group, -SO3H to an organic molecule to form sulphonic acid. 3. Step 3 : NeutralisationAlkylbenzene sulphonic acid produced reacted with sodium hydroxide to form sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate, the detergent.
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Additives in detergents
1. Modern detergents used for washing clothes usually contains a few types of additives to :a) Increase their cleaning power.b) Make them attractive and saleable. 2. Only about 20% of the substances in a detergent are cle4ansing agents (sodium alkyl sulphate or sodium alkylbenzene sulphonate). The other substances are additives. The examples of addictives and their functions are described as follows : 3. Builders : Sodium tripolyphosphate (Na5P3O10) a)Sodium tripolyphospathe is usd to soften hard water. In the presence of sodium tripolyphosphate, Ca2+ ions and Mg2+ions are removed. b) Sodium tripolyphosphate increases the pH value of water. In this way, muddy dirt can be removed. 4. Whitening / bleaching agents : sodium perborate a) Bleaches (bleaching agents) remove coloured stains by oxidation process. When coloured stanis are oxidized, the colour will disappear. b)The whitening (bleaching) agents commonly used in detergent are sodium perborate (NaH2BO43H2O). Sodium perborate decomposes in hot water to release oxygen (an oxidising agent) which is responsible for the whitening (bleaching) action. c) Unlike chlorine, oxygen does not bleach the colour of dyes are not damaging to fabrics. When properly used, the perborate bleaches make fabrics whiter than chlorine bleaches and the colourful dyes of the fabrics do not fade when dirty stains are removed. d) Besides sodium perborate, sodium hypochlorite, (NaCIO) can also be used as bleaches in detergents. The IUPAC name of sodium hypochlorite is sodium chlorate (I).
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5. Biological enzymes : Amylase, lipase, and protease a) Protein stains such blood, milk, and tomato sauce cannot be removed by the ordinary detergents because these types of stains are insoluble in water. b) Biological enzymes in detergents can break down fat and protein molecules in food stains. The fatty acids, glycerol and amino acids produced are soluble in water and are removed during washing. 6. Brighteners a) Figure below shows the action of brighteners. The brighteners absorb the invisible ultra-violet and reradiate it as blue light. Brighteners make fabrics appear whiter and brighter because the blue light can hide any yellowing on the fabrics. Blue light added to the yellow light reflected on old fabrics make them look white. 7. Drying agents ; Sodium sulphate and sodium silicate Anhydrous sodium sulphate and sodium silicate (Na2S2O3) are used as drying agents to ensure that the detergent in powdered firm is always in a dry condition. 8. Stabilisers a) The functions of stabilizers is to prevents the formation of foam. b) In an automatic washing machine, excessive foam can stop the pump working. So, washing powders for automatic washing machine are made using detergents that are good at removing and emulsifying grease, but do not produced foam. 9. Perfumes Perfumes are added to make clothes smell fresh and clean.
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Disadvantages of soaps 1. Soaps are ineffective in hard water, that is, water that contains magnesium and calcium salts. 2.In hard water, soaps will react with Mg2+ and thus, soaps do not lather in hard water. 3.Scum is grey solid that is insoluble in water. It consists of magnesium stearate and calcium stearate. 4.Soaps are not also effective in acidic water, for example rainwater containing dissolves acids. H+ ions from acids will react with soap ions to produce carboxylic acids molecular size that are insoluble in water. 5. Stearic acids and other carboxylic acids do not act as cleansing agents because they exist mainly as molecules and do not anionic hydrophilic ends (head) that dissolves in water. Advantages of detergents 1.Detergents are cleansing agents that are effective in soft water as well as hard water. This is because detergents do not form scum with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions found in hard water. 2.The detergents ions (R O SO3- and R SO3-)react with Mg+ and Ca2+ ions in hard water. However, the magnesium salts and calcium salts which are formed are soluble in water. Hence, the scum is not formed and the detergents are still active in hard water and lathers easily. gents are synthetic cleansing agents. This means that the structure of the hydrocarbon chain can be modified to produce detergents with specific properties. Nowadays, different types of detergents have been synthesised for specific uses such as shampoos and dish cleaner. 4.Furthermore, detergents are also effective in acidic water because H+ ion is acidic water do not combined with detergents ions.
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Food additives
preservatives and antioxidants flavouring agents, stabilisers, thickening agents and dyes
Type of food additives Preservatives Antioxidants Flavouring agents Stabilizers and thickening agents Dyes
Examples Sodium nitrite; sodium nitrate; benzoic acid; sodium benzoate; sulphur dioxide; sodium sulphite; sorbic acid Ascorbic acid (Vit. C); BHA; BHT; citric acid; sodium citrate Monosodium glutamate (MSG); aspartame Gelatin; acacia gum (agar) Azo compounds; triphenyl compounds
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Flavouring agents
Flavour enhancers
Artificial flavours
4. Stabilizers : Chemicals that are added to enable oil and water in the food to mix together properly in order to form emulsion of water and oil. 5. Thickening agents : Chemicals that are added to food to thicken the liquid and to prevent the food from becoming liquid. 6. Dyes : Chemicals that are added to food to give them colour so as to improve their appearance. Effects on health
: MSG : NaNO2
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Antidepressants
Prozac
Antipsychotic agents
Chloropromazin